You are on page 1of 521

Textile Science : Index

1. Fiber Slide # 2
2. Spinning Slide # 81
3. Weaving Slide # 117
4. Knitting Slide # 166
5. Fabric Pretreatment Slide # 216
6. Dyeing Slide # 236
7. Printing Slide # 297
8. Finishing Slide # 404
9. Washing Slide # 466
10. Fabric Inspection Slide # 500

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 1
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 2
FIBER
► A unit of matter characterized by Flexibility, Fineness
and a high length to width ratio.

Fiber

Natural Man Made

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 3
Natural Fiber

Vegetable Fiber Animal Fiber Mineral Fiber

Cotton Wool Asbestos

Jute Silk Glass

Linen Metal

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 4
Natural Fiber

Cellulosic Fiber Protein Fiber Mineral Fiber

Cotton Wool Asbestos

Jute Silk Glass

Linen Metal

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 5
Man Made Fiber

Regenerated Fiber Synthetic Fiber

Viscose Polyester

Acetate Nylon

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 6
Fiber

Staple Fiber Filament Fiber

Cotton Silk

Polyester Nylon

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 7
Primary Properties
► Length; length-width ratio
► Tenacity (strength)
► Flexibility (pliability)
► Acceptable extensibility for processing
► Cohesion
► Uniformity of properties

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 8
Secondary Properties
► Physical shape (cross-section, surface contour, etc.
► Specific gravity (influence weight, cover, etc.)
► Moisture regain and moisture absorption (comfort, static
electricity, etc.)
► Elastic character - tensile and compression
►Thermoplasticity (softening point and heat-set character)
► Dyeability
► Resistance to solvents, corrosive chemicals, micro-
organisms, and environmental conditions
► Flammability
► Luster
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 9
Fiber Primary Features Secondary Features
Cotton 4 2 2 1 4 4 2 2 4 4 4 2 2 3 0 4 3 4 0 2 4 2 59
Wool 3 3 0 4 4 2 1 2 4 4 0 4 2 4 0 2 3 4 3 2 4 4 59
Silk 4 4 4 4 4 4 0 2 4 4 2 2 4 4 1 4 3 4 3 2 2 4 69
Viscose 4 4 2 3 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 0 0 0 0 4 3 4 0 4 4 2 56
Acetate 4 4 0 3 2 2 4 0 2 2 4 2 4 4 2 4 2 2 2 0 4 4 57
Polymaid 4 4 4 4 4 2 3 4 2 2 4 2 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 4 2 2 67
Acrylic 4 4 3 4 4 0 3 4 0 0 2 4 4 2 4 4 0 2 1 2 4 4 59
Polyseter 4 4 4 4 4 0 3 4 0 0 2 4 4 4 4 0 2 2 2 4 4 4 63
Fineness
Length
Strength
Elongation
Elasticity
Water Imbibition
Price

Abrasion Resistance
Dye Affinity
Static
Laundering
Bulking Power
Drape and Handle
Crease Resistance
Crease Recovery
Pilling
Wicking
Softening Point
Flammability
Fatigue Resistance
Light Stability
Aesthetic Apparance

Grand Total
0 - Poor ; 2 – Generally Acceptable ; 4 – Very Good
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 10
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 11
General Fiber Characteristics
► External Structure
●1. Length
■ (short staple 0.5 – 2.5 inches, long staple > 2
inches)
●2. Diameter
■ (natural 10-20 microns, manufactured 10 – 50
microns)
●3. Cross-sectional shape
●4. Crimp
●5. Color

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 12
General Fiber Characteristics
► Internal Structure
●1. Chemical Composition
■ Sequence and kind of atoms in structure
●2. Crystallinity
■ Polymer chains or sections packed together
●3. Orientation
■ Alignment of chains along fiber axis

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 13
General Fiber Characteristics
► Thermal Properties
●1. Melting Temperature
●2. Glass Transition Temperature
■ Most polymers are thermoplastic – they soften
before melting

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 14
General Fiber Characteristics
► Physical Properties
●1. Breaking Strength
■ Force required to break a fiber
●2. Breaking Elongation
■ Amount of stretch before breaking
●3. Modulus
■ Resistance to deformation
●4. Toughness
■ Amount of energy absorbed
●5. Elasticity
■ Ability to recover after being deformed

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 15
General Fiber Characteristics
► Chemical Properties
●1. Density
●2. Moisture Regain
●3. Chemical Resistance
●4. Dyeability

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 16
Cotton

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 17
Cotton

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 18
Cotton: Advantages
► Absorbent.
► Cool.
► Comfortable to wear.
► Durable.
► Economical.
► Does not melt.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 19
Cotton: Limitations
► Wrinkles unless treated.
► Susceptible to mildew and strong acids.
► May scorch.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 20
Cotton
► Cotton is hypoallergenic since it doesn‟t irritate sensitive
skin or cause allergies
► Cotton‟s softness makes it a preferred fabric for
underwear and other garments worn next to the skin
► Cotton‟s adaptability allows it to blend easily with most
other fibres including synthetics such as polyester and lycra
► Cotton is one of the easiest fabrics to dye, making it very
popular with fashion and homeware designers

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 21
Cotton
► Cotton can be given a coating or a finish. For example,
cotton used in fire fighting uniforms is coated and finished
with Proban®, a flame-retardant chemical treatment
► Durable press is a finishing treatment used in cotton
garments to eliminate creasing and reduce the need to
iron. It retains specific contours such as creases and pleats
to be resistant to normal usage, washing or dry cleaning
► Cotton has a high absorbency rate and holds up to 27
times its own weight in water

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 22
Cotton
► Cotton also becomes stronger when wet
► Cotton‟s strength and absorbency levels make it an
ideal fabric for medical and personal hygiene products such
as bandages and swabs
► Terry cloth is a cotton fabric used to make common
items such as towels. It can be safely washed in very hot
water and with strong bleach and/or detergent
► Cotton keeps the body cool in summer and warm in
winter because it is a good conductor of heat

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 23
Cotton
► Cotton is often used in the manufacture of curtains, tents
and tarpaulins as it is not easily damaged by sunlight
► Cotton breathes easily as a result of its unique fibre
structure. This attribute makes cotton more comfortable to
wear than artificial fibres unable to provide similar
ventilation
► Unlike synthetic fibres, cotton is a natural product and
contains no chemicals

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 24
Cotton Products
► Almost all parts of the cotton plant are used in some
way, including the cottonseed, lint (raw cotton fibre), stalk
and hull (shell)
► Popular uses for cotton fibre include clothing apparel,
home furnishings and industrial/medical products such as
tents, bandages and cotton swabs
► Well known cotton fibre products include denim jeans,
socks, towels, t-shirts, bed sheets and underwear
► Cotton fibre can be woven or knitted into fabrics such as
velvet, corduroy, chambray, velour, jersey and flannel

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 25
Cotton Products
► Linters are the very short fibres that remain on the
cottonseed after ginning. Once removed and processed,
linters are used to produce goods such as bandages,
cotton buds, and x-rays
► The fibre from one 227 kg cotton bale can produce 215
pairs of jeans, 250 single bed sheets, 750 shirts, 1,200 t-
shirts, 2,100 pairs of boxer shorts, 3,000 nappies, 4,300
pairs of socks or 680,000 cotton balls

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 26
Flex / Linen

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 27
Linen: Advantages
► Best wicking of natural fibers; therefore, cool to wear.
► Dries quickly.
► Natural, soft sheen.
► Strong and durable.
► Does not melt.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 28
Linen: Limitations
► Wrinkles badly unless treated.
► Susceptible to mildew and strong acids.
► Color frosts on creases.
► May be weakened with repeated creasing in the same
place.
► May scorch.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 29
Silk

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 30
Silk

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 31
Silk

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 32
Silk: Advantages
► Luxurious.
► Lightweight.
► Dyes in beautiful, rich colors.
► Absorbent.
► Strong.
► Moderately wrinkle resistant.
► Resists mildew and moths.
► Does not melt.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 33
Silk : Limitations
► Weakened by sunlight, perspiration and chlorine bleach.
► Absorbs body oils and grease stains.
► Water spots.
► Yellows and fades with age.
► Subject to attack by carpet beetles unless treated.
► Affected by high temperatures.
► Loses strength when wet.
► Should be pressed with a press cloth.
► Color damaged by hair spray.
► Damaged by perfumes.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 34
Wool

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 35
Wool

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 36
Wool: Advantages
► Warm and comfortable to wear.
► Absorbent.
► Wrinkle resistant.
► Mold and shape easily when pressed.
► Water repellent.
► Flame resistant.
► Does not melt.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 37
Wool: Limitations
► Subject to attack by moths and carpet beetles unless
treated.
► May shrink and felt when laundered unless blended or
especially treated.
► Damaged by chlorine bleach.
► Damaged by dry heat.
► Loses strength when wet.
► Sensitive to alkaline agents.
► Should be pressed with a press cloth.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 38
Man Made Fiber
nylon 1938
modacrylic 1949
Polyester 1953
Spandex 1959
polyolefin 1961
aramid 1974
novoloid 1974
Vectran 1985
PBI 1986
Fluorocarbon (WL Gore) 1970?
Carbon 1970's?

*Market share of man made fibers vs. natural fibers


1945 13%
today 75+%

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 39
Melt Spinnig
► Typical Melt Spun Fibers
●Nylon
●Polyester
●Polypropylene
►Disadvantages
● Separate drawing step (unless spin draw)
►Advantages
●High speed (275 to 1500 yddmin); (4000 yddmin spin
draw)
●No solvents
●No purification problems
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 40
Melt Spinning
► Melt Spinning
● simplest and economical
● melting the polymers
● molten polymer is extruded from spinneret
►ONLY limited to polymers which are stable to high
temperatures.
► E.g., polyester, polyamides, polystryrene. etc

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 41
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 42
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 43
Dry Spinning
► Typical Dry Spun Fibers
●Acetate
●Spandex
► Disadvantages
●Flammable solvent hazards
●Solvent recovery
●Slow (200 - 400 yd/min)
► Advantages
●Yarn does not require purification

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 44
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 45
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 46
Wet spinning
► Typical Wet Spun Fibers
● Viscose
► Disadvantages
●Slow (70 - 150 yd/min)
●Washing to remove impurities
●Solvent and chemical recovery
► Advantages
● Large tows can be handled

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 47
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 48
Viscose

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 49
Viscose

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 50
Rayon: Advantages
► Dyes easily.
► Versatile.
► Relatively inexpensive.
► Absorbent.
► Does not melt.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 51
Rayon: Limitations
► Wrinkles easily.
► Weaker when wet.
► Damaged by strong acids and mildew.
► May shrink or stretch unless treated.
► May scorch.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 52
Nylon

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 53
Nylon: Advantages
► Extremely strong.
► Extremely durable.
► Can be heat set to retain pleats.
► Wrinkle resistant.
► Resists mildew and insect damage.
► Does not burn easily.
► High elasticity.
► Very resistant to abrasion.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 54
Nylon: Limitations
► Builds up static electricity.
► Low moisture absorption.
► Grays and yellows with age and poor care.
► Picks up dye and soil in laundering.
► Absorbs and holds body oils and perspiration stains.
► Melts if too hot.
► Pills if spun.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 55
Polyester

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 56
Polyester: Advantages
► Wrinkle resistant.
► Retains heat-set pleats and creases.
► Superior wash-wear performance.
► Strong.
► Resists damage from abrasion, strong sunlight, weather
conditions, moths, mildew and most strong chemicals.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 57
Polyester: Limitations
► Absorbs body oils.
► Accumulates static electricity.
► May pill and attract lint.
► Absorbs perspiration odor.
► Melts if too hot.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 58
Spandex

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 59
Spandex: Advantages
► Provides strength without weight.
► Resists perspiration, cosmetic oils and lotions.
► Has elasticity; great stretch and recovery.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 60
Spandex: Limitations
► Damaged by chlorine bleach.
► Absorbs little moisture.
► May yellow when exposed to light.
► Melts at relatively low heat.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 61
Polypropylene

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 62
Fiber Strength
Breaking T enacity
Fiber (Grams/Denier)
Name Dry Wet
Na tura l Fibe rs
Cotton 4.0 5.0
Flax 5.5 6.5
Silk 4.5 3.9
W ool 1.5 1.0

Ma n-Ma de Fibe rs
Acetate 1.2-1.5 0.8-1.2
Acrylic 2.0-3.5 1.8-3.3
Aramid (Filament) 4.3-5.1 3.2-3.9
Aramid (Staple 3.7-5.3 2.7-4.1
Fluorocarbon 2.0 SAME
Glass 7.0 SAME
Modacrylic 2.0-3.5 SAME
Novaloid 1.5-2.5 1.3-2.3
Nylon 6 (Filament) 6.0-9.5 5.0-8.0
Nylon 6 (Staple) 2.5 2.0
Nylon 66 (Filament) 3.5-7.2 3.2-6.5
Nylon 66 (Staple) 3.0-6.0 2.6-5.4
Nylon 66 HT 6.0-9.5 5.0-8.0
Olefin 4.8 6.0
Polyester (Filament) 4.0-5.5 SAME
Polyester (Staple 2.5-5.5 SAME
Polyester (Filament HT) 6.3-9.5 SAME
Rayon 0.73-2.6 0.7-1.8
Rayon HT 3.0-6.0 1.9-4.6
Rayon HW M 2.5-5.5 1.8-4.0
Rubber 0.3 SAME
Saran 1.5 SAME
Spandex 0.6-0.9 SAME
Vinyon 0.7-1.0 SAME
Kevlar 20.0 18.0
Spectra 30-35 SAME
Vectran HS 23.0 SAME
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 63
Specific Gravity

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 64
Thermal Properties

Softenting Safe Ironing


Fiber Melting Point Sticking Temperature
Point *
F C F C F C
Natural Fibers
Cotton Nonmelting 425 218
Flax Nonmelting 450 232
Silk Nonmelting 300 149
Wool Nonmelting 300 149

Man-made Fibers
Acetate 446 230 364 184 350 177
Arnel Triacetate 575 302 482 250 464 240
Acrylic 400-490 204-254 300-350 149-176
Aramid Doesn't melt: carbonizes above 800 F.
Glass 1400-3033
Modacrylic 410 210 300 149 200-250 93-121

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 65
Thermal Properties
Softenting Safe Ironing
Fiber Melting Point Sticking Temperature
Point *
F C F C F C
Novoloid Nonmelting
Nylon 6 414 212 340 171 300 149
Nylon 66 482 250 445 229 350 177
Olefin 275 135 260 127 150 66
(Lowest Possible)
Polyester PET 480 249 460 338 325
Polyester PCDT 550 311 490 254 350
Rayon Nonmelting 375
Saran 350 177 300 149 Do Not Iron
Spandex 446 230 347 175 300
Vinyon 285 140 200 93 Do Not Iron
Kevlar Nonmelting
Spectra 285 140 260 127 (Lowest Possible)
Vectran 625 300
*Lowest setting on irons: 185-225 F.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 66
Absorbency

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 67
Sunlight Resistance
Glass Excellent
Acrylic
Modacrylic
Polyester
Flax
Cotton
Rayon
Triacetate To
Acetate
Olefin
Nylon
Wool
Silk
Kevlar
Vectran Poor

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 68
Fiber Blends - Some Reasons For
Blending
► To facilitate processing
► To improve properties
● Abrasion resistance
● Strength
● Absorbency
● Hand
● Dimensional stability
● Resistance to wrinkling
► To produce multi-color fabrics
► To reduce cost

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 69
Summary Of Properties Desired For
Textile Fibers

► Tenacity: 3 - 5 gram/denier
► Elongation at break: 10 - 35%
► Recovery from elongation: 100% at strains up to 5%
► Modulus of elasticity: 30 - 60 gram/denier
► Moisture absorbency: 2 - 5%
► Zero strength temperature (excessive creep and
softening point): above 215' C

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 70
Summary Of Properties Desired For
Textile Fibers
► High abrasion resistance (varies with type fabric
structure)
► Dyeable
► Low flammability
► Insoluble with low swelling in water, in moderately
strong acids and bases and conventional organic solvents
from room temperature to 100' c
► Ease of care

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 71
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 72
Fiber Usage
Customer Term Textile Property
Comfort Moisture Character
Flexibility
Elasticity
Thermal Character

Appearance Optical Character


Elasticity

Durability Tensile Strength


Toughness
Flexibility
Elasticity

Easy Care Moisture Character


Elasticity
Dimensional Stability

Safety Flammability
Chemical Resistance

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 73
Fibers For Products
► Bed Shits
● The Consumer Expects the Soft and Warm Handle
with Easy care Properties.
● Sheets are expected to be hard wearing and
dimensional stable.
● The majority of bed sheets are manufactured from
polyester / cotton blends.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 74
Fibers For Products
► Shirting
● Shirts are expected to absorb perspiration as well as
being non creasing and retaining their shape in wear.
● Easy care properties are essential and shirts must be
hard wearing to give long service life.
● Like bed sheets, most shirts are made from polyester
/ cotton blends.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 75
Fibers For Products
► Knitted Jumpers
● Jumpers are worn for warmth and need to be elastic so
that they do not lose their shape in wear.
● Wool is often used, but its high cost is a disadvantage.
● Acrylic fibres are cheaper and have better easy care
characteristic.
● Increasingly, cotton is used for jumpers and polyester /
cotton for sweatshirts.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 76
Fibers For Products
► Swimwear
● Swimwear needs to fit the body but also allow
freedom of movement.
● The fibres must be resistance to salt water, as well as
chlorinated water in swimming baths.
● almost exclusively, polyamids are used as the main
fibres, with about % of Elastine to give stretch.
● This combination dries quickly since neither is water
absorbent.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 77
Fibers For Products
► Towels
● The most important characteristic of fiber for towels is
the ability to absorb the water.
● It is useful that the towel will retain its shape in use
and be soft to the touch.
● Cotton is the major fiber used although viscose could
also be used.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 78
Fibers For Products
► Tights
● Tights must fits to legs closely, yet be sufficiently
elastic to allow moments.
● The fiber must be strong and extensible to give
resistance to snagging, and highly elastic to prevent
wrinkling.
● Polyamide is used for the main part of the tights while
a small qty of elastane is used for the waisteband.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 79
Fibers For Products
► Trousers
● The fibres used for the trousers can vary greatly
according to consumer requirements.
● In all, easy care and dimensional stability for shape
retentation are important.
● For warmth, polyester/wool is effective. This blend is
less care.
● Summer trousers are often made from
polyester/cotton and denim jeans are just 100% cotton.
● Jeans do not have easy care properties but are hard
wearing; creasing in use is often a positive advantage to
the consumer.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 80
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 81
Spinning

Spinning is the process where


Fiber is Converted into Yarns

Yarns are a grouping of fibres


twisted together to form a
continuous strand

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 82
Yarns

Spun Filament

Spun Yarns are


Filaments yarns
composed of
are composed
relatively short
of continuous
lengths of
strand
Fiber twisted
of fibers
or spun to
which may
hold them
be miles long
together

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 83
Spun Yarn

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 84
Fiber

Blow Room

Carding

Draw Frame
Combing
Speed Frame

Ring Frame

Yarn

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 85
Fiber

Blow Room
Lap

Carding
Card Sliver
Draw Frame
D/F Sliver
Combing
Combed Sliver
Speed Frame
Roving
Ring Frame

Yarn
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 86
Fiber

Lap

Card Sliver

D/F Sliver

Combed Sliver

Roving

Yarn
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 87
Blow Room

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 88
Bale to Lap

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 89
Function
► Opening
► Cleaning
► Mixing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 90
Mixing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 91
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 92
Mixing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 93
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 94
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 95
Carding

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 96
Carding
► Function
● Opening
● Cleaning
► Input
● Lap
► Output
● Card Sliver

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 97
Draw Frame

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 98
Drafting

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 99
Draw Frame
► Function
● To Parallel the Fibres
● Drafting
► Input
● 8-10 Card Sliver
► Output
● Drew Frame Sliver

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 100


Lap Preparation

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 101


Lap Preparation
► Function
● To prepare the Lap for Combing
► Input
● 8-10 Draw Frame Sliver
► Output
● Lap for Combing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 102


Combing
► Function
● To remove the short Fibers
● To Parallel the fibres
► Input
● Lap
► Output
● Combed Sliver

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 103


Speed Frame
► Function
● To prepare the package for the R/F
● To impart the Twist
► Input
● Sliver
► Output
● Roving

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 104


Ring Frame

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 105


Ring Frame
► Function
● Twisting
● Drafting
● Winding
► Input
● Roving
► Output
● Yarn

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 106


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 107
Filament Yarn

Knit de Knit

Air Jet

False Twist Stuffer Box

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 108


Yarn Twist

Clockwise

Anticlockwise

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 109


Yarn Count

Direct Indirect

Length is Constant
Weight is Constant
Weight is Variable
Length is Variable
e.g.
e.g.
Tex
English
Denier

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 110


Tex
► The Tex number is defined as the weight in grams of
one thousand meters of the material.

1 10 30 40 50

1000 mtrs 1
or g
1 Km 10
m 30 gm 40 gm 50 gm
gm

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 111


English 4
0
►The English Count is
defined as the numbers of 20
hanks of 840 yds in length
10
that weigh one pound in
3
weight. 5
3
1 6
4200 0
840 yds 8400 0
yds yds 16800
yds y
d
s

1 lbs
each

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 112


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 113
Indirect System

70 60 50 40 30 25 20 10 5 1

Direct System

1 5 10 20 25 30 40 50 60 70

Finer Yarn Coarser Yarn

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 114


Indirect System

Direct System

1 5 10 20 25 30 40 50 60 70

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 115


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 116
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 117
Winding
► To convert the smaller
package in to bigger
package
► To remove the
faults of yarn
► To lubricate the yarn

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 118


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 119
Warping
► An operation where yarn is transferred from single
packages of yam to an even sheet of yarn representing
hundreds of ends and then wound onto a warp beam.
► To produce a beam which contains a large number of
individual threads parallel to each other.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 120


Sizing
► Around 8-10 Warper‟s beams are passed through the
Size paste which contains the Starch based adhesive.
► Sizing increases the Strength of yarn.
► It also reduces the hairiness.
► Make outer surface of yam smoother

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 121


Why Warp Yarns Need To Be
Strengthened ??
● Random variations in tension
■ due to large, badly shaped knot
■ yam and fiber entanglements
■ knot tails entangling
► To overcome weaknesses in the yam created by:
● Yam damage caused by the machine
● Weak places in the yam supplied
● Inadequate distribution of load over all warp ends
● Inadequate knotting or joining

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 122


Why Warp Yarns Need To Be
Strengthened ??
► To overcome tension levels in the warp
● Constant average tension determined by:
■ rate of take-up of cloth and let-off of warp
■ contraction of warp due to crimp
■ stretch of warp due to tension
● Cycling variations in tension
■ due to shedding
■ due to beat-up
■ higher level in dense fabric
■ highest tension in cycle is where a weak yam will
break
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 123
Warp Preparation
► Drawing-In
● Provides each warp yam with its drop wire, heddle,
and reed dent.
►Tying - In
● When mass producing
the same fabric by simply
typing each end of a new
beam to its corresponding
end of the old beam

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 124


Weaving
► Woven fabric consists of two
sets of yarns at right angles to
one another.
► Lengthwise yarns are the
warp yarns (ends).
► Widthwise yarns are the filling
yarns (picks).
► Fabric is woven on a machine
called a loom.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 125


Weaving

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 126


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 127
Weaving
Healds
Cloth
Warp Reed

Harness
Weft
Warp Beam Shuttle

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 128


Loom
► Essential features of a loom:
● Warp Bean - A roll containing all the warp yarns. For
a 36 yarn per inch fabric woven at 36” wide, it would
contain 1296 yarns.
● Harnesses - Controls the movement of warp yarns
(i.e., up or down). This creates an opening or shed so
that the filling yarn can pass through.
● Shuttle - A projectile that carries the filling yarn. The
filling yarn is wound onto a bobbin.
● Reed - A frame with thin, vertical wires that separate
the warp yarns after insertion of the filling yarns. It
compacts each fill yarn into the fabric.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 129


Motions of Loom
► Primary
● Shedding
● Picking
● Beating
► Secondary
● Let Off
● Take Up
► Auxiliary
● Warp Stop Motion

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 130


Shedding

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 131


Picking

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 132


Beating

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 133


Shedding

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 134


Shedding Motion
► Definition
● Shedding is a function of weaving involving the lifting
of harnesses containing warp ends in order to provide a
shed opening for filling insertion and to control design.
► Types Of Shedding
● Cam Shedding
● Dobby Shedding
● Jacquard Shedding

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 135


Jacquard Loom

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 136


Picking
► Shuttle
► Water
► Air
► Projectile
► Rapier
► Other

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 137


Woven Fabric Production

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 138


Shuttleless Looms
►Shuttleless Loom
● Filling yarn is supplied on cones at the side of the
loom.
● Filling yarn is cut after each yarn insertion.
● Filling yarn is inserted by a projectile, rapier or jet
nozzle.
● The rapier loom is often used to weave industrial
fabrics.
● Shuttleless looms are 3 times faster than Shuttle
types.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 139


Shuttleless Looms
► Inserting the filling yarn for Shuttleless looms.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 140


Rapier

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 141


Rapier

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 142


Air Jet

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 143


Air Jet

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 144


Projectile

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 145


Projectile

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 146


Terry Loom

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 147


Multiphase Weaving

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 148


Beat-Up Motion
► Functions of the reed
● Keep ends parallel and in the same position
● Beat the filling yarn into the fabric
● Provide some control for filling insertion
► Implications of increased beat-up
● Filling density
● Warp tension
● Noise and vibration
● Fabric structure and properties

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 149


Beat Up

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 150


Basic Weaves
► Plain Weave
► Twill Weave
► Satin Weave

Plain

Twill 2.2 Satin 8

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 151


Plain
► Plain Weave - simplest and most common
► Each warp and fill yarn interlace with no floats. It makes
one complete cycle on two ends and two picks.
► Only two harnesses are required on the loom.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 152


Plain

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 153


Plain

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 154


Rib

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 155


Plain Basket Weave
►A popular version of the plain weave is the basket weave.
►Two or more warp yarns are woven with the same number
of filling yarns.
►Basket weaves are used to increase tear strength and
allow a higher yarn count vs. a plain weave.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 156


Twill
► Twill Weave:
● Produce characteristic diagonal lines on the fabric.
● Can be right hand (diagonals upward to right), left
hand (diagonals upward to left), or broken twill
(herringbone or chevron).
● The angle of the twill can be varied.
● Twill weaves are infrequently used in industrial
fabrics. Commonly used in denim jeans.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 157


Twill

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 158


Twill Weave

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 159


Satin
► Satin Weave:
● Only one interlacing for each warp and fill yarn in each
repeat.
● No two interlacings ever touch or are adjacent.
● Have a distinctive face side and back side to the fabric.
● Designation 5H Satin means there are only 5 interlacings
in a repeat. 5 harnesses on the loom required to weave.
● Satins are know for the excellent hand a drapeability and
are used extensively in rigid composites.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 160


Satin

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 161


Satin

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 162


Sateen and Satin
weft faced warp faced

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 163


Weave Variations are Produced By

► Different ply, count or texture of yarns


► Equal or unequal size and count for warp and filling
► Equal or unequal yam count for warp and filling
► Equal yarn size and unequal or dented spacing
► Equal yarn count for warp and filling and unequal yarn
size
► Interlacing different patterns and weave effects
► Interlacing different colored yarns

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 164


Physical Properties of Fabric
► Weight
► Construction
► Strength - tensile and tear
► Abrasion resistance and pilling
► Dimensional stability (heat, washing, dry cleaning)
► Appearance &r washing
► Fastness (wash, light, gas)
► Stiffness and drape (handle)
► Sewability (seam strength and resistance to slippage)

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 165


By Vasant Kothari

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
166
Weaving is the intersection of two Knitting is the interlooping of yarn(s),
sets of straight threads, warp and which are interlaced in a variety of
weft, which cross and interweave at ways to form a fabric.
right angles to each other.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
167
Woven Fabrics Knitted Fabrics
Rigid (Inextensible), High Weft Knit : Highly Extensible,
Elastic Recovery. Incomplete Elastic Recovery.
Easy to Tear Difficult to Tear

Gets Crease And Wrinkled Highly Crease resistant

Thinner Fabrics Thicker fabrics

Stiffer Limb
Air Permeability is Less Air Permeability is More

Stronger Fabrics coz High Twist in Weaker Fabrics coz Less Twist
Yarns in Yarns

Tested by Loading or Extending Tested by Multi-Directional fabric


fabrics in Warp/Weft Directions Bursting Strength Test
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
168
: Courses are ROWS of loops across
the width of fabrics, it is measured in
units of (Courses / cm )
The number courses determine the
LENGTH of fabric.

: Wales are COLUMNS of loops across


the length of the fabrics, it is measured
in units of (Wales / cm )
The number of wales determine the
WIDTH of fabric.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
169
Stitch Density : Stitch density refers to the total
number of loops in a measured area of fabric.
Stitch Density is the product of the courses
and wales per unit length and is measured in units per square
per centimeter.

Stitch Length : Stitch length, measured in millimeters,


is the length of yarn in one knitted loop.
It is one of the most important factors
controlling the properties of knitted fabrics.
Generally, the larger the stitch length, the
more open and lighter the fabric.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
170
NEEDLE LOOP
The needle loop (H + L in Fig) is the basic unit of knitted
structure. It consists of a head (H) and two side limbs or
legs (L). At the base of each leg is a foot (F), which
meshes through the head of the loop formed at the
previous knitting cycle, usually by that needle. The yarn
passes from the foot of one loop into the foot and leg of
the next loop formed by it.

SINKER LOOP
The sinker loop (S in Fig) is the piece of yarn that joins
one weft knitted needle loop to the next.
{The sinker is the second primary
knitting element (the needle being the
first). It is a thin metal plate with an
individual or a collective action
operating approximately at right angles
from the hook side of the needle bed,
between adjacent needles.}
Functions: Loop formation,
© 2007 Holding-down, www.vasantkothari.com
Knocking-over Sinker Loop
171
Knitting Notations
A knitting notation is a simple, easily-understood,
symbolic representation of a knitting repeat
sequence and its resultant fabric structure that
eliminates the need for time-consuming and possibly
confusing sketches and written descriptions.

Point Paper
Each point represents a needle in plan view from above and, after the
thread path has been drawn, it also Represents its stitch.
Each horizontal row of points thus represents adjacent needles during
the same knitting cycle and the course produced by them.
The lowest row of points represents the starting course in knitting

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
172
Graph/Squared Paper

This method is developed by the Leicester School of Textiles for weft


knitting only.
In this method each square representing a needle or stitch.
An „X‟ symbol is placed in a square where a face stitch occurs and an
„O‟ where there is a reverse stitch.
When notating each stitch, it is necessary to examine the intermeshing
direction at the base of the loop because the intermeshing at its head
determines the direction of the intermeshing of the new loop formed
above it.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
173
TYPES OF NEEDLES

Beard Needle Latch Needle Compound Needle

Simplest, but Self acting Two independent


requiring another controlled part
element to control
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
174
Beard Needle
This is the simplest and cheapest
Head
It requires an additional element to
close the beard during knitting
Beard
A knitting section occupies a
considerable amount of space, thus
limiting productivity.
Eye
Individual loop formation has to be
achieved by a loop forming element. Stem
This leads to a more complicated
knitting action but also provides for a
more gentle and careful loop
formation.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com Shank
175
The knitting action of the bearded needle

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
176
LATCH NEEDLE

1 The hook
2 The slot or saw cut
3 The cheeks or slot walls
4 The rivet
5 The latch-blade
6 The latch spoon
7 The stem
8 The butt
9 The tail

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
177
The knitting action of the latch needle

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
178
COMPOUND NEEDLE
Compound needles consist of two separately-
controlled parts – the open hook and the sliding
closing element (tongue, latch, piston, plunger).
It is most popular in Warp Knitting m/c.
Strain is not put on the yarn.
Both members of Compound Needle have a
straight moment, thus the knitting speed can be
increased.
These are very expensive to manufacture.

Compound Needles are


also consist of Hallow
steel tube of finer guage
in which a hook closing
element, which is also a
steel tube of fine guage,
© is inserted
2007 www.vasantkothari.com
179
The loops are formed across the The loops are formed vertically
width of fabric down the length of fabric
It possible to knit with ONE thread Warp beam is used
e.g. Circular Knitting machine e.g. Tricot & Raschel machine
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
180
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
181
Staple as well as Filament Filament Yarn can be worked
yarns can be worked Successfully.
Successfully. (Staple: Size  Fluff)
Latch Needles are used Latch, Beard or Compound
Needles are used.
Less Versatile M/c. Versatile M/c
Speed reduces with Design Change in Pattern does not affect
change in Cams the Speed of M/c
Fabric Quality is not Consistent Fabric Quality is Consistent

Loops are not Uniform Loops are Uniform

Stretch in Both Direction Stretch in Widthwise Direction

Less Dimensional Stability More Dimensional Stability

© Cheaper
2007 To Produce Costlier
www.vasantkothari.com To Produce
182
WEFT KNITTING
♣ In weft knitting, the loops are formed across the width of the
fabric, and each weft thread is fed, more or less, at right angles
to the direction in which the fabric is produced.
♣ It is possible to knit with only one thread or cone of yarn,
though production demands have resulted in circular weft
knitting machines being manufactured wit up to 192 threads
(feeders).
♣ Compared to Warp knitting, Weft knitting is more versatile
method of fabric production in terms of both the range of fabric
structures that can be produced and the yarn types that can be
utilised.
♣ Weft knitting is the simplest method of converting a yarn into
a fabric.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
183
WEFT KNITTING MACHINE

Straight bar Machines V-Bed Machines Circular machines


Θ The simplest weft knitting machinery has one set of needles,
arranged either in a straight line or around cylinder. These
machines are capable of producing single jersey fabrics and can
use a combination of knit, miss or tuck stitch.
Θ With two needle beds, double jersey fabrics such as rib &
interlock can be produced on both flat bar and circular machines. In
the case of circular m/cs this second needle bed takes the form of
a dial, a flat disc placed on the top of cylinder. In case of v-bed
m/cs, the two beds forms an inverted „v‟ shape.
Θ In the case of purl machines, two needle beds are used. They
can be flat or circular and use special double hooked needles. In
the circular version, the second set of needles is in the form of a
second
© 2007 cylinder positionedwww.vasantkothari.com
above the first.
184
WEFT KNITTING
FABRICS
In woven fabric structures, three weaves, are called basic
Weaves viz. PLAIN, TWILL & SATIN. It is considered that in
single layer fabrics all other modifications of the structures are
derivatives of PLAIN, TWILL & SATIN.

In a similar way in a weft knit structures the following four


structures are considered as basic Weft-knit structures..

1 Plain Single Jersey Fabric


2 Rib Fabrics
3 Interlock Fabrics
4
© 2007
Purl Fabrics www.vasantkothari.com
185
Plain Single Jersey Fabric

The three-dimensional structure of plain weft knitting


magnified x130 by a stereo scan electron microscope. The
arrows indicate the direction in which the fabric will tend to
© curl
2007 if it is cut. www.vasantkothari.com
186
Plain single jersey is the simplest weft knitted structure that it is
possible to produce on one set of needle.
Plain is the base structure of ladies‟ hosiery, fully fashioned
knitwear and single-jersey fabrics.
The production rate is very high because of stitch simplicity and
its cost is low because of machine simplicity.
If the yarn breaks, needle loops successively unmesh down a
wale and sinker loops unmesh up a wale.
The stitch length can be varied with cam setting giving more
courses per unit length with short stitch length and vice versa.
The properties such as rigidity, air permeability, weight per unit
area, bursting strength changes with the stitch length.
The fabric may appear thick of flimsy if the stitch length is
reduced or increased.
The fabric can be unroved from either end and if a stitch is
broken, the wale will disintegrate causing the stitches in that line to
undo or ladder.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
187
THE KNITTING ACTION

(a) Tucking in the hook or rest


position. The sinker is forward,
holding down the old loop whilst the
needle rises from the rest position.

(b) Clearing. The needle has


been raised to its highest
position clearing the old Loop
from its latch.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
188
(c) Yarn feeding. The sinker is
partially withdrawn allowing the feeder
to present its yarn to the descending
needle hook and also freeing the old
loop so that It can slide up the needle
stem and under the open latch spoon.

(d) Knock-over. The sinker is fully


withdrawn whilst the needle descends
to knock-over its old loop on the sinker
belly.

(e) Holding-down. The sinker moves


forward to hold down the new loop in
its throat whilst the needle rises
under the influence of the upthrow
cam to the rest position where the
head of the open hook just protrudes
© 2007 above the sinker belly.
www.vasantkothari.com
189
Rib Fabrics

The term Rib is used to describe a knitted fabric


with vertical rows (wales) of loops meshed in the
opposite direction to each other.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
190
Rib fabrics are generally produced
on V-bed or Circular machines.
In both the cases, loop formation is
effectively same, with V-bed
machines having a front bed and a
back bed, while Circular machines
have a cylinder and dial
It is a reversible structure, i.e. face and back side has
the same appearance in 1 x 1, 2 x 2, 3 x 3, ribs.
It is heavier and thicker structure than the plain
knit structure with similar gauge used. The rib
machine also requires finer yarn than a similar
gauge plain machine.

It is a more expensive fabric to produce than plain.


The fabric does not curl at the edges due to its balanced nature. This property of
rib structure is particularly useful in cutting and sewing operation.
Like all weft-knitted fabrics, it can be unroved from the end knitted last by
drawing the free loop heads through to the back of each stitch.

Rib fabrics are extensively used


© 2007 in the production of outwear garments.
www.vasantkothari.com
191
The Knitting Action of the Circular Rib Machine

(a) Clearing (b) Yarn Feeding (c) Knocking-over


The cylinder and The needles are The needles are
dial needles move withdrawn into their withdrawn into their
out to clear the tricks so that the old tricks so that the old
plain and rib loops loops are covered by loops are cast off
formed in the the open latches and and the new loops
previous cycle. the new yarn is fed are drawn through
into the open hooks. them.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
192
Interlock Fabrics

Interlock is a popular double jersey structure produced on a


cylinder and dial circular weft knitting machine.
Interlock is a interlocking of two 1 x 1rib structures in such a way
that the face wale of fabric “1” is directly in front of the „reverse
wale‟ of the rib fabric “2”.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
193
Interlock is a reversible fabric, which has a similar smooth appearance
on each side.
It does not curl at the edges.
The fabric is firm i.e. less extensible due to interlocking structures
knitted in two separate planes by the sinker loops.
Fabric is thicker, stronger, less elastic and hence is nearer to the
woven structure so that cutting and sewing operations are easier.
It unroves from the course knitted the last.
Due to complicated mechanisms cam tracks and short and long
needles operating on the machine, the speed and number of feeds are
reduced and thus affecting the production.
The fabric becomes costlier due to thickness and less production.
Interlock is used for outwear fabrics (dress wear and skirts), often
using wool, acrylic and polyester yarns, while cotton and polyester/cotton
blends are used for the production of underwear fabrics.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
194
Purl Fabrics

1 x 1 Purl fabric has loops knitted to the front and back on alternate
courses, in the contrast to a 1 x 1 rib fabric which is knitted to the front
and back on alternate wales.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
195
Interlock is a popular double jersey structure produced on a cylinder
and dial circular weft knitting machine.
In the simplest purl structures each wale consists of face and reverse
loops.
It is reversible in appearance and has soft hand with full cover.
Its thickness is theoretically double to that of plain knit.
Like the jersey knit fabric, it can be unroved from either end.
As the link machine has a horizontal bed for the needles to
reciprocate, the speed of the machine and the production is much less.
It does not curl at the edges and because of alternate face and
reverse courses it is a balance structure which property is useful in
cutting and sewing.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
196
1 Engagement of the head of the receiving slider with the needle
hook that was originally knitting from the opposing bed.
2 Cam action causing the head of the delivering slider to pivot
outwards from the trick and thus disengage itself from the other hook
of the needle.
3 Sufficient free space to allow the heads of the sliders to pivot
outwards from their tricks during engagement and disengagement of
the needles.
4 A positive action which maintains the engagement of the head of a
slider with a needle hook throughout its knitting cycle by ensuring
that it is pressed down into
© 2007 the trick.
www.vasantkothari.com
197
Circular Fabric Knitting
Machine

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
198
WARP KNITTING
 Warp knitting forms fabric by interlacing loops of yarn, but vertically
down the length of the fabric in contrast to weft knitting.
 Each needle in the knitting width must be fed by at least one yarn
and in line with the direction of fabric production.
 It is the fastest method of fabric production using mainly continuous
filament yarns.

Construction
Beams supply the warp sheets in parallel form to
the guide bars, whose pattern control determines
the timing and configuration of the lapping
movements in the form of overlaps and underlaps.
The needles intermesh the new overlaps through
the old overlaps to form the intermeshed loop
structure.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
199
WARP KNITTING MACHINES

Tricot Machine Compound-Needle Warp Raschel Machine


Knitting Machine

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
200
Tricot Machine Raschel Machine
Needles Beard Latch or Compound
Machine Gauge Finer Gauge 24s-40s Common Gauge 30,40 & 56

No. of Guides bars Two, Three, Four bars Between 4 and 36


Yarn Used Finer continuous Filament Yarn Coarser Filament or Coarser,
Decorative Staple Spun Yarn

Weight of fabrics Light Weight Heavy Weight


Properties More Resilient, Better Drape, Less Resilient, Poor Drape,
Higher Bursting Strength, Lower Bursting Strength, Poor
Better Dimensional Stability. Dimensional Stability.
Soft Hand & Even. Hard Hand & Uneven.
Opaque & Tight & Loose

Cloth Take up The fabric comes off the The fabric comes off the
machine at 90o to the needle machine at 170o to175o the
bed needle bed
Speed Higher Less
Versatility Less Versatile More Versatile
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
201
TRICOT MACHINE
The main parts of TRICOT MACINE are :
 The warp beam carrying warp threads.
 The sley bars which space the warp threads.
 The tension bar which maintains tension in the warp threads, one
bar foe each warp.
 The knitting element, comprising the warp guides, sinkers, needles
& presser bar.
 The fabric take up rollers which take the fabric from the rollers at a
constant rate.
 The batch roller which winds up the fabric on a large rolls &
 The crank shaft drive within a case which holds the mechanism for
driving the knitting elements.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
202
© 2007
Cross-section www.vasantkothari.com
of a bearded needle tricot machine
203
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
204
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
205
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
206
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
207
APPLICATIONS

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
208
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
209
RASCHEL MACHINE
The main Parts of the RASCHEL MACHINE are :
 The ground beams and pattern beams having an access from front,
top and back
 The tension bar (one for each warp) which maintains tension in the
warp threads.
 Guide bars and guide bar levers and the sley bar.
 The knitting elements comprising guides, sinkers, needles, latch
needles and trick plates.
 The fabric tension rollers, situated close to the knitting elements.
 The fabric batch roller &
 Main drive for the cam shaft.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
210
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
211
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
212
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
213
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
214
Compound-Needle Warp Knitting Machine

For increasing the productivity of the warp


knitting machines a compound needle has
been used instead of a beard ar latch needle
on modern machines.

 Compound Needle (main Body)


 Compound Needle (Closing Element)
 Trick Plate
 Sinker
 Yarn End
 Yarn Guide
 Fabric
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
215
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 216
Pretreatment

► “Pre” Before, Prior to

► “Treatment” A manner of dealing with


something artistically

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 217


Pretreatment
► The term "Preparation" has two implications in textile
processing.
● In Greige manufacturing
■ In greige manufacturing it is used to describe the
processes which prepare yarns for weaving and
knitting.
● In Wet Processing
■ In Wet Processing, the term is used to describe
those processes that ready fabrics for the steps that
follow, coloration and finishing.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 218


Fabric Pretreatment
► “Pretreatment can be defined as a series of cleaning
processes / steps / operations that make the fabric fit for
the preceding process e.g. Dyeing or Printing and
Finishing”
► The steps that follow, dyeing or printing and finishing,
are greatly influenced by how the fabric is prepared.
► Improper preparation is often the cause of problems
encountered in the dyeing and finishing steps.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 219


Fabric Pretreatment
Singeing

Desizing

Scouring

Bleaching

Mercerizing

Heat Setting
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 220
Singeing
► Definition
● Singeing is the burning off of loose fibers sticking out
of textile goods. It is usually the first step carried out
after weaving
► Purpose
● Clean fabric surface
● Reduce pilling
● Increased wettability
● Improved visibility of the fabric structure
● Decreased contamination through removal of fluff and
lint.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 221


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 222
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 223
Singeing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 224


Desizing
► Definition
● Desizing is the process of removing the size material
from the warp yarns in woven fabrics
► Types of Sizes
● Starch
● Poly (Vinyl Alcohol) or PVA
● Carboxy Methyl Cellulose or CMC
► Purpose
● Removal of added impurities like starch
● Weight loss
● Improved wettability
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 225
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 226
Scouring
► Definition
● Remove Dirt, Grease, Wax and Oil Impurities
► Two types of Systems
● Aqueous (water) Based
● Solvent
► Problems
● Uneven Dyeing, Spots, Blotches
● Fastness
● Yellowing
● Smoke
● Redeposition (Polyester)
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 227
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 228
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 229
Contents Of Cotton Fibers After
Ginning
► Cellulose 95%
► Proteins 1.3%
● Hydrolyzed to soluble fragments
► Pectic Substances 0.9%
● Soluble in alkaline bath
► Ash (Ca, Mg, K, Na, phosphates, carbonates) 1.2%
● Soluble in water
► Organic Acids 0.8%
● Soluble in alkaline bath
► Wax
● Converted to soap
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 230
Contents Of Cotton Fibers After
Ginning
► Wax
● Converted to soap
►Sugars 0.3%
● Soluble
► Other(Dirt) 0.9%
● Removed hy suspension or emulsification
►Scouring removes residual size and ruptures primary
wall to increase absorbency
► Bleached cotton is > 99% Cellulose

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 231


Bleaching Systems
► Definition
● Bleaching is the process of removing natural
pigments and vegetable impurities
► Purpose
● Improved whiteness
● Level dyeing properties
► Hydrogen Peroxide (H202)
● Cotton, Silk, Wool, Jute,
► Sodium Hypo chloride (NaOCl)
● Cotton

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 232


Mercerization
► Definition
● Mercerization is a treatment for cotton fabric and
thread mostly employed to give cotton a lustrous
appearance
► Purpose
● Improve dye finity and yield
● Improve breaking strength
● Improve dimensional stability
● Improve chemical reactivity
● Improve fabric smoothness
● Cover immature cotton fibers

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 233


Mercerization

Before After

1-5 Swelling process in an alkaline solution


6 Removal of alkali by water substitution
7 After drying

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 234


Heat Setting
► Definition
● Heat treatment of fabrics containing thermoplastic
synthetic fibers. Stabilizes fabric by reducing shrinkage
and distortion
► Purpose
● Thermoplastic fibers are undergo through the process
of heat setting and results in:
■ Stabilization of fabric structure

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 235


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 236
Dyeing Definition
► Coloring of Textile Material is called as Dyeing
► Coloration of Dyeing involves the use of Dye Stuff which
are capable of reacting and combing with the Textile fiber
molecule, usually when in a water solution, and usually with
other auxiliary chemicals to enhance the process.

► Depth of Shade: The Darkness or Lightness of Color in


Dyeing is known as the depth of the shade, this depend on
the quantity of the Dye used in the ratio to the fiber weight.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 237


Dye Definition
► Colorant which is homogeneously dispersed in the
dye medium
► Usually soluble
► Naturally occurring or synthetic organics
► Categorized by...
1. Method of Application
2. Chemical Structure
► The application of color to the whole body of a textile
material with Some degree of fastness.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 238


Principle of Dyeing
► The Textile material is moved in a solution of a Dye,
then the dye is attracted to the material and it is seen that
the dye liquor gradually looses its color whilst the Textile
material becomes more deeply Dyed.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 239


Dye Expectations
► Dyeing is a craft, not a pure science, and like all crafts
there is a learning curve and many nuances that affect the
outcome...
► The color, evenness (or lack thereof) and total effect
produced depends on several factors that you control: the
amount of dye used, ... the temperature of the water of the
dye bath,… the fabric, whether pre-washed or not,…
particular water chemistry, the type of fabric, does the
fabric have any treatments on it, time for the process, etc.,
etc.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 240


Dye Expectations
► The color and evenness depends on the factors above
and more, most of which you can control, some of which
you cannot. Colors also can vary from dyelot to dyelot
because the pure primary colors used for mixing can vary a
little from the original manufacturer, which can affect the
mixes made with them.
► To repeat a color exactly, you need to use the same
dyelot, and you need to do everything exactly the same as
you first did it.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 241


Objectives Of Dyeing
► Shade
► Fastness Properties
► Cost

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 242


Keys To Good Quality
► Consistency
► Uniformity
► Knits - Low Tension
► Woven - Penetration

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 243


Types Of Dyeing Systems
► Aqueous - in water
► Non-aqueous - in organic solvents
► Sublimation - thermosol, heat transfer

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 244


Types of Fibers
►Hydrophilic Fibers
Cotton, Rayon, Wool, Silk, etc..

►Hydrophobic Fibers
Acetate, Polyesters, Polyamides, etc…

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 245


Basic Steps In Dyeing

► Dissolve or Disperse dye


► Diffuse the dye to the surface of the fiber
► Adsorb the dye "onto" the fiber surface
► Diffuse dye "into" the fiber

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 246


Causes Of Non-Level Dyeing
►Too little agitation
►Too low liquor ratio
►Rate of dyeing too high
►Uneven pick-up in padding
►Uneven moisture penetration
►Migration during drying
►Chemical or mechanical bard in the fabric
►Dyebath Instability
►Construction

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 247


Factors In Selecting Dyes
►Economy
►Shade (brightness or dullness)
►Fastness Requirements
►Level Dyeing Properties
►Barre Control
►Ease of Dispersed Dissolving
►Dusting
►Environmental Concerns

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 248


Dyes for Cellulose Fibers
►These are your choices if you want to dye a t-shirt.
Cellulose fibers include cotton, linen, rayon, hemp, ramie,
and tencel.
►Fiber Reactive Dyes (best choice)
►Direct Dye (hot water dye, less washfast)
►Vat Dyes (more complex method)
►Naphthol dyes (more hazardous, less available)
►All purpose Dye (hot water dye, less washfast)

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 249


Dyes for Protein Fibers
►Protein fibers include all fibers made by animals: wool,
angora, mohair, cashmere, as well as silk. Silk is the only
non-hair animal fiber, and can be dyed like wool or like
cellulose fibers, above. The high-pH recipes used for most
cellulose dyes will ruin animal hair fibers.
► Dyes that can be used for protein fibers include the
following:
►Acid dyes
►Reactive dyes used as acid dyes
►Natural dyes (these work better on wool than on cotton)
►Vat Dyes

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 250


Dyes for Synthetic Fibers
► Polyester requires the use of disperse dyes.
► Nylon, which is a truly synthetic fiber, happens to dye
quite well with the same acid dyes that work on wool
and other animal fibers. Nylon can also be colored with
a type of fabric paint called 'Pigment dye'.

► Acetate, also known as rayon acetate, requires the


use of disperse dye.

► Acrylic can be dyed with disperse dyes or with basic


dyes.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 251


Dyeing blends
► Most cotton/polyester blends are best dyed as
for cotton, using fiber reactive dyes, leaving the
polyester undyed. Cotton/nylon blends may be
dyed with all-purpose dye, first with soda ash at
room temperature to dye the cotton, then in hot
water with vinegar to dye the nylon.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 252


Coloring Matter

Dyes Pigment

Readymade Ingrain Vat, Azoic, Mineral

Water Soluble Azoic, Oxidation, Mineral

Direct, Acid, Basic, Reactive

Water Insoluble

Vat, Sulphur, Dispersed

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 253


Fiber Type
Application Cellulose Protein Polyamide Polyester Acrylic Acetate

Direct
Reactive
Vat
Sulphur
Azoic
Acid
Mordant
Basic
Disperse

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 254


►Direct dyes: used for cotton, linen, regenerated cellulose fibers,
and some synthetics
►Mordant dyes: wool, silk and nylon
►Sulphur dyes: cotton
►Vat dyes: cotton and cellulose fibers
►Soluble vat dyes : cotton, viscose rayon, wool, and silk
►Basic dyes : wool, slik and other protein fibers, and some
synthetics
►Dispersed dyes: acetate and some other synthetics
►Azoic dyes: cotton and viscose rayon, acetate and some other
synthetics, and silk
►Acid dyes: wool, silk, and some synthetics

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 255


Dye Type Fiber Affinity End Use

Direct Cellulosics Low quality Apparel


Fabrics/Lining/Curtains
Acid Protein Fibres Carpet Yarns / Dress Goods

Vat Cellulosics High Quality Curtains, furnishings,


shirts, towels, sewing threads
Reactive Cellulosics Curtains, furnishings, apparel fabrics,
towels, sewing threads
Basic Acrylics Furnishings, apparel fabrics

Disperse All Synthetics Apparel fabrics, bed sheets, carpets

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 256


Dye Type Light Fastness Washing Fastness
Direct Poor / Good Poor
Acid Good/Moderate Poor
Vat Excellent Excellent
Reactive Good/Excellent Excellent
Basic Good/Moderate Good
Disperse Good/Moderate Good

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 257


Dye Type Comments
Direct Cheap, After treatment can improve fastness

Acid Bright Colors,

Vat Expensive, Bright color often difficult to achieve

Reactive Excellent Shade range, Good Fastness

Basic Bright Shades

Disperse Best Fastness on polyester

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 258


Direct Dyes
► Direct dyes are a class of dyes for use on cellulose
fibers, such as cotton.
► The colors of most direct dyes are duller than those
provided by fiber reactive dyes, and the wash fastness is
poor.
► One small advantage is that direct dyes are, in just a few
cases, a little more lightfast, that is, resistant to fading in
the light, than a few of the fiber reactive dyes.
► Without an appropriate after-treatment, direct dyes bleed
a little with every washing, losing their brightness and
endangering other clothes washed in the same load.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 259


Disperse Dyes
► These dyes derive their names from their insoluble
aqueous properties and the need to apply them from an
aqueous dispersion.
► Polyester requires the use of disperse dyes.
► Disperse dyes on fabric are more likely to cause
allergies than other textiles dyes.
► Wash Fastness varies with the fibers.
► Fastness to Crocking is Good to Excellent.
► Light Fastness is Fair to Good.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 260


Acid Dyes
► Acid dyes are water soluble anionic dyes which are
applied to fibers such as silk, wool, nylon & modified acrylic
fibers from neutral to acid dye baths.
► Bright Colors.
► Most are non fast to washing.
► Excellent Fastness to Dry Cleaning.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 261


Azoic Dyes
► Azoic dyes are so called because their molecule contain
an Azo group.
► It is suitable for Man Made and Natural Cellulose fibers
such as Cotton, Viscose, etc.
► Bright Shades, mostly deep Red, Yellow, Orange, etc.
► Light Fastness Fair to Good.
► Washing Fastness Good to Excellent.
► Heavy shades may have poor fastness to Crocking.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 262


Reactive Dyes
► Reactive Dyes are so called because their molecules
react chemically with the fiber polymers to form a covalent
bond.
► The dyestuff thus becomes a part of the fibre and is
much less likely to be removed by washing than are
dyestuffs that adhere by adsorption.
► Suitable for Man made and Natural Cellulose Fibers,
Synthetic Fiber and Natural Protein Fiber.
► Difficult dye with which to attain close shade matching.
► Bright Shades.
► Generally good to excellent fastness to light & washing.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 263


Sulphur Dyes
► These dyes contain Sulphur atom in their molecules.
► Sulphur dyes are insoluble in water
► Suitable for the Man Made and Natural Cellulosic fibers
► Dull Shades, predominantly navy, black, brown
► Excellent Fastness to Light and Washing
► Relatively Low cost for Dark colors.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 264


Vat Dyes
► Vat dyeing" means dyeing in a bucket or vat.
► Vat dyes are insoluble in water and incapable of dyeing
fibers directly.
► Both cotton and wool, as well as other fibers, can be
dyed with vat dyes
► Vat dyes have excellent wash and light fastness
properties.
► It is usually very bright and will hold up better when
bleached than most other dyes.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 265


Solvent Dyes
► Solvent dye is a dye which is soluble in an organic
solvent and is mostly introduced in the form of a solution in
an organic solvent.
► It is very expensive method.
► It‟s a alternative method as the use of water and its
disposal in a non polluting form has become more
expensive.
► Still it is relatively untied and uneconomical as
compared to conventional dyeing techniques.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 266


Basic Dyes
► Basic dyes ('basic' as in the opposite of acidic, not as in
'back to basics') are said to be very bright, and particularly
washfast on acrylic.
► Basic dyes can be used to dye wool or cotton, but they
do not perform well, tending to fade in sunlight quite badly.
► Characterized by Brilliance and Intense hue.
► Very Poor fastness to washing for Cellulosic and Protein
► Excellent fastness to light.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 267


Pigment Dyes
► Pigments are colored organic materials in the form of
insoluble powders, which are mixed with various resins,
solvents and additives to manufacture plastics, rubbers &
allied products.
► The pigment lays on the surface and becomes part of
the dry film.
► Heavy Shade tends to stiffen fabric.
► Mostly excellent fastness to light.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 268


Mordant Dyes
► Mordant dyes are those dyes which require a mordant in
their application and which upon combination with the
mordant deposit insoluble color on the substrate, e.g., dyes
with metal chelating groups.
► The mordant substances include such acids as tannic
acid, sumac, gall nuts, bark extracts, oleic and stearic
acids, and Turkey red oil; and metallic substances such as
various combinations or soluble salts of chromium,
aluminum, iron, copper, and tin.
► Suitable for Wool
► Relatively Dull Colors
► Good to Excellent Fastness to Light and Wash.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 269
Natural Dyes
►Natural dyes are, in most cases, acid dyes, which is why
they will bond to wool and other animal fibers, but not to
cotton. A way to improve attachment to wool, and to make
some weak attachment to cotton possible, is to use metal
ions, sometimes including toxic heavy metal ions, to form a
bridge between the dye and the fiber; this is called
mordanting. Cotton is typically mordanted with tannins in
addition to metal ions Indigo is a natural dye, but it is quite
different from other natural dyes, in that it is a member (the
very first member) of the class of dye known as vat dyes,
see above.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 270


Textile Material may be dyed as…

► Fiber
…… Stock Dyeing and Top Dyeing
► Yarn
…... Skein, Package and Beam Dyeing
► Fabric
……Winch, Jet, Jig, Aerodynamic, Pad & Beam
► Garment
…… Paddle

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 271


Stock Dyeing
► It refers to the dyeing of fibers, or stock, before it is spun
into yarn.
► It is done by putting loose, unspun fibers into large vats
containing the dye solutions, which are heated to proper
temperature.
► 500 to 3000 pounds of fiber are dyed at one time.
► Usually result in excellent penetration of the dye into
fiber and evenness of color throughout.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 272


Stock Dyeing
►There is 10-15% Waste of dyed fiber through
subsequent manufacturing of Spinning and Weaving.
► There is a strong element of Fashion risk in stock
dyeing because as to the final color of a fabric has to be
made at the earliest stage in its manufacturing.
► It produces soft, heather like color effect.
► Production is relatively Low.
► It is most costly method for dyeing.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 273


Top Dyeing
► Top dyeing is also the dyeing of fiber.
► The term TOP refers to fibers of Wool from which
shorter fibers have been removed, thus it select long fibers.
► The top in the form of Sliver is dyed, then later blended
with the other colors of dyed top to produce desired
blended heather shades.
► It would be waste of money if all the fibers, both the
short and long, were dyed before being made into sliver.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 274


Skein Dyeing
► It consists of immersing large, loosely wound hank of
yarn.
► Soft, lofty yarns, such as hand knitting yarns, are usually
skein dyed.
► Skein dyeing is the most costly yarn dyed method.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 275


Package Dyeing
► In this about a pound of yarn is wound on a small
perforated spool or tube called package.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 276


Beam Dyeing
► Beam Dyeing is simply a much larger version of
package dyeing.
► An entire warp beam is wound onto a perforated
cylinder, which is then placed in the beam dyeing machine
where the flow of the dye bath alternates as in package
dyeing.
► Beam dyeing is more
economical than Skein and
Package dyeing.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 277


Winch Dyeing
► Also know as Beck Dyeing or Box Dyeing.
► The fabric, in a rope like form, is dyed in a relaxed
condition (without tension).
► It retains much of its original softness of hand and fabric
fullness.
► Widely used for Knitted fabrics, woolen and worsted
woven cloths.
► Capacity of around 1000 yds

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 278


Jet Dyeing
► In this the fabric is being dyed is circulated through the
dyeing machine on a jet flow of a dye bath.
► Compared to Winch dyeing uses much less water,
energy and chemical, and has shorter dyeing cycle time.
► The capacity is around 1400 lbs of material.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 279


Jet Dyeing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 280


Jig Dyeing
►It involves treating the fabric in open width.
►The fabric is not passed through the dye bath but rather
passed through the dye bath.
► Upon completion of the first pass, the fabric reverses
and is passed again through the dye bath.
► It places the certain degree of tension.
► It is more economical.
► Chances of shade variation are
there due to variation in tension.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 281


Pad Dyeing
► In this, fabric in open width first passed through the dye
bath, then through rollers where the dye solution is
squeezed into the fabric.
► Pad Dyeing places the tension on the fabric.
► Pigment may be applied to achieve solid color fabric.
► It is continuous dye system where quantities of fabric
are run continuously run through a pad, then into heat
steam chambers, then into washers, rinsers and dry and
finally emerging as completely dyed fabric.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 282


Beam Dyeing
► It is practically identical beam dyeing used for yarns.
► Used to dye fabrics of light weight, open construction.
► Tricot is a typical type which is dyed on Beam Dyeing.
► It is rapid and economical.
► Beam Dyed fabric is not
subject to the stresses and
tensions.
► 10000 yds or 4000 lbs of
fabric could be wound on
the beam.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 283


Aerodynamic Dyeing
►The fabric transport takes place by means of a separate
gas circuit through humid air or through an air-steam-
mixture so that also an injection-free transport, i.e. a fabric
passage without liquor is possible. i.e. the fabric is
constantly moved from loading to the batch end, also
during the discharge and filling processes.
► Dyestuffs, chemicals and auxiliaries are dissolved in the
processing liquor and injected directly into an air stream.
► In such a way, the liquor is atomized and evenly
distributed on the surface of the textile material. The
penetration of the fibers and consequently, the liquor
exchange in the textile material are optimal.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 284


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 285
Aerodynamic Dyeing
Process technological advantages:
► Short heating times by efficient heat exchanger
► Safe fabric run and good load capacity also for lighter
articles
►No unwelcome formation of crease marks
►High speed of fabrics
►The dyeing machine can be used as tumbler

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 286


Aerodynamic Dyeing
Economical advantages:
►Extremely low water consumption
►Considerably reduced consumption of chemicals and
auxiliaries
►Savings in dyestuff are possible
►Significant savings in time by hot drop
►Extremely easy to operate
►Application of ecological dyeing processes

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 287


Garment Dyeing
► Garment Dyeing is the dyeing of the garment dyeing.
► It is done by placing a suitable number of garments into a
large nylon net bag in a loose form.
► The most important advantage of garment dyeing is the
fact that materials need not be dyed until shortly before the
actual sale of merchandise.
► It requires that the initial size of the garment be adjusted
during design and manufacture to account for the shrinkage
► It is an inexpensive.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 288


Imperfections of Dyed Fabrics
► Imperfections of Dyeing may be due to faulty or
improper dyeing procedures, faulty or improper preparation
of the fabric prior to dyeing, or to imperfications in the
material itself.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 289


Barre
► In woven fabrics, a horizontal band of off-shaded yarns
extending from selvedge to selvedge.
► Caused by differences in filling yarn size or differences
in tension of warp or filling yarn.

Color Crocking
► Color in a dyed fabric which rubs off rather easily onto
other fabric surface.
► Caused by inadequate scouring at the completion of the
dyeing cycle.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 290
Color Bleeding
► Loss of color from a dyed fabric when immersed in a
liquid.
► The liquid subsequently becomes colored.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 291


Off Shade
► An expression referring to the fact that the color of the
dyed fabric does not match the standard color or reference
sample.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 292


Shade Bar
► A shade change in a fabric that appears as a horizontal
selvedge to selvedge change.
► Caused by a filling change or loom stop and subsequent
start up.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 293


Stained Cross Bar
► In cross dyed fabric, usually of one color and white,
where the dye of the colored portion stains the white
portion sometimes called unclear cross dye.
► In solid color fabric, the term refers to specks of foreign
fiber that have been caught in the material and do not
become dyed.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 294


Stained / Streaked
► A discolored area on the cloth.
► Caused by foreign matter such as dirt, grease, oil or
residue of sizing on the fabric being dyed.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 295


Tender Spots
► Places in the fabric that have been excessively
weakened, actually by exposure to processing of
chemicals.

Uneven Shade
► Differences in the shade of a fabric from edge to edge or
one end of the fabric to the other.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 296


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 297
Textile Printing
► The application of color to a fabric in a design
or pattern (localized dyeing)
► Modern printing generally incorporates one of
the following techniques:
● Flat-bed screen printing
● Rotary screen printing
● Engraved roller printing
● Heat transfer printing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 298


Steps In Printing Process
► Preparation of print paste
► Printing of fabric
► Drying
► Fixation of dyestuff
► Washing - off

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 299


Preparation Of Printing Pastes
Type of specific formulation used depends on the fiber,
the colorant system used and, to some extent, the type of
printing machine.
► Typical Ingredients Used Include:
● Dyes or pigments
● Thickeners
● Binders, cross-linking agents
● Dispersing agents - surfactants
● Water-retaining agents (humectants)
● Adhesion promoters
● Defoamers
● Catalysts
● Hand modifiers
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 300
Block Printing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 301


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 302
Hand Screen
► Important Features and Advantages
● Best method for low yardage; samples; exclusive,
limited quantity designs.
● Large repeat sizes (upto 120 in.) possible.
● Wet-on-dry print effects possible.
● Better color definition than roller print due to heavier
lay-on of color.
● Acceptable to all woven and knitted constructions.
● Rapid preparation of Screen and pattern change over
is possible.
● Ability to print cut garment parts and small items.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 303


Hand Screen
► Limitations and Disadvantages
● Half tone designs not possible.
● Fine line paisley prints not possible.
● Lengthwise stripe designs not possible.
● Slow production. Uneconomical for large production
yardages.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 304


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 305
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 306
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 307
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 308
Automatic Screen (Flat Bed)
► Important Features and Advantages
● Large repeat size (upto 120 in.) possible.
● Faster than Hand.
● Better Color definition than roller print; equal to hand
screen.
● Adaptable to all woven and knitted construction.
● Rapid changeover of design possible.
● Best machine registration.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 309


Flat Screen Printing
► In flat screen printing, a screen on which print
paste has been applied is lowered onto a section
of fabric.
► A squeegee then moves across the screen,
forcing the print paste through the screen and into
the fabric.
► Flat screen machines are used mostly in
printing terry towels.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 310


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 311
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 312
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 313
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 314
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 315
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 316
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 317
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 318
Flat-Bed Screen Printing
► Mechanization of hand screen process
► Fabric glued to blanket
► Screens rise and fall
► Printing done while screen in down position
► Rod or blade squeegee system
► Up to four strokes possible
► Slow process

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 319


Automatic Flat Screen Printing
► Approximately 17% of printed goods
► Advantages
● Large repeats
● Multiple strokes for pile fabrics
► Disadvantages
● Slow
● No continuous patterns

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 320


Automatic Screen (Flat Bed)
► Limitations and Disadvantages
● Cost of Screen preparation and special
mounting more costly than hand screen.
● Not adaptable to low yardage.
● Half tone designs are not possible.
● Fine-Line paisley prints not possible.
● Lengthwise stripes not possible.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 321


Roller Print
► Important Features and Advantages
● Requires long production runs of same
pattern (10000 yds)
● Best method for fine line patterns and Paisley
Prints.
● Can produce half tones and fall on effects.
● Can print woven fabrics, knitted fabrics
requires special handling.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 322


Roller Print
► In the roller printing process, print paste is
applied to an engraved roller, and the fabric is
guided between it and a central cylinder.
► The pressure of the roller and central cylinder
forces the print paste into the fabric.
► Because of the high quality it can achieve, roller
printing is the most appealing method for printing
designer and fashion apparel fabrics.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 323


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 324
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 325
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 326
Roller Print
► Limitations and Disadvantages
● Except for special machines, size of pattern
repeat limited to 16 inches maximum for
apparel pattern and 22 inches for home
furnishings.
● Uneconomical for short runs.
● Long production delays in pattern
changeovers engraving is expensive.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 327


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 328
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 329
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 330
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 331
Engraved Roller Printing
► Approximately 26% of printed goods
► Advantages
● High design capability
● Finedetail
● Multiple tones
► Disadvantages
● Copper cylinders very expensive
● Not economical for short runs
● Requires highly skilled workers

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 332


Rotary Screen
► Important Features and Advantages
● Oven 40 inch repeat size possible; larger than roller
printing, but smaller than flat screen.
● Lengthwise stripe effect possible.
● Fall on designs possible. Adaptable to all woven and
knitted constructions.
● Cleaner and brighter colors than on roller prints.
● Excellent color definitions, but less than flat screen
methods.
● Rapid change over of design possible.
● Efficient for long runs and moderately small (1000yds)
runs.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 333
Rotary Screen
► In rotary screen printing, tubular screens rotate at
the same velocity as the fabric.
► Print paste distributed inside the tubular screen is
forced into the fabric as it is pressed between the
screen and a printing blanket (a continuous rubber
belt).
► Rotary screen printing machines are used mostly
but not exclusively for bottom weight apparel fabrics or
fabric not for apparel use.
►Most knit fabric is printed by the rotary screen
method, because it does not stress (pull or stretch) the
fabric during the process.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 334
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 335
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 336
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 337
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 338
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 339
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 340
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 341
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 342
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 343
Rotary Screen Printing
► Continuous screen printing process
► Fabric glued to blanket
► Fabric moves under rotating screens
► Rod or blade squeegee system
► Fine adjustments easily made
► Speeds up to 100 yd/min

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 344


Rotary Screen
► Limitations and Disadvantages
● Fine Line paisley prints not possible.
● Half tone designs not as effective as in roller
printing.
● Screen do not last as long as rollers.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 345


Rotary Screen Printing
► Approximately 50% of printed goods
► Advantages
● Fast
● Quick changeover of patterns
● Continuous patterns
►Disadvantages
● Design limitations
● Small repeats

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 346


Heat Transfer
► Important Features and Advantages
● Produces bright, sharp, clear fine line designs.
● Ability to print cut garment parts and small items.
Adaptable to long and short yardages runs.
● Rapid pattern changeover possible.
● Simple, low investment installation possible.
Steamers washers, dryers etc not required.
● Fewest seconds of all print process.
● Heat setting also accomplished.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 347


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 348
Heat Transfer
► Limitations and Disadvantages
● Lead time for paper preparation can cause
problems in high fashion markets.
● Limited to fabrics having minimum 50% man
made fibers. Cellulosic and protein (100%)
fibres cannot be printed.
● Overprint only on pastels or else will not
completely cover the original color.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 349


Heat Transfer Printing
► Approximately 7% of printed goods
► Advantages
● High quality prints
● Fewer seconds
● Economical for short runs
● Practically pollution free
► Disadvantages
● Slow
● Primarily only for polyester

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 350


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 351
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 352
Direct Prints
► A direct Print is one in which the design is printed
directly onto a white cloth or over a previously dyed fabric.
► The Latter is called an over print and the printed design
must be considerable darker than the dyed background.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 353


Identification of Direct prints
► The background is white, or has large portions of white
background.
► The printed design is lighter in shade on back of the
fabric than on the face. This may not be evident on
lightweight fabrics because of the strike-through of the print
paste.
● If the fabric is over print.
► If the background color is the same shade on the face
and back (piece dyed), and the print design are
substantially darker than the background.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 354


Discharge Print
► Discharge prints are fabrics which are dyed a solid
color prior to printing.
► When printing is done, the design is applied by
screen or roller with a chemical (Sodium Sulphoxylate
Formaldehyde, a reducing agent) which removes the
color of the originally dyed fabric.
► Production is more costly than direct prints since it
is necessary to dye the fabric prior to printing.
► Very careful and precise process control is
required.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 355


Identification of discharge prints
► The background removing is the same shade on the
face and back of the fabric (piece dyed).
► Print design area is white or a different removing or
shade than background.
► Back of the print design reveals traces of the
background removing.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 356


Discharge Print

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 357


Resist Print
► Resist Prints involve a two step procedure:
● Printing a pattern design on a white fabric with
chemical or Wax like resinous substance that will prevent
or resist the penetration of dyes; and
● Piece Dyeing the fabric.
► It is used where background colors in fabric cannot be
discharged.
► It is usually not possible to distinguish by ordinary visual
examination between discharge prints and resist prints,
since both types of prints produce the same results.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 358


Resist Print

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 359


Pre Dyed Printed

Printed Overdyed

After Fixation and Wash off


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 360
Pigment Print
► Pigment Prints are direct prints made with Pigments.
► The process is frequently called Dry Printing as
distinguished from Wet Printing.
► The Pigment area will be slightly stiffer and perhaps a
bit thicker than the nonprint area.
► Pigment prints are the least costly type of Print.
► Pigment produce bright, rich colors, and are applied to
all Textile fibres.
► It has good to excellent fastness to light and dry
cleaning.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 361


Identification of Pigment Prints
► Comparing the differences in fabric stiffness between a
designs printed portion and a non-printed portion of the
same fabric.
► The pigment print area will be slightly stiffer and a bit
thicker than the non-print area.
► Deep shades are stiffer than light shades.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 362


Blotch Prints
► Background has been obtained by printing rather than
piece dyeing; Direct Print; The print and pattern design
color are printed on to a white fabric in one printing
operation; Imitates discharge or resist print effects.
► Identification: - The blotch print background color is
lighter on backside of the fabric.
► Possibilities of large background color areas of the print
are not covered with full depth of colors; Precious control is
necessary; If pigment prints, fabrics very often result in
objectionable stiff hand.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 363


Flock Printing
► Tiny particles of fibers (1/10” – 1/4”) are made to adhere
to a fabric surface in according to a particular design;
printing the design with adhesive; exposing the fibre flock
to the fabric.
► There are two methods of adhering the flock to the
adhesive treated fabric surface:
● Mechanical Flocking.
● Electrostatic Flocking.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 364


Warp Prints
► Warp Prints involve printing the warp yarns of a fabric
before it is placed on the loom for weaving, then, the fabric
is woven with a solid color weft usually white or contrast
color.
►The result is a soft, shadowy design on the fabric;
Producing warp prints require careful and skilled labor;
these prints are found almost exclusively on high quantity
and expensive fabrics.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 365


Burn-out Prints
► Printing with chemical substance (sulfuric Acid) that will
destroy the fibre in the pattern design print area;
► Fabrics are used in low-cost summer blouses and cotton
lingerie;
► Interesting designs can be created with blends.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 366


Duplex Prints
► Fabrics in which both sides of the fabric have been
printed;
► Imitate Jacquard & Dobby woven design fabric;
► Very expensive printing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 367


Engineered Prints
► Prints that have two or more distinct designs,
► Each located in separate areas of the fabric, and each
designed to become a specific part of the garment;
► Printed by hand screen or heat transfer methods.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 368


Wet Prints Dry Prints Heat Transfer

Fiber Applied All Fibres fiber / Can applied to Polyester/Nylon


dye affinity req. all fibres /Acetate
Nature of Appl Chemical Physical Sublimation

Application Roller / Screen Roller / Screen Transfer Paper


Method
Fabric Hand None Stiff and Thick Stiff on Acetate

Light fastness Depend on Dye Good to Excell Good to Excell

Rubbing Depend on Dye Fair in Light Excellent


Shade & Poor
Laundering Depend on Dye in Dark Shade Excellent on
Polyester
Cost Highest Lowest Second Highest

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 369


Printing Method Productivity Down Time Capital Cost Space

Engraved Roller High High Very High Low


Hand Screen Very Low Low Very Low Low/Mod
Flat Bed Screen Low/Moderate Low Very High Very High
Rotary Screen Very High Low High Low/Mod

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 370


Printing Method Skill Design Cost Design Durability

Engraved Roller Highly Skilled High High


Hand Screen Low/High Low Low
Flat Bed Screen Semi Skilled Low Low
Rotary Screen Semi Skilled Mod/High Moderate

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 371


Printing Method Design Limitations Complexity Pattern Repeat

Engraved Roller Very Good- Fine Detail, tone Eff Limited Max 41 cm
Hand Screen Can be Good High
Flat Bed Screen Very Good High
Rotary Screen Very Good Moderate 100cm

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 372


Printing Method Fabric Limitations Eff of Dye

Engraved Roller Width Lim., Diff for Delicate Duller, Crush Effect
Hand Screen Width Limitations Bright Prints
Flat Bed Screen Wide width possible Bright Prints
Rotary Screen Wide width possible Bright Prints

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 373


Flipped Yarn
► The arrows show the part that looks like scratches
because the warp and weft yarns have been turned upside
down. This failure of finishing is called, flipped yarn.
Basically, the cause of this trouble is due to the insufficient
penetration of color paste, and it often happens when the
treatment after printing is carried out inappropriately.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 374


Blebbiness
► A part of the printed surface became blebby with a
rough appearance like that of sharkskin. This is often
caused by such factors as unsuitability of color paste
viscosity and screen mesh, and uneven adhesion.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 375


Bleeding
► A printed motif blurs, and as a result the outline of the
design appears unclear. When bleeding occurs, it is
possible to think of the following reasons: the viscosity of
color paste is too low; the concentration of dyestuff in print
paste is too high and the amount of color paste printed or
the amount of hygroscopic agent used is too large.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 376


Staining During Steaming
► Stains are transferred when a poorly washed printing
table is used, the printed cloth is piled up after insufficient
drying or a part of the cloth touches another during
steaming. In Japan, some factories carry out complete
washing of finished cloth applying tensionless rope
washers.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 377


Stains (Non-Cleaned Printing Table)

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 378


Uneven Printing
► Color tone gaps appear horizontally at the same
distance from each other. Bad screen frame, a poorly
installed squeegee and uneven squeegee pressure can
cause such a problem.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 379


Slight Touching
► Some area in a motif has pale spots. This is caused by
such factors as the slow replenishment of color paste,
uneven squeegee pressure, choosing a squeegee with
inappropriate hardness, bad squeegee relay, uneven
surface of printing table, inappropriate viscosity of color
paste and inappropriate use of thickener.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 380


Poorly Adjusted Screen
► Disfigured designs or overlapped motifs. The problem
occurs when the belt-drive and point adjustments, etc are
not properly done.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 381


Double Printing
► Designs printed are a little off. Disfigured designs, poor
engraving, poor cloth adhesion etc are the causes of this
problem.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 382


Pressing Paste by Frame
► Sometimes a frame mark appears in the printed area.
This phenomenon occurs because of poor belt drive and
frame installation.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 383


Pattern Bending
► Printed patterns are diagonal to the line pattern or
sometimes curved. This is caused when the cloth is
delivered diagonally or the cloth is adhered diagonally to
the printing table because of inappropriately sewed end
stitches.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 384


Speck
► The arrow points to the dots of color stain. This is
because non-dissolved dyestuff and impurities contained in
color paste have fixed to the problem area.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 385


Stain by Friction
► Staining occurs since the motif touches something when
it is not dried and is scuffed after all.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 386


Color Paste Splash
► Sometimes stains can be made by color paste splashes.
The splashes are most likely to occur when the roller
printing speed is too fast, the screen plate is lifted
inappropriately or the viscosity of color paste is too low

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 387


Stain Made by Extra Hanging Yarns

► Yarn-like-stains are made by the extra hanging yarns


sticking out of the cloth. This happens especially when
poorly knit fabric is used.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 388


Listing
► The color shade or depth of selvages are different from
that of the center. This sort of color shade or depth
difference occurs because of poor bleaching, the poor
installation of a frame and squeegee, uneven squeegee
pressure and inappropriate padding and color fixing.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 389


End Stitches Stain
► Stain made by sewing machine stitches, or the end
stitches of undercloth. This happens when the end stitches
or joint overlaps end up too large.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 390


Drops
► Stains or unevenness due to drops. Drain (condensed
water) or drops can stain like the one the arrow points to
before the completion of steaming.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 391


Doctor Mark
► Belt-like-stain appears vertical to the direction of roller
printing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 392


Take Up Wire

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 393


Uneven Printing due to Crease
► Non printed areas appear because of crease on fabric.
This is caused by crease on fabric, bad end stitches, too
much tension during adhesion, crease on undercloth etc.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 394


Poor Discharge or Resist Printing
► Poor white discharge and colored discharge have to do
with poor conditions of discharge/resist printing paste, color
paste, squeegee pressure, steaming.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 395


Crack of Print Paste
► Printed color paste cracks. The problem occurs because
poor treatment is carried out after printing or the viscosity of
the color paste is inappropriate.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 396


Rope Mark Modification
► Rope and roller leave their marks on printed cloth. It
happens when the temperatures during steaming are too
high, or the temperatures set for finishing are too low.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 397


Rope Mark Fading
► The area that has touched rope or rollers during
steaming has faded colors or stains. This problem occurs
particularly when steam is condensed in rope or rollers.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 398


Clip and Pin Miss
► Tenter's clip or pin marks remain or appear too inside.
Bad clips or pins, poorly conditioned guilder and unusual
cloth width can lead to the problem.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 399


Unprinted Area
► Some area in a motif are not printed. The reason is that
foreign matter has been built up in the screen mesh, or that
color paste cannot adhere to the cloth because of yarn knot
or foreign matter.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 400


Crack Marks
► Unprinted part appears when the fabric is stretched or
bent. This is caused by poor penetration of color paste due
to inappropriate viscosity of color paste, screen mesh and
squeegee pressure.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 401


Moire
► Moire pattern appears on printed designs. Screen mesh,
the roulettes of rollers, the line delineation pattern have to
do with this phenomenon.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 402


Water Mark
► An unwanted ripple effect/light
mark produced on the fabric is known
as a water mark. Main causes are
Improper Scouring, Surface pressure
of one fabric on another,
Contamination with water prior to
tinting or dyeing on the pad mangle
resulting in a reduction in the update
of dye liquor,

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 403


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 404
Finishing is one of the essential
processes of a processing mill where all
bleached, dyed and printed material are
subjected before they are put on the
material.
It refers to the application of specific
compounds in order to improve the Physical
and/or Chemical properties of the Textile
Material.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 405


Advantages
► Improved Appearance: Luster, Whiteness
► Improved Feel: Softness, Fullness
► Improved Wearing qualities: Anticrease
► It gives special properties required for particular use:
Water proofing, Flame proofing
► It covers the faults of the original cloth
► Increases the weight of the fabric
► Increases the sales value of the material
► Improves the natural attractiveness of the fabric
► Improves the serviceability of the fabric

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 406


Classification

Textile Finishes are classified in several ways


► Aesthetic Finishes and Functional Finishes
► Chemical Finishes and Mechanical Finishes
► Temporary, Permanent and Semi permanent Finish

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 407


Aesthetic Finishes
Aesthetic Finishes modify the appearance and/or
hand or drape of the fabrics. Examples are as follows.
► Calendering
► Fulling
► Mercerization
► Napping and Sueding
► Plisse
► Shearing
► Softening
► Stiffening

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 408


Functional Finishes
Functional Finishes improve the performance
properties of the fabric. Examples are as follows.
► Antiseptic/Antimicrobial
► Antistatic
► Crease Resistant
► Durable Press
► Flame Resistant
► Mothproofed
► Shrinkage Control
► Soil Release
► Water Proof/Repelant
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 409
Chemical Finishes
Chemical finishes are usually applied to fabric by
padding followed by curing and drying. This is also
called as Wet Finishes. Examples are as follows.
► Stiff and Transparent
► Flame Retardant
► Soil Release
► Water Proof
► Crease Resistance
► Softening

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 410


Mechanical Finishes
Mechanical Finishes usually involved specific
physical treatment to a fabric surface to cause a change
in fabric appearance. This is also known as Dry Finish.
► Calendering
► Raising
► Sanforising
► Milling

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 411


Temporary Finishes
A finish which is not stable and goes off after the
first wash is know as Temporary Finish and these finish
disappears during subsequent washing and usage.
► Calendering
► Embossing
► Starching
► Softening

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 412


Permanent Finishes
If the finishing effect in the fabric does not
disappear and remains unaffected through all the
conditions of wear and washing treatments, then the
finish is said to be Permanent Finish.
► Sanforising
► Resin Finish
► Water Proof
► Flame Proof

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 413


Semi permanent Finishes
► A Finishing on the fabric is said to be Semi
Permanent Finish if it is stable to more than 5 to 10
washes and not afterwards.
► Schreiner Calendering
► Buckram Finish

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 414


Calendering
► Calendering may be defined as the modification of
the surface of a fabric by the action of Heat and
Pressure.
► The finish is obtained by passing the fabric between
heated rotating rollers when both speed of rotation and
pressure applied are variable.
► The surface of rollers can be either smooth or
engraved to provide the appropriate finish to fabric.
► The rollers may be made of various material from
hardened steel to elastic thermoplastic.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 415


Objects of Calendering
► To improve the fabric handle and to impart a smooth
silky touch to the fabric.
► To compress the fabric and reduce its thickness
► To reduce the Air Permeability by closing the threads
► To increase the Luster
► To reduce the Yarn slippage
► To increase the opacity of fabric
► Surface patterning by Embossing

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 416


Calendering
► Swissing Or Normal Gloss

● A cold calendar produces a smooth flat fabric – if


the steel bowl of the calendar is heated thus
produces lustrous fabric. If a 7-bowl multi purpose
calendar is used, the result is smooth fabric with
surface gloss on both sides of the fabric

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 417


Calendering
► Chintz Or Glazing Or Friction Calendaring

● Gives highly polished surface like Glazed Chintz


Cotton fabric
● If very highly gloss required the fabric is pre-
impregnated with a wax emulsion, if the fabric is pre-
treated with resin this is a semi-durable finish

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 418


Calendering
► Cire Calendaring

● 3-bowl calendaring where top bowl rotates much


greater than friction calendaring (400 rpm). The
resultant fabric becomes highly lustrous. Fabrics of
cotton, rayon, polyester, nylon and blends may be
given cire finish. The fabrics are pre-treated with
wax or resin, to get highly polished effect. When
synthetics are cire finished, the fabrics become
moderately water-repellent due to flattening or
partially fusing of fabric

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 419


Calendering
► Embossed Calendaring
● Produces 3-dimensional design on fabric. Embossing
calendar consists of heated hollow metal roller
engraved with the embossing design and solid paper
roller twice the size of engraved roller. Fabric is drawn
between the two rollers and is embossed with the
design.
►Celluloses => Temporary finish
►Celluloses pre treated with resin => Semi durable
►Synthetic => Permanent finish

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 420


Calendering
► Moiré Calendaring
● Produces wood grain design on the face side of the fabric. There
are two ways to achieve this result.
►Method One:
► Rib fabric (Faille / Taffeta) and balanced plain weave fabric
are placed face to face. Both the fabrics are fed into smooth
heated metal rolls for calendaring keeping the speed of the rib
fabric greater than that of the plain woven fabric. The
pressure on the calendar rolls is maintained at about 8 – 10
tons
► The result is undefined watermark or moiré effect is formed
on rib woven fabric

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 421


Calendering
► Moiré Calendaring
● Method Two:
► Embossed metal roll is used which has moiré pattern
engraved on it. When the roll passes over a fabric, the ribs
are flattened and a moiré pattern is created.
► If Celluloses => Temporary
► If Celluloses or blends pre treated with resin => Semi
Durable
► If synthetic => Permanent

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 422


Calendering
► Schrenier Calendaring
● Produces low, soft, smooth and luster on the fabric.
3-bowl calendaring, top metal roller engraved with
200-300 fine diagonal lines per inch. This finish
scatters light rays and produces a deep-seated luster
rather shines. It can upgrade low quality cotton fabric.
Also produces a softer hand and improved fabric cover
Celluloses => Temporary
Celluloses / blends, pre treated with resin => Semi
Durable
Synthetic => Permanent

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 423


Fulling
► It is a permanent finish used on wool fabrics.
► The process is a carefully controlled scouring or
laundering process to induce progressive felting shrinkage
in wool fabric.
► The resultant wool fabric is smoother, more compact,
and has yarns more tightly embedded then an unfulled
fabric.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 424


Napping / Brushing
► Mechanical finish for woven and knitted fabrics. Fabrics
are passed against rotating bristled wire covered rollers.
Thereby raising the fibres from fabric surface. Example:
Cotton, Woolen, rayon, Melton, Wool Fleece flannels etc
(Plain weave)
► Provides softer hand and better insulation; widely used
in blankets, sleep wear and winter clothing
► Drawback: Subject to pilling in particularly sleeve ends,
coat fronts, buttonholes, elbows and other rubbing areas
► Requirement: Medium twist warp, Low twist weft

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 425


Emerizing, Sue ding, Sanding Or
Peach Finish
► Produces soft and smooth / silky feel. The fabric moves
at a speed of 15 – 20 meters / minute under two or more
rollers with fine emery paper on first roller to more abrasive
paper in each successive roller. This process abrades the
surface causing fibrils to split from the fibres. High abrasion
and coarse abrasive sheet may cause damage to fabric.
Abrasion generate heat may cause harshness on synthetic
fabric.
► After this finish => heat set => washing => dyeing
► Decreases the strength by 60%. Dry cleaning is preferred
for this fabric. Can be applied to P/C, P/N blends, and 100%
Silk, Polyester, Nylon and Micro denier synthetics for
sportswear.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 426
Shearing
► Shearing is a process used to cut off surface fibers on
fabrics.
► It makes the uniform the surface of napped fabrics and
pile fabrics to provide the uniform pilled height.
► A fabric shear, the high speed machine that performs
the operation, has cutting action similar to a lawn mower.
► The blades are stationary and the fabric moves to the
cutting blades.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 427


Softening
► Softening of fabric gave a more pleasant hand and to
provide better drapability.
► Fabric softening may be accomplished by either
mechanical or chemical finishing procedures.
► In Chemical finishing the most effective and widely used
are Silicon compounds which are durable.
► This finish is applied by pad method and dried.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 428


Plisse
► Sodium Hydroxide paste is printed as stripes / checks or
any other pattern. Permanent chemical finish. Mainly used
for Cotton / Rayon by the action of Sodium Hydroxide. Due
to differential shrinkage between printed and non-printed
area, puckering effect is produced. Usually do not require
ironing
► “Seersucker” is a fabric with a lengthwise striped
puckered effect. Produced by alternate stripes of loose and
light warp yarn while fabric is woven.
► Plisse fabric is cheaper than Seersucker. Degree of
pucker is high in seersucker
► Identification. By stretching the fabric in warp direction,
Plisse puckers will stretch out flat
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 429
Stiffening
► Stiffening of fabrics may be done by any of several
chemical finishes, all applied by Pad and either dried or
cured.
► Starch of various types is widely used as a stiffening
agent.
► Fine yarn, sheer cotton fabrics can be finished to be
both stiff and transparent. The process, called Acid
Stiffening, involves the rapid immersion of a fabric in a
Sulfuric Acid followed by immediate neutralization in
Sodium Hydroxide.
► The finish is Permanent and ORGANDY is an example.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 430


Parchmentising “Organdy”
► Treatment of cellulosic fabric (fine count light weight) with
concentrated Sulfuric acid produces beautiful transparent
stiffer fabric. The action of Sulfuric acid produces three
different effects depending on its strength.
● Sulfuric acid of 110o Tw for 2-3 seconds => Fine wool
like appearance
● Sulfuric acid of 114o Tw for 2-3 seconds => Fabric
shrinks considerably and becomes stiff.
● Sulfuric acid of 116-125o Tw for 15-20 seconds =>
Fabric becomes thinner, finer, stiff and more transparent.
►The degree of luster and interesting surface effect can be
obtained depending on pre-treatment of bleaching and
mercerization.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 431
Shape Retention Finishes
► Apparel products retain their shape and their pressed
appearance even after many wearing, washings and dry
cleaning sessions“ Durable Press, Wrinkle Free, Wrinkle
Resistant and Permanent Press”.
► Wrinkles are due to crushes on fabric during use and
care. Wrinkle recovery depends on „Cross Links‟ in inner
molecular structure of fibre. „Cross Links” which hold
adjacent molecular chain together and pull them back in to
position after the fibre is bent, Thus preventing the
formation of a wrinkle. Fibres with strong inter molecular
bonds have good molecular memory and they resist
wrinkling. Fibres with weak bonds wrinkle easily

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 432


Durable Press
► Durable Press is not a specific textile finish, but rather a
descriptive term for garments or other sewn products that
maintain a pressed appearance through many laundering
and wearing and do not require ironing.
► Also called as Permanent Press.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 433


Durable Press
► There are 3 basic systems by which the objectives are
attained.
● by heat setting of Thermoplastic fibres.
● by resin treatment and curing in fabrics of
Cellulosic/polyester blends and of 100% cellulosic.
● by liquid ammonia process for 100% cellulosic fibrics.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 434


Precured Process
► Saturate the fabric with resin and dry. Cure in curing
oven to form cross-linking between molecular chains. Cut
and sew the products and press
● Disadvantages Advantages
● No permanent creases Smooth fabric
● Puckered seams Dimensionally stable
● Strength loss Lowest cost
● Abrasion sensitive
► Used for shirting, draperies and other items that do not
require pleats (Curtains, Bed sheets). Common with Cotton
/ Polyester blends. May also used for shaped garments
(pants with a center crease)
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 435
Post Cured Process
► Saturate the fabric with resin and dry. Cut and sew the
product and press shape with Hot Head Press. Cure the
pressed item in a curing oven at 300 – 400o F
● Advantages Disadvantages
● Dimensionally stable Higher Cost
● Crease retention May set prematurely
● Minimum Seam Puckering Over finished areas
► Commonly used for P/C and P/V blends
► Reason for using Polyester => to compensate loss of
strength / Abrasion resistance due to resin for cellulose
► Durable finish 40 – 50 laundering

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 436


Post Cured Process
► For 100% Cotton, to reduce the resin induced loss at
abrasion resistance and tensile strength, specially
constructed fabric and modified techniques are required;
Fabric Construction requires long staple cotton, tightly
twisted yarns and compactly constructed (more yarns per
inch); Semi durable: 15 – 20 laundering
► Modified techniques:
● Sewn product => apply resin, semi dried and pressed
at warm temperature while still damp => cure

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 437


Immersion Process
►Immerse the garment / product in the resin solution and
dry the product; Hand and performance are modified with
fabric softeners and other compounds; Finished product will
appeal to consumers; Press desired features (creases,
pleats etc) in to garment with special Hot Head Press; Cure
product in curing oven at 300o F for 5 – 15 minutes
● Advantages Disadvantages
● No premature setting higher costs
● Controlled hand and Process control is difficult
aesthetics
● Greater flexibility Fabric preparation critical
► Semi durable finish 20-25 laundering; Used for fashion
apparels of 100% cotton.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 438
Metered-Addition Process
► Spray garment with the resin solution in a rotating
chamber; Hand and performance can be adjusted with fabric
softeners and other compounds; Press desired features
(pleats / creases) in to garment with special Hot Head Press;
Cure the product in curing oven at 300o F for 5-15 minutes
● Advantages Disadvantages
● No premature setting Higher cost
● Control hand / aesthetics Process control difficult
● Greater flexibility Fabric preparation critical
► Used for fashion apparels and furnishings, bed linen,
curtains, draperies of 100% cotton

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 439


Vapor Phase Process
►Press desired features (creases / pleats) in to garment
with special Hot Head Press; Hand and performance can be
modified with fabric softeners and other compounds =>
finished products would be more appealing; Apply finish in a
vapor form to the product in a closed chamber and cure
while it is in the chamber.
● Advantages Disadvantages
● No premature setting Higher cost
● Control hand / aesthetics Process control is difficult
●Greater flexibility Fabric prep. is critical
● Use less chemicals
► Used for cotton, rayon and their blends; since the
chemical consumption is less, the effect of hand, abrasion
and staining are less
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 440
Liquid Ammonia Durable Press
► Used for 100% cellulosics; this process does not involve
use of resins. This process involves: Carefully controlled
treatment of fabric in Ammonium Hydroxide bath
► Temperature: 120 – 150o C; Time: 2 – 5 seconds
► Precise fabric tension, time, Ammonia concentration and
temperature are critical to the process and followed by
compressive shrinkage treatment
► Combination of these two process stabilizes the fibres in
the fabric results improved wrinkle resistance and shrinkage
control in laundering; Durable finish => 40 – 50 launderings
► Mainly used for 100% cotton denims, bottom weights,
winter-weight shirts and blouse; Higher processing costs;
Very rigid quality control required
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 441
Special Problems Of Durable Press Garments

► Frosting: Localized color change at creases, cuffs,


collars and elbows; Repairs / Alterations is difficult; When
seams are opened are impossible to remove
► General Care Guidelines
● Resins have a strong affinity for oil / grease stains;
Use spot removal agents on grease spots; Pre-treat
stains at collars and cuffs; Keep wash loads small to
minimize wrinkling; To avoid wrinkles to set, keep
washing / drying temperature at cool; Remove items
promptly when dry

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 442


Shrinkage Control Finishes
► A reduction in the length or width of a fibre, yarn or
fabric is known as shrinkage. Growth occurs when a fabric
increases in dimension. It is essential to know shrinkage to
determine construction and design of garment
► Causes of shrinkage
● Intermolecular structure of fibres
● Yarn twist
● Fabric construction (Yarns / inch)
● Weave / knit structure

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 443


► Woven fabrics generally shrink more in the warp than in
the weft direction because the warp yarns are under
excessive tension during weaving.
► When the fabric is latter subjected in to wet treatment or
heat treatment in the case of synthetic fibres, the stress
and strain within the fibres are relieved, and the fabric
relaxes.
► Fibres that are moisture absorbent absorb water and
swell. Accordingly, the yarn diameter increases, and the
yarns in each direction must move closer together to
accommodate the yarns in the opposite direction and
results in increase the crimp of weft yarns.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 444


► Knit fabrics tend to stretch more during production than
woven fabrics, and therefore knit fabrics are likely to shrink
more than woven fabrics.
►In commercial dry cleaning process, the procedures and
solvents used do not permit fabrics to relax, as washing
does, so that garments that are dry-cleaned may not shrink
as readily. Shrinkage in dry cleaning generally results from
the high moisture content in the solvent or from steaming
the fabric during pressing.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 445


Relaxation Shrinkage
► Occurs due to the fibres and yarns are under
considerable tension during weaving, knitting and wet
processing, the fabric undergoes stress and strain due to
tension. Later when fabric becomes wet or steamed in a
tension less condition, the stresses and strains are relaxed.
► Relaxation shrinkage occurs when fabric is laundered at
initial stages.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 446


Progressive Shrinkage
► Occurs each time a fabric is laundered. This continuous
shrinkage is due to the surface scale of the wool fibre,
which also causes felting.
► In case of viscose rayon this continuous shrinkage is
mainly due to high absorbency and swelling nature.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 447


Residual Shrinkage
► Even after fabrics have been properly pre-shrunk in
finishing, there is a small amount of shrinkage potential still
remaining. This shrinkage is called residual shrinkage

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 448


Shrinkage Control Methods
► Compressive Shrinkage (Sanforization)
● A sample of fabric is measured, the measurements
are recorded, and the fabric is laundered such a way
as to produce maximum shrinkage. The shrunken
fabric is measured, and percentages of warp and
weft shrinkage are calculated. This indicates the
processor the amount of compression to be given to
the fabric.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 449


► In Compressive Shrinkage process, the fabric is
dampened and is placed on a machine equipped with a
continuous thick woolen or felt blanket.
► The blanket travels around a smaller roller carrying the
fabric with it as it stretches around the curve of the roller.
► As the carrier moves from the curve to a straight area, it
compresses in to a smaller, flat area.
► When the carrier compresses, the fabric it carries is also
compressed and is then heated to set in this compressed
configuration.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 450


Shrinkage Control for Knits
► During knitting and finishing, knit fabrics are subject to
tension and stretching, especially in the lengthwise direction.
The construction of most knits allows for greater stretch.
They often shrink far more than comparable woven goods.
Shrinkage may be particularly pronounced in the lengthwise
direction, often accompanied by growth in the crosswise
direction.
► Techniques used to control shrinkage in knitted fabrics
include subjecting fabrics to treatment with resin-containing
solutions, wetting then drying fabrics to relax tensions
applied during processing and compressive shrinkage
processes similar to those described for woven fabrics.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 451


► Compressive shrinkage processes for knits use different
methods to return fabrics to their relaxed position.
► Among these is a process that feeds fabric through a
machine in which a series of rollers operating at different
speeds causes the fabric become compressed.
► In another process, knitted fabrics are stretched in a
crosswise direction.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 452


► Sanfor-Knit addresses the problem of knit shrinkage in
both length and width. In this process, test garments have
compressive shrinkage control treatment are made up in
the desired size, washed, tumble dried and checked by a
testing instrument called the Knit picker.
► The test instrument determines whether the garments
have held both the length dimension techniques. Sanfor-
Knit garments are available in men's T-shirts, athletic shirts,
and the elasticity in girth that will provide comfortable wear.
If the garment does not meet the established standard, the
knitter is advised as to changes that should be made in
construction, yarn characteristics or production polo shirts,
briefs and sports knits.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 453
► There is another technique for controlling shrinkage in
knits is known as Micrex shrinkage control. Fabrics are
moved between two conveyors, each 6 inches apart. The
cloth is kept in constant motion, both vertically ad
horizontally by hot air from a high-energy nozzle system.
This action allows the relaxation of the tensions that were
imposed in previous operations, thereby allowing the fabric
to relax to its original dimensions.
► Heat setting stabilizes synthetic knits. If heat setting has
not been done, the fabrics will shrink. Low priced double
knits for example may shrink as a result of inadequate heat
setting.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 454


Shrinkage Control Through Heat Setting
► Fabrics made from thermoplastic fibers may be stabilized
through heat setting.
► Synthetics can be permanently set into shape by
subjecting them to heat near their glass transition
temperature.
► The heat allows the molecules to relax so the fiber will not
exhibit further shrinkage.
► This process is used to establish permanent dimensions
for these fabrics. Synthetic knits, for example, are relatively
free from shrinkage problems during laundering if they are
properly heat-set.
► They may, however, undergo thermal shrinkage when
subjected to high heat.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 455
Soil Release / Stain Proof / Stain
Repellent Finishes
► Improve in resistance to soil / releasing soil and
retaining whiteness of fabric
► Reduces the degree of soiling of the fabrics by:
● Repelling the soil
● Preventing formation of bond between soil and fabric
● Following chemicals are commonly used and applied
by pad system
Silicon Durable
Fluoro carbon Durable
Wax and metallic salt Semi durable

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 456


Water repellent
► Water repellency depends on surface tension and fabric
penetrability; Water repellent fabric resist wetting but air /
moisture can penetrate; It is achieved by combination of
fabric structure and finish
►Commonly used chemicals are:
●Paraffin Wax => Spray
●Pyridinum Salt => Pad -> Dry -> Bake
► These chemicals fill the gaps between yarns in fabric;
Performance of repellency depends upon: Nature of fabric
and Soaps / detergents in cleaning

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 457


Water Proof Fabrics
► Completely moisture proofed; Provide protection under
all conditions of wet weather; Fabric is coated or laminated
with a film of natural or synthetic rubber or plastic such as
Vinyl or Polyurethane; Permanent Finish
► Applications: Heavy duty, foul whether clothing‟s,
special military protective clothing, rain wear, ski wear, golf
suits, sports footwear linings, hospital drapes, mattress,
tarpaulins, tents and sleeping bag covers

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 458


Anti Microbial Finishes
► Prevents growth of bacteria and odor-causing germs;
Prevent decay and damage from perspiration; Control the
spread of disease and reduce the risk of infection following
injury; Used in intimate apparels / body-fit garments / jogging
and exercise clothing / sportswear, shoe linings, hospital
linen and carpets
► Usually applied by padding; Semi durable finish => 20 –
25 launderings
► A variety of terms are used to describe the antimicrobial
finishes applied to fabric. These include sterilization,
disinfectant, antiseptic, and fungistat, mildew-resistant and
rot proof finishes.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 459


Antistatic Finish
► Antistatic finishes are chemical substances applied as wet
finishes for the purpose of reducing or eliminating static.
► These chemicals are actually substances that absorb
small amount of moisture from the atmosphere, thus
reducing the dryness of fabric.
► It is this dryness that initially causes the static condition.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 460


Insect & Moth Control Finishes
► Mainly applied for Wool and Wool Blends; Chemical
finish, Permethrin is applied at the scouring or dyeing
stage; Semi Durable Finish => 15 – 20 launderings
► The prime requirement of mothproofing agent is that it to
be toxic to moths and beetles that attack wool, but it must
nit be toxic to human beings at concentration levels used
for mothproofing.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 461


Fabric Flammability
► Fabrics can be placed in different categories with regard
to flammability
►Flammable: Completely consumed when exposed to fire
►Flame Resistant: Chemically treated to resist the spread
of the flame
►Flame Proof: Fabrics made of fibres that are inherently
non-flammable
► Factors, which Affect the Degree of Fabric Flammability
● Fibre content; More air spaces within the fabric to
burn more easily; Light weight fabric; Low twist in yarn;
Thin yarn; Low yarn / stitches per inch; Pile or napped
surface
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 462
Micro Encapsulated Finishes
► Micro capsules are between 5 – 50 microns and may
contain fragrance, insect repellents, disinfectants, cleaning
agents or activated charcoal Micro capsule are sprayed on
to a fabric and held in place with Poly Vinyl Alcohol or
Acrylic binder
► Fragrance: Hand Kerchiefs, Scarves, Curtains, Fur,
Women‟s hosiery, sweaters and T shirts; Normal rubbing
during wear rupture the capsules and release the fragrance
► Moth Protecting agents have micro capsulated for
application to wool products; Micro capsules containing
bactericidal agents are applied to socks underwear,
women‟s intimate apparel and active wear

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 463


Flame Retardant
► Durable flame retardant is chemical finishes, which react
with or physically held on the surface of the fabric or within
the fibre. These finishes are permenant. Durable flame
retardant are generally organic compounds, which contains
phosphorus, nitrogen and / or halogen (chlorine or
bromine) or combination of these in the chemical structure.
► Durable flame retardant finishes are applied to fabric by
a pad-dry-cure process.
► The finish formulation usually contains the flame
retardant chemical, a softener, a resin binder or cross-
linking agent and catalyst.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 464


Foam Finishing
► This process consists of making a concentrated solution
of the finishing chemical using a reduced quantity of water,
and the addition of a foaming agent.
► The foam is applied to the fabric by various techniques,
such as knife coating, kiss roll followed by a doctor blade,
horizontal padder, and rotary screen.
► After application the foam is collapsed, so that the
chemical migrates into the fabric, and then dried or cured.
► The benefits of finishing using foam include energy
conservation through smaller heated, water requirements
and faster fabric drying times as well as reduction of waste
water.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 465
D
E
N
I
M

W
A
S
H
E
S
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 466
ADVANTAGES OF GARMENT PROCESSING

► Increases the opportunities


► Offers option to retailer.
► Unique looks and finishes that cannot be achieved in
fabric form.

► Shorten the time to market.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 467


Acid wash
► Patented in 1986, this wash uses pumice stones soaked in bleach to
create deep contrast within the coloring of the jeans.

Antique

► A denim finish achieved through sanding and washing,


which gives an aged look to the garment. Antique is also a
type of ring denim in which the yarn is strongly uneven.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 468


Clean

► Denim that retains its indigo color even after repeated


washings.

Creased

► A finish that produces a white line down the front of the


jean, creating the illusion that the jeans have been
repeatedly ironed.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 469


Crushed
►A textured effect achieved through a special fabric
construction and wet processing. The denim is woven with
an overtwisted weft yarn; when the garment is washed, the
yarn “shrinks,” acquiring a goffer look that is further
enhanced by bleaching and stonewashing.

Dirty wash

►A finish that creates the look of stained jeans.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 470


Enzyme washed

►Proteins used to speed up the chemical processes and


used in finishing of denim.

Frayed

► A finish in which the waistband and hems of jeans have


been sanded to create a “worn” effect.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 471


Sandblasted

►A laundry process in which jeans are shot with guns of


sand in order to make the jeans look as if they‟ve been
worn.

Sand washed

► A finish achieved through a combination of pumice


stones, enzymes and sand; used to create the illusion of
aged denim.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 472


Stonewashed

►A type of wash in which jeans are abraded with stones.

Tear and Repair

► A finish that uses tools to create holes in jeans, that are


then sewn closed prior to sale.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 473


Tinted

►Jeans that have been dyed a second time, usually with a


yellow khaki hue, to create the look of vintage denim.

Whiskered

► A jeans finish that produces white lines that look like


wrinkles near the crotch and sometimes behind the
knees.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 474


Stonewash Effect
► Stone wash process gives “used” look or “vintage”
► Volcanic rocks or pumice stones used.
► The degree of colour fading depends on
-The garment to stone ratio
-Washing time
-Size of stones
-Material to liquor ratio and load of garments.
-Process time varies from 60-120 mins.
► Using new enzyme based washing technology.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 475


Single Bath Stone Washing And
Tinting Technique
►In this, garment has been lightly colored in order to give the
final denim appearance a slight shift.
► By using a new technique, tinting and stone washing effect
can be achieved in a single bath.
► Advantages
● Less process time to achieve tinted look.
● No extra chemical required therefore making process
more economical.
● Less water consumption.
● Less energy consumption.
● Less chance of patches or unevenness
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 476
Enzyme Wash „biostone washing'
► A small dose of enzyme can replace several kilograms
of pumice stones. Facilitate the removal of the indigo
from the yarn surface.
► Three washing methods can be used:
–stone washing with pumice only
–stone-free washing with enzymes only
("biostoning")
–washing with a combination of pumice and
enzymes

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
477
Advantages of enzyme washing
● Soft handle and attractive clean
appearance is obtained without severe
damage to the surface of yarn.
● Inexpensive, low-grade fabric quality can
be finished to a top quality product by the
removal of hairiness fluff and pills, etc.
● Simple process handling and minimum
effluent problem.
● Better feel to touch and increased gloss
or luster.
● Prevents tendency of pilling after
relatively short period of wear.
● Can be applied on cellulose and its blend.
● Due to mild condition of treatment
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
process is less corrosive. 478
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 479
Acid Wash
►World famous, acid wash was first commercialized by the
Italian firm Rifle, at Inter-Jeans in 1986
►The process was actually patented by the Italian Candida
Laundry Company the same year.
►It consists of soaking pumice stones with chlorine and using
their abrasive power to bleach jeans into sharp contrasts.
►Also known as moon, fog, marble, ice and frosted.

Black Denim
►A denim weave using black yarn rather than indigo.
►Wrangler claims to have been the first to introduce black
denim back in 1950,
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 480
Dirty Wash
► After stonewashing dyed with special chemicals, creating a
look in which the jeans will appear to be dirty.

Destroyed / Damaged / Used /


Whiskers
►Whiskers, which normally appear around the hip to crotch
area of the pant usually made by using a grinder.
►Cut the edges at bottom, (back-) pockets, fly and knee
area before the (stone)washing.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 481


Alternate Of Pumice Stone
►To overcome the shortcoming of pumice stones 
synthetic stones
►These are made of abrasive material such as silicate,
plastic, rubber or Portland cement.
►The advantage of using such type of products are:
● All major problems associated with the use of volcanic
grade pumice stone can be overcome.
● Higher Durability
●Can be used repeatedly from 50-300 cycle depending
upon type of synthetic stone.
● Reproducibility of washing is manageable.
● Stone discharge of the process is very less 
economical and ecological process
© 2007 ● Less damage of machine
www.vasantkothari.com
and garments. 482
Sand Blasting
► Laundry process performed
before washing in which jeans
are shot with sand in order to
abrade them and cause a worn
appearance. While originally
done by hand, this process is
now automated at most large
laundry houses.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
483
Sand Blasting
► Sand blasting technique is based on blasting an abrasive
material in granular, powdered or other form through a
nozzle at very high speed and pressure onto specific areas
of the garment surface
► Gives distressed/ abraded/used look.

► Advantages of sand blasting process


● It is purely mechanical process, not using any
chemicals.
● It is a water free process therefore no drying required.
● Variety of distressed or abraded looks possible.
● Any number of designs could be created by special
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com
techniques. 484
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 485
Mechanical Abrasion

► To give worn out effect, abraded look or used look


► These are based on mechanical abrasion by which the
indigo can be removed. Some of these processes are sueding,
raising, emerising, peaching and brushing.
► Advantages of these processes:
● Control on the abrasion
● Different look on the garment can be achieved.
● All are dry process.
● Economical, ecological and environmental friendly.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 486


Spray Techniques
►This technique is based on spraying
the chemicals or pigments to get
different effect on the garments. This
can be done by using robotic spraying
gun or by manual spray and followed
by curing of the garment.
► Advantages
● Water free process  zero
effluent discharge
● Less time consumin
● Different designs possible
● Easy to us
● No adverse effect
© 2007 on fabric
www.vasantkothari.com
strength. 487
Denim Bleaching
►In this process, a strong oxidative bleaching agent such as
sodium hypochlorite or KMnO4 is added during the washing
with or without stone addition.
► Discoloration is usually more apparent depending on the
strength of the bleach liquor quantity, temperature and
treatment time.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 488


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 489
E Bleaching Concept For Denim
► Glucose bleaching, bleaching with sulphinic acid
derivatives, and recently with laccase (enzyme).
► Laccase enzyme belongs to the oxidoreductase group.
Advantages
► The product is specialized on indigo that it does not attack
any other dyes.
► Laccases open up the door to bleach Lycra containing
denim without loosing the strength of the fabric. Finally the
process is based on enzyme so no risk of environmental
pollution and harmful effluent discharge.
Limitations
► Expensive, compared to traditional process.
► Heavy faded look is difficult to achieve.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 490
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 491
“Resin Bake” crease
► A relatively new finishing treatment. The process
seeks to replicate the look of permanent creases which
normally would occur only after repeated wear and
abuse heaped on specific areas.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 492


Whiskering

►A fading of the ridges and creases in the hip and crotch


area and back of the knees, which gives the appearance of
aged denim; can also be the inverse – dark creased in
faded denim.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 493


Grinding

►creates the look of age and wear. It is


generally applied to hems, seams, belt
loops, pockets and waistbands.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 494


Ozone Fading

► Garment is bleached.
► Done in washing machine with ozone dissolved in water.
► Bleached or faded also by using ozone gas in closed
chamber.

► The advantages associated with this process are:


● Colour removal is possible without losing strength.

● Very simple and environmentally friendly method

● After laundering, ozonized water can easily be


deozonized by UV radiation.
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 495
Waterjet Fading
►Hydrojet treatment  developed for patterning and/or
enhancing the surface finish, texture, durability, and other
characteristics of denim garment.
► Involves exposing one or both surfaces of the garment
through hydrojet nozzles.
► The degree of colour washout, clarity of patterns, and
softness of the resulting fabric are related to the type of dye
in the fabric
► No chemical used  pollution free
► Water recycling system  economical and
environmental friendly denim processing.
► Color washout of dye in the striped areas produces a
faded effect without blurring, loss of fabric strength or
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 496
Use Of Laser Technology
► It is a computer controlled process for denim fading.
► The novelty of this system is that
● It is water free fading of denim.
● It is an ecological and economical process.
● It can create local abrasion and fabric breaks, used look
effect, moustache with excellent reproducibility and higher
productivity.
● Being an automatic system, chances of human error are
slim.
● The design is electronically translated on the fabric, thus
avoiding the need for photolites of serigraphy cleaning.
● The machine is very simple and compact, therefore
requires very low maintenance and cleaning, extremely safe
© 2007 and reliable. www.vasantkothari.com 497
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 498
Technocrats need to realize that they have to

develop simple and cost-effective garment processing

technologies, that aim at conservation of energy, water,

time, and are environment-friendly.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 499


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 500
4 Point Inspection
► A widely recognized inspection method frequently used
in the textile industry.
► It is a technique issued by the American Society for
Testing & Materials with reference to the designation ASTM
D5 430-93
► Start the frame and inspect for defects. Run the frame at
20 ± 5 yards per minute (18 ± 5 meters per minute).

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 501


► If a defect is observed:
● Faults are classified and scored with penalty points of
1, 2, 3 and 4, according to their size and significance.
● Each defect should be counted as a separate defect
even if the nature is the same and then based on the
points allocated to each defect, total points should be
calculated.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 502


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 503
Vertical Defects Horizontal Defects
(along the length) (along the width)
Length Points Length Points
0.1 to 3.0 in (0.1 to 8.0 cm) 1 0.1 to 3.0 in (0.1 to 8.0 cm) 1
3.1 to 6.0 in (8.1 to 15.0 cm) 2 3.1 to 6.0 in (8.1 to 15.0 cm) 2
6.1 to 9.0 in(15.1 to 23.0 cm) 3 6.1 to 9.0 in (15.1 to 23.0 cm) 3
9.1 to 36.0 in (23.1 to 92.0 cm) 4 9.1 to full width (above 23.1 cm) 4

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 504


► Note:
● A maximum of 4 points may be assigned to any one
linear yard), regardless of the number or size of the
individual defects.
● For a continuous lengthwise running defect, 4 points
and 1 defect will be assigned to each linear yard where
the defect exceeds 9 inches (23 centimeters).
► Example: barre effect on the full roll in 100linear yards:
400 points should be assigned with 100 defects

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 505


► So if the acceptance criteria are 40 points / 100 yd2,
then this roll is acceptable.
► The maximum number of defect points to be counted
against any one linear yard is 4 points.
► Overall, fabric quality is assessed on the basis of the
number of defect points per 100 yd2 of fabric.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 506


Inspection Results
► Complete the worksheet and calculate the total points of
each inspected roll and the total of the inspected linear
yards/meters. With this information use the appropriate
formula below to calculate the Average Points (per 100
linear yards or linear meters).
Total Points of inspected roll
Average Points/100 linear yds = X 100
Total Inspected Yards

Total Points of inspected roll


Average Points/100 linear mts = X 100
Total Inspected Meters

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 507


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 508
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 509
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 510
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 511
► All textiles are evaluated on a square meter
computation. The formula used to determine the point
count level of a roll of fabric is as follows.
Total Points x 10,000 _________ = Points per 100m2
Inspected meters x Cuttable Fabric Width (cm)

► The penalty points total is divided by the product of the


meters inspected then multiplied by the cuttable width in
centimeters. Multiply the result by 10,000 in order to
calculate the shipment point count per 100 square meters.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 512


► The linear meter points total is divided by the product of
the inspected meters then multiplied by the cuttable width
in centimeters. Multiply the result by 10, 000 in order to
calculate the shipment point count per 100square meters.

Total Linear Meter Points x 10,000 _________= Shipment Points per 100 m2
Total Inspected Meters x Cuttable Width (cm)

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 513


► Individual rolls with penalty point count levels exceeding
the stated requirements of the classified group are rejected.
They are graded as second quality and may not be shipped
unless otherwise directed by the buyer.
► Shipment fails the inspection if the shipment penalty
point count exceeds the specified point count level or, if
more than 10% of the total shipment audited is graded as
second quality.

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 514


► Shipment Lot Size

Per Color way (meters) Inspection Quantity (meters) Percentage


1-2,500 500 20%
2,501-5,000 251-500 10%
5,001-20,000 400-1,600 8%
20,001- 30,000 1,200-1,800 6%
30,001-50,000 1,200-2,000 4%

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 515


► Penalty Point Table
Acceptance Criteria for 100 sq. meters of fabric
Individual Roll Total Shipment
Group Maximum Penalty Points in Maximum Average Penalty
a roll per 100 sq. meters Points of Shipment per 100
sq. meters
One 18 points 14 points.
Two 24 points 19 points
Three 30 points 24 points
Four 48 points 38 points

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 516


Fabric Group Classifications
► Group One
● All synthetics (polyster/nylon/acetate)
● Basic denims (open end spun)> 12 oz sq. yards
● Dress shirtings > 50/1
● Filament rayons
● Twills (Imported)
● Worsted Spun

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 517


Fabric Group Classifications
► Group Two
● Basic denims (ring spun) > 12 oz sq.yards
● Basic knitted fabrics
● Canvas
● Carded fabrics
● Lightweight denim > 4 oz < 8 oz sq.yards
● Midweight denims > 9 or < 12 oz sq. yards
● Poplin/oxford/gingham shirting > 32/1, < 50/1
● Spun rayons (Viscose)
● Woolen spun
● Twills (Indian)

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 518


Fabric Group Classifications
► Group Three
● All specialty fabrics ( jacquard / seersucker / dobby /
sateen)
● Chambray/indigo yarn dyes
● Coated fabrics with wax, oil,
● Corduroy
● Flannel
● Fleece
● Cotton- synthetic blends
● Silk Fabrics (except Indian silk and Dupioni)
● Knitted and woven stretch fabrics, i.e., stretch twill
● Velvet
© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 519
Fabric Group Classifications
► Group Four
● Dupioni silk
● Indian “Madras” (hand dyed-power/hand loom)
● Indian Silk
● Linen and Linen blends
● Muslin
● Patchwork

© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 520


© 2007 www.vasantkothari.com 521

You might also like