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Contents
Articles
Religions of the Ancient Near East 1
Mesopotamian religion 6
Mesopotamian mythology 11
Sumerian religion 14
Ancient Semitic religion 19
Enûma Eliš 22
Family tree of the Babylonian gods 26
References
Article Sources and Contributors 28
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 29
Article Licenses
License 30
Religions of the Ancient Near East 1
Overview
The history of the Ancient Near East spans more than two millennia, from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age, in
the region now known as the Middle East, centered around the Fertile Crescent. There was much cultural contact, so
that it is justified to summarize the whole region under a single term, but that does not mean, of course, that each
historical period and each region should not be looked at individually for a detailed description. This article will
attempt to outline the common traits of Ancient Near Eastern religions, and refer to sub-articles for in-depth
descriptions.
The Ancient Near East includes the following subregions:
• Mesopotamia (Sumer, Assyria, Akkad): Assyro-Babylonian religion, Sumerian religion, Mesopotamian
mythology
• Elam
• Ancient Egypt: Ancient Egyptian religion
• The Levant (Canaan, Ugarit, Ebla, Mitanni): Canaanite religion
• Anatolia (the Hittite Empire, Assuwa, Arzawa): Hittite mythology, Hurrian mythology
• the Caucasus and the Armenian Highland (Urartu)
• Cyprus, Crete (Minoan civilization): Minoan religion
Our earliest sources from ca. 2000 BC allow glimpses of Mesopotamian mythology and Egyptian Religion.
The early Hittite religion bore traits descended from Proto-Indo-European religion, but the later Hittite religions
became more and more assimilated to Assyria.
Ancient Greek religion was strongly influenced by Ancient Near Eastern mythology, but is usually not included in
the term. The Mystery religions of Hellenism were again consciously connected with Egyptian religion.
There are broad practices that these religions often hold in common:
• Purification and cleansing rituals
• Sacrifices (plant and animal sacrifice, libations, rarely, but prominently in mythology, human sacrifice)
• Polytheism (Though Egypt and Greece were Henotheistic societies)
• State (city state) sponsored religions (theocracy)
• Sacred prostitution
• Divination
• Majick (invocations, conjurings and Talismans)
Typically, Ancient Near Eastern religions were centered around theocracies, with a dominating regional cult of the
God of a city-state. There were also super-regional mythemes and deities, such as the God Tammuz and the descent
to the underworld.
Divinations:
• Apantomancy: seeing animals
• Cleromancy: drawing lots
Religions of the Ancient Near East 2
Mesopotamia
Astrology
Identification of the Gods and Goddesses with
heavenly bodies — planets and stars, besides Sun and
Moon — and to assigning the seats of all the deities in
the Heavens is found in Assyro-Babylonian religion.
The personification of the two great luminaries — the
Sun and the Moon — was the first step in the unfolding
of this system, and this was followed by placing the
Impression of the cylinder seal of Ḫašḫamer, patesi (High Priest) of
other deities where Shamash and Sin had their seats.
Sin at Iškun-Sin, ca. 2400 BC
This process, which reached its culmination in the
post-Hammurabic period, led to identifying the Planet
Venus with Ishtar, Jupiter with Marduk, Mars with Nergal, Mercury with Nabu, and Saturn with Ninurta.
The system represents a harmonious combination of two factors, one of popular origin, the other the outcome of
speculation in the schools attached to the temples of Babylonia. The popular factor is the belief in the influence
exerted by the movements of the heavenly bodies on occurrences on earth — a belief naturally suggested by the
dependence of life, vegetation and guidance upon the two great luminaries. Starting with this belief the Priests and
Priestesses built up the theory of the close correspondence between occurrences on earth and phenomena in the
Heavens. The Heavens presenting a constant change even to the superficial observer, the conclusion was drawn of a
connection between the changes and the everchanging movement in the fate of individuals and of nature as well as in
the appearance of nature.
To read the signs of the Heavens was therefore to understand the meaning of occurrences on Earth, and with this
accomplished, it was also possible to foretell what events were portended by the position and relationship to one
another of Sun, Moon, Planets and certain stars. Myths that symbolized changes in season or occurrences in nature
were projected on the heavens, which were mapped out to correspond to the divisions of the Earth.
All the Gods, Demons and Spirits had their places assigned to them in the Heavens, and facts, including such as fell
within the domain of political history, were interpreted in terms of astral theology. So completely did this system in
the course of time sway men's minds that the Cults and Sects, from being an expression of animistic beliefs, took on
the color derived from the "astral" interpretation of occurrences and doctrines. It left its trace in incantations, omens
and hymns, and it gave birth to astronomy, which was assiduously cultivated because a knowledge of the heavens
was the very foundation of the system of belief unfolded by the priests of Babylonia and Assyria.
"Chaldaean wisdom" became, in the classical world, the synonym of this science, which in its character was so
essentially religious. The persistent prominence which astrology continued to enjoy down to the border-line of the
scientific movement of our own days, and which is directly traceable to the divination methods perfected in the
Euphrates valley, is a tribute to the scope and influence attained by the astral theology of the Babylonian and
Assyrian priests.
As an illustration of the manner in which the doctrines of the religion were made to conform to the all-pervading
astral theory, it will be sufficient to refer to the modification undergone in this process of the view developed in a
Religions of the Ancient Near East 3
very early period which apportioned the control of the universe among the three Gods Anu, Enlil and Ea.
Disassociating these Gods from all local connections, Anu became the power presiding over the Heavens, to Enlil
was assigned the earth and the atmosphere immediately above it, while Ea ruled over the deep. With the transfer of
all the Gods to the heavens, and under the influence of the doctrine of the correspondence between the heavens and
the earth, Anu, Enlil and Ea became the three "ways" (as they are called) on the heavens.
The "ways" appear in this instance to have been the designation of the ecliptic circle, which was divided into three
sections or zones — a northern, a middle and a southern zone, Anu being assigned to the first, Enlil to the second,
and Ea to the third zone. The astral theology of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion, while thus bearing the ear-marks
of a system devised by the priests, succeeded in assimilating the beliefs which represented the earlier attempts to
systematize the more popular aspects of the religion, and in this way a unification of diverse elements was secured
that led to interpreting the contents and the form of the religion in terms of the astral-theological system.
Ethic
On the ethical sides, the religion of Babylonia more particularly, and to a less extent that of Assyria, advances to
noticeable conceptions of the qualities associated with the Gods and Goddesses and of the duties imposed on man.
Shamash, the Sun-God, was invested with justice as his chief trait, Marduk is portrayed as full of mercy and
kindness, and Ea is in general the protector of mankind, a father who takes them under his protection. The Gods, to
be sure, are easily aroused to anger, and in some of them the dire aspects predominated, but the view becomes more
and more pronounced that there is some cause always for the divine wrath. Though, in accounting for the anger of
the Gods, no sharp distinction is made between moral offences and a ritualistic oversight or neglect, yet the stress
laid in the hymns and prayers, as well as in the elaborate atonement ritual prescribed in order to appease the anger of
the Gods, on the need of being clean and pure in the sight of the higher powers, the inculcation of a proper aspect of
humility, and above all the need of confessing one's guilt and sins without any reserve — all this bears testimony to
the strength which the ethical factor acquired in the domain of the Religion.
This factor appears to less advantage in the unfolding of the views concerning life after death. Throughout all periods
of Babylonian-Assyrian history, the conception prevailed of a large dark cavern below the earth, not far from the
Apsu— the fresh water abyss encircling and flowing underneath the earth — in which all the dead were gathered and
where they led a miserable existence of inactivity, amid gloom and dust. Occasionally a favoured individual was
permitted to escape from this general fate and placed in a pleasant island. It would appear also that the rulers were
always singled out for divine grace, and in the earlier periods of the history, owing to the prevailing view that the
rulers stood nearer to the Gods than other mortals, the kings were deified after death, and in some instances divine
honours were paid to them even during their lifetime.
Demonology
Main Article: Mesopotamian Demon
Ancient Near Eastern religion knew an elaborate system of benevolent, neutral and malevolent Demons (which more
resembled Greek Daemons than the Christian concept of Evil Demons), and much of medicine consisted of
Exorcisms, e.g. of Lamashtu, the hermaphroditic Demoness responsible for complications at childbirth and infant
deaths.
In Chaldean mythology the seven evil Demons were known as Shedu, meaning "Storm-Demon". They were
represented in winged bull form, derived from the colossal bulls used as protective genii of royal palaces, the name
"Shed" assumed also the meaning of a propitious genius in Babylonian magical literature.[2]
Religions of the Ancient Near East 4
Later influence
The influence exerted by the Babylonian-Assyrian religion was particularly profound on the Semites, while the astral
theology affected the ancient world in general, including the Greeks and Romans. The impetus to the purification of
the old Semite religion to which the Hebrews for a long time clung in common with their fellows — the various
branches of nomadic Arabs — was largely furnished by the remarkable civilization unfolded in the Euphrates valley
and in many of the traditions, myths and legends embodied in the Old Testament; traces of direct borrowing from
Babylonia may be discerned, while the indirect influences in the domain of the prophetical books, as also in the
Psalms and in the so-called "wisdom literature", are even more noteworthy.
Even when we reach the New Testament period, we have not passed entirely beyond the sphere of
Babylonian-Assyrian influences. In such a movement as early Christian gnosticism, Babylonian elements —
modified, to be sure, and transformed — are largely present, while the growth of an apocalyptic literature is ascribed
with apparent justice by many scholars to the recrudescence of views, the ultimate source of which is to be found in
the astral-theology of the Babylonian and Assyrian Priests.
Egypt
The dominant religious rituals and beliefs of Ancient Egypt merged and developed over time. As an example, during
the New Kingdom, the Gods Ra and Amun were syncretized into a single God, Amun-Ra.[3] Such syncretism should
be distinguished from mere groupings, also referred to as "families" such as Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. Over time,
Gods took part in multiple syncretic relationships, for instance, the combination of Ra and Horus into Ra-Herakty.
Similarly, Ptah, Seker, and Osiris becamePtah-Seker-Osiris.
Anatolia
Heavily influenced by Mesopotamian mythology, the religion of
the Hittites and Luwians retains noticeable Indo-European
elements, for example Tarhunt the God of thunder, and his conflict
with the Serpent-God Illuyanka.
Tarhunt has a son, Telepinu and a daughter, Inara. Inara is
involved with the Puruli spring festival. She is a protective
Goddess (dLAMMA). Ishara is a Goddess of the oath.
Neopagan revivals
• Kemetism (Revival of Egyptian Gods/deities)
• Wicca (Revival of Greek Gods)
Books
General
• Gordon, Cyrus. The Ancient Near East, 3rd Edition, Revised.
W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., New York, 1965.
• James, E.O. The Ancient Gods: The History and Diffusion of Seated deity, late Hittite Empire (13th century BC)
Religion in the Ancient Near East and the Eastern
Mediterranean, 1960.
Religions of the Ancient Near East 5
• Pritchard, James B., editor. The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton University
Press, New Jersey, 1958.
• Pritchard, James B., editor. The Ancient Near East, Volume II: A New Anthology of Texts and Pictures.
Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1975.
• Jack Sasson et al., eds., Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1995.
• Smith, Morton, The Common Theology of the Ancient near East, Journal of Biblical Literature (1952).
• van der Toorn, Karel (1995). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible.. New York: E.J. Brill.
ISBN 0-80282-491-9.
• Mark S. Smith, God in translation: deities in cross-cultural discourse in the biblical world, vol. 57 of
"Forschungen zum Alten Testament", Mohr Siebeck, 2008, ISBN 9783161495434.
External links
• ASOR (American Schools of Oriental Research), Boston University [4]
• University of Michigan. Traditions of Magic in Late Antiquity [5]
• The Edinburgh Ras Shamra Project [6]
• Canaanite/Ugaritic Mythology FAQ, ver. 1.2 [7] by Chris Siren
• Canaan and Ancient Israel [8] by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.
References
[1] Samuel H. Hooke (1970). The Siege Perilous: Essays in Biblical Anthropology and Kindred Subjects. Ayer Publishing. p. 174.
ISBN 0836955250.
[2] See Delitzsch, Assyrisches Handwörterbuch. pp. 60, 253, 261, 646; Jensen, Assyr.-Babyl. Mythen und Epen, 1900, p. 453; Archibald Sayce,
l.c. pp. 441, 450, 463; Lenormant, l.c. pp. 48-51.
[3] Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press 2004, p.9
[4] http:/ / www. asor. org/ outreach/ links/ ANEarchy. html
[5] http:/ / www. lib. umich. edu/ pap/ magic/ intro. html
[6] http:/ / homepages. ed. ac. uk/ ugarit/ home. htm
[7] http:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~chris. s/ canaanite-faq. html
[8] http:/ / www. museum. upenn. edu/ Canaan/ index. html
Mesopotamian religion 6
Mesopotamian religion
Mesopotamian religion refers to the religious beliefs and practices
followed by the various peoples living in Mesopotamia (around the
area of modern Iraq) that lasted for a period of three thousand years
from the fourth millennium to the first century BCE.[1] Commonly
thought of as a form of paganism, Mesopotamian religion was
polytheistic, worshipping over two thousand different deities,[2] many
of which were associated with a specific city-state within Mesopotamia
such as Sumer, Akkad, and later on Babylon. Some of the most
significant of these deities were Anu, Enlil and later on Marduk.
Some, such as the historian Jean Bottero, have made the claim that
Mesopotamian religion is the worlds oldest faith,[3] although there are
several other claims to that title. What we know about Mesopotamian
religion comes from archaeological evidence uncovered in the region,
particularly literary sources, which are usually written in cuneiform on
clay tablets and which describe both mythology and cultic practices.
However, other artefacts can also be used as the Mesopotamians'
"entire existence was infused by their religiosity, just about everything
they have passed on to us can be used a source of knowledge about
their religion."[4]
The god Marduk and his dragon Mušḫuššu, from
Although it died out over two thousand years ago, Mesopotamian
a Babylonian cylinder seal.
religion has still had an influence on the modern world, predominantly
because much Biblical mythology that is today found in Judaism and
Christianity, shares some overlapping consistency with ancient Mesopotamian myths. It has also inspired various
contemporary Neopagan groups to begin worshipping the Mesopotamian deities once more, albeit in a way often
different from that of the original Mesopotamian peoples.
History
The peoples of Mesopotamia were not one united
nationality, but members of various different
city-states. In the fourth millennium BCE, when the
first evidence for what is recognisably Mesopotamian
religion can be seen, the Sumerians appeared in
Mesopotamia, although it is not known if they migrated
into the area or whether they were some of the original
inhabitants. They settled in southern Mesopotamia,
which became known as Sumer, and had a great
influence over many of the Mesopotamian peoples and
their culture. Meanwhile, in the north, in an area known
as Akkad, a civilisation known as the Akkadians arose,
who spoke a semitic language that was distinct from
Overview map of ancient Mesopotamia.
that of the Sumerians.[5]
Mesopotamian religion 7
Gradually there was increasing syncreticism between the Sumerian and Akkadian cultures and deities, with the
Akkadians typically preferring to worship fewer deities, but elevating them to greater positions of power. In circa
2300 BCE the Akkadian king Sargon the Great conquered all of Mesopotamia, though this Akkadian empire
collapsed after two centuries. Then, around 1800 BCE, the leader of the city-state of Babylon, King Hammurabi,
conquered much of Mesopotamia, but this Babylonian empire collapsed a century later due to attacks from
mountain-dwelling people known as the Kassites. Following this, Mesopotamia became divided largely between two
powerful city-states; the Babylonians to the south and the Assyrians to the north, although eventually, in the seventh
century BCE, Assyria fell to its enemy.[6]
In the 6th century BCE, Mesopotamia was invaded by the Persian empire, then ruled by Cyrus the Great, but the
Persians maintained and did not interfere in the native culture and religion, however under their control, the foreign
aramaic language began to rise in predominance. Then, two centuries later, the Greek emperor Alexander the Great
overthrew the Persians and took control of Mesopotamia itself, heralding the end of the era of ancient
Mesopotamia.[7]
Mythology
Cosmology
There are no specific written records explaining Mesopotamian religious cosmology that survive to us today.
Nonetheless, modern scholars have examined various accounts, and created what is believed to be an at least
partially accurate depiction of Mesopotamian cosmology.[8] In the Epic of Creation, dated to 1200 BCE, it explains
that the god Marduk killed the mother goddess Tiamat and used half her body to create the earth, and the other half
to create both the paradise of šamû and the netherworld of irṣitu.[9] A document from a similar period stated that the
unvierse was a spheroid, with three levels of šamû, where the gods dwelt, and where the stars existed, above the
three levels of earth below it.[10]
Mesopotamian religion 8
Deities
Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic, thereby accepting the existence of
many different deities, both male and female, though it was also
henotheistic,[11] with certain gods being viewed as superior to others by their
specific devotees. These devotees were often from a particular city or
city-state that held that deity as its patron deity, for instance the god Enki was
often associated with the city of Eridu, and the god Marduk was associated
with Babylon.[12] Whilst the full number of gods and goddesses found in
Mesopotamia is not known, K. Tallqvist, in his Akkadische Götterepitheta
(1938) counted around two thousand four hundred that we now know about,
most of which had Sumerian names. In the Sumerian language, the gods were
referred to as dingir, whilst in the Akkadian language they were known as ilu
and it seems that there was syncreticism between the gods worshipped by the
two groups, adopting one another's deities.[13]
The Mesopotamian gods bore many similarities with humans, and were
anthropomorphic, thereby having humanoid form. Similarly, they often acted
like humans, requiring food and drink, as well as drinking alcohol and
subsequently suffering the effects of drunkenness.[14] In many cases, the
various deities were family relations of one another, a trait found in many
other polytheistic religions.[15] The historian J. Bottéro was of the opinion
that the gods were not viewed mystically, but were instead seen as high-up
masters who had be obeyed and feared, as opposed to loved and adored.[16] Inanna/Ishtar depicted on the "Ishtar
vase", Larsa, early 2. millennium BCE,
Nonetheless, many Mesopotamians, of all classes, had names that were
Louvre AO 6501
devoted to a certain deity; this practice appeared to have begun in the third
millennium BCE amongst the Sumerians, but also was later adopted by the
Akkadians as well.[17]
Initially, the pantheon of deities was not ordered, but later Mesopotamian theologians came up with the concept of
ranking the deities in order of importance. A Sumerian list of around 560 deities that did this was uncovered at Fâra
and Tell Abû Ṣalābīkh and dated to circa 2600 BCE, ranking five primary deities as being of particular
importance.[18] One of the most important of these early Mesopotamian deities was the god Enlil, who was originally
a Sumerian divinity viewed as a king of the gods and a controller of the world, who was later adopted by the
Akkadians. Another was the Sumerian god An, who served a similar role to Enlil and became known as Anu
amongst the Akkadians. The Sumerian god Enki was later also adopted by the Akkadians, initially under his original
name, and later as Éa. Similarly the Sumerian moon god Nanna became the Akkadian Sîn whilst the Sumerian sun
god Utu became the Akkadian Šamaš. One of the most notable goddesses was the Sumerian love deity Inanna, who
was later equated with the Akkadian Ištar. With the later rise to power of the Babylonians in the 18th century BCE,
the king, Hammurabi, declared Marduk, a deity who before then had not been of significant importance, to a position
of supremacy alongside Anu and Enlil.[19]
Mesopotamian religion 9
Legend
Perhaps the most significant legend to survive from Mesopotamian religion is the Epic of Gilgamesh, which tells the
story of the heroic king Gilgamesh and his wild friend Enkidu, and the former's search for immortality which is
entwined with all the gods and their approval.
There are no known Mesopotamian tales about the end of the world, although it has been speculated that they
believed that this would eventually occur. This is largely because Berossus wrote that the Mesopotamians believed
the world to last "twelve times twelve sars"; with a sar being 3,600 years, this would indicate that at least some of
the Mesopotamians believed that the Earth would only last 518,400 years.[20]
Afterlife
The ancient Mesopotamians believed in an afterlife that was a land below our world. It was this land, known
alternately as Arallû, Ganzer or Irkallu, the latter of which meant "Great Below", that it was believed everyone went
to after death, irrespective of social status or the actions performed during life.[21]
Cultic Practice
The pagan Mesopotamians venerated images of their gods, which it was believed actually held the essence or
personality of the deity that they represented; this is evident from the poem How Erra Wrecked the World, in which
Erra deceived the god Marduk into leaving his cult statue.[23]
A number of written prayers have survived from ancient Mesopotamia, each of which typically exalt the god that
they are describing above all others.[24] The historian J. Bottéro stated that these poems display "extreme reverence,
profound devotion, [and] the unarguable emotion that the supernatural evoked in the hearts of those ancient
believers" but that they showed a people who were scared of their gods rather than openly celebrating them.[25]
Later Influence
Historical Study
For many decades, some scholars of the Ancient Near East argued that it was impossible to define there as being a
singular Mesopotamian religion, with Leo Oppenheim (1964) stating that "a systematic presentation of
Mesopotamian religion cannot and should not be written."[27] Others, like Jean Bottéro, the author of Religion in
Ancient Mesopotamia, disagreed, believing that it would be too complicated to divide the religion into many smaller
groups, stating that:
Should we dwell on a certain social or cultural category: the "official religion," the "private religion," the
religion of the "educated"... Should we emphasise a certain city or province: Elba, Mari, Assyria? Should we
concentrate on a certain period in time: the Seleucid, the Achaemenid, the Chaldean, the Neo-Assyrian, the
Kassite, the Old Babylonian, the Neo-Sumerian, or the Old Akkadian period? Since, contrary to what some
Mesopotamian religion 10
would imprudently lead us to believe, there were no distinct religions but only successive states of the same
religious system... – such an approach would be excessive, even pointless.[28]
References
• Bottéro, Jean (2001). Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Davies, Owen (2009). Grimoires: A History of Magic Books. New York: Oxford University Press.
References
[1] Bottero (2001:Preface)
[2] Bottero (2001:45)
[3] Bottero (2001:Preface)
[4] Bottero (2001:21–22)
[5] Bottero (2001:7–9)
[6] Bottero (2001:13–17)
[7] Bottero (2001:17–18)
[8] Bottero (2001:77–78)
[9] Bottero (2001:79)
[10] Bottero (2001:80)
[11] Bottero (2001:41)
[12] Bottero (2001:53)
[13] Bottero (2001:45)
[14] Bottero (2001:64–66)
[15] Bottero (2001:50)
[16] Bottero (2001:37)
[17] Bottero (2001:39)
[18] Bottero (2001:48–49)
[19] Bottero (2001:54)
[20] Bottero (2001:95)
[21] Bottero (2001:108)
[22] Bottero (2001:30–31)
[23] Bottero (2001:65)
[24] Bottero (2001:29–30)
[25] Bottero (2001:37)
[26] Davies (2009:8)
[27] Bottero (2001:26)
[28] Bottero (2001:27)
[29] Views of Modern Mesopotamia (http:/ / babylon-rising. tribe. net/ thread/ 6cdd9466-fe68-4541-b8af-236673c66188). 2004. .
Mesopotamian mythology 11
Mesopotamian mythology
Fertile Crescent
myth series
Mesopotamia
Levantine myth
Arabian myth
Yazidic religion
Mesopotamian mythology
Topics
Gods
• Anunna & 7 who decree
fate
• Enki & Mes
• Tiamat & Tablets of destiny
• Marduk & fiction
Heroes
• Utnapishtim & world-flood
• Tammuz & Ishtar
• Gilgamesh & Cedar forest
• Enkidu, the man-beast
Monsters
• Zu, the winged lion
• Qingu, mankind's blood
• Asag, plague and war
• Namtar, deadly illness
Related
• Mesopotamian religion
• Sumerian religion
• Babylonian religion
• The Fertile Crescent
Mesopotamian mythology is the collective name given to Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, and Babylonian
mythologies from parts of the fertile crescent, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq.
The Sumerians practiced a polytheistic religion, with anthropomorphic gods or goddesses representing forces or
presences in the world, in much the same way as later Greek mythology. According to said mythology, the gods
originally created humans as servants and freed them when they became too much to handle.
Many stories in Sumerian religion appear similar to stories in other Middle-Eastern religions. Gods and Goddesses
from Sumer have similar representations in the religions of the Akkadians, Canaanites, and others.
Mesopotamian mythology 12
Divinities then proliferated, with there being specific gods of tooth-ache, or aching limbs, goddesses for "Greenery"
and "Pasture". Every aspect of life thus came to be surrounded with its own minor divinity that required gifts or
placation, as magic spells multiplied, trying to give people certainty in very uncertain times.
Mesopotamian cosmology
Mesopotamian cosmology seems to have been seen as a genealogical system of binary opposites being considered as
male and female, and, through sacred marriage or hieros gamos, giving birth to successive generations of divinities.
The universe first appeared when Nammu, a presumably formless abyss, curled in upon herself, giving birth to the
primary gods. According to the Babylonian Enuma Elish, the primary union divided into Tiamat, (from Sumerian
Ti=Life, Ama=mother, t (Akkadian, a feminine terminal marker)) a salt water divinity, and Apsu (earlier Abzu from
Ab=water, Zu=far) a fresh water divinity. These in turn gave birth to Lahamu and Lahmu, called the "muddy" or "the
hairy ones", the title given to the gatekeepers of the E'Abzu temple in Eridu, who gave birth to Anshar (Sky Pivot, or
Axle) and Kishar (Earth Pivot, or Axle) possibly referring to the celestial poles, and considered the parents of Anu
(the Heaven-dome god) and Ki (the Earth god). These Gods gave their name to the Mesopotamian pantheon.
The union of An and Ki produced Enlil, who in the Sumerian period eventually became leader of the pantheon. After
the banishment of Enlil from Dilmun (the home of the gods) for raping Ninlil, Ninlil had a child, Sin (god of the
moon), also known in Sumerian as Nanna - Suen. Sin and Ningal gave birth to Inanna and to Utu (Sumerian) or
Shamash (Akkadian). During Enlil's banishment, he fathered three "substitute" underworld deities with Ninlil , most
notably Nergal. [2]
Nammu also gave birth to Enki. Enki also controlled the Me until Inanna took them away from Enki's city of Eridu
to her city of Uruk. The "me" were holy decrees that governed such basic things as physics and complex things such
as social order and law. Their transfer from Eridu to Uruk may reflect ancient political events in Southern Iraq, in the
Jemdet Nasr or Early Dynastic Period of Sumer.
In the much later Enuma Elish, of Babylon, it describes the chaos status in which Tiamat and Apsu, upset by the
chaos of the younger gods, attempt to take back creation, until the son of Enki, Marduk, defeated them and re-created
the world out of Tiamat's bodies. These myths seem to have in earlier Sumerian versions had Enlil, as god of the
Winds and head of the Sumerian pantheon, in the role of Marduk. The purpose of Enuma Elish, composed in the
Kassite period was to elevate Marduk, god of the city of Babylon, and make him pre-eminent amongst the old gods,
thus demonstrating Babylon's political victory over the old cultures of Sumer and Akkad. In Assyrian myth, Asshur
takes the place of Marduk.
Other myths tell of the creation of humankind. The younger Igigi gods go on strike, refusing the work of keeping the
creation working and the gods consulted Enki for a solution. He suggested humankind be made from clay, mixed
with the blood of the captured God Kingu, son and consort of Tiamat.
The earliest known writings have no author mentioned. One of the first recorded authors was the priestess
Enheduanna, said to be the daughter of King Sargon of Akkad. She was the priestess of the moon god, Sin, but wrote
two very famous prayers to the goddess of love and war, Ishtar.
See also
• Ancient Near Eastern religion
• Ancient Semitic religion
• Family tree of the Babylonian gods
• Babylonian mythology
• Myths and Legends of Babylonia and Assyria (book)
• Panbabylonism
• Samuel Noah Kramer
• Akhkhazu
Mesopotamian mythology 14
References
• Hayes, John L. (2000). A Manual of Sumerian Grammar and Texts. Aids and Research Tools in Ancient Near
Eastern Studies (Second revised ed.). Malibu: Undena Publications. ISBN 0-89003-508-1.
• van der Toorn, Karel (1995). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. New York: E.J. Brill.
ISBN 0-80282-491-9.
External links
• alt.mythology Sumerian Mythology FAQ [3]
References
[1] Hayes, 2000
[2] http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk. / section1/ tr121. htm
[3] http:/ / www. faqs. org/ faqs/ mythology/ sumer-faq/
Sumerian religion
Fertile Crescent
myth series
Mesopotamia
Levantine myth
Arabian myth
Yazidic religion
Mesopotamian mythology
Topics
Sumerian religion 15
Gods
• Anunna & 7 who decree
fate
• Enki & Mes
• Tiamat & Tablets of destiny
• Marduk & fiction
Heroes
• Utnapishtim & world-flood
• Tammuz & Ishtar
• Gilgamesh & Cedar forest
• Enkidu, the man-beast
Monsters
• Zu, the winged lion
• Qingu, mankind's blood
• Asag, plague and war
• Namtar, deadly illness
Related
• Mesopotamian religion
• Sumerian religion
• Babylonian religion
• The Fertile Crescent
Sumerian religion refers to the mythology, pantheon, rites and cosmology of the Sumerian civilization. The
Sumerian religion influenced Mesopotamian mythology as a whole, surviving in the mythologies and religions of the
Hurrians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and other culture groups.
Worship
Written cuneiform
Sumerian myths were passed down through the oral tradition until the
invention of writing. Early Sumerian Cuneiform was used primarily as a
record-keeping tool; it was not until the late Early Dynastic period that
religious writings first became prevalent as temple praise hymns[1] and as a
form of "incantation" called the nam-šub (prefix + "to cast").[2]
Temples
In the Sumerian city-states, temple complexes were originally small, elevated
one-room structures. In the Early Dynastic Period, temples developed raised
terraces and multiple rooms. Toward the end of the Sumerian civilization,
Ziggurats became the preferred temple structure for Mesopotamian religious
centers.[3] Temples served as cultural, religious and political headquarters
A cuneiform temple hymn from the 19th until around 2500 BCE, with the rise of military kings known as Lu-gals
Century BCE; the hymn is addressed to
(“man” + “big”)[2] after which point the political and military leadership was
the Lugal Iddin-Dagan of Larsa.
often housed in separate "palace" complexes.[3]
The priesthood
Sumerian religion 16
Until the advent of the Lugals, Sumerian city states were under a virtually complete theocratic government
controlled by independent groups of En, or high priest. Priests were responsible for continuing the cultural and
religious traditions of their city-state, and were viewed as mediums between humans and the cosmic and terrestrial
forces. The priesthood resided full-time in temple complexes, and administered to matters of state including the large
irrigation processes necessary for the civilization’s survival.
Ceremony
During the Third Dynasty of Ur, the Sumerian city-state of Lagash was said to have had 62 "lamentation priests"
who were accompanied by 180 vocalists and instrumentalists.
Cosmology
The Sumerians envisioned the universe as a closed dome surrounded by a primordial saltwater sea.[4] Underneath the
terrestrial earth, which formed the base of the dome, existed an underworld and a freshwater ocean called the Apsu.
The god of the dome-shaped firmament was named An; the earth was named Ki. The underground world was first
believed to be an extension of Ki, but later developed into the concept of Kigal. The primordial saltwater sea was
named Nammu, which became known as Tiamat during and after the Sumerian Renaissance.
Creation Story
According to Sumerian mythology, the gods originally created humans as servants for themselves but freed them
when they became too much to handle.[5]
The primordial union of An and Ki produced Enlil, who became leader of the Sumerian pantheon. After the other
gods banished Enlil from Dilmun (the “home of the gods”) for raping Ninlil, Ninlil had a child: Nanna, god of the
moon. Nanna and Ningal gave birth to Inanna and to Utu, god of the sun.[6]
The Pantheon
The majority of Sumerian deities belonged to a classification called the Anunna (“[offspring] of An”), whereas seven
deities, including Enlil and Inanna, belonged to a group of “underworld judges" known as the Anunnaki (“[offspring]
of An” + Ki). During the Third Dynasty of Ur, the Sumerian pantheon included sixty times sixty (3600) deities.[8]
The main Sumerian deities are as follows:
• An: God of heaven/the firmament.
• Enlil: God of the air (from Lil = Air); patron deity of Nippur.
• Enki: God of freshwater, male fertility, and knowledge; patron deity of Eridu.
• Inanna: Goddess of sexual love, female fertility and warfare; matron deity of Uruk.
• Ki: Goddess of the earth.[9]
• Nanna, God of the moon; one of the patron deities of Ur.[10]
• Nazi: One of the eight deities born to relieve the illness of Enki.
Sumerian religion 17
Legacy
Akkadians
The Sumerians experienced an ongoing linguistic and cultural exchange with the Semitic Akkadian peoples in
northern Mesopotamia for generations prior to the conquest of their territories by Sargon of Akkad in 2340 BCE.
Sumerian mythology and religious practices were rapidly integrated into Akkadian culture,[14] presumably blending
with the original Akkadian belief systems which have been all but lost to history. Sumerian deities developed
Akkadian counterparts, and some remained virtually the same until later Babylonian and Assyrian rule. The
Sumerian god An, for example, developed the Akkadian counterpart Anu; the Sumerian god Enki became Ea; and
the Sumerian gods Ninurta and Enlil remained very much the same in the Akkadian pantheon.
Babylonians
The Amorite Babylonians gained dominance over southern Mesopotamia by the mid-17th Century BCE. During the
Old Babylonian Period, the Sumerian and Akkadian languages were still used for religious purposes; the majority of
Sumerian mythological literature known to historians today comes from the Old Babylonian Period,[1] either in the
form of transcribed Sumerian texts (most notably the Babylonian version of the Epic of Gilgamesh) or in the form of
Sumerian and Akkadian influences within Babylonian mythological literature (most notably the Enûma Eliš). The
Sumerian-Akkadian pantheon was altered, most notably with the introduction of a new supreme deity, Marduk. The
Sumerian goddess Inanna also developed the counterpart Ishtar during the Old Babylonian Period.
Parallels
Some stories in Sumerian religion appear similar to stories in other Middle-Eastern religions. For example, the
Biblical account of Noah's flood resembles some aspects of the Sumerian deluge myth. The Judaic underworld Sheol
is very similar in description with the Sumerian and Babylonian Kigal. Sumerian scholar Samuel Noah Kramer noted
similarities between many Sumerian and Akkadian "proverbs" and the later Hebrew proverbs, many of which are
featured in the Book of Proverbs.[16]
Sumerian religion 18
See also
• Ancient Near Eastern religion
• Ancient Semitic religion
• Babylonian religion
• Mes
• Mesopotamian mythology
• Sumerian literature
References
[1] "Sumerian Literature" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ edition2/ literature. php). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. . Retrieved
2009-06-22.
[2] "The Sumerian Lexicon" (http:/ / www. sumerian. org/ sumerian. pdf). John A. Halloran. . Retrieved 2009-06-23.
[3] "Inside a Sumerian Temple" (http:/ / mi. byu. edu/ publications/ books/ ?bookid=21& chapid=112). The Neal A. Maxwell Institute for
Religious Scholarship at Brigham Young University. . Retrieved 2009-06-22.
[4] "The Firmament and the Water Above" (http:/ / faculty. gordon. edu/ hu/ bi/ Ted_Hildebrandt/ OTeSources/ 01-Genesis/ Text/
Articles-Books/ Seely-Firmament-WTJ. pdf). Westminster Theological Journal 53 (1991), 232-233. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.
[5] "Sumerian Myth" (http:/ / faculty. gvsu. edu/ websterm/ SumerianMyth. htm#). Grand Valley State University. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.
[6] "Enlil and Ninlil" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 1. 2. 1#). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. .
Retrieved 2009-06-22.
[7] Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat, (1998). "Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia", 178-179.
[8] Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat, (1998). "Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia", 182.
[9] "Gilgamec, Enkidu and the nether world" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 1. 8. 1. 4& charenc=j#). Electronic Text
Corpus of Sumerian Literature. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.
[10] "A balbale to Suen (Nanna A)" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 4. 13. 01#). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian
Literature. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.
[11] "A balbale to Nanna (Nanna B)" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 4. 13. 02#). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian
Literature. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.
[12] "An adab to Ninlil (Ninlil A)" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 4. 24. 1#). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian
Literature. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.
[13] "A hymn to Utu (Utu B)" (http:/ / etcsl. orinst. ox. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ etcsl. cgi?text=t. 4. 32. 2#). Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian
Literature. . Retrieved 2010-02-20.
[14] "Mesopotamia: the Sumerians" (http:/ / wsu. edu/ ~dee/ MESO/ SUMER. HTM). Washington State University. . Retrieved 2009-06-22.
[15] "Hurrian Mythology REF 1.2" (http:/ / home. comcast. net/ ~chris. s/ hittite-ref. html#a2). Christopher B. Siren. . Retrieved 2009-06-23.
[16] Samuel Noah Kramer, (1952). "From the Tablets of Sumer", 133-135.
Ancient Semitic religion 19
Proto-Semitic pantheon
This is a partial list of possible Proto-Semitic deities.
(Ac. Accadian-Babylonian; Ug. Ugaritic; Pp. Phoenician; Ib. Hebrew; Ar. Arabic; OSA Old South Arabian; Et.
Ethiopic)
• *ʼIlu "god" (Overgod: Ac. Ilu, Ug. il, Pp. ʼl/Ēlos, Ib. Ēl/Elohim, Ar. Allāh, OSA ʼl).
• *ʼAṯiratu (Ilu's wife: Ug. aṯrt, Ib. Ašērāh, OSA ʼṯrt). The meaning of the name is unknown.
• She is also called *ʼIlatu "goddess" (Ac. Ilat, Pp. ʼlt, Ar. Allāt).
• *ʻAṯtaru (God of Fertility: Ug. ʻṯtr, OSA ʻṯtr, Et. ʻAstar sky god).
• ʻAṯtartu (Goddess of Fertility: Ac. Ištar, Ug. ʻṯtrt, Pp. ʻštrt / Astarte, Ib. ʻAštoreṯ). The meaning of the name is
unknown and not related to ʼAṯiratu.
• *Haddu/*Hadadu (Storm god: Ac. Adad, Ug. hd, Pp. Adodos). The meaning of the name is probably
“thunderer”.
• This god is also known as *Baʻlu "husband, lord" (Ac. Bel, Ug. bʻl, Pp. bʻl/Belos, Ib. Baʻal).
• *Śamšu "sun" (Sun goddess: Ug. špš, OSA: šmš, but Ac. Šamaš is a male god).
• *Wariḫu "moon" (Moon god: Ug. yrḫ, Ib. Yārēaḥ, OSA wrḫ).
Canaan
Canaanite religion was the group of belief systems utilized by the people living in the ancient Levant throughout
the Bronze Age and Iron Age.
Until the excavation of Ras Shamra in Northern Syria (the site historically known as Ugarit), and the discovery of its
Bronze Age archive of clay tablet alphabetic cuneiform texts, little was known of Canaanite religion, as papyrus
seems to have been the preferred writing medium, and unlike Egypt, in the humid Mediterranean climate, these have
simply decayed. As a result, the highly antagonistic and selective accounts contained within the Bible were almost
the only sources of information on ancient Canaanite religion. This was supplemented by a few secondary and
tertiary Greek sources (Lucian of Samosata's De Dea Syria (The Syrian Goddess), fragments of the Phoenician
History of Philo of Byblos, and the writings of Damascius). More recently detailed study of the Ugaritic material,
other inscriptions from the Levant and also of the Ebla archive from Tel Mardikh, excavated in 1960 by a joint
Italo-Syrian team, have cast more light on the early Canaanite religion.
Canaanite religion was strongly influenced by their more powerful and populous neighbours, and shows clear
influence of Mesopotamian and Egyptian religious practices. Like other people of the Ancient Near East Canaanite
religious beliefs were polytheistic, with families typically focusing worship on ancestral household gods and
goddesses while acknowledging the existence of other deities such as Baal and El. Kings also played an important
religious role and in certain ceremonies, such as the sacred marriage of the New Year Festival may have been
revered as gods.
According to the pantheon, known in Ugarit as 'ilhm (=Elohim) or the children of El (cf. the Biblical "sons of God"),
supposedly obtained by Philo of Byblos from Sanchuniathon of Berythus (Beirut) the creator was known as Elion
(Biblical El Elyon = God most High), who was the father of the divinities, and in the Greek sources he was married
to Beruth (Beirut = the city). This marriage of the divinity with the city would seem to have Biblical parallels too
with the stories of the link between Melkart and Tyre; Yahweh and Jerusalem; Tanit and Baal Hammon in Carthage.
El Elyon is mentioned as 'God Most High' occurs in Genesis 14.18–19 as the God whose priest was Melchizedek
king of Salem.
Philo further states that from the union of El Elyon and his consort were born Uranus and Ge, Greek names for the
"Heaven" and the "Earth". This closely parallels the opening verse of Genesis 1:1 "In the beginning God (Elohim)
created the Heavens (Shemayim) and the Earth (Eretz)", and this would appear to be based upon this early Canaanite
belief. This also has parallels with the story of the Babylonian Anunaki (i.e. = "Heaven and Earth"; Shamayim and
Eretz) too.
"The Eternal One (`Olam) has made a covenant oath with us,
Asherah has made (a pact) with us.
And all the sons of El,
And the great council of all the Holy Ones (Qedesh).
With oaths of Heaven and Ancient Earth."
References
[1] Mackenzie, p. 301.
[2] "Iraqi Assyrians: Barometer of Pluralism" (http:/ / www. meforum. org/ article/ 558). Middle East Quarterly. . Retrieved Summer 2003.
"Modern Assyrians trace their heritage to the ancient Mesopotamians who converted from paganism to Christianity in the three centuries after
Christ."
[3] "Brief History of Assyrians" (http:/ / www. aina. org/ aol/ peter/ brief. htm#Religion). AINA Assyrian International News Agency. .
[4] Parpola, Simo (1999). "Assyrians after Assyria" (http:/ / www. nineveh. com/ Assyrians after Assyria. html). Assyriologist (Journal of
Assyrian Academic Studies, Vol. XIII No. 2,). . "The gods Ashur, Sherua, Istar, Nanaya, Bel, Nabu and Nergal continued to be worshiped in
Assur at least until the early third century AD; the local cultic calendar was that of the imperial period; the temple of Ashur was restored in the
second century AD; and the stelae of the local rulers resemble those of Assyrian kings in the imperial period.".
[5] "Assyria" (http:/ / www. jewishencyclopedia. com/ view. jsp?artid=2046& letter=A& search=Assyria). Jewish Encyclopedia. . "The official
and to some extent the popular religion of Judah was greatly affected by Assyrian influence, especially under Ahaz and Manasseh."
[6] http:/ / www. crystalinks. com/ enumaelish. html
[7] http:/ / www. crivoice. org/ enumaelish. html
[8] http:/ / www. stenudd. com/ myth/ enumaelish/ enumaelish-4. htm
[9] Sharpes, Donald K. 'Lords of the scrolls: literary traditions in the Bible and Gospels'. Peter Lang, 2005. ISBN 0820478490, 9780820478494
See also
• Religions of the Ancient Near East
• Mesopotamian mythology
• Abrahamic religions
• Arabian mythology
• Ancient Egyptian religion
• Panbabylonism
• History of Judaism
• Names of God in Judaism
• Proto-Indo-European religion
• Prehistoric religion
• Semitic Neopaganism
Ancient Semitic religion 22
Enûma Eliš
Fertile Crescent
myth series
Mesopotamian
Levantine
Arabian
Mesopotamia
Primordial beings
Tales from
Babylon
Enûma Eliš
Atra-Hasis
Marduk &
Sarpanit
Nabu, Nintu
Agasaya, Bel
Qingu
The Enûma Eliš (Akkadian Cuneiform: ለሦሢለሟ) is the Babylonian creation myth (named after its opening words). It
was recovered by Austen Henry Layard in 1849 (in fragmentary form) in the ruined Library of Ashurbanipal at
Nineveh (Mosul, Iraq), and published by George Smith in 1876.[1]
The Enûma Eliš has about a thousand lines and is recorded in Old Babylonian on seven clay tablets, each holding
between 115 and 170 lines of text. Most of Tablet V has never been recovered, but aside from this lacuna the text is
almost complete. A duplicate copy of Tablet V has been found in Sultantepe, ancient Huzirina, located near the
modern town of Şanlıurfa in Turkey.
This epic is one of the most important sources for understanding the Babylonian worldview, centered on the
supremacy of Marduk and the creation of humankind for the service of the gods. Its primary original purpose,
however, is not an exposition of theology or theogony, but the elevation of Marduk, the chief god of Babylon, above
other Mesopotamian gods.
The Enûma Eliš exists in various copies from Babylon and Assyria. The version from Ashurbanipal's library dates to
the 7th century BCE. The composition of the text probably dates to the Bronze Age, to the time of Hammurabi or
perhaps the early Kassite era (roughly 18th to 16th centuries BCE), although some scholars favour a later date of ca.
1100 BCE.[2]
Enûma Eliš 23
Summary
When the 7 tablets that contain this were first discovered, evidence indicated that it was used as a "ritual", meaning it
was recited during a ceremony or celebration. That celebration is now known to be the Akitu festival, or Babylonian
new year. This tells of the creation of the world, and of Marduk's triumph over Tiamat, and how it relates to him
becoming king of the gods. Then is followed by an invocation to Marduk by his fifty names.[3]
The title, meaning "when on high" is the incipit. The first tablet begins:
e-nu-ma e-liš la na-bu-ú šá-ma-mu When the sky above was not named,
šap-liš am-ma-tum šu-ma la zak-rat And the earth beneath did not yet bear a name,
ZU.AB-ma reš-tu-ú za-ru-šu-un And the primeval Apsû, who begat them,
mu-um-mu ti-amat mu-al-li-da-at gim-ri-šú-un And chaos, Tiamat, the mother of them both,
A.MEŠ-šú-nu iš-te-niš i-ḫi-qu-ú-šú-un Their waters were mingled together,
gi-pa-ra la ki-is-su-ru su-sa-a la she-'u-ú And no field was formed, no marsh was to be
e-nu-ma dingir dingir la šu-pu-u ma-na-ma seen;
When of the gods none had been called into being.
The epic names two primeval gods: Apsû (or Abzu) and Tiamat. Several other gods are created (Ea and his brothers)
who reside in Tiamat's vast body. They make so much noise that the babel or noise annoys Tiamat and Apsû greatly.
Apsû wishes to kill the young gods, but Tiamat disagrees. The vizier, Mummu, agrees with Apsû's plan to destroy
them. Tiamat, in order to stop this from occurring, warns Ea (Nudimmud), the most powerful of the gods. Ea uses
magic to put Apsû into a coma, then kills him, and shuts Mummu out. Ea then becomes the chief god, and along with
his consort Damkina, has a son, Marduk, greater still than himself. Marduk is given wind to play with and he uses
the wind to make dust storms and tornadoes. This disrupts Tiamat's great body and causes the gods still residing
inside her to be unable to sleep.
They persuade Tiamat to take revenge for the death of her husband, Apsû. Her power grows, and some of the gods
join her. She creates 11 monsters to help her win the battle and elevates Kingu, her new husband, to "supreme
dominion." A lengthy description of the other gods' inability to deal with the threat follows. Marduk offers to save
the gods if he is appointed as their leader and allowed to remain so even after the threat passes. When the gods agree
to Marduk's conditions he is selected as their champion against Tiamat, and becomes very powerful. Marduk
challenges Tiamat to combat and destroys her. He then rips her corpse into two halves with which he fashions the
earth and the skies. Marduk then creates the calendar, organizes the planets, stars and regulates the moon, sun, and
weather. [4]
The gods who have pledged their allegiance to Tiamat are initially forced into labor in the service of the gods who
sided with Marduk. But they are freed from these labors when Marduk then destroys Tiamat's husband, Kingu and
uses his blood to create humankind to do the work for the gods.[4] Babylon is established as the residence of the chief
gods—the chief gods who made much babel or noise. Finally, the gods confer kingship on Marduk, hailing him with
fifty names. Most noteworthy is Marduk's symbolic elevation over Enlil, who was seen by earlier Mesopotamian
civilizations as the king of the gods.
Enûma Eliš 24
See also
• Religions of the Ancient Near East
• Mesopotamian pantheon
References
• F. N. H. Al-Rawi, J. A. Black, A New Manuscript of Enūma Eliš, Tablet VI, Journal of Cuneiform Studies (1994).
• H. L. J. Vanstiphout, Enūma eliš: Tablet V Lines 15-22, Journal of Cuneiform Studies (1981).
• B. Landsberger, J. V. Kinnier Wilson, The Fifth Tablet of Enuma Eliš, Journal of Near Eastern Studies (1961).
• Arvid S. Kapelrud, The Mythological Features in Genesis Chapter I and the Author's Intentions, Vetus
Testamentum (1974) (jstor link [10]).
• Alexander Heidel, "Babylonian Genesis" (1951) (google books link [11])
External links
• The Theogonies of Damascius [12]
• http://wikisource.org/wiki/Enuma_Elish
• The full surviving text of the Enûma Elish [13]
• Genesis and Enûma Elish creation myth comparisons [14]
• A cuneiform text of Tablet I with translation and explanation in detail [15]
References
[1] G. Smith, "The Chaldean Account of Genesis" (London, 1876).
[2] Bernard Frank Batto, Slaying the dragon: mythmaking in the biblical tradition, Westminster John Knox Press, 1992, ISBN 9780664253530,
p. 35.
[3] Jacobsen, Thorkild "The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion".
[4] See:
• Foster, B.R. (1995). From Distant Days : Myths, Tales, and Poetry of Ancient Mesopotamia. vi. Bethesda, Md: CDL Press. p. 438.
• Bottéro, J. (2004). Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia. x. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Jacobsen, T. (1976). The Treasures of Darkness : A History of Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 273.
[5] Seeley The Geographical Meaning of "Ëarth" and "Seas" in Genesis 1:10, Westminster Theological Journal 59 (1997), p.246 (http:/ / faculty.
gordon. edu/ hu/ bi/ Ted_Hildebrandt/ OTeSources/ 01-Genesis/ Text/ Articles-Books/ Seely_EarthSeas_WTJ. pdf)
[6] Paul H. Seely, The Firmament and the Water Above, Westminster Theological Journal 53 (1991) (http:/ / faculty. gordon. edu/ hu/ bi/
Ted_Hildebrandt/ OTeSources/ 01-Genesis/ Text/ Articles-Books/ Seely-Firmament-WTJ. pdf)
[7] Harry Orlinsky, Notes on the New JPS Translation of the Torah: Genesis 1:1-3 (1969), at voiceofiyov.blogspot.com (http:/ / voiceofiyov.
blogspot. com/ search/ label/ Torah)
[8] Richard Elliott Friedman, The Bible with Sources Revealed, HarperOne, 2003. ISBN 0060530693
[9] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ ane/ blc/ blc07. htm
[10] http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0042-4935(197404)24%3A2%3C178%3ATMFIGC%3E2. 0. CO%3B2-0
[11] http:/ / books. google. com. kh/ books?id=ge3AT4SewpgC& dq=heidel+ alexander+ babylonian+ genesis& pg=PP1& ots=0Ww_aokgVb&
sig=LOJgKz9ThCzI7pTHQLorgxVCgWg& prev=http:/ / www. google. com. kh/
search%3Fq%3DHeidel%252C%2BAlexander%2BBabylonian%2BGenesis%26ie%3Dutf-8%26oe%3Dutf-8%26aq%3Dt%26rls%3Dorg.
mozilla:en-US:official%26client%3Dfirefox-a& sa=X& oi=print& ct=title& cad=one-book-with-thumbnail
[12] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ cla/ af/ af12. htm
[13] http:/ / www. sacred-texts. com/ ane/ enuma. htm
[14] http:/ / www. meta-religion. com/ World_Religions/ Ancient_religions/ Mesopotamia/ genesis_and_enuma_elish_creation. htm
[15] http:/ / www. sron. nl/ ~jheise/ akkadian/ cftexts. html
Family tree of the Babylonian gods 26
Anshar Kishar
Ea Anu Antu
Sarpanitum Man
Nabu Tashmetum
Fertile Crescent
myth series
Mesopotamia
Levantine myth
Arabian myth
Yazidic religion
Mesopotamian mythology
Topics
Family tree of the Babylonian gods 27
Gods
• Anunna & 7 who decree
fate
• Enki & Mes
• Tiamat & Tablets of destiny
• Marduk & fiction
Heroes
• Utnapishtim & world-flood
• Tammuz & Ishtar
• Gilgamesh & Cedar forest
• Enkidu, the man-beast
Monsters
• Zu, the winged lion
• Qingu, mankind's blood
• Asag, plague and war
• Namtar, deadly illness
Related
• Mesopotamian religion
• Sumerian religion
• Babylonian religion
• The Fertile Crescent
See also
• Family tree of the Greek gods
• Mesopotamian mythology
• Semitic gods
References
• Armstrong, Karen ([1993] 1999-01-07). A history of God: from Abraham to the present: the 4000-year quest for
God. Vintage. p. 528. ISBN 0-09-927367-5.
• Anunnaku
• Nabu
Article Sources and Contributors 28
Mesopotamian religion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=385684797 Contributors: A Moth in Lace, Alatari, Andre Engels, BD2412, Beland, Castanea dentata, Chansonbird,
Cuchullain, Dbachmann, Dcoetzee, DreamGuy, Elireburg, Ellmist, Garlicbreadboi, Hephaestos, Jallan, Kafziel, Khoikhoi, Kinneyboy90, KnowledgeOfSelf, Mel Etitis, Midnightblueowl,
Mwazzap, Naturenet, Notcarlos, PM Poon, Patrick, Pigman, R'n'B, Radagast83, Revived, Revth, Rob117, RobertG, RoyBoy, Sargonious, Schwabc1, Search4Lancer, Shanedidona,
Theoldanarchist, Thiseye, Vagodin, Wikignome0530, Wrp103, 51 anonymous edits
Mesopotamian mythology Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386991023 Contributors: AliZanzavaar, AlotToLearn, Alphachimp, Anandchowdhary123, Angelo,
Anonymous44, Anthony Appleyard, Arakunem, Astatine-210, BD2412, Belovedfreak, Bomac, Calvin 1998, Cander0000, Carlsotr, Castanea dentata, Celsiana, Cush, Cyfal, Dbachmann, Ddlamb,
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Sumerian religion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387879189 Contributors: 203.109.250.xxx, Abdishtar, Acather96, Alan D, Alan_D, Anthony Appleyard, Anthony
Rischard, Atif.t2, Bryan Derksen, Castanea dentata, Ccacsmss, Christopher Mahan, Conversion script, Danno, Dbachmann, Dougweller, Ed Poor, Eequor, Enki H., Enviroboy, FinnWiki, Forseti,
Graham87, J Heath, JoaoRicardo, John Hyams, JohnOwens, Josh Grosse, Keenan Pepper, Ketsuekigata, Koyaanis Qatsi, Larry Sanger, Lighttrek, Lilac Soul, MartinHarper, Mav, MichaelTinkler,
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TUF-KAT, The Epopt, Una Smith, Wikipelli, WojPob, Zoeperkoe, 44 anonymous edits
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Cashie, Castanea dentata, Dbachmann, Dimmuborgir1066, Dreadstar, EastTN, Embryomystic, Enki H., Esimal, Ghelae, Heron, Ishmaelblues, JForget, Jheald, John Hyams, JohnCD, Kozuch,
Kwamikagami, LeaveSleaves, LincolnDouglas, Luwilt, Mallerd, Midnightblueowl, Moumine, Mwazzap, NJMauthor, Pigman, RadioFan2 (usurped), Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton
(1958- ), Rjwilmsi, Sameboat, Schneidmaster, Shenme, Shrew, Stevertigo, Sumerophile, Twofistedcoffeedrinker, Tydaj, VAcharon, Vanished User 0001, Veren, Warrior 1 uk, Wmahan,
Woohookitty, Yom, Ziusudra, 91 anonymous edits
Enûma Eliš Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=386805190 Contributors: (jarbarf), ***Ria777, 271828182, Akhilleus, Albmont, Amizzoni, Anclation, Ando228,
Awayforawhile, Az1568, Bomac, Breakfastfordinner, CRGreathouse, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Castanea dentata, Chrisle, ClamDip, Cohesion, Cyfal, Damnreds, DarklyCute, David
Schaich, Dbachmann, Digitalme, Dislocate, Dolda2000, Eanudimmud, Ehamby, El C, Elembis, Em-jay-es, Enki H., Gabbe, Gaius Cornelius, Glistenray, GoTeamVenture, Goethean, Goustien,
Griswaldo, Im teh lord, Ivan Štambuk, J.delanoy, Jeffwright, KHM03, Kbh3rd, Kevinbasil, KnightRider, Luriso, Man vyi, Mani1, MarkHudson, Mhaesen, Mjw65, Mmcannis, Mordicai,
NJMauthor, Naphureya, Nixdorf, Omicronpersei8, Onlim, PiCo, Pixie2000, PloniAlmoni, Professor marginalia, Quadell, Qxz, Rd232, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rjwilmsi, Rl, Rob117,
Rognvald, Rursus, RyJones, SE7, Salgueiro, Sam Spade, SamuelTheGhost, Satanael, Shii, Skipsievert, Slrubenstein, Smack, Smalljim, Stevertigo, Sumerophile, Swift as an Eagle, Teben,
Thanatosimii, Thomas Kaemmerer, Tomtom9041, Trusilver, Twofistedcoffeedrinker, Unfree, Vanished User 0001, Voretus, Vp loreta, Weyes, Wikidudeman, Wmahan, XKV8R, Xinpheld,
Yonderboy, 186 anonymous edits
Family tree of the Babylonian gods Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=387208571 Contributors: BomBom, Cowgod14, Dbachmann, Evil-mer0dach, Issmeinhirn, Jeandré du
Toit, John D. Croft, N3philim, Otto4711, Sumerophile, Wdflake, Zzyzx11, 7 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 29
License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/