a
 


a
 








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 ! " #
‡ Variability refers to the extent to which the values
in a distribution differ from their mean. If a
distribution is lacking in variability, we may say
that it is homogeneous.
‡ Four measures of variability are: the ï
,

or ï  

 ï
and

 ï 

.

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ristory
‡ Within astronomy, the coefficient of variance was
formulated by von Andrae, relmert, and Jordan
between 1872 and 1876 in terms of differences
between values of a variable.
‡ Karl Pearson introduced this concept into
statistics in a series of articles published in
R 

  ï
 

and 
 ï
between 1896 and 1906. Pearson also coined
the usage of the lowercase Greek letter sigma
squared to signify the variance.

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 $

‡ It describes how far values lie from the mean.

‡ The formula for the variance is:

‡ Where ı2 is the variance, ȝ is the mean, and N is the

number of observations

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2xample
‡ The data from Quiz 1 are shown in Table 1. The
mean score is 7.0. Therefore, the column
"Deviation from Mean" contains the score minus
7. The column "Squared Deviation" is simply the
previous column squares.

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Table 1. Calculation of Variance for Quiz 1 scores.

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‡ The mean of the squared deviations is 1.5.
Therefore, the variance is 1.5. Analogous
calculations with Quiz 2 show that it's variance is
6.7.

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Population Variance
‡ If the variance in a sample is used to estimate
the variance in a population, then the previous
formula underestimates the variance and the
following formula should be used:

‡ where s2 is the estimate of the variance and M is

the sample mean. Note that M is the mean of a
sample taken from a population with a mean of
ȝ.

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2xample
‡ Assume the scores 1, 2, 4, and 5 were sampled
from a larger population. To estimate the
variance in the population you would compute s2
as follows:
‡ M = (1 + 2 + 4 + 5)/4 = 12/4 = 3.
‡ s2 = [(1-3)2 + (2-3)2 + (4-3)2 + (5-3)2]/(4-1)
‡ = (4 + 1 + 1 + 4)/3 = 10/3 = 3.333

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There are alternate formulas that can be easier to use
if you are doing your calculations with a hand
calculator:

and

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For this example,
ȈX2 = 12 + 22 + 42 + 52 = 46
(ȈX)2 = (1 + 2 + 4 + 5)2/N = 144/4 = 36
ı2 = (46 - 36)/4 = 2.5 and
s2 = (46 - 36)/3 = 3.333 as with the other formula.

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%&=
'
‡ Squaring each difference makes them all
positive numbers (to avoid negatives reducing
the Variance)
‡ And it also makes the bigger differences stand
out. For example 1002=10,000 is a lot bigger
than 502=2,500.

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Standard Deviation
‡ The standard deviation is simply the square root
of the variance.

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# #& 
(#))* # 

V Are always positive (or zero).

V 2qual zero when all scores are identical (i.e., there is
no variability).
V ike the mean, they are sensitive to all scores.

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 $ $

‡ $* 
 is a measure of how much two

variables change together.

‡ Formula for calculating covariance:

u
-


u
-  -
 
 à 
à

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2XAMP 2

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Smoking and ung Capacity


+,- 
+./

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Scatter Plot






 


-  -  

i


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‡ We can see easily from the graph that as
smoking goes up, lung capacity tends to go
down.
‡ The two variables 
 ï in opposite directions.

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Calculating Covariance

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So we obtain

-

w  - w 


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TrANK YOU ±

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