MODULE I

PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE

1. INTRODUCTION
‘Architekton’ is a Greek word which means ‘chief worker’ or ‘master builder’, from which
the term architecture was emerged out. Architecture is a science and art of designing and
constructing buildings. It is called a science because it uses systematic knowledge regarding
materials of construction, techniques of building, and methods of environmental control. It is
said to be an art because it uses the medium of construction to express human emotions and
aesthetics.
Vitruvius, an ancient Roman architect, stated that the ultimate synthesis of architecture
may be of three fold:
1. Utilities (Utility: Functional aspect and adequacy of space to perform the function)
2. Firmitas (Strength: Stability of structure)
3. Venustas (Aesthetics: Delightfulness that the structure imparts on us)

2. TYPES OF ARCHITECTURE

(1) Folk architecture: This is the architecture of a small community or particular locality,
which is not much affected by other factors. Different countries have different architecture
and each is significant of its own locality and people.

Examples:
1. Traditional Kerala architecture: The palaces of Kerala have a quite simple facade with a
gable end for the roof, but the woodwork encountered here is much more.
2. Architecture of tribal huts
3. House-boat architecture of Alappuzha

(2) Monumental architecture: Buildings and other delightful structures may be constructed in
memory of a prominent person or an event. This type of architecture deals with the features
of such structures which stand as a signature of the past.

Examples:
1. The Taj Mahal: This is a mausoleum situated in Agra. The Mughal emperor Shah Jahan
had it built in memory of his wife Arjumand Banu Bagam (Mumtaz Mahal).
2. The Pyramids of Egypt: Egyptians built Pyramids to preserve the dead bodies of the
Pharaohs. The largest pyramid (Great Pyramid) is the one built for King Khufu, at the site of
modern Giza.
3. Stupa: This denotes the tomb of sacred men in Buddhist architecture.

(3) Religious / Spiritual Architecture: Buildings may reflect the religious affinity of people.

Examples:
1. Synagogue, Church, Mosque and Temple architectures
2. The Buddhist Chaityas and Viharas: Chaitya is a hall of worship, and Vihara is a
monastery. Notable examples of early rock-cut monuments in Maharashtra State are the
Great Chaitya Hall at Karle, and various temples and monasteries at Ajanta and Ellora.

(4) Functional / Utilitarian Architecture: Here the structural and aesthetic prominence is given
mainly based on the function of the buildings. These are constructed for typical assembly as
such in a school.

Examples:
1. Educational, residential, factory buildings
2. Taxila, also known as Takshasila, which was an important ancient cultural and trade centre
and seat of learning. It was the capital of the ancient Gandhara region in the northwest of the
Indian subcontinent, and is located in present day Pakistan.

3. FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

The various factors influencing the historic development of architecture can be classified as
follows:
Influence of nature (a) Geography (b) Geology (c) Climate (d) Topography
Influence of man (a) Society (e) History (f) Religion (g) Science

(a) Geography: Geographical position is responsible for the development of a place and its
architecture.

Egypt has a very big river Nile which traverses a very long route through Egypt. It has
converted deserts into green fields, and most of the developments in Egypt have taken place
along the banks of this river. All the cities developed along Nile banks and most of the
construction of historic importance like the pyramids, temples have taken place here.
Geographically isolated areas have their own architectural style. House-boat architecture of
Alappuzha was emerged out from the geographical condition in which a number of canals
formed the major transportation mean.

(b) Geology: Strong and durable materials such as limestone, sandstone. granite and basalt
were abundantly available in Egypt and these have been used for the construction as well as
decoration purposes. In Greece, the material used for construction was marble. It was
quarried sufficiently from the mountains of of their own country. Romans constructed huge
buildings with concrete. In heavily rained regions with plenty of soil and reeds, ‘wattle and
daub’ architecture originated, in which compacted mud reinforced with reeds was used to
construct buildings and structures like small bunds.

(c) Climate: Tropical climate requires free and open planning. For example, in Kerala,
detached buildings are more in number.
Closed and compact planning is suitable for the extreme hot or cold climatic conditions. In
Rajasthan, ‘Kota Stones’ are effectively used to resist the extreme climate. Also, the ‘Haveli’
architecture of Rajasthan has more number of lattice windows in order to provide better air
circulation. Open verandahs, central courtyard etc. are typical features of buildings
constructed over regions of hot climate.

In ancient days, walls were made thick with minimum openings, to carry loads from the roof
and also to resist the extremities of temperature.

Heavy rainfall and snow fall regions require sloping roofs for effective drainage. In dry and
hot regions, flat roofs are used.

Also, during hot seasons, people may shift to serene hilly regions, because in hot climate their
mental and physical capabilities get retarded considerably. And this may further promote the
development of the hilly region as an attractive tourist spot, and a large number of aesthetic
cottages may emerge there. These cottages will affect the architectural style of the hilly
region.

(d) Topography: The general terrain of the surface influences the type of building built over
it. A small country having uniform topography will generally have a similarity of character in
its architecture. A very large country having varied topography and culture in different
regions (e.g. India) will have varied character in its architecture. A mountainous region
requires architectural treatment entirely different from that in a level terrain. Symmetrical
(balanced or formal) planning is suitable for a level site. Unsymmetrical planning is suitable
for a sloping site. There is a saying: “A house should not be on a hill but of a hill”. The idea
is that the structure (often perceived a s man) and nature (often perceived as woman) should
be in harmony. The best example is ‘Falling water House’ (Kauffmann’s House), designed by
famous American architect Frank Lloyd Wright. The cantilever members of the house extend
over a natural waterfall, and the house see,s to float over the stream.

(e) Society: The interest of the people decides the types and appearances of the buildings. In
early times, there used to be frequent invasions from outside, and naturally, fortified cities,
thick and heavy walled houses with strong and minimum number of doors were the need of
the time. Once stable conditions were created by effective governments, the social conditions
automatically improved, which eliminated the necessity of many protective features. In such
stable conditions, comfort and convenience control the architecture and we can do a lot of
creative work. In addition to social development, economic conditions of the society also is
important. Mughal rulers were able to construct imposing buildings because of the strong
finance they possessed.

(f) History: Military contact and commercial contact of different groups of people alter the
character of architecture. Indo-Islamic architecture contains features of Hindu architecture
and Muslim architecture. Indo-Islamic buildings are more attractive than excessively carved
type of Hindu style. Architecture is a record of the past age. Thus, Egyptian architecture
reflects the absolute power of Pharaohs and slavery of the people. Greek architecture was the
product of the democratic belief of the Greek civilization. The majestic buildings of Rome
clearly show the luxury and construction ability of Roman imperial power. Basilicas reflect
religious enthusiasm. French architecture shows the pompous life of monarchs. Indian
architecture reveals mainly its spiritual content.

(g) Religion: In almost all the countries, the chief structures were the outcome of the nation’s
religious beliefs. In India, most of the buildings with architectural significance are in some
way or other related to religion. e.g. Sun temple of Orissa, Juma Masjid at New Delhi.

Temples, Mosques, Churches have assumed their particular features and forms according to
the religious ideas.

And the requirements too depend on the religious ideologies. For example, generally temples
were considered to be for individual worship and the space requirement goes accordingly.
But Synagogues, Churches and Mosques are for mass worship and the space requirements for
assembly of people are to be met with here. While statues and paintings adorn a temple
premise, engraved quotes from the holy Koran decorate the walls of a mosque.

(h) Science: New methods of construction and new materials have significant effect on
architecture. The introduction of steel, RCC, glass, plastic etc. in building construction has
greatly influenced modern architectural design, which is becoming simpler and more
functional. Hollow bricks proved to be more effective in thermal insulation property and their
low weight is an advantage to be used in high rise buildings. Atriums (central halls with
skylight) make use of glass. Stained glass windows, which composed of small panels of
painted glass mounted in a metal framework, decorated many Gothic buildings. Modern
architecture is highly related to mathematics and astronomy.

4. CREATIVE PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE

The principles by which modern architecture should be developed are concerned with the
function, strength and aesthetics.

(a) Function / Convenient  arrangement / Goodness: Every architectural building should

posses the principles of goodness. The general arrangement in building must be quite suitable
and convenient for the purpose of the building. In an ordinary dwelling unit, we need not
spent a lot of money on decoration and other costly sculpture, painting etc. What is required
her is the convenient arrangements and size of various rooms such as living room, bed room,
kitchen etc. In the case of a school building, the arrangements are quite different. It is to be
designed with sufficiently large rooms, central gathering hall etc. In short, the arrangements
made in a building should have better interaction with the purpose of the building. The
physical form of the building is evolved out of the functional requirements to be met with.
“Form follows function” is a famous quote by the 20 th century American architect Louis
Sullivan.
(b) Strength / Truth: The building must express the true idea of its purpose. A temple should
express itself as a religious building and not as a town-hall. The character of the building
must be true for the purpose of the construction i.e. “form follows function”.

(b) Strength / Truth: The building must express the true idea of its purpose. A temple should
express itself as a religious building and not as a town-hall. The character of the building
must be true for the purpose of the construction i.e. “form follows function”. Regarding the
components within the building, each component and must be true to the purpose. The use
and disposition of the different materials must regard for truth of fitness. For example,
stronger and coarser material must be employed to support lighter and weaker material.
Character of the element selected must be true to the purpose. In a temple construction, every
element of function must be selected to enhance the religious mood and sentiments.
(c) Appearance or aesthetics:
The spirit of beauty or aesthetics is another important principle in architectural design. For
example, for the Taj Mahal, the convenient arrangement may not be an important factor.
Such a building has the main consideration of aesthetics.

5. PRIMARY ELEMENTS AND ARCHITECTURAL COMPOSITION

1. Point                2. Line        3.Plane        4. Volume

1.  Point: it point has no direction or magnitude but has its importance and denotes its
position in space. Background is very important in the existence and appearance.in the field
of architecture, a point may be a point of attraction. It has not meant, with over a depth and is
therefore static, directionless and centralised.

           As the train element in the vocabulary of form, a point can serve to mark:
With two ends of a line
The intersection of two lines
The meeting of lines at the corner of a plane or volume
The centre of the field

Although it point is conceptually picked out street or form, it begins to make its presence felt
when please debate in the visual field. At the centre of its environment, a point the staple and
at rest, or organising surrounding elements about itself and dominating its field.

The point has no dimension. To visibly market position in space or on ground plane, the point
must be protected vertically into a linear form as a column, obelisk or tower. Any such call
another element is seen in plan as a point and therefore retains the visual characteristics of a
point.

2. Line: A point extended becomes a line. A line is an important element in the formation of
any visual construction. Conceptually, a line has a length, but no width or depth. If a point is
by nature static, a line is describing the part of a point in motion, capable of visually
expressing length, direction, movement and growth. A line may be straight or curved.

A line may serve to:

Join, link, support, intersect or surround other visual elements.
Describe the edges of and give shape to plane.
Articulate the surfers of planes
Production or orientation of the line can affect its role in visual construction. A vertical line
can express the state of equilibrium with the force of gravity, which symbolises the human
condition, or mark the position in space. The horizontal line can represent stability, the
ground plane, the horizon, or a body at rest.

An oblique line is a deviation from the perpendicular or horizontal. It can be seen as a vertical
line falling down, or horizontal line rising up. In either case, it is dynamic and visually active
in its unbalanced state.
Vertical linear elements such as columns, obelisks and towers have been used throughout
history to commemorate significant events and establish particular points in space.

Linear members those possess the necessary material strength can perform structural function
such as:
Expressed movement across space
Provide support for an overhead plane
Form a 3-D structural frame for architectural space

Beams, columns, obelisks, frame of doors and windows are treated as linear elements in
architecture.

At a smaller scale, lines articulate the edges and surfaces of planes and volumes. These lines
can be expressed by joints within or between building materials, by frames around the
window or door openings or by structural grid of columns and beams. How these linear
elements will affect the texture of their surface will depend on their visual weight, space and
direction.

3. Plane: A line extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a plane.
Conceptually, a plane has length and width but no depth.
Shape is the primary identifying characteristics of a plane. It is determined by the contour of
the line forming the edges of the plane. The true shape of a plane is seen only when it is
viewed frontally. Supplementary properties of a plane – its surface colour, pattern and texture
– affect its visual weight and stability. Other properties are orientation, position etc.
In the formation of visual construction, a plane serves to define the limits or boundaries of a
volume. Architecture is a visual art and it deals specifically with the formation of 3-D
volumes out of mas and space. The properties of each plane (size, shape, colour, texture etc.)
as well as their spatial relationship to one another will ultimately determine the visual
properties of the form they define and the qualities of the space they enclose.
The types of planes that are manipulated in architectural design are:
(a) Base plane              (b) Wall plane              (c) Overhead plane
(a) Base plane: The base plane can be either the ground plane that serves as the physical
foundation and visual base for building forms, or the floor plane that forms the lower
enclosing surface of a room upon which we walk. The ground plane provides the physical
support and the visual base for building forms. The ground plane supports all architectural
construction. The ground plane can be elevated to provide a platform that structurally and
visually supports a building form so as to enhance its image in the landscape e.g. the platform
of the Taj Mahal. The floor plane can be manipulated to create platforms for viewing or
performing. It can be elevated to define a sacred place.
The ground plane ultimately supports all architectural construction. Along with climate and
other environmental conditions of the site, the topographical character of the ground plane
influences the form of the building that rises from it. The building can merge with the ground
plane, rest firmly on it, or be elevated above it. The ground plane can be elevated to honour a
sacred or significant place, carved or terraced to provide suitable platform on which to build,
or stepped to allow changes in elevation to be easily traversed.
Elevating a portion of the ground plane establishes a platform or podium that simultaneously
supports the form and mass of a building. The elevated ground plane can be a pre-existing
site condition or it can be artificially constructed to deliberately raise a building above the
surrounding context or enhance its image in the landscape.
Floor plane is the durable covering of the ground plane, or a more artificial, elevated plane
spanning the space between its supports. The texture and the density of the flooring material
influence both the acoustical quality of a space and how we feel as we walk across its surface.
Like the ground plane, the floor plane can be stepped or terraced to break the scale of the
space and create platforms for sitting, viewing or performing. It can be elevated to define a
sacred or honorific place.
In some cases, the base plane is depressed for exhibiting variety, to create interest and to
change or reduce the scale of the space and define a more intimate space within it. Lowering
a portion of the base plane isolates a field of space from a larger context. The depressed field
becomes a separate and distinct in itself.
(b) Wall plane: Exterior wall planes isolate a portion of space to create a controlled interior
environment. Their construction provides both privacy, and protection from climatic elements
for the interior spaces of the building, while openings provided within or between their
boundaries reestablish a connection with the exterior environment. The wall plane, because of
its vertical orientation, is active in our normal field of vision and vital to the shaping and
enclosure of architectural space. The interior wall planes of a building along with the
overhead (roof) plane control the penetration of climatic elements into the building’s interior
spaces. Openings in or between the exterior wall planes determine the degree to which the
interior spaces will relate to the outdoor spaces. The configuration of the exterior wall planes
together with their openings will describe the building’s overall form and massing. An
important use of the vertical wall plane is as a supporting element in the load bearing wall
type structural system.

As a design element, the plane of an exterior wall can be articulated as the front or primary
facade of a building. In urban situations, these facades serve as walls that define courtyards,
streets and such public gathering places such as squares and market places.

(c) Overhead plane: The overhead plane can be either the roof plane that shelters the interior
spaces of a building from the climatic elements, or the ceiling plane that forms the upper
enclosing surface of a room.

The major overhead plane of a building is its roof plane. It not only shelters the interior
spaces of a building from sun, rain and snow, but also has a major impact on the overall form
of the building and the shaping of its spaces. It defines a field of space between itself and the
ground plane. It can be raised or lowered to alter the scale of the space. In warm climates, it
can be elevated to allow cooling breezes to flow through the interior spaces of a building. The
form of the roof plane, in turn, is determined by the material, geometry and proportions of its
structural system and the manner in which it transfers its loads across the space to its
supports. The roof plane can be formed to control the quality of acoustics within the space.

The ceiling plane of an interior space reflects the form of the structural system supporting the
overhead or roof plane. Since it need not resist any weathering force, nor carry any major
load, the ceiling plane can also be treated to become a visually active element in space. The
ceiling plane can be treated to articulate zones of space within a room. It can be lowered or
elevated to alter the scale of the space or allow natural light to enter it from above.

4. Volume: A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction becomes a
volume. Conceptually, a volume has three dimensions - length, width and depth. As the 3D
element in the vocabulary of architectural design, a volume can be either solid (space
displaced by mass) or void (space contained or enclosed by mass). In architecture, a volume
can be seen to be either a portion of space contained and defined by wall, floor and ceiling
planes, or a quantity of space displace by mass of the building. Building forms that stand as
objects in the landscape can be read as occupying volumes in space. All volumes can be
analyzed and understood to consists of points, lines and planes. Form is the primary
identifying characteristic of a volume. Other properties are length, width, depth, space,
surface, orientation, position etc.

6. SPACE

Space is the essence of architecture. Through the volume of space, we move, see forms, hear
sounds, feel breezes. As far as buildings are concerned, they are normally composed of a
number of spaces and are related to one another by function, proximity or a circulation path.
Space in a building is mainly categorized into three.

(a) Activity space: Spaces in architecture are either containers or extensions of the human
body and should be therefore determined by its dimensions. The dimensions and proportions
of the human body affect the proportions of things we handle, the height and distance of
things we try to reach, and the dimensions of the furnishings we use for sitting, working,
eating and sleeping. There is a difference between our structural dimensions and those
dimensional requirements which result from how we reach for something on a shelf, sit down
at a table, walk down a set of stairs or interact with other people. These are functional
dimensions and will vary according to the nature of activity engage in and the social
situation. The dimensions of the human body affect the volume of space we require for
movement, activity and rest. Considering these factors, there is no limit to the maximum size
of a room, but there is certainly a limit to its minimal dimensions. The minimum space
provided for an activity considering the human body proportion is called activity space.

(b) Circulation space: The space provided for access or communication is the circulation
space. Circulation of men and materials are made effective through circulation space.

(c) Tolerance space: It is also known as dead space. e.g. corners of  room. The efficiency of
functional design results in reduction of dead space found in a building.

Tolerance space = Total space - ( activity space + circulation space )

7. FORM

Form is an inclusive term that has several meanings. It may refer to an external appearance
that can be recognized. It may also indicate a particular condition in which something acts or
manifests itself, as when we speak of water in the form of ice or steam. In art and design, the
term is used to denote the formal structure of a work. - the manner of arranging and co-
ordinating the elements and parts of a composition so as to produce a coherent image. In
short, form refers to the 3D mass or volume. It is the primary identifying characteristics of a
volume.

The following are the factors influencing form:

(a) Form perception (Visual properties of form)
(b) Function (“Form follows function”)
(c) Material and structural system

(a) Form perception: (Visual properties of form)

(i) Shape: It is the characteristic outline or surface configuration of a particular form. Shape is
the principal aspect by which a form is identified and categorised.
(ii) Size: It denotes the physical dimensions of length, width and the depth of a form. While
these dimensions determine the proportions of a form, its scale is determined by its size
relative to other forms in its context.
(iii) Colour: Colour is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its
environment. It also affects the visual weight of the form.
(iv) Texture: It is a visual and especially tactile quality given to a surplus by the size, shape,
arrangement and proportions of the parts. It also determines the degree to which the surface
of a form reflects or absorbs incident light.
(v) Position: It is the location of a form relative to its environment or the visual field within
which it is seen.
(vi) Orientation: It is a direction of form relative to the ground plane or the person viewing
the form.
(vii) Visual inertia: It is a degree of concentration or stability of the form. The visual inertia
of a form depends on its geometry as well as its orientation relative to ground plane and line
of sight.
All the properties of form are in really affected by the conditions under which the view them.
The following are examples:
The change in perspective or angle of view presents different shapes or aspects of form to our
eyes.
Our distance from a form determines its apparent size.
The lighting conditions under which we view a form affect the clarity of its shape and
structure.
The visual field surrounding a field influences our ability to read and identify it.

(b) Function (“form follows function”)

Refer to ‘function’ under the section creative principles of architecture

(c) Materials and structural system: Bothy the arrangement and the appearance of the
buildings are very largely influenced by the materials and the methods of construction. The
two methods of roof construction commonly adopted in the earlier stages of development of
architecture were
1. Post and lintel (trabeated) construction (e.g. Indian architecture before the period of
Mughals, traditional Kerala architecture etc.)
2. Arched / vaulted (arcuated) construction (e.g. Islamic architecture)
The locally available building material together with its size and quality influences the
architecture of the most. Building materials available affect the type of supports, spacing of
supports, means used to bridge the span or gaps of construction. Stone and timber were the
most commonly used with building materials in primitive stages of development of
architecture, as these materials were abundantly available in those days.

Egyptians used to limestone and granite for the construction of pyramids. Column was the
most important feature in architecture of Egyptian temples. Column was necessary in that
system of construction, as larger stone slabs were used for constructing roofs, which require
strong support at frequent intervals. The column thus gradually became the chief medium for
obtaining decorative effect. Egyptian columns were massive with heavy and flat bases.

In prehistoric times, walls and roofs were made of stone, without any distinction between the
supporting structure (wall) and the protective structure (roof). This type of construction is
capable of carrying vertical load but it is unsuitable to resist horizontal loads and hence easily
damaged by hurricane winds and earthquakes, because masonry stone elements have little
bending resistance and a strong connection between the horizontal and vertical structural
element is not easily developed here. In historic times, the post and beam construction formed
the basis of Egyptian and Greek temple architecture. An example is Parthenon temple of the
period. It is famous for beauty of design, delicacy, for workmanship and perfection in all
respect. Post and beam construction is well suited to small and medium-sized spans as
adjusted in Parthenon by supporting it on columns which are closely spaced.

The plan is simple and regular, consisting of two cells, a sacred chamber and a small treasury
behind it, having all-round veranda type space with a series of columns. The whole structure
is based on a raised payment.

Romans had Marble, terracotta, stone and brick as building materials. They developed
pozzolana, a new material which had a peculiar property when mixed with the lime and water
to form a hard and cohesive concrete. Romans used a variety of shapes for their buildings.
They used vaults, cross vaults and domes for roofing the openings and interiors.

The Pantheon dome, which is having is 142 feet (43.2 m) diameter on 20 feet thick wall,
erected by Emperor Hadrian of Rome was constructed in pozzolana cement concrete. The
oculus, a round opening at the top, is 28 feet (8.5 m) in diameter and provides the only source
of the light for the interior. Lots of domes, vaults and walls where constructed of this concrete
which they faced with a brick, stone and marble. The combined use of columns, beams and
arches was a keynote of Roman architecture in its early stages.

Excellent building stone in central part and hills
architecture from the earliest. The famous marble
sandstone were used in the construction of most of
were stone was not available, alluvial soil was the
Alluvial soil was used for making bricks.
predominantly influenced the Indian
of Rajasthan, granite of Deccan and
the monumental buildings. In regions
only material available for buildings.
Gothic architecture of Western Europe was mainly distinguished by the introduction of
pointed arches. The entire structure of Gothic style consisted of piers, buttresses, arches,
ribbed vaulting – all held in equilibrium. The walls were merely enclosures. Painted glass
was also used to form brilliant transparent pictures in windows coming under pointed vaults.

In short, in ancient days, the two commonly adopted systems of construction were post and
lintel system and arcuated or vaulted system. Also, up to 19 th century, timber and masonry
were the only structural materials available. So, the forms of olden times were very massive
and took a lot of time for completion. With the development of new materials such as cement,
steel, RCC, glass, plastics, fibre reinforced concrete and composites, ferrocement etc., forms
of the building have tremendously changed both structurally and aesthetically. Today, the
structural engineer and architect have indeed a wide range of choices in systems in RCC steel
as well as combination of both. The structural systems adopted today are framed structure,
shear wall structure, frame-shear wall structures etc. The introduction of prefabricated system
also changed the architectural forms very much.

8. DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Architectural composition is an aesthetic assembly of various elements such as point, line,

plane, volume etc. The best composition in architecture is related to appearance, mental and
physical comfort of man, economy and time. The major requirements that a composition
should fulfil can be thought in terms of the followings:

(a) Mass (b) Scale (c) Proportion (d) Rhythm (e) Balance
(f) Contrast (d) Contrast (e) Colour (f) Texture (g) Unity

(a) Mass: It is an important factor in the construction of a building. The introduction of this
factor makes the building to look strong and durable. The massive size of the building is
often important to make it durable. For example, the massive and stout columns of Greek
temple of Parthenon denote strength and stability. The massive pyramids of Egypt also
express eternity and stability.

(b) Scale: In architecture, the scale means the proper relation of several parts to one another
and to the whole from the aspect of size. When we look at a building, we do not see the true
dimensions due to perspective effect. The size of the building will appear to change with the
distance of the observer from the building. Generally, in architectural drawings, the scale is
established with the introduction of a human figure placed in front of the building. Here the
building size is compared with the human dimensions. Also, the size of the building can be
compared with doors and windows present, because these have standard sizes suiting to the
purpose.

There are four types of scales in architecture. Natural scale (true scale) is the scale in which
the creations are in normal relationship with human figure. Here the sizes are normal or the
same as one expects it to be. Intimate scale is slightly less than the normal scale and is used in
designing restaurant and residences. Monumental scale is a scale which is larger than the
natural scale so that it gives a dignified atmosphere of dominance. Here, familiar objects are
made larger. It is used in monuments and all places of worship and in some public buildings.
Shocking scale is a scale by which the spectator is being shocked by the unreality of the
dimensions of the object. Here, the observer expects the object to be of some other
dimensions, but finds it quite different and thereby receives an element of shock. It can be
either too small, or gigantic. It is mainly used in dramatics and exhibitions.

(c) Proportion: It is a matter of relationship. It is not the actual size, but the relative size of
one form with respect to another, perceived through comparison which the eye can make
between the size, shape, direction and tone of various elements of composition. It is
proportion by which the various elements are identified. From the same sized photographs of
a man and a child, we distinguish each of them because of the proportion of features and their
concurrence with our conception. Incorrect proportion may be harmful to the character of the
building. For example, if a giant sized door is provided to a residential building, it would
cause confusion about the purpose of the building, because usually giant sized doors are
provided for auditoria, cinema halls etc.

The proportion in architecture depends on the function of the structure and the material. For
example, the size of a garage door should be in proportion with the size of the vehicle, and is
different from the ordinary doors. A concrete column supporting a heavy load will have
different dimensions and slenderness ratio compared to a steel or timber column supporting
the same load.

(d) Rhythm: Rhythm is the repetition of a certain element after a fixed interval. It may be the
repetition of similar type of line, arches etc. Rhythm imparts continuity. It may be
unaccented, accented, ascending or rhythmic repetition types.

(e) Balance: Balance is the equity of mass about the axis of reference. Various units of a
building should be arranged so that balance exists between them. Balance can be divided into
two:
(i) Symmetrical balance: Elements are arranged precisely in the same manner on either side
of the central axis. Not only in the arrangement, but each object is occupying the
corresponding position on the other side. This type of balance is much suited for monumental
design. Symmetrical balance produces eye satisfaction as the strain to eye is less.
(ii) Unsymmetrical / asymmetrical balance: It is the grouping in an informal manner, of
elements of various sizes and shapes. The elements on either side of the central axis are not
exactly identical. The larger and heavier masses are placed near to the central axis, while the
lighter masses have to be placed away from the centre, so that the masses on either side will
balance each other. Here, there’s only mass balance, and no element balance.

(f) Contrast: Contrast means absence of monotony. Perception through five senses by human
is also a matter of contrast. There is contrast between sound to silence, shade to light, smooth
to rough, sweet to sour, and smell to scent. In architectural design of any kind, contrast is
required for exhibiting variety and thereby creating interest. A few types of contrast are:

(i) Contrast of form: Contrast of form may be due to shape or mass. For shapes to be
interesting, there must be variety or contrast. The different shapes such as square, circle or
ellipse when used together creates interest. A tall and wide arched opening with narrow
openings on either side becomes a pleasing contrast of shapes.

A vertical mass in centre with horizontal masses by sides gives a good composition of
contrasting masses.
(ii) Contrast of size: Contrast between figures of identical shapes and types may be achieved
by the difference in sizes.
(iii) Contrast of tones: This is obtained out of the different materials used for the construction
and the different colour combinations e.g. Dark coloured wall and light coloured roof of a
room.

(g) Character: Character is referred as style. It is by this factor, certain facades appear to
frown, while others elegant, yet some others more friendlily. The character grows out of the
function of the building and is the skilful blending of all the creative principles of architecture
(function, strength and appearance). The character is not only functional, but it incorporates
the quality of the idea which the architect is attempting to express in his building. The
character in architecture may be divided in to three categories depending on the source of ts
beginning.

(i) Functional character: External appearance of the building is the manifestation of its
internal function, which is achieved by means of functional character. That is, the function of
a building must be clear from its appearance. A residential building, a school etc. have their
own individual character. A wall without windows, but arrangements for sky lighting
indicates the building as a museum. On the other hand, the walls with numerous windows in
particular order speak for their purpose of admitting side light and the building is meant for
school. Very tall and wide windows may be an indicative of a public library. Display
windows with article on the façade of a building indicate that it is a shop.

(ii) Associated character (Traditional character): This is the character aroused out of the
association or due to the influence of tradition. Certain traditional features have long been
associated with specific types of buildings. E.g. A gopuram of a Hindu temple, dome of a
mosque, spire and stained glass window of a church etc. are traditionally followed features,
the presence of which have not changed with time and varying human tastes or the influence
of modern construction practices.

(iii) Personal character: Personal character is comparable with similar attributes of the life of
an individual. The character of buildings likewise finds its expression as an individual makes
his gesture as dignified, graceful with repose and festivity. These are features provided in a
building which has something to do with the emotion of the observer. Certain styles exhibit
dignity to the building. It is impossible to lay down certain rules for achieving any of these
personal types of character in architecture.
e.g. Public buildings may have a dignified gesture but they should not be devoid of Grace.
Ornamental works in buildings give vitality and festivity to buildings.

Another example is Gufa, an art gallery cum museum for M F Hussain, built by architect B V
Doshi. It lacks functional character as it looks like a cave. Here personal style is more
relevant to the building.

(h) Colour: The effect of colour is very important in the general appearance of the building.
The following terminologies may help in understanding the effect of colour.

(i) Hue: It is determined by the wave length of light reflected from a surface. It indicates the
name of the colour which distinguishes one colour from another. For example, red is distinct
from green or yellow.
(ii) Tone / Chroma / Intensity: It is the intensity of colour. It indicates the brightness or
dullness of a particular colour. For example, sky blue is distinct from slate blue.
(iii) Value: It is defined as the amount of energy received by the eye. In visual term, it is
determined by the amount of blackness (darkness) or whiteness (lightness) in that colour. For
example, light grey is opposed to dark grey.

Colour creates an atmosphere which may be friendly or hostile. The colour can change the
apparent size of room, raise over lower ceilings and add dignity by which the workability
may increase or decrease. The selection of colour must be helpful in avoiding discord and the
colour should bring harmony. It also depends on the climatic conditions.

Colours used in architecture can be classified as primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary
colours used in architecture are red, blue and yellow. By intermixing primary colours, we get
secondary colours. Upon further intermixing of primary and secondary colours, tertiary
colours are obtained. These can well be understood from the concept of colour wheel.

Another classification of colour is into warm colour and cool colour. Warm colours such as
yellow, orange red are associated with elements like fire, heat, light and are exciting in
nature. But cool colours like blue, green are associated with natural elements such as
greenery and re serene in nature. In a colour scene, warm colours tend to advance but cool
colours tend to go backward. Warm colours are giving heavy indent to the surface and are
bright in nature but cooler ones give light indent and are dull in nature.

Colours which are neither warm nor cool are known as neutral colours. Black, white, grey
and brown are neutral in nature.

The psychological impact of colour may be summarized as follows:

Red: It has a dynamic character and denotes courage and aggressiveness. It affects the
atmosphere and makes it hot and intolerable. It should be used in a room where sun rays do
not reach.

Blue: This cool static colour denotes tranquillity and provides a calm atmosphere. It promotes
relaxation after a day’s hard work and is ideal for bed room. But too much of blue can be
depressing.

Yellow: It is a warm colour and radiates joy and represents beauty and love. The impact
depends on its value and chroma.

Violet: As a mixture of red and blue, it has intermediate qualities of both. It is associated with
harmony, balance and growth. But its excess use may create confusion and anxiety. It helps
in increasing concentration and hence is ideal for study room.

Green: Green is psychologically the most soothing colour and is largely found in nature. It
cools the environment and is a natural healing agent. Even excess use of this safe colour has
not much harm.

Orange: This bright colour combines all the virtues of red and yellow. It brings brightness
and cheer and induces a feeling of well-being. It is best suited for lobby and children’s room.

Black: If black is properly used, then it can be made beautiful and represents earthly qualities.

White: White is a combination of all the colours. It repels heat and represents peace and
positive thoughts. It can be used to make the apparent space larger.

Grey: As a mixture of white and black, it is a neutral colour and it balances the polarities
between both.

Brown: It is a mixture of red, yellow and black. And it represents tradition and conservative
taste. It is best suited for furniture upholstery and wood works.

Selection of colours should depend on the sunlight exposure for the rooms; cool colours for
maximum and warm colours for minimum exposures. Intermediate colours may be used in
rooms exposed to sunlight, only for a part of the day. Also, for an ideal colour scheme, one of
the hues should dominate over all others. Bold colours can be employed in modifying the
dimensions of rooms apparently. The wall of a long room will be seen nearer or a ceiling will
move down if painted with a strong colour. However, too much of strong colours on walls
may give a feeling of hostility. Light colours may be used to extend the height of the room.
The wall appear to recede, the ceiling appear to go higher. The light is reflected mostly and
therefore a cheerful feeling is created even in a small and otherwise dark room. After
colouring the walls and roof of a room, we have to see the colours of all those articles which
are kept there. Either these articles can be in contrast or in harmony with the room, but the
most charming effect is given by using sharp contrasting colour scheme.

Colour schemes are proposed to be used in architecture, based on the scientific relationship of
different colours in their arrangement, for getting maximum harmony and charming effect.
The following are major colour schemes:

Monochromatic scheme: It is built around one colour. It consists of different shades of the
same colour, ranging from lighter to darker tones.

Analogous scheme: It is based on two or three colours which are very close to each other.
E.g. A range of yellow, orange and red.

Contrasting colour scheme: It uses complementary colours. Among these, one may be
primary and other secondary.

Accented scheme: It consists of combination of analogous colours accented by the use of a

colour from the opposite side of the colour wheel.

(i) Texture: Texture is a surface property which indicates the feel and appearance of a
surface, especially how rough or smooth it is. This can well be understood by the wood
pattern. The pattern (grain arrangement) can be smaller or bigger. Sometimes, a smaller
pattern increases the value of a particular colour tone but not the bigger one or vice versa.
Sometimes, a particular colour may not look nice in a texture but the same looks very good
with some other texture. Texture helps to break monotony and helps to create interest by
producing contrast in one material. It also affects the amount of light reflected from a surface.
For giving different textures to a surface, paints are available with mat finish or glossy finish
options. As an example for texture distinction, Qutb Minar has five storeys and the external
surface texture for each storey as seen on a cross sectional plan are different for these five
storeys.

(j) Unity: Unity is the combination of all the above stated elements of design. If a structure
has unity, there is a better harmony among the elements so as to get a pleasing composition.

9. DESIGN TYPES

The design types are related to the different characters of the building viz. functional,
traditional and personal.

(a) Analogue design: In analogue design, the basic principles of design of buildings will be
the same. For example, the design principles of a school building and a college building are
almost the same, only the level of education is different. Flexibility in utility is possible in
analogue design. That is, by less cost, the school building can be changed to a college
building. The flexibility is within the function itself, as this type of design is function
oriented.

(b) Iconic design: Iconic designs are generally form oriented in nature. This design is related
to the structures with traditional characters where traditional forms have become the symbols
of specific types of structures. Here also, the function of the structure can be changed but the
selection of the function is such that it suits to the form of the original building. For example,
a palace can be changed to a museum but not as an ordinary residential building.

(c) Pragmatic design: Pragmatic design or canonical design is the practical design. It is
considered to be more flexible design type. A prehistoric example for pragmatic design is the
use of animal skin for making shelters, in which the available material is practically used to
suite the purpose. In framed construction, the flexibility in function is more, as the enclosing
of space is by partition walls which no longer need to carry loads. So the same building can
be used for any number of functions with suitable modifications. This type of design is more
functional and cost effective. Standardization in construction helped very much in pragmatic
design of buildings. For sloping roof construction, future vertical expansion is not possible.
But a flat roof with three storeyed building can be made to six storeys if provisions are given
to take the entire load on the foundation. So, these designs are cost effective, as future
expansion and flexibility in function are possible, yet this does not mean that it is too low cost
construction.