MARKET

VALUE ADDITION
YARNS

FIBRES FABRICS

TEXTILES
PROCESSING APPLICATION

MANUFACTURE

PROPERTIES DESIGN
 TEXTILES
• A Textile is a flexible material comprised of a
network (interlacement / Interlooping / Bonded) of
natural or artificial FIBERS

• The term ‘Textile' is a Latin word taken from the

word ‘TEXERE' which means ‘to weave'.

• The term Textiles covers Fibres, Yarns and

Fabrics.
Organizational Structure of
Textile Industry

Vertical Horizontal

This does not refer to the shape of the factory

but to the ways in which, the various parts of
the structure relate to each other..
Vertical Organization
A company which is structured in such a way that it
takes in a basic raw material and performs all of the
necessary processing functions to convert it into the
finished product is said to be vertical or vertically
organized..
 Vertical Structure

MacMillan Textiles Ltd.

Fibre Spin Yarn

Weave/Knit fabric

Wet processing

Making-up

End-product

Wholesale/retail
Horizontal Organization
A company that only performs part of the overall
manufacturing process, the products of which
become raw materials for the next company in the
processing sequence..
 Horizontal Structure

Fibre Spinners Yarn

Weavers Knitters

Fabric Fabric
Converters

Wet Processors

Making-up End-Product Wholesaler/Retailer

 Structure with both Vertical &
Horizontal elements

Weavers Yarn

Fibre Spin Yarn Knitters

Weave
Converters Wet processing Wet processing
Making-up

Making-up End-products

End-products Wholesale/retail

Wholesale/retail
 Manufacturing Sequence..

Raw Fibre
Spin

Yarn
Weaving or
Knitting
Fabric Knit
Cu t & S
ew

Garment

The wet processor could have all the above stages as raw
material :
 PRODUCTION METHODS
DRY PROCESSING WET
• Fiber Processing PROCESSING
• Dry Spinning
• Weaving • Wet Spinning
• Knitting • Preparation Process
• Crocheting • Coloration Process
• Felting • Finishing Process
• Braiding
• Knotting
• Netting
Fibers
Fiber is a linear structure

How a Linear Structure Is Formed

?
 Polymerization
• A long continuous
chain formed by one
chemical or by the
reaction of more
chemicals that
produces a repetitive
chain.

• One unit that repeats in

polymer is called a
monomer.
Polymerization happens:
• As a natural process.(natural)
• With natural material under controlled
conditions.(man made)
• With synthetic material /chemicals under
controlled conditions.(synthetic)
The history of fibres is as old as human
civilization.

Traces of natural fibres have been located to

ancient civilizations all over the globe. For
many thousand years, the usage of fiber was
limited by natural fibres such as flax, cotton,
silk, wool and plant fibres for different
applications.

Flax is considered to be the oldest and the

most used natural fibre
since ancient times

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 Fiber
• A basic and fundamental unit of textiles
• A long slender thread like structure of cell
• A smallest entity of textiles we wear

• A unit of matter which is capable of being spun into

a yarn or made into a fabric by bonding or by
interlacing in a variety of methods including
weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, twisting, or
webbing, and which is the basic structural element
of textile products.
• It is a smallest textile component which is
microscopic hair like substance that may
be man made or natural.

• They have length at least hundred times

to that of their diameter or width

• Fibres used for apparel range in length

from about 15mm to 150mm.

• Flax ranges up to 500mm and more

• Thickness of these fibres tend to range

from about 10µm to 50µm
 Staple Fiber
• A basic standard length of fiber is called staple
length
• The fibre can be a short staple or a long staple.
• It may be natural or continuous fibers may be cut to
a staple length
Filament
• A long continuous fibrous structure ranging
in length from a few hundred
meters (silk) to several kilometers
(man made fibres) Thickness of filaments is
silmilar to that of fibres

• Mono filament
– A strand containing a long continuous
filament

• Multi filament
– A strand containing 2 or more filaments
Properties of Textile Fiber
FIBRE MORPHOLOGY:

Macro structure of Micro structure of

fibre and filament fibre and filament

Fibre length Microscopic -

Fibre thickness Appearance
Length to breadth ratio Microscopic-
Colour longitudinal struc.
Translucency Microscopic-
Lustre cross sectional struc.
Sub Microscopic struc.
 Properties of Textile Fiber
Primary Secondary
• Fiber length • Evenness
• Tenacity • Porosity
• Cohesiveness • Resiliency
• Flexibility • Lustre
• Durability
• Shape and appearance
 PROPERTIES OF FIBRES
Properties of fibers can be classified
based on various factors like :-

– Visual / Physical properties

– Microscopic properties
– Chemical properties
– Mechanical properties
– Environmental & Biological properties
– Thermal properties
– Electrical properties
 Physical properties of FIBERS

Physical properties are those which can be seen in

appearance.

A) COLOUR
B) SHAPE
C) COVER
D) HAND
E) LUSTER
F) FIBRE LENGTH
 Fiber Length
• The average length of fiber is termed as
fiber length.
• The length is to make a long continuous
strand with small length staple fibers
minimum fiber length is 5mm.
• The fiber should have minimum length to
width ratio of 1:100.
 COLOUR

• COLOUR:- manufactured fibers are usually

white in color where as natural fiber may
vary in shades white to brown or tan to
black e.g. (color of wool fiber depends on
sheep )
 SHAPE
• SHAPE:- shape of a fiber is determined by its cross sections
.often it can also be included in microscopic properties of
fiber. All fibers have length ,cross section ,surface contour
and diameter and also some fibers have crimp.
• Length :fibers may be staple or filament
• Cross section :it is referred to the appearance of the fiber
when viewed across its diameter.
• Surface :surface contour is sometimes referred to as
longitudinal appearance.
• Diameter : it is the width of the cross section.
• Crimp : the wave or bump of the fiber.
 Fiber Fineness
• The fiber fineness is the relative measurement of its
size, diameter and linear density.
• It also suggests the uniformity of the fiber.
 Uniformity / Evenness
• Uniformity in thickness and length of fiber
gives more even and fine yarns resulting in fine
quality
 Cohesiveness.
• The property of an
individual fiber by
virtue of which the
fibers hold on one
another when spun
into yarn.
• For e.g, cotton’s
convolutions,wools
scales help them to
hold themselves.
 COVER

Cover is the ability to occupy an area

it varies from fiber to fiber
(e.g. wool, asbestos , flax, hemp etc)
 HAND

• Hand is the way a fiber feels when handled.

Fiber shapes vary and includes round, flat
and multimodal (e.g. soft, crisp, dry, silky
or harsh)
 LUSTER
Luster is the quality of fiber to reflect the light
from its surface.
• Different fibers have different luster properties.
• Silk has high luster in natural fibers.
• Most of the man made fibers have high degree of luster.
• The luster of fibers can be varied by different processes.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERS
Chemical properties of fibers can be defined as those
properties of fibers which they exhibit when they come in
contact with any kind of chemicals.

It is very necessary to understand various chemical

properties of different fibers because

1. It relates directly to the care required in daily processing

like cleaning, washing and ironing .

2. Also because fibers usually come in contact with

chemicals during textile processing like dyeing and printing
and various other finishes.

Generally it can be said that synthetic fibers have less

chemical reactivity than natural fibers. But different fibers
react differently with various kinds of chemicals………..
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
FIBERS
• Chemical properties of different fibers depend on the inbuilt properties of fibers.

• Also the effect of a chemical on the fiber will be determined by:

• The type of chemical

• The strength of chemical and the strength of fiber
• Time of exposure of the fiber to the chemical.

• Chemical reactivity of different fibers basically includes:

• EFFECTS OF ALKALIES
• EFFECTS OF ACIDS
• EFFECTS OF OXIDISING AGENTS
• EFFECTS OF SOLVENTS
• ABSORBENCY / POROSITY
1. EFFECT OF ACIDS

The effect of acids on a fiber is determined by the

type and strength of the acid. mineral acids even in
dilute concentration will damage natural fibers like
cotton. however dilute concentrations of acids will
not harm protein fibers like wool (even they are
used in wool processing .

2. EFFECT OF ALKALIES

Alkalies do not harm natural cellulosic fibers such

as cotton which is often treated with NaOH to improve
its strength . various soaps and detergents are not
recommended for wool as they are alkaline in nature
and alkalis are not suitable for protein fibers.
3. EFFECTS OF OXIDISING AGENTS

Oxidizing agents such as chlorine bleach are used to

remove colors or stains in fibers. For example many
natural fibers are not white enough to give good dye
results, so they are treated with bleaches. However
chlorine based bleaches are not suitable for
protein fibers whereas it can safely be used on
nylon and polyester. Cotton requires controlled
bleaching.

4. EFFECTS OF SOLVENTS

Chemical solvents are used in dry cleaning. organic

solvents are used to remove oily stains and dirt.
Acetone is one of the solvents that will damage both
acetate and triacetate.
 Porosity
• Porosity is volume of air contained within the
volume of the fiber.
• This facilitates absorption of moisture, lubricants
and dyes.
• Natural fibers have higher porosity than
synthesized.
 Mechanical properties of fibers
The mechanical properties of fibers are determined in a
textile testing laboratory.
These procedures make possible accurate evaluation of the
quality of textile products.
» Abrasion Resistance
» Dimensional Stability
» Elastic Recovery
» Pilling
» Flexibility
» Resiliency or Wrinkle Recovery
» Specific Gravity or Density
» Tenacity
 Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion Resistance is the ability of a fiber to withstand the
effects of rubbing or friction. It is a significant factor in the
durability of a fiber. e.g
Nylon is used extensively in action outerwear, such as ski
jackets, because it is very strong and resists abrasion.
Excellent abrasion resistance -Nylon, Aramid
Poor abrasion resistance -Glass, Acetate.
Excellent abrasion resistance
 ABRASION RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT
FIBRES

FAIR POOR
EXCELLENT GOOD GLASS
NYLON WOOL
COTTON ACETATE
POLYESTER SILK
RAYON TRIACETATE
RAYON-VISCOSE
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY:-
• It is the ability of a fiber to maintain its original shape,
neither shrinking nor stretching.
• Some varieties of Rayon and wool shrink progressively.

PILLING:-
Pilling is the formation of small balls of loose fibres on the
surface of a fabric, results from abrasion.The tumbling
action of washing and automatic drying may also cause
pilling.
Excellent against pilling- Rayon Cotton
Flax Glass

Poor against pilling - Nylon Polyester

 Excellent against pilling

Poor against pilling

polyester

nylon
ELASTIC RECOVERY:-
Ability of a fiber to return to its original
length.
Elastomeric fibers like spandex can be
stretched 100 percent and still return to its
original length.
Fibres with high Elastic Recovery recovers
its creep after being compressed.
 FLEXIBILITY

The ability of fiber to be plied or twisted without any

rupture to the fiber.

• Fibers that bend or fold easily have good flexibility.

• The fiber should be sufficiently pliable so that it can wrap around

another fiber when spun. Stiff fibers are hard to spin into yarn and
create fabric with limited consumer appeal.

• It contributes greatly to the drape of a fiber.

• All man made cellulosic fibers have good flexibility.

RESILIENCY OR WRINKLE RECOVERY:-
It is the ability of a fiber to return to its original shape after being bent or
folded. Fibres with good resiliency like polyester are often used in
apparel when retention of appearance is important.
Compressive resiliency or loft is the ability of a fiber to return to its
original thickness after it is crushed.

RESILIENCY OF DIFFERENT FIBRES

EXCELLENT GOOD FAIR POOR

Glass Wool Rayon
Nylon Triacetate Cotton
Silk
Polyester Acrylic Flax
Acetate
 Resiliency
• The resistance to compression, flexing or torsion is
termed as resiliency. Some fibers have natural
tendency to return to their original condition after
the applied force is removed.

• This is an important factor considered while

selecting the fibres for carpet.
 Tenacity / Fibre Strength
• The strength of material, when it is loaded along
its load axis is called tensile strength or tenacity of
the fiber .
• In general, strong fibers last longer and provide
more service than do weak fibers.
• Tenacity or Fiber strength, is important factor
contributing to the wear life of a textile product.
• Nylon, Aramid and Glass fibers are noted for their
strength. Acetate and Acrylic are relatively weak,
in contrast.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MAJOR TEXTILE FIBRES
FIBER STRENGTH RESILIENCY
ABRASION PILLNG SPECIFIC
    DENIER RESISTANCE   RESISTANCE GRAVITY
COTTON GOOD 3.0-5.0 GOOD POOR EXCELLENT 1.54

FLAX EXCELLENT 6.6-8.4 FAIR POOR EXCELLENT 1.52

WOOL POOR 0.8-2.0 FAIR GOOD FAIR 1.32
SILK GOOD 3.9-4.5 FAIR FAIR GOOD 1.30
RAYON-VISCOSE FAIR 0.7-6.0 FAIR POOR GOOD 1.54
ACETATE POOR 0.8-1.5 POOR POOR GOOD 1.32
TRIACETATE POOR   POOR GOOD GOOD 1.30
ACRYLIC FAIR 1.8-3.5 POOR GOOD FAIR 1.19
GLASS EXCELLENT 6.0-7.0 POOR EXCELLENT EXCELLENT 2.54
NYLON EXCELLENT 2.5-7.5 EXCELLENT EXCELLENT POOR 1.14
POLYESTER EXCELLENT 2.5-9.5 EXCELLENT EXCELLENT POOR 1.38
SPANDEX POOR 0.6-0.9 POOR EXCELLENT EXCELLENT 1.21
 ENVIRONMENTAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERS

Environmental properties or the various biological properties of

fibers are important as it will determine the effect of various climatic
conditions , micro organism and insects on textile products.

Environmental or biological properties of fibers include:

1. SENSITIVITY TO THE CLIMATE

2. SENSITIVITY TO MICROORGANISMS

3. SENSITIVITY TO INSECTS
 SENSITIVITY TO CLIMATE

Exposure to sunlight and air pollution will cause some fibers to

deteriorate. for example cotton and flax looses its strength after long
exposure to sunlight. white wool and silk turns yellow on prolonged
exposure to sunlight.

SENSITIVITY TO MICROORGANISMS

Most synthetic fibers remain unaffected by microorganisms but fibers

like cotton and regenerated cellulosic get discolored and eventually
rots by microorganisms like mold and mildew

SENSITIVITY TO INSECTS

Insects such as moths, carpet beetles and silverfish can attack

fibers. Wool is specially susceptible to attack from moths and carpet
beetles. Silverfish will attack cotton and regenerated cellulosic
fibres
 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERS

Thermal properties of fibers are those properties which are

exhibited by a fiber when they are exposed to heat directly
or if exposed to similar conditions

Thermal properties of fiber include:

• EFFECTS OF HEAT
• FLAMMABILITY.
 EFFECTS OF HEAT
• The reaction to heat may take the form of melting or
shrinking.
• Different Fibers react differently to heat.
• The heating causes decomposition & weakens the fabric
considerably.
• Most synthetic fibers are thermoplastic (fibers melt or
soften when exposed to heat).
• The suitable treatment of fibers can give a fair degree of
resistance to fiber.
FABRIC MIN & MAX (TEMP)

COTTON 1500C & 2460C

WOOL 2260C & 5720C
SILK 3300C & 3300C
VISCOSE RAYON 3000C & 4000C
NYLON 1500C & 2150C
POLYESTER 2490C & 2900C
 Heat Setting
• Applying heat and pressure in a controlled
manner, permanently changes the shape and
improves the dimensional stability of
thermoplastic fibres.

• The fibers, yarns and fabrics are very stable

at temperatures lower than those at which
they were set.
 FLAMMABILITY
It is the important factor considered for the suitability
to end use
• Fibers react differently to flames.
• Some fibers will ignite, some don't.
• Cellulose fibers are most flammable ones.
(cotton, flax, viscose)
• Acetate and triacetate burn immediately
• Nylon, polyester, acrylic, spandex don’t catch
fire but melt and form hard beads
• Protein based wool & silk are less
flammable. They burn slowly.

• The Inorganic fibers like asbestos, glass,

and metal do not burn.
 ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
• Fibers that do not conduct electrical charges
create static electricity.
• Hydrophobic fibers tend to have low
electrical conductivity because of their low
absorbency.
• Synthetic fibers are poor conductors of
electricity.
• Synthetic fiber materials are charged with static
electricity so it attracts the dust & dirt particles
and it becomes easily soiled

• The fabrics like cotton, wool and other fabrics

retain moisture, the static leaks away to earth, just
as fast as it is formed, via the metal parts of the
machinery used & so causes no trouble.
CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES
 For the standardisation, classification
and easier identification of fibres,
Federal Trade Commission assigned
generic groups of manufactured fibres
according to their chemical
composition.

Flax | Cotton | Wool | Silk | Rayon | Acetate | Nylon |

Polyester | Glass etc

61
 NATURAL FIBRE
• Any hair like raw material directly
obtainable from an animal, vegetable or
mineral source that can be convertible after
spinning into yarns and then into fabric.
• Under them there are various categories:
• (1) plant
• (2) animal
• (3) minerals

62
 Vegetable fibers
they can be further on classified as:

(a) fibre occurring on the seed (raw

cotton , java cotton)
(b) phloem fiber (flax, ramie ,
hemp, jute)
(c) tendon fibre from stem or leaves
(manila hemp, sisal hemp etc)
(d) fibre occurring around the trunk
(hemp palm)
(e) fibre of fruit/ nut shells (coconut
fibre – Coir)
cotton and linen are the most
important among them.

63
 ANIMAL FIBRES
• Animal fibers are
natural fibers that consist largely of proteins
such as
silk, hair/fur, wool and feathers.
• The most commonly used type of animal fib
er is hair.

64
MINERAL FIBRE
• Asbestos is the only natural
mineral fibre obtained from
varieties of rocks.
• properties
• It is fibrous form of silicate of
magnesium and calcium
containing iron and aluminium
and other minerals.
• It is acid proof, flame proof and
rust proof.
• Its particles are carcinogenic and
hence its use is restricted.
65
 MAN MADE FIBRE
• Natural man made fibre
(A) Cellulosic fibres
• Cellulose is one of many polymers found in nature.
• Wood, paper, and cotton all contain cellulose. >
Cellulose is an excellent fiber.
• Cellulose is made of repeat units of the monomer
glucose.
• The three types of regenerated cellulosic fibres are
rayon, acetate and triacetate which are derived
from the cell walls of short cotton fibres called
linters.
• Paper for instance is almost pure cellulose
66
SYNTHETIC MAN MADE FIBRE
• POLYESTER
• Polyester is a category of
polymers which contain the ester
functional group in their main chain.
• The term "polyester" is most commonly
refered as polyethylene terephthalate
(PET).
• it has a high melting temperature
• it can be dyed with only disperse dyes
• they are thermoplastic, have good strength
and are hydrophobic
• the fibre has a rod like shape with a
smooth surface.
• it is lustrous and its hand is crisp.
• it has excellent resiliency and so it the
best wash and wear fabric.
• there are problems of static and pilling in
it 67
NYLON • Nylon is one of the most common
polymers used as a fiber.
• There are several forms of nylon
depending upon chemical
synthesis such as nylon 4, 6, 6.6,
6.10, 6.12, 8,10 and 11.
• Nylon is found in clothing all the
time, but also in other places, in
the form of a
thermoplastic material.

68
• Nylons are also called polyamides,
because of the characteristic amide
groups in the backbone chain.
• These amide groups are very polar
and are linked with each other with
hydrogen bonds.
• nylon is a regular and symmetrical
fibre with
crystalline regions and make very str
ong
fibers.
• the fibre has a smooth rod like shape
with a smooth surface

69
RUBBER FIBRE
• Rubber is an elastic
hydrocarbon
polymer that naturally occurs a
s a milky
colloidal suspension, or
latex, in the sap of some plants.
• The manufacturing process
consists of extruding the natural
rubber latex into a coagulating
bath to form filament.the material
is cross linked to obtain fibres
which exhibit high stretch
• It can be synthesized.
70
• natural rubber is essentially a polymer
of isoprene units, a hydrocarbon diene
monomer.
• Synthetic rubber can be made as a
polymer of
• oprene or various other monomers
• The material properties of natural
rubber make it an elastomer .
• Rubber exhibits unique physical and
chemical properties.
• Rubber's stress-strain behavior exhibits
the Mullins effect, the
Payne effect and is often modeled as
hyperelastic.
• Rubber strain crystallizes.
71
GLASS FIBRE
• It is also known as Fiberglass that is a
material made from extremely fine
fibers of glass. .Glass fiber is formed
when thin strands of silica-based or
other formulation glass is extruded into
many fibers with small diameters
suitable for textile processing
• it has a high degree of viscosity
• The basis of textile grade glass fibers
is silica, SiO2. In its pure form it exists
as a polymer, (SiO2)n.
• In order to induce crystallization, it
must be heated to temperatures above
1200°C for long periods of time.

72
• The first type of glass used for
fiber was soda-lime glass or A
glass which was not very
resistant to alkali. A new type, E-
glass was Glass fibers are useful
because of their high ratio of
surface area to weight. However,
the increased surface area makes
them much more susceptible to
chemical attack.
• By trapping air within them,
blocks of glass fiber make is
used as a reinforcing agent for
many polymer products.
• it has a good thermal insulation,
with a thermal conductivity of
0.05 W/m-K. 73
• Because glass has an amorphous structure, its
properties are the same along the fiber and across
the fiber.
• Humidity is an important factor in the tensile
strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed, and can
worsen microscopic cracks and surface defects, and
lessen tenacity.
• it has no effect on exposure to sunlight even after
extended periods.
• It is completely hydrophobic

74
METALLIC FIBRES
• Metallic fibers are
manufactured fibers composed
of metal, plastic-coated metal,
metal-coated plastic, or a core
completely covered by metal.
Gold and silver have been used
since ancient times as yarns for
fabric decoration. More
recently, aluminum yarns,
aluminized plastic yarns, and
aluminized nylon yarns have
replaced gold and silver.
• they are made through laminating
process.
• Coated metallic filaments help to
minimize tarnishing. 75
• When suitable adhesives and films
are used, they are not affected by salt
water, chlorinated water in swimming
pools or climatic conditions.
• If possible anything made with
metallic fibers should be dry-cleaned.
• Ironing can be problematic because
the heat from the iron, especially at
high tempatures, can melt the fibers.
• they are used mainly for decorative
purposes.

76
 Fiber Identification
  Soda ash Caustic Sodium Hydro Nitric Nitric acid Sulphuri Sulphuri Burning in Microscopic Remarks
test 40% sol. soda hypo chloric acid 70% c acid c acid Flame View
  25% sol. chloride acid 15% 15% 70%
40%
fiber
swells Swells& Whitened Turns Opens up &looses strength Dissolves on Dissolves Burns continuously Longitudinal twists. Resistance to alkalis.
Cotton yellowish heating quickly leaving grey ash of
Shines
Dissolves slowly burning paper smell

jute -do- -do- -do- --- --- -do -do Dissolves -do Longitudinal -Rough handle
irregular lines
-

Coir --- --- Color --- --- --- Dissolves Dissolves -do- Opaque thick serations
turns pale on slowly black ash Brittle & resistant to
prolonged chemicals
heating

Viscose Swells Swells & Gets Turns Dissolve Dissolves Dissolves Dissolves Burns continuously Longitudinal Soft filaments
slowly weakened yellow s on leaving grey ash of regular lines good luster
quickly burning paper smell
dissolves heating

Looses Dissolves Dissolves --- --- Dissolves --- Dissolves Self extinguishing Densed centre coating
Silk
Leaves crushable
strength slowly partial;ly line Uneven Delicate lustrous
Black beads
filaments

-do- -do- Dissolves --- --- Dissolves --- Dissolves Self extinguishing Scales Rough crimpy
Wool
slowly slowly Leaves crushable structure fibers
Black beads
Fish

Polyester  --- --- --- --- --- Dissolves transperant Dissolves Burns& stops Translucent& Resistant to
slowly on hard slowly leaving semi uniform chemicals
prolonged beads.
treatment  

Acrylic --- --- --- --- --- Looses --- Turns Dissolves & Turns Burns & stops Translucent&
strength yellowish yellowish brown Out of flame uniform
& dissolves brown Leaving dark hard Lofty & more
slowly beads voluminous

Nylon --- --- --- --- --- Looses --- Dissolves Burns & stops Translucent& Strong
strength slowly Out of flame uniform More elastic
Leaving dark hard
beads
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