Series

POWER SERIES

Graham S McDonald

A Tutorial Module for learning the usage of

power series representations

● Table of contents
● Begin Tutorial

c 2004 g.s.mcdonald@salford.ac.uk
 Table of contents
1. Theory
2. Exercises
3. Answers
4. Standard series
5. Tips on using solutions
6. Alternative notation
Full worked solutions
Section 1: Theory 3

1. Theory
This tutorial deals with the approximation of functions of x, f (x),
using power series expansions:

∞
X
f (x) = ci xi = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + ... ,
i=0

where ci are constant coefficients.

Power series open the door to the rapid calculation, manipulation and
interpretation of analytical expressions that are, otherwise, difficult to
deal with.

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Section 1: Theory 4

In each exercise, an appropriate power series can be derived by using

the Standard series (accessed from the “toolbar” at the bottom of
each of the Exercises pages).

It will greatly simplify each calculation if, at an early stage, you man-
age to deduce how many terms are required from each standard series
to give the final result to the specified accuracy (e.g. to x3 ).

Note also that writing the given function in terms of partial fractions,
where appropriate, can result in a simpler derivation.

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Section 2: Exercises 5

2. Exercises
Use Standard series, to expand the following functions in power
series, as far as the terms shown. Also state the range of values of x
for which the power series converges:

Click on Exercise links for full worked solutions (there are 10 exer-
cises in total).

Exercise 1.
e−3x cos 2x, up to x3

Exercise 2.
(sin x) ln(1 − 2x), up to x4

Exercise 3.
√
1 + x · e−2x , up to x3

● Theory ● Answers ● Standard series ● Tips ● Notation

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Section 2: Exercises 6

Exercise 4.
sin x
√ , up to x4
1 + 2x

Exercise 5.
(cos 4x) ln(1 + 2x), up to x4

Exercise 6.
5 + 4x
, up to x3
(1 + 2x)(1 − x)

Exercise 7.
3+x
, up to x3
(2 + x)(1 + x)

● Theory ● Answers ● Standard series ● Tips ● Notation

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Section 2: Exercises 7

Exercise 8.
4 + 5x
, up to x3
(2 + x)(1 − x)

Exercise 9.
√
1 + 2x
, up to x3
1 − 3x

Exercise 10.
r
1+x
, up to x3
1 − 2x

● Theory ● Answers ● Standard series ● Tips ● Notation

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Section 3: Answers 8

3. Answers
1. 1 − 3x + 25 x2 + 32 x3 + ... (converges for all x) ,

2. −2x2 − 2x3 − 73 x4 + ... (converges for − 12 ≤ x < 12 ) ,

3. 1 − 32 x + 78 x2 − 1 3
48 x + ... (converges for −1 < x < 1) ,

4. x − x2 + 43 x3 − 73 x4 + ... (converges for − 12 < x < 12 ) ,

40 3
5. 2x − 2x2 − 3 x + 12x4 + ... (converges for − 12 < x ≤ 12 ) ,

6. 5 − x + 11x2 − 13x3 + ... (converges for − 12 < x < 12 ) ,

3
7. 2 − 74 x + 15 2
8 x − 31 3
16 x + ... (converges for −1 < x < 1) ,

8. 2 + 72 x + 11 2
4 x + 25 3
8 x + ... (converges for −1 < x < 1) ,
23 2
9. 1 + 4x + 2 x + 35x3 + ... (converges for − 13 < x < 13 ) ,

10. 1 + 23 x + 15 2
8 x + 51 3
16 x + ... (converges for − 12 < x < 12 ) .

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Section 4: Standard series 9

4. Standard series
f (x) Power Series Convergence
1
1−x 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + ... (−1 < x < 1)
n(n−1) 2 n(n−1)(n−2) 3
(1 + x)n 1 + nx + 2! x + 3! x + ... (−1 < x < 1,
n 6= 1, 2, 3, . . .)
2 3 4
ex 1 + x + x2! + x3! + x4! + ... (for all x)
2 3 4
ln(1 + x) x − x2 + x3 − x4 + ... (−1 < x ≤ 1)
x3 x5 x7
sin x x− 3! + 5! − 7! + ... (for all x)
x2 x4 x6
cos x 1− 2! + 4! − 6! + ... (for all x)
x3 2x5 17x7
tan x x+ 3 + 15 + 315 + ... (− π2 < x < π
2)
x3 x5 x7
sinh x x+ 3! + 5! + 7! + ... (for all x)
x2 x4 x6
cosh x 1+ 2! + 4! + 6! + ... (for all x)
Note: 2! = 2 · 1 = 2 , 3! = 3 · 2 · 1 = 6 , 4! = 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 24, etc.
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Section 5: Tips on using solutions 10

5. Tips on using solutions

● When looking at the THEORY, ANSWERS, STANDARD SERIES,

TIPS or NOTATION pages, use the Back button (at the bottom of
the page) to return to the exercises

● Use the solutions intelligently. For example, they can help you get
started on an exercise, or they can allow you to check whether your
intermediate results are correct

● Try to make less use of the full solutions as you work your way
through the Tutorial

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Section 6: Alternative notation 11

6. Alternative notation
The power series for (1 + x)n is an example of a binomial series.

When n is not a whole number (i.e. n 6= 0, 1, 2, 3, ...) then the series

is an infinite series and it is only true for −1 < x < 1.

On the other hand, when n is a whole number (i.e. n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...)

then the series no longer has an infinite number of terms and it is
valid for all values of x.

Some books use notation to distinguish the above two cases, where:

(1 + x)n is written when the power is a whole number, and

(1 + x)r is written otherwise.

In this Tutorial, we use the symbol n to denote the power in either

case.

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Solutions to exercises 12

Full worked solutions

Exercise 1.

e−3x cos 2x, up to x3

x2 x3
• ex = 1+x+ 2! + 3! + ... true for all x
(−3x)2 (−3x)3
∴ e−3x = 1 + (−3x) + 2! + 3! + ...
9x2
i.e. e−3x = 1 − 3x + 2 − 92 x3 + ...

x2 x4
• cos x = 1− 2! + 4! − ... true for all x
(2x)2
∴ cos 2x = 1 − 2 + ... (we only need up to x3 )

i.e. cos 2x = 1 − 2x2 + ...

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Solutions to exercises 13
e−3x cos 2x = 1 − 3x + 92 x2 − 92 x3 (1 − 2x2 ) + ...


∴

= 1 − 3x + 92 x2 − 92 x3

−2x2 (1−3x)+ ... (again, we only need up to x3 )

= 1 − 3x + 92 x2 − 92 x3 − 2x2 + 6x3 + ...

1 − 3x + 9−4 x + 12−9

2
3
= 2 2 x + ...

∴ e−3x cos 2x = 1 − 3x + 52 x2 + 32 x3 + ...

(true for all x , ∴ converges for all x values).

Return to Exercise 1

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Solutions to exercises 14

Exercise 2.
(sin x) ln(1 − 2x), up to x4
x3 x3
• sin x = x − 3! + ... = x − 6 + ... true for all x
x2 x3 x4
• ln(1 + x) = x − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... true for −1 < x ≤ 1
2
(−2x) (−2x)3 (−2x)4
∴ ln(1 − 2x) = (−2x) − 2 + 3 − 4 + ...

true for −1 < (−2x) ≤ 1

2 3 4
= −2x− 4x2 − 8x3 − 16x 1
4 − ... true for − 2 ≤ x <
1
2

(note the switching of “<” and “≤”

because of the minus sign of −2x)

i.e. ln(1 − 2x) = −2x − 2x2 − 83 x3 − 4x4 − ...

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Solutions to exercises 15
 3

x
∴ (sin x) ln(1 − 2x) = x − 6 (−2x − 2x2 − 83 x3 − 4x4 ) + ...

x3
= x −2x − 2x2 − 83 x3 −4x4 −


6 (−2x − ...) + ...
4
= −2x2 − 2x3 − 83 x4 + x
3 + ...

∴ (sin x) ln(1 − 2x) = −2x2 − 2x3 − 73 x4 + ...

(converges for − 12 ≤ x < 12 ).

Note: We will assume convergence for the values of x that both

the sin x and the ln(1 − 2x) power series are true.

Return to Exercise 2

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Solutions to exercises 16

Exercise 3.
√
1 + x · e−2x , up to x3
x2 x3
• ex = 1 + x + 2! + 3! + ... true for all x
(−2x)2 (−2x)3
∴ e−2x = 1 + (−2x) + 2 + 6 + ...

i.e. e−2x = 1 − 2x + 2x2 − 43 x3 + ...

√ 1
• 1 + x = (1 + x) 2
n(n−1) 2 n(n−1)(n−2) 3
≡ (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + 2! x + 3! x + ... ,
1
where n = 2
√
x2
3
1 + x = 1 + 12 x + 1
· − 12 + 12 · − 12 · − 32 x6 + ...



∴ 2 2

true for −1 < x < 1

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Solutions to exercises 17
√
i.e. 1 + x = 1 + 12 x − 18 x2 + 1 3
16 x+ ...
√
1 + x e−2x = 1+ 12 x − 18 x2 + 16
1 3
1 − 2x+2x2 − 43 x3 + ...



∴ x

= 1 · 1 − 2x + 2x2 − 43 x3

+ 21 x(1 − 2x + 2x2 )

− 18 x2 (1 − 2x)
1 3
+ 16 x (1) + ...

= 1 − 2x + 2x2 − 43 x3

+ 12 x − x2 + x3

− 18 x2 + 14 x3
1 3
+ 16 x + ...
√
∴ 1 + x e−2x = 1− 32 x+ 78 x2 − 1 3
48 x + ... (converges for −1 < x < 1).
Return to Exercise 3
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Solutions to exercises 18

Exercise 4.
sin x
√ , up to x4
1 + 2x
x3 3
• sin x = x − + ... = x − x6 + ... true for all x
3!
1
2
3
(1 + X)− 2 = 1+ −12 X + −12 · −32 X2 + −12 · −32 · −52 X6 + ...





•

(true for −1 < X < 1)

3 X2 15 X 3
= 1 − 12 X + 22 2 − 23 6 + ...
1 2 3
∴ (1 + 2x)− 2 = 1− 12 (2x)+ 232 (2x) 15 (2x)
2 − 23 6 + ... (true for −1 < 2x < 1)

3x2 15 3
= 1−x+ 2 − 6 x + ... true for − 12 < x < 1
2

1
Note: In the above, it has been recognised that, to find sin(x)(1+2x)− 2
1 3
one only needs (1 + 2x)− 2 up to x3 since sin x = x − x6 will
multiply this by at least x.
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Solutions to exercises 19
 3

√sin x x
1 − x + 23 x2 − 15 3


∴ 1+2x
= x− 6 6 x + ...

x3
= x 1 − x + 23 x2 − 52 x3 −


6 (1 − x) + ...

= x − x2 + 23 x3 − 52 x4 − 16 x3 + 16 x4 + ...

= x − x2 + 9−1 x + 1−15

3
4
6 6 x + ...

∴ √sin x = x − x2 + 43 x3 − 73 x4 + ...
1+2x

(converges for − 12 < x < 12 ).

Return to Exercise 4

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Solutions to exercises 20

Exercise 5.
(cos 4x) ln(1 + 2x), up to x4
X2 X4
• cos X = 1 − 2! + 4! − ... true for all X
X2 X4
= 1− 2 + 24 − ...
2
(4x) (4x)4
∴ cos 4x = 1 − 2 + 24 − ...
64 4 32 4
= 1 − 8x2 + 6 x − ... = 1 − 8x2 + 3 x − ...

X2 X3 X4
• ln(1 + X) = X − 2 + 3 − 4 + ... (true for −1 < X ≤ 1)
2 3 4
∴ ln(1 + 2x) = (2x)− (2x) (2x) (2x)
2 + 3 − 4 + ... (true for −1 < 2x ≤ 1)

i.e. ln(1 + 2x) = 2x − 2x2 + 38 x3 − 4x4 + ... true for − 12 < x ≤ 1

2

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Solutions to exercises 21
(cos 4x) ln(1 + 2x) = (1 − 8x2 ) 2x − 2x2 + 83 x3 − 4x4 + ...


∴

= 2x−2x2 + 83 x3 −4x4 −8x2 (2x−2x2 ) + ...

40 3
= 2x − 2x2 − 3 x + 12x4 + ...

(converges for − 12 < x ≤ 12 ).

Return to Exercise 5

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Solutions to exercises 22

Exercise 6.
5 + 4x
, up to x3
(1 + 2x)(1 − x)
Firstly, express in terms of partial fractions:

5 + 4x A B A(1 − x) + B(1 + 2x)

= + =
(1 + 2x)(1 − x) 1 + 2x 1 − x (1 + 2x)(1 − x)

∴ 5 + 4x = A(1 − x) + B(1 + 2x) [identity, true for all x ]

True for x = 1: 5 + 4 = 0 + B(3) i.e. B = 3

− 21 : 5 − 2 = A 32 + 0


True for x = i.e. A = 2
5 + 4x 2 3
So, = +
(1 + 2x)(1 − x) 1 + 2x 1 − x
[This form allows addition of series rather than multiplication, i.e. it
makes the calculation easier]

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Solutions to exercises 23
1
• 1−X = 1 + X + X 2 + X 3 + ... true for −1 < X < 1
1
∴ 1+2x = 1 + (−2x) + (−2x)2 + (−2x)3 + ...

(true for −1 < (−2x) < 1)

1
i.e. 1+2x = 1 − 2x + 4x2 − 8x3 + ... true for − 12 < x < 1
2

2 3
∴ 1+2x + 1−x = 2(1 − 2x + 4x2 − 8x3 ) + ...

+3(1 + x + x2 +x3 ) = 5 − x+11x2 −13x3 + ...

(converges for − 12 < x < 12 ).

Return to Exercise 6

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Solutions to exercises 24

Exercise 7.
3+x
, up to x3
(2 + x)(1 + x)
Express as partial fractions:

3+x A B A(1 + x) + B(2 + x)

= + =
(2 + x)(1 + x) 2+x 1+x (2 + x)(1 + x)

∴ 3 + x = A(1 + x) + B(2 + x) [identity, true for all x]

True for x = −1: 3 − 1 = 0 + B(2 − 1) i.e. B = 2

True for x = −2: 3 − 2 = A(1 − 2) + 0 i.e. A = −1
3+x −1 2
So, = +
(2 + x)(1 + x) 2+x 1+x

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Solutions to exercises 25
1
• 1−X = 1 + X + X 2 + X 3 + ... true for −1 < X < 1
1
∴ 1+x = 1 + (−x) + (−x)2 + (−x)3 + ...

= 1 − x + x2 − x3 + ... true for −1 < x < 1

1

h
2
3 i
= 12 1+1 x = 12 1 − x2 + x2 − x2 + ...



• 2+x (2)
x
(true for −1 < 2 < 1)
1 x2 x3
i.e. − 2+x = − 12 + x
4 − 8 + 16 + ... true for −2 < x < 2
2 3
3+x 1 2
∴ (2+x)(1+x) = − 2+x + 1+x = −12 + x4 − x8 + x16 +2(1−x+x2 −x3 )+ ...
3
= 2 − 74 x + 15 2
8 x − 31 3
16 x + ...

(converges for −1 < x < 1).

Return to Exercise 7

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Solutions to exercises 26

Exercise 8.
4 + 5x
, up to x3
(2 + x)(1 − x)
Partial fractions:

4 + 5x A B A(1 − x) + B(2 + x)
= + =
(2 + x)(1 − x) 2+x 1−x (2 + x)(1 − x)

∴ 4 + 5x = A(1 − x) + B(2 + x) [identity, true for all x]

True for x = +1: 4 + 5 = 0 + B · (3) i.e. B = 3

True for x = −2: 4 − 10 = A · (3) + 0 i.e. A = −2
4 + 5x 2 3
So, =− +
(2 + x)(1 − x) 2+x 1−x

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Solutions to exercises 27
1
• 1−x = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + ... true for −1 < x < 1
h
2
3 i
1
= 12 1+1 x = 12 1 − x2 + x2 − x2 + ...



• 2+x ( 2)
x
(true for −1 < 2 < 1)
2 3
1
= − x4 + x8 − x16 + ... true for −2 < x < 2
2
 2 3

4+5x
∴ (2+x)(1−x) = −2 12 − x4 + x8 − x16 + 3(1 + x + x2 + x3 ) + ...

= 2 + 72 x + 11 2
4 x + 25 3
8 x + ...

(converges for −1 < x < 1).

Return to Exercise 8

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Solutions to exercises 28

Exercise 9.
√
1 + 2x
, up to x3
1 − 3x
n(n−1) 2 n(n−1)(n−2) 3
• (1 + X)n = 1 + nX + 2! X + 3! X + ...

(true for −1 < X < 1)

√
2
3
1 + X = 1+ 12 X + 12 · − 21 X2! + 12 · − 12 · − 32 X3! + ...

√
(2x)2
(2x)3
1 + 2x = 1+ 12 (2x)− 1 1 1 1 3




∴ 2 · 2 2! + 2 · 2 · 2 3! + ...

(true for −1 < 2x < 1)

x2 x3
= 1+x− 2 + 2 − ... true for − 12 < x < 1
2

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Solutions to exercises 29
1
• 1−X = 1 + X + X 2 + X 3 + ... (true for −1 < X < 1)
1
∴ 1−3x = 1 + (3x) + (3x)2 + (3x)3 + ... (true for −1 < 3x < 1)

= 1 + 3x + 9x2 + 27x3 + ... true for − 13 < x < 1

3

√  
1+2x x2 x3
∴ 1−3x = 1+x− 2 + 2 (1 + 3x + 9x2 + 27x3 ) + ...

= 1 + 3x + 9x2 + 27x3

+x(1 + 3x + 9x2 )
2
− x2 (1 + 3x)
3
+ x2 (1) + ...

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Solutions to exercises 30
= 1 + 3x + 9x2 + 27x3

+x + 3x2 + 9x3

− 21 x2 − 32 x3

+ 12 x3 + ...
23 2
= 1 + 4x + 2 x + 35x3 + ...
(converges for − 13 < x < 13 ).

Return to Exercise 9

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Solutions to exercises 31

Exercise 10.
r
1+x
, up to x3
1 − 2x
√ 1
2
1 + x = (1 + x) 2 = 1 + 12 x+ 12 · − 12 x2!



•

3
+ 12 · − 12 · − 32 x3! + ...

= 1+ 12 x − 18 x2 + 16
1 3
x + ...

true for −1 < x < 1

1
2
√ 1 = (1 + X)− 2 = 1 + − 12 X + − 12 · − 32 X2!



• 1+X

3
+ − 21 · − 32 · − 52 X3! + ...

(true for −1 < X < 1)

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Solutions to exercises 32
1 2
3 (−2x)
(1 − 2x) 2 = 1 − 12 (−2x) + 1



∴ 2 · 2 2!
3
1 3 5 (−2x)




− 2 · 2 · 2 3! + ...

(true for −1 < (−2x) < 1)

= 1 + x + 32 x2 + 52 x3 + ... true for − 12 < x < 1

2

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Solutions to exercises 33
1
− 12
= 1+ 12 x− 18 x2 + 16
1 3
1+x+ 32 x2 + 52 x3 + ...



∴ (1 + x) (1 − 2x)
2 x

= 1 + x + 23 x2 + 52 x3

+ 12 x(1 + x + 32 x2 )

− 18 x2 (1 + x)
1 3
+ 16 x (1) + ...

= 1 + x + 32 x2 + 52 x3

+ 12 x + 12 x2 + 34 x3

− 18 x2 − 18 x3
1 3
+ 16 x + ...

= 1 + 32 x + 15 2
8 x +51 3
16 x + ...

(converges for − 12 < x < 12 ).

Return to Exercise 10
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