Applications of

Mathematics
STUDY GUIDE
PART B
Contents

Part B

Topic 4. Modelling population growth 37

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors 37

Finding eigenvalues 40

Some interesting features and special cases 45

Leslie matrices 49

Answers to selected activities 56

References 57
 TOPIC 4

Modelling population growth

PREPARED FOR THIS UNIT BY SUSIE GROVES AND
KEVIN MCAVANEY

One of the most well-known models of population growth uses aspects of linear
algebra, which you studied last semester in your unit EMM302 Linear and
Abstract Algebra.

The Leslie model (often referred to as the Leslie matrix) was developed by P.H.
Leslie in 1945. It is used in population ecology to model the changes in
population over time of an age-structured population.

Before we look at this application of linear algebra to modelling population

growth, we need to look at one further aspect of matrix theory – that of
eigenvalues and eigenvectors. .

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors

For an n × n matrix A, consider the mapping Av = u from n-space to
n-space.
Usually the vector u does not lie on the same “line” as the vector v.
In other words, u usually is not a scalar multiple of v, and there is no scalar λ
such that Av = λv.
Of course, A0 = 0 for all A so we are only interested in non-zero vectors.
But sometimes some non-zero vectors do remain on the same line under the
action of A, as shown in Figure 4.1, where we have drawn the special case of
Ax = λx.

FIGURE 4.1
Special case when
Ax = λx Ax = λx
Av

x v

In Figure 4.1, it looks as though the vector x has been “stretched out” by a
factor of about three and a half so that it is longer but still lies on the same line.
[Note that for our purposes here we will only consider vector spaces over the
field of real numbers, so whenever we say that λ is a scalar we just mean that λ
is a real number.]
38 EMM400 TOPIC4

Let’s look at a numerical example.

EXAMPLE 4.1 ⎡2 − 4 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡ − 6 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
⎢− 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ≠ λ ⎢ ⎥ for any scalar λ, but
⎣ − 1 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ − 3⎦ ⎣2⎦
⎡2 − 4⎤ ⎡ 4 ⎤ ⎡ 12 ⎤ ⎡4⎤
⎢− 1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ = 3⎢ ⎥ .
⎣ − 1 ⎦ ⎣− 1⎦ ⎣− 3⎦ ⎣− 1⎦

⎡ 2 − 4⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
So the matrix ⎢ ⎥ moves the vector ⎢ ⎥ onto a different line in the
⎣− 1 − 1 ⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
⎡4⎤
plane but keeps the vector ⎢ ⎥ on the same line while changing only its
⎣−1⎦
length.

EIGENVALUES & If A is a square matrix and Ax = λx for some scalar λ and some non-zero
EIGENVECTORS vector x, then
▪ λ is called an eigenvalue of A; and
▪ x is called an eigenvector corresponding to λ.

The terms eigenvalue and eigenvector come from the German word “eigen”
meaning “own”. So we see that if Ax = λx, the vector x is moved onto its “own”
direction.

CHARACTERISTIC The eigenvalues associated with a matrix A are also called characteristic values
VALUES & or characteristic roots associated with A, and the eigenvectors are called the
CHARACTERISTIC characteristic vectors.
VECTORS

⎡4 − 1⎤ ⎡4 − 1⎤
EXAMPLE 4.2 Let A = ⎢ ⎥ . Then Ax = ⎢2 1 ⎥ x.
⎣2 1 ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎡1⎤ ⎡4 − 1⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡3⎤ ⎡1⎤

Now A ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ =3 ⎢1⎥ .
⎣1⎦ ⎣2 1 ⎦ ⎣1⎦ ⎣3⎦ ⎣⎦

⎡1 ⎤ ⎡4 − 1⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡2⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
Also A ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ =2 ⎢ 2⎥ .
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2 1 ⎦ ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 4⎦ ⎣ ⎦

⎡1⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
So 3 and 2 are eigenvalues with corresponding eigenvectors ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ ⎥ ,
⎣1⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
respectively.

⎡ 2⎤
Notice that if we took the vector ⎢ ⎥ , we would get a similar situation, namely
⎣ 2⎦

⎡ 2⎤ ⎡4 − 1⎤ ⎡2⎤ ⎡6⎤ ⎡ 2⎤
A ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ = 3⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2 1 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣6 ⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
 MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 39

⎡ 2⎤
So ⎢ ⎥ is also an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 3.
⎣ 2⎦

In fact, it is easy to show that if α is any scalar,

⎡1⎤
(
then A α ⎢ ⎥ ) = α A ⎡⎢1⎤⎥ = 3α ⎡⎢1⎤⎥ .
⎣1⎦ ⎣1⎦ ⎣1⎦

⎡1⎤
So, for all α ≠ 0, α ⎢ ⎥ is an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue 3.
⎣1⎦

⎡1 ⎤
Similarly, for all β≠ 0, β ⎢ ⎥ is also an eigenvector corresponding to the
⎣ 2⎦
eigenvalue 2.

⎡1⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
In Example 4.1, we verified the fact that ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ ⎥ were eigenvectors by
⎣1⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
⎡1⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡1 ⎤
showing that A ⎢ ⎥ = 3 ⎢ ⎥ and A ⎢ ⎥ = 2 ⎢ ⎥ . In the process of doing
⎣1⎦ ⎣1⎦ ⎣ 2⎦ ⎣ 2⎦
this, we also found the two corresponding eigenvalues 3 and 2.

In the next example, we will illustrate how we can go about verifying that a
particular scalar is an eigenvalue for a given matrix A , and find its
corresponding eigenvectors.

⎡2 − 5 5 ⎤
EXAMPLE 4.3 ⎢ ⎥
In order to show that 2 is an eigenvalue of A = 0 3 − 1 we will try to
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 − 1 3 ⎥⎦
solve Ax = 2x.

This equation can be rewritten as 2x − Ax = 0 or 2Ix − Ax = 0, where I is

the 3x3 identity matrix.
So our original equation becomes (2I − A)x = 0.

⎡ 0 5 − 5⎤
⎢
Now (2I − A) = 0 − 1 1
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 1 − 1⎥⎦

⎡0 5 − 5 0⎤
⎢
We can apply row operations to the augmented matrix 0 − 1 1 0⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣0 1 − 1 0⎥⎦
(see pp. 15–16 of your EMM302 Linear and Abstract Algebra Study Guide).
40 EMM400 TOPIC4

⎡0 5 − 5 0⎤ ⎡0 5 − 5 0⎤
⎢0 − 1 1 0⎥⎥ R3′ = R2 + R3
⎢0 − 1 1 0⎥⎥
⎢ ⎢
⎢⎣0 1 − 1 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 0 0⎥⎦

⎡0 5 − 5 0 ⎤ ⎡0 1 − 1 0 ⎤
R2′ = R1 + 5R2
⎢0 0 0 0⎥⎥ R1′ = 1 R1
⎢0 0 0 0⎥⎥ .
⎢ 5
⎢
⎢⎣0 0 0 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 0 0⎥⎦

Hence x3 and x1 are arbitrary and x2 = x3.

⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
So the solutions for Ax = 2x are all the vectors of the form x = ⎢ x3 ⎥ ,
⎢x ⎥
⎣ 3⎦
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
which can also be written as x = x1 0 + x3
⎢1 ⎥ .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦

So there are (infinitely) many eigenvectors that correspond to the eigenvalue

⎡1 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
λ = 2, and they are all linear combinations of the vectors 0 and 1 .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦

THEOREM 4.1 If λ is an eigenvalue of matrix A, then the set of all eigenvectors that
correspond to λ is a vector space.

PROOF The set of eigenvectors that correspond to λ is the null space of the matrix
(λI – A) − that is, the set of solutions of (λI – A)x = 0.
(See Topic 3, in your EMM302 Linear and Abstract Algebra Study Guide.)

EIGENSPACES The set of all eigenvectors corresponding to the eigenvalue λ is a vector space
called the eigenspace of λ.

Finding eigenvalues
In the previous two examples, we either started with some known eigenvectors
and found the corresponding eigenvalues (as in Example 4.2) or started with
some known eigenvalues and found the corresponding eigenvectors (as in
Example 4.3).
But what do we do if we know neither the eigenvectors nor the eigenvalues?
We will now show how to find the eigenvalues of a matrix when we don’t have
any other information.
 MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 41

Recalling our earlier definition, a scalar λ is an eigenvalue of a matrix A if

and only if there is a non-zero vector x such that Ax = λx – that is, if and only
if there is a non-zero vector x such that (λI − A)x = 0.
Now we saw in Topic 2 of EMM302 Linear and Abstract Algebra, that there is
a non-zero solution of (λI − A)x = 0 exactly when det (λI − A) = 0.
So the matrix A will have an eigenvalue exactly when det (λI − A) = 0.
As we will see below, this observation will help us find the eigenvalues and
eigenvectors of a matrix (when they exist).
CHARACTERISTIC The equation det (λI − A) = 0 is called the characteristic equation of A and
EQUATIONS & det (λI − A) is called the characteristic polynomial of A.
POLYNOMILAS

⎡2 − 5 5 ⎤
EXAMPLE 4.4 ⎢
Let us try to find the eigenvalues of A = 0 3 − 1 .
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 − 1 3 ⎥⎦

We can do this by finding and solving its characteristic equation as follows:

⎡λ − 2 5 −5 ⎤
⎢ λ −3 1 ⎥⎥ = (λ − 2){(λ − 3)(λ − 3) − 1}
det (λI − A) = det
⎢ 0
⎢⎣ 0 1 λ − 3⎥⎦

= (λ − 2)(λ2 − 6λ + 8) = (λ − 2)(λ − 2)(λ − 4) = 0 when λ = 2, 2, 4.

So the eigenvalues of the matrix A are λ = 2, 2, 4 .

We found the eigenvectors corresponding to λ = 2 in Example 4.3.

To find the eigenvectors corresponding to λ = 4, we solve the system Ax = 4x,

which we can rewrite as (A − 4I )x = 0.

⎡− 2 − 5 5 0⎤ ⎡ 2 5 − 5 0⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 1 1 0⎥⎥ −
Applying row operations to
⎢ 0 − 1 − 1 0⎥ we get ⎢
⎢⎣ 0 − 1 − 1 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 0 0⎥⎦
you should check this for yourselves.

Hence x3 is arbitrary, x2 = −x3, and x1 = 5x3.

So the eienvectors corresponding to the eigenvalue 4 are

⎡5 x3 ⎤ ⎡5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
x = ⎢− x3 ⎥ = x3 − 1
⎢ ⎥
⎢x ⎥ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
⎣ 3 ⎦
⎡5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Thus the eigenspace for λ = 4 is generated by the vector − 1 .
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
42 EMM400 TOPIC4

Before trying some examples for yourselves, let us try another worked example
that is a bit more complicated in its calculations.

⎡− 2 3 1⎤
EXAMPLE 4.5 ⎢
Let A = 0 1 1 .
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ − 3 4 1⎥⎦

⎡λ + 2 − 3 −1 ⎤
⎢ λ − 1 − 1 ⎥⎥
So det (λI − A) = det
⎢ 0
⎢⎣ 3 − 4 λ − 1⎥⎦

⎡λ − 1 − 1 ⎤ ⎡ − 3 − 1⎤
= (λ + 2) det ⎢ ⎥ + 3 det ⎢ ⎥
⎣ − 4 λ − 1⎦ ⎣λ − 1 − 1⎦

= (λ + 2) (λ2 – 2λ +1 – 4) + 3(3 + λ – 1)

= (λ + 2) (λ2 – 2λ– 3) + 3(λ + 2)

= λ3 – 7λ – 6 + 3λ + 6

= λ3 – 4λ

= λ(λ2 – 4) = λ(λ – 2) (λ + 2) .

So A has eigenvalues 0, 2, –2 .

We now need to find the eigenvectors corresponding to each of these

eigenvalues.

That is, we need to solve (λI − A)x = 0 for each of λ = 0, 2, –2 .

We do this in the usual way using row operations.

(i) λ = 0

⎡λ + 2 − 3 − 1 0⎤ ⎡ 2 − 3 − 1 0⎤
⎢ 0 λ − 1 − 1 0⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢0 − 1 − 1 0⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 3 − 4 λ − 1 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣3 − 4 − 1 0⎥⎦

⎡ 2 − 3 − 1 0⎤ ⎡ 2 − 3 − 1 0⎤
R3′ = 2R1 – 3R3
⎢0 − 1 − 1 0⎥ R3′ = R2 + R3
⎢0 − 1 − 1 0⎥ .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 1 1 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 0 0⎥⎦

So we can make x3 arbitrary, x2 = −x3, and

1 1
x1 = (x3 + 3 x2 ) = (x3 − 3x3 ) = −x3 .
2 2
 MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 43

⎡− 1⎤
⎢ ⎥
So x = − 1 is an eigenvector for λ = 0.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦

Notice that, as usual, once we have found one eigenvector for λ = 0, we know
⎡− 1⎤
⎢ ⎥
infinitely many eigenvectors – in this case all the scalar multiples of x = − 1
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦
⎡− 1⎤
⎢ ⎥
− that is, all vectors of the form x = α − 1 , where α is any scalar.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦

As noted earlier, the set of eigenvectors corresponding to an eigenvalue form a

vector space called its eigenspace – in this case the eigenspace corresponding to
⎡− 1⎤
⎢ ⎥
the eigenvalue λ = 0 has as its basis the eigenvector x = − 1 .
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦

(ii) λ = 2

⎡λ + 2 − 3 − 1 0⎤ ⎡ 4 − 3 − 1 0 ⎤
⎢ 0 λ − 1 − 1 0⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢0 1 − 1 0⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 3 − 4 λ − 1 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣3 − 4 1 0⎥⎦

⎡ 4 − 3 − 1 0⎤ ⎡ 4 − 3 − 1 0⎤
R3′ =3R1 – 4R3
⎢0 1 − 1 0⎥ R3′ = 7R2 – R3
⎢0 1 − 1 0⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 7 − 7 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 0 0⎥⎦

So we can make x3 arbitrary, x2 = x3, and

1 1
x1 = (x3 + 3 x2 ) = (x3 + 3x3 ) = x3 .
4 4
⎡1⎤
⎢⎥
So x = 1 is an eigenvector for λ = 2, and the set of all eigenvectors
⎢⎥
⎣⎢1⎦⎥
⎡1⎤
⎢⎥
corresponding to λ = 2 have the form x = α 1 where α is any scalar.
⎢⎥
⎢⎣1⎥⎦
44 EMM400 TOPIC4

(iii) λ = −2

⎡λ + 2 − 3 − 1 0 ⎤ ⎡0 − 3 − 1 0 ⎤
⎢ 0 λ − 1 − 1 0⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢0 − 3 − 1 0⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 3 − 4 λ − 1 0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣3 − 4 − 3 0⎥⎦

⎡0 0 0 0⎤
R1′ =R1 –R2
⎢0 − 3 − 1 0⎥ etc.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣3 − 4 − 3 0⎥⎦

1
So we can make x3 arbitrary, x2 = − x3, and
3
1 1 4 5
x1 = (3x3 + 4 x2 ) = (3x3 − x3 ) = x3 .
3 3 3 9
⎡5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
So x = − 3 is an eigenvector for λ = −2 and the set of all eigenvectors
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣9 ⎥⎦
⎡5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
corresponding to λ = −2 have the form x = α − 3 where α is any scalar.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣9 ⎥⎦

We should also note that not all matrices have eigenvalues, as can be seen in
the following example.

EXAMPLE 4.6
⎡ 0 3⎤
Let A = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ − 2 0⎦
⎡ λ 3⎤
Then det (λI − A) = det ⎢ ⎥ = λ2 + 6 = 0 has no real solutions.
⎣− 2 λ ⎦
So the matrix A has no real eigenvalues.

ACTIVITY 4.1 Find the eigenvalues and corresponding eigenvectors for each of the
following matrices (when they exist).

⎡1 2 3 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎡0 1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 1⎤ ⎡ a 0⎤
a) 0 2 4 ; b) ⎢ ⎥ ; c) ⎢ ⎥ ; d) ⎢ ⎥ ; e) ⎢ ;
⎢ ⎥
⎣ − 1 3⎦ ⎣ 1 0⎦ ⎣ − 1 0⎦ ⎣ 0 b⎥⎦
⎢⎣0 0 2⎥⎦

⎡− 1 0 0 0⎤ ⎡0 0 0 1⎤
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢0 0⎥⎥
⎡2 0⎤ ⎢ 0 0 0⎥ 0 1 ⎡0 1⎤
f) ⎢ ⎥ ; g) ; h) ⎢ ; i) ⎢ ⎥ ;
⎣1 2 ⎦ ⎢0 0 0 1⎥ ⎢0 1 0 0⎥ ⎣− 1 − 1⎦
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 0 1 0⎦ ⎣1 0 0 0⎦
⎡ cosθ sin θ ⎤
j) ⎢ ⎥ .
⎣− sin θ cosθ ⎦
 MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 45

Some interesting features and special cases

ACTIVITY 4.2 Choose any 2 x 2 matrix and find its characteristic polynomial. What is
the degree of the polynomial? (That is, what is the highest power of λ
occurring in the characteristic polynomial?)

Repeat this with another 2 x 2 matrix of your choice.

Did you get the same answer in both cases?

Do you think you would always get the same answer? Why or why not?

Notice that in Example 4.5 the characteristic polynomial of A, det (λI − A),
was a polynomial of degree 3.
This will always be the case whenever we have a 3 x 3 matrix A – can you see
why?

Now let us look at an n × n matrix A.

⎡ a11 a12 ... a1n ⎤

⎢ ⎥
a21 a22 ... a2 n ⎥
If A = ⎢ , then
⎢ ... ... ... ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ an1 an 2 ... ann ⎥⎦

⎡λ − a11 − a12 ... − a1n ⎤

⎢ ⎥
− a21 λ − a22 ... − a2 n ⎥
λI − A = ⎢ .
⎢ ... ... ... ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ − an1 − an 2 ... λ − ann ⎥⎦
We can now determine a few coefficients in the characteristic polynomial of an
n × n matrix A without actually expanding det (λI − A).
If we were to use the top row to expand the determinant, we can see that the
highest power of λ in the polynomial is n
In other words, the characteristic polynomial of an n × n matrix A has degree
n.
We can also see that the coefficient of λn is 1.
Also the term in λn−1 can only come from the product of all the diagonal
entries, so its coefficient is the negative of the sum of all the diagonal entries in
A – that is, the co-efficient of λn−1 = – ( a11 + a22 + …. + ann ).

Finally, the constant term in the polynomial is the value of the polynomial
when λ = 0.

So the constant term is det (0I − A) = det (−A) = (−1)n det A.

In Example 4.4 above, the characteristic polynomial of the 3 × 3 matrix A is

(λ − 2) (λ − 2) (λ − 4) = λ3 − 8λ2 + 20λ − 16 and we can easily check that the
sum of the main diagonal entries in A is 8 and that det A = 16.
46 EMM400 TOPIC4

ACTIVITY 4.3 ⎡− 2 3 1⎤
⎢
In Example 4.5, we had A = 0 1 1 .
⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ − 3 4 1⎥⎦

Write down the characteristic polynomial for A – you don’t need to

calculate it again, just write it down.

Check that the statements above about the co-efficients of λn, λn−1 , and the
constant term are correct.

ACTIVITY 4.4 Find a 2x2 matrix A with characteristic polynomial λ2 + λ −1 .

Eigenvalues often give interesting information about their matrix.

THEOREM 4.2 det A = 0 if and only A has a zero eigenvalue.

For a proof of Theorem 4.2, see Exercise 9, Reiner, p. 77.

THEOREM 4.3 The eigenvectors that correspond to distinct eigenvalues of a matrix are linearly
independent.

PROOF Suppose a matrix A has distinct eigenvalues λ1, λ2, …, λk , which have
eigenvectors v1, v2, …, vk respectively.
Suppose one of these, say v1, is a linear combination of the others.
Thus v1 = c2v2 + · · · + ckvk , for some scalars c2 , …, ck .
Then Av1 = Ac2v2 + · · · + Ackvk = c2λ2v2 + · · · + ckλkvk.
But λ1v1 = λ1c2v2 + · · · + λ1ckvk .
So 0 = c2(λ1 − λ2)v2 + · · · + ck(λ1 − λk)vk .
The eigenvalues are distinct, so none of the brackets are 0. Also not all of the
cis can be 0, otherwise v1 would be zero.
Therefore one of v2, …, vk is a linear combination of the others.
We can repeat this argument until only one eigenvector remains. Then this last
eigenvector must be zero, which is a contradiction.
Therefore all of the eigenvectors v1, v2, …, vk are lineraly independent.

THEOREM 4.4 The eigenvalues of a diagonal matrix are its diagonal entries.

PROOF ⎡ d1 0 ... 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 d2 ... 0 ⎥
Let D = ⎢ be a diagonal matrix.
⎢ ... ... ... ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 0 ... d n ⎦⎥
 MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 47

The characteristic polynomial of D is det (λI − D)

⎡ λ − d1 0 ... 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
0 λ − d2 ... 0
= det ⎢ ⎥ = (λ − d1)(λ − d2) … (λ − dn).
⎢ ... ... ... ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 0 ... λ − d n ⎦⎥

So the eigenvalues of D are λ = d1, d2, … dn.

n
COROLLARY The characteristic polynomial of an n × n identity matrix is (λ − 1) .

Multiplying diagonal matrices is easy (why?). We can sometimes convert a

square matrix to a diagonal matrix in a way that helps us find powers of the
original square matrix.

THEOREM 4.5 Let A be an n × n matrix.

Then A = BDB−1 for some invertible matrix B and diagonal matrix D if and
only if A has n linearly independent eigenvectors and these are the columns
of B and their eigenvalues are respectively the diagonal entries in D.

We won’t prove this result, but instead illustrate it with an example.

EXAMPLE 4.7 ⎡− 2 3 1⎤
⎢ ⎥
Let A = 0 1 1 be the matrix we used in Example 4.5.
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ − 3 4 1⎥⎦

We found that the eigenvalues of A were λ = 0, 2, –2 and that the

⎡− 1⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
corresponding eigenvectors were − 1 ,
⎢1⎥ and ⎢− 3⎥ .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1⎥⎦ ⎢⎣9 ⎥⎦

We will now check Theorem 4.5 by letting

⎡− 1 1 5 ⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
B = − 1 1 − 3 and D = 0 2 0 .
⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 1 9 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 − 2⎥⎦

Next we have to find B−1 – you can do this either by finding

A−1 = adj A / det A (see Theorem 2.4, p. 14 of your EMM302 Linear and
Abstract Algebra study guide) or by using row operations (see pp. 15–16 of the
same study guide). I will leave it to you to do this as Activity 4.5.

⎡ 6 − 2 − 4⎤
1⎢
−1
You should find B = –
⎢ 3 − 7 − 4⎥⎥ .
8
⎢⎣− 1 1 0 ⎥⎦

We can now check that A = BD B−1 as follows:

48 EMM400 TOPIC4

⎡ − 1 1 5 ⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤ ⎡ 6 − 2 − 4⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 1 ⎢ ⎥
BDB = − 1 1 − 3 0 2 0 (– ) 3 − 7 − 4
−1
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ 8 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 1 9 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 − 2⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− 1 1 0 ⎥⎦

⎡0 2 − 10⎤ ⎡ 6 − 2 − 4⎤
⎢ 1 ⎢
= 0 2
⎢ 6 ⎥ (– ) ⎢ 3 − 7 − 4⎥⎥
⎥
8
⎢⎣0 2 − 18⎥⎦ ⎢⎣− 1 1 0 ⎥⎦

⎡16 − 24 − 8⎤ ⎡− 2 3 1⎤
1⎢
=–
⎢ 0 − 8 − 8⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ 0 1 1⎥⎥ = A.
8
⎢⎣24 − 32 − 8⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 3 4 1⎥⎦

So we have now shown that BDB−1 = A.

This is useful when we want to take powers of a matrix A.

20 20 20
For example, if we wanted to find A =(BDB−1) = BD B−1 (Why?).

This is much easier to calculate as finding powers of diagonal matrices is really

easy!

ACTIVITY 4.5 ⎡− 1 1 5 ⎤ ⎡0 0 0 ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
Let B = − 1 1 − 3 and D = 0 2 0 , as in Example 4.7.
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 1 9 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 − 2⎥⎦

a) Use either A−1 = adj A / det A or row operations to find B−1.

2 3 4 20
b) Find D , D , D and write down what you would expect to get for D .

⎡2 −5 5⎤
ACTIVITY 4.6 In Examples 4.3 and 4.4 we found that the matrix A = 0
⎢ 3 − 1⎥⎥ has
⎢
⎢⎣0 − 1 3 ⎥⎦
⎡1 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤ ⎡5 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
eigenvalues 2, 2, 4 with corresponding eigenvectors 0 ,
⎢1 ⎥ and ⎢− 1⎥ .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣1 ⎥⎦

⎡1 0 5 ⎤ ⎡2 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
Let B = 0 1 − 1 and D =
⎢0 2 0 ⎥ .
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0 1 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 0 4⎥⎦

Find B−1 and check that A = BDB−1.

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors have many applications both in the theoretical

understanding of matrices and vectors and in mathematical modelling.
 MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 49

Leslie matrices
The Leslie model is one of the most used models in population ecology. It has
been used to describe the growth of populations of a wide variety of animals,
such as different species of fish, rabbits, beetles, and humans. In this section,
we will look at the model and its applications to a few examples, not all of
which are necessarily about living things.
The Leslie model uses a number of assumptions:
• The population can be divided into discrete categories;
• there is a known initial population distribution based on these categories;
• the population is time dependent and we can use discrete time intervals to
describe the population (for example, years);
• there is a known probability of movement from one category to another
from one time interval to the next; and
• (when dealing with animals, etc) there is a known probability of
reproduction for each age group.
As we have seen, matrix multiplication is a way of expressing how data may
change. For example, the entries in a vector xk might represent the population
of various groups of animals in an ecological system at time k, and a square
matrix A might represent how the populations change from one period to the
next.
Thus xk+1 = Axk for each k. If the initial population vector is x0 what
happens to xk in the long term?

We will begin with a well-known example of rabbits reproducing according to

what is known in mathematics as the Fibonacci series, named after the famous
Italian mathematician Leonardo Fibonacci (c. 1170 – c. 1250), who is regarded
as being responsible for spreading the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in Europe.

EXAMPLE 4.8 In the year 1202, Fibonacci became interested in the reproduction of rabbits. He
FIBONACCI’S created an imaginary set of ideal conditions under which rabbits could breed,
RABBIT and posed the question, “How many pairs of rabbits will there be a year from
PROBLEM now?” The ideal set of conditions was a follows:
1. You begin with one male rabbit and one female rabbit. These rabbits have
just been born
2. A rabbit will reach sexual maturity after one month.
3. The gestation period of a rabbit is one month.
4. Once it has reached sexual maturity, a female rabbit will give birth every
month.
5. A female rabbit will always give birth to one male rabbit and one female
rabbit.
6. Rabbits never die.

So how many male/female rabbit pairs are there after one year (12 months)?

It is easy to see that the following would happen:

50 EMM400 TOPIC4

Month 0 – One pair of rabbits (condition 1).

Month 1 – The pair of rabbits have mated but have not given birth. Therefore,
there is still only one pair of rabbits.

Month 2 – The first pair of have gives birth to another pair, making two pairs in
all.

Month 3 – The original pair gives birth again, and the second pair mate, but do
not give birth, making three pairs.

Month 4 – The original pair give birth, the pair born in month 2 give birth. The
pair born in month 3 mate, but do not give birth. This makes two new pair, for a
total of five pair.

Month 5 – Every pair that was alive two months ago gives birth. This makes
three new pair, for a total of eight.
The rabbit population creates the sequence: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, ...
We could look at this as follows:
Let Fk = number of pairs of rabbits in the kth month
= (number of pairs of rabbits in the (k – 1) th month) +
(number of pairs of rabbits born in the (k – 1) th month)
= (number of pairs of rabbits in the (k – 1) th month) +
(number of pairs of rabbits in the (k – 2) th month)
= Fk–1 + Fk–2
This relation, Fk = Fk–1 + Fk–2 is known as Fibonacci’s relation.
The sequence satisfying the following conditions:
F0 = 0; F1 = 1; and, for all k > 1, Fk = Fk–1 + Fk–2 is known as the Fibonacci
sequence.
It’s first few terms are 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, ….
For k ≥ 1, the Fibonacci sequence describes the number of pairs of rabbits in the
problem above.
The Fibonacci sequence is very famous and has many fascinating properties – if
you are interested you can easily find out more about it on the World Wide
Web.
Here however, we will try to describe the population growth of the rabbits
using matrices.
In this problem, we can think of the rabbit population as having two age groups
– young and adult.
We can represent the number of rabbits at time k > 1 in each age group as a
⎡ Fk − 2 ⎤
vector xk = ⎢ ⎥ , where the first entry Fk–2 repesents the number of young
⎣ Fk −1 ⎦
rabbits at time k, and the second entry Fk–1 repesents the number of adult rabbits
⎡1⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
at time k, with the added condition that x0 = ⎢ ⎥ and x1 = ⎢ ⎥ .
⎣0 ⎦ ⎣1⎦
 MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 51

It is easy to see that we can no wrepresent the population growth over time as
follows:
⎡0 1⎤
xk+1 = Axk , where A = ⎢ ⎥ , so
⎣1 1⎦
⎡0 1⎤ ⎡ Fk − 2 ⎤ ⎡ Fk −1 ⎤
xk+1 = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥ , which shows that at time k + 1, the
⎣1 1⎦ ⎣ Fk −1 ⎦ ⎣ Fk − 2 + Fk −1 ⎦
number of young rabbits is Fk–1, while the number of adult rabbits is Fk–2, as
expected.
Notice here the significance of each of the entries in the matrix A, which, for
⎡a b ⎤
convenience, we will rewrite here as A = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣c d ⎦
a = 0 represents the fact that none of the Fk–2 young rabbits at time k will have
reproduced yet;
b = 1 represents the fact that all of the Fk–1 adult rabbits at time k will have
reproduced;
c = 1 represents the fact that all of the Fk–2 young rabbits at time k will be
adults at time k; and
d = 1 represents the fact that all of the Fk–1 adult rabbits at time k will still be
adults at time k.
ACTIVITY 4.7 Use the matrix A and the other details from Example 4.8 to find x0, x1, x2,
x3, x4, x5, and in each case check that the total number of rabbits in each
month is as expected.
AGE In general, population problems can be represented through the use of an age
DISTRIBUTION distribution vector and a transition matrix.
VECTORS &
⎡ x1 ⎤ Number in the first age group
TRANSITION
⎢ ⎥
MATRICES ⎢ x2 ⎥ Number in the second age group
⎢.⎥ .
The age distribution vector x = ⎢ ⎥
⎢.⎥ .
⎢.⎥ .
⎢ ⎥
Number in the nth age group
⎣⎢ xn ⎦⎥
⎡b1 b2 b3 ... bn−1 bn ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ s1 0 0 ... 0 0⎥
⎢0 s2 0 ... 0 0⎥
and the transition matrix A = ⎢ ⎥ .
⎢0 0 s3 ... 0 0⎥
⎢ ... ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ 0 0 0 ... sn−1 sn ⎦⎥

For i = 1, 2, … , n, the bi in the top row represent the average number of

offspring for a member of the ith age group.
52 EMM400 TOPIC4

For i = 1, 2, … , n – 1, the numbers si represent the probability of a member of

the ith age group surviving to the (i+1)th age group, while sn represents the
probability that a member of the ith age group remains in the ith age group.

ACTIVITY 4.8 In Example 4.8, the matrix A represents the transition matrix for the
rabbit problem. Explain its entries in terms of the definition of the
transition matrix above.

EXAMPLE 4.9 Suppose a species of animals lives at most four years and the number of males
is a fixed proportion of the number of females.
Let xi = number of females of age (i–1) to age i years, for i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
For i = 1, 2, 3, 4, let bi = probability that a female in the age group i produces
a female offspring (i.e. the average number of offspring per female in this age
group).
For i = 1, 2, 3, let si = probability that a female in age group i survives to the
next age group. [Note that since these animals live at most four years, the
probablility that a female in age group 4 survives is zero – i.e. s4 = 0.]
The following data is given:
1 1 3 1
b1 = , b2 = , b3 = , b4 = ,
10 2 4 4
4 3 1
s1 = , s2 = , s3 = , s4 = 0 .
5 4 3
We want to predict the female population after one year, two years, etc.
⎡ x1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
x2
Let x = ⎢ ⎥ be the current age distribution vector.
⎢ x3 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ x4 ⎥⎦
After one year, we will have
1 1 3 1
x1′ = x1 + x2 + x3 + x4
10 2 4 4
4
x2′ = x1
5
3
x3′ = x2
4
1
x4′ = x3 .
3
 MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 53

⎡1 1 3 1⎤
⎢10 2 4 4⎥
⎢4 ⎥
So the transition matrix A = ⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥ and x′ = Ax.
⎢5 ⎥
⎢0 3
0 0⎥
⎢ 4 ⎥
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢0 0 0⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦

That is, the population distribution after one year is given by Ax, after two years
by A(Ax) = A2x, after three years by A3x, etc.
⎡1200⎤
⎢1000⎥
Let the initial population be x0 = ⎢ ⎥.
⎢ 800 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 100 ⎦

⎡1200⎤ ⎡⎢ 1 1 3 1⎤ ⎡1200⎤ ⎡1450⎤

⎢1000⎥ ⎢10 2 4 4⎥ ⎢1000⎥ ⎢ 800 ⎥
⎥
Then x1 = A ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢4 0 0 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥ =⎢ ⎥
⎢ 800 ⎥ ⎢ 5 ⎥ ⎢ 800 ⎥ ⎢ 750 ⎥
⎥ ⎢0 3
⎢ 0 0⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 100 ⎦ ⎢ 4 ⎥ ⎣ 100 ⎦ ⎣ 267 ⎦
⎢ 1 ⎥
⎢0 0 0⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦

⎡1174⎤
⎢1160⎥
and x2 = A x1 = ⎢ ⎥.
⎢ 600 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 250 ⎦
⎡1000⎤
⎢ 800 ⎥
However, notice that if instead we have x0 = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 600 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 200 ⎦
⎡1000⎤
⎢ 800 ⎥
and x1 = A x0 = ⎢ ⎥ = x0 .
⎢ 600 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 200 ⎦
So in this case we have a stable population distribution.
This corresponds to A having an eigenvalue 1 with corresponding
⎡1000⎤
⎢ 800 ⎥
eigenvector ⎢ ⎥.
⎢ 600 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 200 ⎦
54 EMM400 TOPIC4

ACTIVITY 4.9 ⎡1200⎤

⎢1200⎥
In Example 4.9, find x1 and x2 if x0 = ⎢ ⎥.
⎢1000⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 200 ⎦

We will finish this section with a slightly different example where there is
movement between two categories of “population” but no births.

EXAMPLE 4.10 Suppose in a small town in Malaysia every adult owns either a car or a
motorcycle, but not both and that this year 30% of the population own a car and
70% own a motorcycle.

⎡ 0.3⎤
We could write this as x0 = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣0.7⎦

Suppose also that 85% of the car owners remain car owners next year and 15%
change to motorcycles, while 20% of motorcycle owners change to cars while
80% remain motorcycle owners, and that this pattern continues each year.

⎡0.85 0.20⎤
We could write this as A = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣0.15 0.80⎦

So we could write this as xk+1 = Axk for k ≥ 0.

To find out what percentage of adults will own cars and motorcycles in the
long-term, we can look for the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A.

⎡λ − 0.85 − 0.20 ⎤
⎥ = λ − 1.65λ + 0.65
2
Let 0 = det (λI − A) = det ⎢
⎣ − 0.15 λ − 0.80 ⎦
= (λ − 1)(λ − 0.65) .

Thus λ = 0.65, 1.

To get the eigenvector for λ = 1, we apply row operations to

⎡ 0.15 − 0.2 0⎤ ⎡ − 3 4 0⎤ ⎡ 4⎤
⎢− 0.15 ⎥ and get ⎢ ⎥ . Hence x = k⎢ ⎥ .
⎣ 0.2 0⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0⎦ ⎣ 3⎦

To get the eigenvector for λ = 0.65, we apply row operations to

⎡ − 0.2 − 0.2 0⎤ ⎡ 1 1 0⎤ ⎡1⎤

⎢− 0.15 − 0.15 0⎥ and get ⎢0 0 0⎥ . Hence x = k⎢ ⎥ .
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣−1⎦

⎡ 4⎤ ⎡1⎤
Since ⎢ ⎥ and ⎢ ⎥ are linearly independent, x0 is a linear combination of
⎣ 3⎦ ⎣−1⎦
these two vectors.
 MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 55

⎡ 4⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡4 1 ⎤ ⎡ c1 ⎤ ⎡ 0.3⎤
Thus x0 = c1 ⎢ ⎥ + c2 ⎢ ⎥ or ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ .
⎣ 3⎦ ⎣−1⎦ ⎣3 − 1⎦ ⎣c 2 ⎦ ⎣0.7 ⎦
−1
⎡ c1 ⎤ ⎡4 1 ⎤ ⎡0.3⎤ 1 ⎡ − 1 − 1⎤ ⎡ 0.3⎤ 1 ⎡ 1 ⎤
Hence ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ = −7 ⎢− 3 = .
⎣c 2 ⎦ ⎣3 − 1⎦ ⎣0.7⎦ ⎣ 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0.7 ⎥⎦ 7 ⎢⎣− 1.9⎥⎦
⎡ 4⎤ ⎡1⎤
So x0 = 17 ⎢ ⎥ − 17.9 ⎢ ⎥ .
⎣ 3⎦ ⎣−1⎦
⎡ 4⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡ 4⎤ ⎡1⎤
Then x1 = Ax0 = 17 A ⎢ ⎥ − 17.9 A ⎢ ⎥ = 17 ⎢ 3⎥ −
1.9
0.65 ⎢ ⎥,
⎣−1⎦ ⎣−1⎦
7
⎣ 3⎦ ⎣ ⎦
⎡ 4⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡ 4⎤ ⎡1⎤
x2 = 17 A ⎢ ⎥ − 17.9 0.65A ⎢ ⎥ = 17 ⎢ ⎥ − 1.9
0.652 ⎢ ⎥,
⎣−1⎦ ⎣−1⎦
7
⎣ 3⎦ ⎣ 3⎦
⎡ 4⎤ ⎡1⎤
and so on to xk = 17 ⎢ ⎥ − 17.9 0.65k ⎢ ⎥ .
⎣ 3⎦ ⎣−1⎦

As k becomes larger, 0.65k converges to 0 and therefore xk converges to

1
⎡ 4⎤
7 ⎢ 3⎥ .
⎣ ⎦
4
Thus the proportion of car owners increases from 0.3 to 7 = 57% and the
3
proportion of motor cycle owners decreases from 0.7 to 7 = 43%.

ACTIVITY 4.10 This problem is similar to Example 4.9, but with only three age groups.

⎡v1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
Let v = ⎢v2 ⎥ give the number of members in each of the three age groups and
⎢ v3 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
let Av give the population distribution after a year has elapsed.

⎡1 5 1⎤
⎢4 6 4⎥
⎢3 ⎥
Let Av = ⎢ 0 0⎥ v .
⎢4 ⎥
⎢0 2
0⎥
⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦

a) Interpret the entries of the matrix A.

b) Find the eigenvalues λ1 , λ2 , λ3 of A.

c) Find one eigenvector x1 , x2 , x3 corresponding to each of the eigenvalues

λ1 , λ2 , λ3 , respectively. [Try to avoid fractional entries.]

d) Write down the matrix B = [x1 , x2 , x3] – that is the matrix with ith column
xi for i = 1, 2, 3.

e) Find B –1 .
56 EMM400 TOPIC4

⎡λ1 0 0⎤
⎢ ⎥
f) –1
Show that B AB = ⎢ 0 λ2 0 ⎥ and call this matrix D.
⎢0 0 λ3 ⎥⎦
⎣

g) Find D 2, D 3, and D n, for any natural number n.

h) Since D = B –1AB , we know that A = BDB –1.

How could we write A n?

i) Use h) to prove that

⎡16 16 4⎤ ⎡ 20 − 20 − 10 ⎤
1 ⎢ ⎥ 1 ⎛ −1⎞ n ⎢
n
A =
⎢ 12 12 3⎥ + ⎜ ⎟ ⎢− 30 30 15 ⎥⎥
30 30 ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎢⎣ 8 8 2⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 40 − 40 − 20⎥⎦
⎡ −6 4 6 ⎤
1 ⎛ −1⎞ n ⎢ ⎥
+ ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ 18 − 12 − 18⎥
30 ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎢⎣− 48 32 48 ⎥⎦

⎡v1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
j) If the initial population is v = ⎢v2 ⎥ , show that the population distribution
⎢ v3 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎡ 4⎤
4v1 + 4v2 + v3 ⎢ ⎥
approaches
30 ⎢3⎥ after enough time has elapsed.
⎢⎣2⎥⎦
[In fact, after 10 years the population distribution os correct to within 1%
of the population.]

k) For which values of v1 , v 2 , v 3 is the population stable?

Describe what happens after a large number of years if the initial
population is not stable.

Answers to selected activities

⎡1⎤ ⎡ 2⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢1 ⎥ ; ⎡1⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡1⎤
ACTIVITY 4.1 a) 1, 0 , 2, b) 2, ⎢ ⎥ ; c) 1, ⎢ ⎥ , −1, ⎢ ⎥;
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣0⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0⎥⎦ ⎣1⎦ ⎣1⎦ ⎣−1⎦

⎡1⎤ ⎡0 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤
d) no real eigenvalues; e) a, ⎢ ⎥ , b, ⎢ ⎥ ; f) 2, ⎢ ⎥ ;
⎣0 ⎦ ⎣1⎦ ⎣1 ⎦
 MODELLING POPULATION GROWTH 57

⎡0 ⎤ ⎡0 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡0⎤ ⎡1 ⎤ ⎡ 0 ⎤ ⎡1⎤ ⎡0⎤

⎢1 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢1⎥
g) 0, ⎢ ⎥ , 1, ⎢ ⎥ , −1, ⎢ ⎥, ⎢ ⎥ ; h) 1, ⎢0⎥ , ⎢1⎥ , −1, ⎢ ⎥, ⎢ ⎥;
⎢0 ⎥ ⎢1 ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ ⎢1⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥ ⎢1 ⎥ ⎢0⎥ ⎢− 1⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣0 ⎦ ⎣1 ⎦ ⎣0 ⎦ ⎣−1⎦ ⎣1 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣−1⎦ ⎣0⎦

i) no real eigenvalues; j) no real eigenvalues.

References
Reiner, I., Introduction to Matrix Theory and Linear Algebra, Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, New York, 1971. Chapter 11.