STANDARD XI - HISTORY 8.

The Mauryan period - Sources - Chandragupta

Maurya - Asoka - Mauryan Administration -
SYLLABUS Asoka’s Dharma - Development of Art and
Periods Architecture - Decline of Mauryas. 10
Unit I
1. The Impact of Geography on Indian History - Unit IV
Unity in Diversity 5 9. India after the Mauryas - the Sungas - Kanvas -

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2. The Stone Age - The Old Stone Age Satavahanas Kushnas - Kanishka - Gandhara Art. 10
(Paleolithic Age) - New Stone Age 10. Sangam Age in Tamil Nadu - Sources - Brief
(Neolithic Age) - Metal Age - Salient features History of Kingdoms - Social, Religious and

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of Harappan culture. 5 Economic life of the people. 5
3. Vedic Period - Sources - Early Vedic Period Unit V
(Rig Vedic Period) - Later Vedic Period -
11. India of Gupta period - Administration -
Epic age - Social, Economic and Cultural life 5

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Social, Economic and Cultural conditions - Hun
invasions and decline of the Guptas. 10
Unit II
12. Harshavardhana - Sources - Social, Religious
4. Condition of India in the 6th Century B.C.
and Cultural life. 5
- Magadhan empire and other kindgoms. 5

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5. Rise of Jainism - Mahavira - Principles of Jainism -
Unit VI
13. South Indian Empires 15
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Digambaras and Swedambaras - Spread of Jainism -
A. Pallavas - Sources - Administration - Social, Economic and
Contributions. 5
Cultural conditions.
6. Rise of Buddhism - Buddha - Principles of
B. Chalukyas - Development of Arts.
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Buddhism - Hinayana and Mahayana sects -

C. Rashtrakutas - Contribution to Arts.
Spread of Buddhism - Contributions. The
Similarities and dissimilarities of these two religions. 5 D. Cholas - Social, Economic and Cultural conditions.

Unit III 14. The Cultural Relations between India and the
Asian countries 5
7. India of the Pre-Mauryan period - Nandas -
Persian invasion - Alexander’s invasion - Results. 5

v vi
Unit VII CONTENTS
15. Indian During Arab Invasions - Rajput kingdoms - INDIAN HISTORY
Arab Invasions-Mahmud of Ghazni-Muthammad of Ghor. 10
Sub. Page
16. Delhi Sultans - Mameluk, Khilji, Tughluq, Sayyid and
Lodi Dynasties. 20 No. No.

17. Social, Economic and Cultural conditions under 1. India - Geographical Features and their 1

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Impact on History
the Sultanate of Delhi
2. Pre-Historic India and the Harappan Culture 11
3. The Vedic Culture 27
Unit VIII
4. Jainism and Buddhism 37

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18. Bhakti Movement in Medieaval India - Ramananda, 5. The Rise of Magadha and Alexander’s Invasion 47
Kabir - Vallabhacharya - Chaitanya - Gurunanak - 6. The Mauryan Empire 59
Meerabai - Sufism 10 7. Post - Mauryan India 74
19. Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdoms - Social, 8. Sangam Age 85

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Economic and Cultural conditions. 10 9. Gupta Empire 96
10. Harshavardhana (606 - 647 A.D) 113
Unit IX 11. South Indian Kingdoms - I
Pallavas 122
20. Mughal empire - Brief History of Mughal, Sur 12. South Indian Kingdoms - II
dynasty rulers.
21. Mughal Administration - Emperor - Central e 15
13.
Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas
Imperial Cholas
132
141
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14. The Spread of Indian Culture in
Government Officials - Provincial Governments - other Asian Countries 154
Officials - Duties - Decline of the Mughals. 15. Early Medieval India 163
22. Social, Economics, Religious and Cultural conditions 16. Delhi Sultanate 172
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under the Mughals. 10 17. India under the Delhi Sultanate 190
18. Bhakti Movement in Medieval India 200
Unit X
19. Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdoms 209
23. Rise of Marathas - Administration of Shivaji - 20. The Mughal Empire 221
Peshwas. 10 21. India under the Mughals 239
24. Coming of the Europeans to India - Establishment of 22. The Marathas 249
British Rule in India 10 23. The Coming of Europeans 258

vii viii
 LESSON 1
INDIA- GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES
AND THEIR IMPACT ON HISTORY

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

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1. The geographical features of India.

2. The Himalayan Mountains and their impact on Indian

history.

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3. The Gangetic plains and their role in Indian history.

4. The Southern Peninsula and its effects on South Indian

history.

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5. India’s unity in diversity

It is generally said that history has two eyes – one is

chronology and the other is geography. In other words time and

e space are significant factors in determining the historical process. In

particular, a country’s geography largely determines its historical
re
events. The history of India is also influenced by its geography.
Hence, the study of Indian geographical features contributes to the
better understanding of its history.
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The Indian subcontinent is a well-defined geographical unit.

It may be divided into three major regions: the Himalayan Mountains,
the Indo-Gangetic Plains and the Southern Peninsula. There are
five countries in the subcontinent – India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
Nepal and Bhutan. India is the largest among them and it comprises
twenty-eight states and six Union Territories. According to the 2001
Census, the population of India is over one hundred crores.

1
The Himalayan Mountains
The Himalayan Mountains are situated on the north of India.
Starting from the Pamir in the extreme northwest of India, the mighty
Himalayan range extends towards northeast. It has a length of nearly
2560 kilometres with an average breadth of 240 to 320 kilometres.
The highest peak of the Himalayas is known as Mount Everest with
its height being 8869 metres. It acts as a natural wall and protects
the country against the cold arctic winds blowing from Siberia through
Central Asia. This keeps the climate of northern India fairly warm
throughout the year. The Himalayan region is mostly inhospitable in
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winter and generally covered with snow.
It was considered for a long time that the Himalayas stood as
a natural barrier to protect India against invasions. But, the passes
in the northwest mountains such as the Khyber, Bolan, Kurram and
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Gomal provided easy routes between India and Central Asia. These
passes are situated in the Hindukush, Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges.
From prehistoric times, there was a continuous flow of traffic through
these passes. Many people came to India through these passes as
invaders and immigrants. The Indo-Aryans, the Indo-Greeks,
e
Parthians, Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas and Turks entered India through
these passes. The Swat valley in this region formed another
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important route. Alexander of Macedon came to India through this
route. Apart from invading armies, missionaries and merchants came
to India using these routes. Therefore, these passes in the northwest
mountains had facilitated trade as well as cultural contacts between
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India and the Central Asia.
In the north of Kashmir is Karakoram Range. The second
highest peak in the world, Mount Godwin Austen is situated here.
This part of the Himalayas and its passes are high and snow-covered
in the winter. The Karakoram highway via Gilgit is connected to
Central Asia but there was little communication through this route.
2 3
The valley of Kashmir is surrounded by high mountains. However,
it could be reached through several passes. The Kashmir valley
remains unique for its tradition and culture. Nepal is also a small
valley under the foot of the Himalayas and it is accessible from
Gangetic plains through a number of passes.
In the east, the Himalayas extend up to Assam. The important
mountains in this region are Pat Koi, Nagai and Lushai ranges. These
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hills are covered with thick forests due to heavy rains and mostly
remain inhospitable. The mountains of northeast India is difficult to
cross and many parts of this region had remained in relative isolation.
The Indo-Gangetic Plain
The Indo-Gangetic plain is irrigated by three important rivers,
the Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra. This vast plain is most fertile
and productive because of the alluvial soil brought by the streams
of the rivers and its tributaries.
The Indus river rises beyond the Himalayas and its major
tributaries are the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej and Beas. The Punjab
plains are benefited by the Indus river system. The literal meaning of
the term ‘Punjab’ is the land of five rivers. Sind is situated at the lower
valley of the Indus. The Indus plain is known for its fertile soil.
The Thar Desert and Aravalli hills are situated in between the
Indus and Gangetic plains. Mount Abu is the highest point (5650 ft.) in
the Aravalli hills. The Ganges river rises in the Himalayas, flows south
and then towards the east. The river
Yamuna flows almost parallel to the
Ganges and then joins it. The area
between these two rivers is called doab
– meaning the land between two rivers.
The important tributaries of the Ganges
are the Gomati, Sarayu, Ghagra and
Thar Desert Gandak.
 In the east of India, the Ganges plain merges into the plains of
Brahmaputra. The river Brahmaputra rises beyond the Himalayas, flows
across Tibet and then continues through the plains of northeast India. In
the plains, it is a vast but a slow-moving river forming several islands.
The Indo-Gangetic plain has contributed to the rise of urban
centres, particularly on the river banks or at the confluence of rivers.
The Harappan culture flourished in the Indus valley. The Vedic culture
prospered in the western Gangetic plain. Banares, Allahabad, Agra,
Delhi and Pataliputra are some of the important cities of the Gangetic
plain. The city of Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of Son
ed
river with the Ganges. In the ancient period Pataliputra had remained
the capital for the Mauryas, Sungas, Guptas and other kingdoms.
The most important city on the western side of the Gangetic plain
is Delhi. Most of the decisive battles of Indian history such as the
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Kurukshetra, Tarain and Panipat were fought near Delhi. Also, this
plain had always been a source of temptation and attraction for the
foreign invaders due to its fertility and productive wealth. Important
powers fought for the possession of these plains and valleys. Especially
the Ganga-Yamuna doab proved to be the most coveted and contested
area.
e Western Ghats. The Eastern Ghats are not very high and have several
re
The rivers in this region served as arteries of commerce and
communication. In ancient times it was difficult to make roads, and
so men and material were moved by boat. The importance of rivers
for communication continued till the days of the East India Company.
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The Southern Peninsula
The Vindhya and Satpura mountains along with Narmada and
the Tapti rivers form the great dividing line between northern and
southern India. The plateau to the south of the Vindhya Mountains
is known as the Deccan plateau. It consists of volcanic rock, which
is different from the northern mountains. As these rocks are easier
4 5
to cut into, we find a number of rock-cut monasteries and temples
in the Deccan.
The Deccan plateau is flanked by the Eastern Ghats and
Western Ghats. The Coramandal Coast stands between the Eastern
Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. The Western Ghats runs along the
Arabian sea and the lands between these are known as Konkan up
to Goa and beyond that as Kanara. The southernmost part is known
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as Malabar Coast. The passes in the Western Ghats like Junnar,
Kanheri and Karle linked the trade routes to the western ports. The
Deccan plateau acted as a bridge between the north and south India.
However, the dense forests in the Vindhya Mountains makes this
region isolated from the north. The language and culture in the
southern peninsula are preserved in tact for a long time due to this
geographical isolation.
In the southern end remains the famous Palghat Pass. It is the
passage across the Ghats from the Kaveri valley to the Malabar
Coast. The Palghat Pass was an important trade route for the Indo-
Roman trade in the ancient times. The Anaimudi is the highest peak
in the southern peninsula. Doddapetta is another highest peak in the
openings caused by the eastward flow of the rivers into the Bay of
Bengal. The port cities of Arikkamedu, Mamallapuram and
Kaveripattanam were situated on the Coramandal coast.
The major rivers of the southern peninsula are almost running
parallel. Mahanadhi is at the eastern end of the peninsula. Narmadha
and Tapti run from east to west. Other rivers like the Godavari,
Krishna, Tungabhadra and Kaveri flow from west to east. These
rivers make the plateau into a fertile rice producing soil. Throughout
history, the region between Krishna and Tungabhadra (Raichur
Doab) remained a bone of contention between the major kingdoms
of the south. The deltaic plains formed by these two rivers at their
mouths became famous under the Satavahanas. A number of towns
and ports flourished in these plains in the beginning of the Christian
era.
The Kaveri delta constitutes a distinct geographical zone in
the far south. It became the seat of the Chola power. The Kaveri
basin with its rich tradition, language and culture has flourished from
the ancient times.
As the southern peninsula is gifted with a long coastline, the
people of this region took keen interest in the maritime activities. A
great deal of trade and commerce went on through the seaways
ed
from the earliest times. In the east, mariners reached countries like
Jawa, Sumatra, Burma and Cambodia. Apart from trade, they
spread Indian art, religion and culture in these parts of the world.
The commercial contacts between south India and the Greco-Roman
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countries flourished along with cultural relations.
India – A Land of Unity in Diversity
The history of ancient India is interesting because India proved
to be a melting pot of numerous races. The pre-Aryans, the Indo-
e
Aryans, the Greeks, the Scythians, the Hunas, the Turks, etc., made
India their home. Each ethnic group contributed its might to the
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making of Indian culture. All these peoples mixed up so inextricably
with one another that at present none of them can be identified in
their original form. Different cultures mingled with one another
through the ages. Many pre-Aryan or Dravidian terms occur in the
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Vedic texts. Similarly, many Pali and Sanskritic terms appear in the
Sangam literature.
Since ancient times, India has been the land of several religions.
Ancient India witnessed the birth of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.
But all these cultures and religions intermingled with one another.
Although Indians people speak different languages, practice different
6 7
religions, and observe different social customs, they follow certain
common styles of life throughout the country. Therefore, our country
shows a deep underlying unity in spite of great diversity.
In fact, the ancients strove for unity. They looked upon this
vast subcontinent as one land. The name Bharatavarsha or the
land of Bharata was given to the whole country, after the name of
an ancient tribe called the Bharatas. Our ancient poets, philosophers
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and writers viewed the country as an integral unit. This kind of political
unity was attained at least twice during the Mauryan and Gupta
Empires.
The unity of India was also recognized by foreigners. They
first came into contact with the people living on the Sindhu or the
Indus, and so they named the whole country after this river. The
word Hind is derived from the Sanskrit term Sindhu, and in course
of time the country came to be known as ‘India’ in Greek, and
‘Hind’ in Persian and Arabic languages.
Efforts for the linguistic and cultural unity of the country were
made through the ages. In the third century B.C., Prakrit language
served as the lingua franca of the country. Throughout the major
portion of India, Asoka’s inscriptions were written in the Prakrit
language. Also, the ancient epics, the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, were studied with the same zeal and devotion
throughout the country. Originally composed in Sanskrit, these epics
came to be presented in different local languages. Although the Indian
cultural values and ideas were expressed in different forms, the
substance remained the same throughout the country.
Hence, India has emerged a multi-religious and multi-cultural
society. However, the underlying unity and integrity and the plural
character of Indian society remain the real strength for the
development of the country.
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The geographical features of India. 1. Alexander of Macedon came to India through
2. The details of the Himalayan Mountains, the passes in (a) Deccan Plateau (b) Kharakoram range
the northwest and how they were used by the foreign
(c) Swat valley (d) Aravalli hills
invaders, traders and migrants.

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2. The region between two rivers is called
3. The river systems of the Indo-Gangetic Gangetic valley
and their impact on the historical events such as battles (a) Plateau (b) Peninsula
and emergence of urban centres. (c) Doab (d) Peak

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4. The southern peninsula, the long coasts which II. Fill in the blanks.
contributed to a lot of maritime activities.
1. The river Ganges rises in …….
5. How India emerged as a multicultural society and the
2. The highest peak in the southern peninsula is ……

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same is successfully sustained over the centuries.
III. Match the following.
1. Mount Everest a) Aravalli hills
2. Mount Abu b) Kharakoram

e 3.
4.
Doddabetta
Godwin Austin
c) Himalayas
d) Western Ghats
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IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) Narmada river runs from east to west.
S

b) Kaveri river runs from south to north.

c) Yamuna river merges with Tapti.
d) Maha Nadhi river irrigates the Punjab region.

8 9
V. State whether the following statements are true or False. LESSON 2
1. The city of Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of Ganges PRE-HISTORIC INDIA AND
with Brahmaputra. THE HARAPPAN CULTURE
2. The long coast line in the southern peninsula contributed to
the growth of maritime trade. Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
3. The Palghat Pass is situated on the Western Ghats.

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1. The Pre-historic period.
4. India is a multi-cultural society.
2. Origin and evolution of the Harappan Civilization.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
3. Socio-economic condition of the Harappan people.

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1. Himalayan Mountains.
4. Cultural life of the Harappans.
2. Deccan Plateau.
5. The Decline of the Harappan Civilization.
3. Rivers of southern peninsula
4. Multi-cultural society.

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The history of human settlements in India goes back to
VII. Answer briefly (100 words). prehistoric times. No written records are available for the pre-
1. Write a note on the impact of the Indo-Gangetic Plains on the historic period. However, plenty of archaeological remains are found
history of India. in different parts of India to reconstruct the history of this period.
2. Briefly describe the geography of South India.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
e They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements
used by pre-historic people. The development of archaeology helps
much to understand the life and culture of the people who lived in
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1. Assess the impact of geography on the history of India. this period.

2. ‘India is a land of unity in diversity’ – Elucidate. In India, the prehistoric period is divided into the Paleolithic
(Old Stone Age), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age), Neolithic (New
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Stone Age) and the Metal Age. However, these periods were not
uniform throughout the Indian subcontinent. The dating of the pre-
historic period is done scientifically. The technique of radio-carbon
dating is commonly used for this purpose. It is based on measuring
the loss of carbon in organic materials over a period of time. Another
dating method is known as dendro-chronology. It refers to the

10 11
 number of tree rings in wood. By counting the number of tree rings
PRE HISTORY in the wood, the date of the wood is arrived at.
INDIA
Paleolithic or Old Stone Age
The Old Stone Age sites are widely found in various parts of
the Indian subcontinent. These sites are generally located near water
sources. Several rock shelters and caves used by the Paleolithic

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s Rubar people are scattered across the subcontinent. They also lived rarely
ndu Kalibangan
I in huts made of leaves. Some of the famous sites of Old Stone Age
Mohenjadaro in India are:

ed
a. The Soan valley and Potwar Plateau on the northwest India.
b. The Siwalik hills on the north India.
Lothal
c. Bhimpetka in Madhya Pradesh.
d. Adamgarh hill in Narmada valley.

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Aribian Sea Sisupalgarh e. Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh and
Bay of Bengal
f. Attirampakkam near Chennai.
Maski
Prahmagiri Anandapur In the Old Stone Age, food was obtained by hunting animals

Pallavaram e and gathering edible plants and tubers. Therefore, these people are
called as hunter-gatherers. They used stone tools, hand-sized and
re
flaked-off large pebbles for hunting
animals. Stone implements are made of a
hard rock known as quartzite. Large
Adichanallur
pebbles are often found in river terraces.
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Indian Ocean The hunting of large animals would have

required the combined effort of a group
of people with large stone axes. We have Old Stone Age Tools
little knowledge about their language and
communication. Their way of life became modified with the passage
of time since they made attempts to domesticate animals, make crude
pots and grow some plants. A few Old Stone Age paintings have
12 13
also been found on rocks at Bhimbetka and other places. The period
before 10000 B.C. is assigned to the Old Stone Age.
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age
The next stage of human life is called Mesolithic or Middle
Stone Age which falls roughly from 10000 B.C. to 6000 B.C. It
was the transitional phase between the Paleolithic Age and Neolithic
Age. Mesolithic remains are found in Langhanj in Gujarat, Adamgarh
in Madhya Pradesh and also in some places of Rajasthan, Utter
Pradesh and Bihar. The paintings and engravings found at the rock
shelters give an idea about the social life and economic activities of
ed
Mesolithic people. In the sites of Mesolithic Age, a different type of
stone tools is found. These are tiny stone artifacts, often not more
than five centimeters in size, and therefore called microliths. The
hunting-gathering pattern of life continued during this period.
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However, there seems to have been a shift from big animal hunting
to small animal hunting and fishing. The use of bow and arrow also
began during this period. Also, there began a tendency to settle for
longer periods in an area. Therefore, domestication of animals,
horticulture and primitive cultivation started. Animal bones are found
e
in these sites and these include dog, deer, boar and ostrich.
Occasionally, burials of the dead along with some microliths and
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shells seem to have been practiced.
Neolithic Age
A remarkable progress is
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noticed in human civilization in the
Neolithic Age. It is approximately
dated from 6000 B.C to 4000
B.C. Neolithic remains are found
in various parts of India. These
New Stone Age Tools include the Kashmir valley,
Chirand in Bihar, Belan valley in
14
Uttar Pradesh and in several places of the Deccan. The important
Neolithic sites excavated in south India are Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur
and Kodekal in Karnataka, Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in
Andhra Pradesh.
The chief characteristic features of the Neolithic culture are
the practice of agriculture, domestication of animals, polishing of
stone tools and the manufacture of pottery. In fact, the cultivation of
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plants and domestication of animals led to the emergence of village
communities based on sedentary life.
There was a great improvement in technology of making tools
and other equipments used by man. Stone tools were now polished.
The polished axes were found to be more effective tools for hunting
and cutting trees. Mud brick houses were built instead of grass huts.
Wheels were used to make pottery. Pottery was used for cooking
as well as storage of food grains. Large urns were used as coffins
for the burial of the dead. There was also improvement in agriculture.
Wheat, barely, rice, millet were cultivated in different areas at
different points of time. Rice cultivation was extensive in eastern
India. Domestication of sheep, goats and cattle was widely prevalent.
Cattle were used for cultivation and for transport. The people of
Neolithic Age used clothes made of cotton and wool.
Metal Age
The Neolithic period is followed by Chalcolithic (copper-stone)
period when copper and bronze came to be used. The new
technology of smelting metal ore and crafting metal artifacts is an
important development in human civilization. But the use of stone
tools was not given up. Some of the micro-lithic tools continued to
be essential items. People began to travel for a long distance to
obtain metal ores. This led to a network of Chalcolithic cultures
and the Chalcolithic cultures were found in many parts of India.
15
 Generally, Chalcolithic cultures had grown in river valleys.
Most importantly, the Harappan culture is considered as a part of
Chalcolithic culture. In South India the river valleys of the Godavari, Harappan Culture
Krishna, Tungabhadra, Pennar and Kaveri were settled by farming
communities during this period. Although they were not using metals
in the beginning of the Metal Age, there is evidence of copper and
bronze artifacts by the end of second millennium B.C. Several bronze

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and copper objects, beads, terracotta figurines and pottery were
found at Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu.
m
The Chalcolithic age is followed by Iron Age. Iron is frequently helu
Z vi

ed
referred to in the Vedas. The Iron Age of the southern peninsula is Ra
often related to Megalithic Burials. Megalith means Large Stone. Harappa Rupar
The burial pits were covered with these stones. Such graves are
s
extensively found in South India. Some of the important megalithic ndu Kalipangan
I
sites are Hallur and Maski in Karnataka, Nagarjunakonda in Andhra

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Mohenjadaro
Pradesh and Adichchanallur in Tamil Nadu. Black and red pottery,
iron artifacts such as hoes and sickles and small weapons were Chanhudro
found in the burial pits.
The Harappan Civilization

e
The earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at
Lothal
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Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sind. Both places
are now in Pakistan. The findings in these two cities brought to light Aribian Sea
a civilization. It was first called the ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’.
But this civilization was later named as the ‘Indus Civilization’ due
S

to the discovery of more and more sites far away from the Indus
valley. Also, it has come to be called the ‘Harappan Civilization’
after the name of its first discovered site.
Important Sites
Among the many other sites excavated, the most important
are Kot Diji in Sind, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Rupar in the Punjab,

16 17
Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and Dholavira, all the three
in Gujarat. The larger cities are approximately a hundred hectares
in size. Mohenjodara is the largest of all the Indus cities and it is
estimated to have spread over an area of 200 hectares.
Origin and Evolution
The archaeological findings excavated for the last eight
decades reveal the gradual development of the Harappan culture.
There are four important stages or phases of evolution and they are
named as pre-Harappan, early-Harappan, mature-Harappan and
late Harappan.
ed
The pre-Harappan stage is located in eastern Baluchistan.
The excavations at Mehrgarh 150 miles to the northwest of
Mohenjodaro reveal the existence of pre-Harappan culture. In this
stage, the nomadic people began to lead a settled agricultural life.
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In the early-Harappan stage, the people lived in large villages
in the plains. There was a gradual growth of towns in the Indus
valley. Also, the transition from rural to urban life took place during
this period. The sites of Amri and Kot Diji remain the evidence for
early-Harappan stage.
e
In the mature-Harappan stage, great cities emerged. The
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excavations at Kalibangan with its elaborate town planning and urban
features prove this phase of evolution.
In the late-Harappan stage, the decline of the Indus culture
S
started. The excavations at Lothal reveal this stage of evolution.
Lothal with its port was founded much later. It was surrounded by a
massive brick wall as flood protection. Lothal remained an
emporium of trade between the Harappan civilization and the
remaining part of India as well as Mesopotamia.
18
Date of the Harappan Culture
In 1931, Sir John Marshall estimated the duration of the
occupation of Mohenjodaro between 3250 and 2750 B.C.
Subsequently, as and when new sites were discovered, the dating
of the Harappan culture is modified. The advent of the radiocarbon
method paves way for fixing almost accurate dates. By 1956,
Fairservis brought down the dating of the Harappan culture to
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between 2000 and 1500 B.C. on the basis of radiocarbon dates of
his findings. In 1964, D.P. Agarwal came to the conclusion that the
total span of this culture should be between 2300 and 1750 B.C.
Yet, there is further scope of modification of these dates.
Salient Features of the Harappan Culture
Town Planning
The Harappan culture was distinguished by its system of town-
planning on the lines of the grid system – that is streets and lanes
cutting across one another almost at right angles thus dividing the
city into several rectangular
blocks. Harappa, Mohenjodaro
and Kalibangan each had its own
citadel built on a high podium of
mud brick. Below the citadel in
each city lay a lower town
containing brick houses, which
Great Bath at Mohenjodaro were inhabited by the common
people. The large-scale use of burnt bricks in almost all kinds of
constructions and the absence of stone buildings are the important
characteristics of the Harappan culture. Another remarkable feature
was the underground drainage system connecting all houses to the
street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.
19
 The most important public place of Mohenjodaro is the Great
Bath measuring 39 feet length, 23 feet breadth and 8 feet depth.
Flights of steps at either end lead to the surface. There are side
rooms for changing clothes. The floor of the Bath was made of
burnt bricks. Water was drawn from a large well in an adjacent
room, and an outlet from one corner of the Bath led to a drain. It
must have served as a ritual bathing site. The largest building in
Mohenjodaro is a granary measuring 150 feet length and 50 feet
breadth. But in the citadel of Harappa we find as many as six
granaries.
ed
Economic life
There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity
such as agriculture, industry and crafts and trade. Wheat and barley
were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton.
M
Surplus grain is stored in granaries. Animals like sheep, goats and
buffalo were domesticated. The use of horse is not yet firmly
established. A number of other animals were hunted for food
including deer.
e
Specialized groups of artisans include goldsmiths, brick
makers, stone cutters, weavers, boat-builders and terracotta
re
manufacturers. Bronze and copper vessels are the outstanding
examples of the Harappan metal craft.
Gold and silver ornaments are found in
many places. Pottery remains plain and
S
in some places red and black painted
pottery is found. Beads were
manufactured from a wide variety of
semi-precious stones.
Internal trade was extensive with
HARAPPAN SEAL
other parts of India. Foreign trade was
mainly conducted with Mesopotamia, Afghanistan and
20
Iran Gold, copper, tin and several semi-precious stones were
imported. Main exports were several agricultural products such as
wheat, barely, peas, oil seeds and a variety of finished products
including cotton goods, pottery, beads, terracotta figures and ivory
products. There is much evidence to prove the trade links between
the Indus and Sumerian people. Many seals of Indus valley have
been found in Mesopotamia. Trade was of the barter type. The
ia
seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of
bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for
river and sea transport.
Social Life
Much evidence is available to understand the social life of the
Harappans. The dress of both men and women consisted of two
pieces of cloth, one upper garment and
the other lower garment. Beads were
worn by men and women. Jewelleries
such as bangles, bracelets, fillets,
girdles, anklets, ear-rings and finger-
rings were worn by women. These
ornaments were made of gold, silver,
copper, bronze and semi precious ORNAMENTS USED BY THE
HARAPPANS
stones. The use of cosmetics was
common. Various household articles
made of pottery, stone, shells, ivory and metal have been found at
Mohenjodaro. Spindles, needles, combs, fishhooks, knives are made
of copper. Children’s toys include little clay carts. Marbles, balls
and dice were used for games. Fishing was a regular occupation
while hunting and bull fighting were other pastimes. There were
numerous specimens of weapons of war such as axes, spearheads,
daggers, bows, arrows made of copper and bronze.
21
Arts
The Harappan sculpture revealed a high degree of
workmanship. Figures of men and women, animals and birds made
of terracotta and the carvings on the seals show
the degree of proficiency attained by the sculptor.
The figure of a dancing girl from Mohenjodaro made
of bronze is remarkable for its workmanship. Its
right hand rests on the hip, while the left arm,
covered with bangles, hangs loosely in a relaxed
posture. Two stone statues from Harappa, one
ed
representing the back view of a man and the other
of a dancer are also specimens of their sculpture. TERRACOTTA
FIGURINE
The pottery from Harappa is another specimen of
the fine arts of the Indus people. The pots and jars were painted
with various designs and colours. Painted pottery is of better quality.
M
The pictorial motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal
lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we
find figures of fish or peacock.
Script
e
The Harappan script has still to be fully deciphered. The
re
number of signs is between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are
basic and the rest are their variants. The script
was mostly written from right to left. In a few
long seals the boustrophedon method – writing
S
in the reverse direction in alternative lines - was
adopted. Parpola and his Scandinavian
colleagues came to the conclusion that the
HARAPPAN SCRIPT language of the Harappans was Dravidian. A
group of Soviet scholars accepts this view.
Other scholars provide different view connecting the Harappan
script with that of Brahmi. The mystery of the Harappan script still
22
exists and there is no doubt that the decipherment of Harappan
script will throw much light on this culture.
Religion
From the seals, terracotta figurines and copper tablets we
get an idea on the religious life of the Harappans. The chief male
deity was Pasupati, (proto-Siva) represented in seals as sitting in a
ia
yogic posture with three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by
four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, and buffalo each facing a different
direction). Two deer appear on his feet. The chief female deity was
the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines. In latter
times, Linga worship was prevalent. Trees and animals were also
worshipped by the Harappans. They believed in ghosts and evil
forces and used amulets as protection against them.
Burial Methods
The cemeteries discovered around the cities like Mohenjodaro,
Harappa, Kalibangan, Lothal and Rupar throw light on the burial
practices of the Harappans. Complete burial and post-cremation
burial were popular at Mohenjodaro. At Lothal the burial pit was
lined with burnt bricks indicating the use of coffins. Wooden coffins
were also found at Harappa. The practice of pot burials is found at
Lothal sometimes with pairs of skeletons. However, there is no clear
evidence for the practice of Sati.
Decline of the Harappan Culture
There is no unanimous view pertaining to the cause for the
decline of the Harappan culture. Various theories have been
postulated. Natural calamities like recurring floods, drying up of
rivers, decreasing fertility of the soil due to excessive exploitation
and occasional earthquakes might have caused the decline of the
Harappan cities. According to some scholars the final blow was
23
delivered by the invasion of Aryans. The destruction of forts is MODEL QUESTIONS
mentioned in the Rig Veda. Also, the discovery of human skeletons
huddled together at Mohenjodaro indicates that the city was invaded I. Choose the correct answer.
by foreigners. The Aryans had superior weapons as well as swift 1. The Chalcolithic age was followed by
horses which might have enabled them to become masters of this
(a) Old Stone age (b) New Stone age
region.
(c) Iron age (d) Mesolithic age

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2. The port city of the Harappan culture
Learning Outcome
(a) Kalibangan (b) Lothal
After learning this lesson the students will be to explain
(c) Banawali (d) Rupar

ed
1. The findings of the Paleolithic, Neolithic and Metal Age
and the socio-economic life of the people during these II. Fill in the blanks.
periods. 1. The most important Megalithic site in Tamil Nadu is …..
2. The origin and evolution of the Harappan culture and 2. The chief female deity of the Harappan culture was ……

M
the important sites of excavations.
III. Match the following.
3. The salient features of the Harappan civilization such as
1. Kot Diji a) Haryana
town planning, social life and economic condition of the
Harappans. 2. Dholavira b) Rajasthan

e
4. The date of the Harappan culture as well as the religious
beliefs and the art of the Harappans.
3.
4.
Kalibangan
Banawali
c) Sind
d) Gujarat
re
5. Different views on the decline of the Harappan IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
civilization. right.
a) There are three stages in the evolution of Harappan culture.
S

b) Parpola concluded that the language of Harappan people is

Sanskrit.
c) Sir John Marshal used the radio-carbon dating method.
d) The Harappan people believed in ghosts and used amulets as
protection against them.

24 25
V. State whether the following statements are true or False. LESSON 3
1. The Old Stone Age people practiced agriculture. THE VEDIC CULTURE
2. Microliths were used by the Mesolithic people.
3. Trade links existed between the Indus and Sumerian people.
Learning Objectives
4. The Harappan people did not know the art of writing. Students will acquire knowledge about

ia
VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. The original home of the Aryans.
1. Chalcolithic Age 2. The Vedic Literature and their importance.
2. Megaliths.

ed
3. The Rig Vedic Age and its culture.
3. Great Bath. 4. The Later Vedic Age and its culture.
4. Date of the Harappan Culture.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
The cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 B.C.

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1. Write a note on the Old Stone Age. Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly
2. Trace the origin and evolution of the Harappan Culture. declined. Around this period, the speakers of Indo-Aryan language,
Sanskrit, entered the north-west India from the Indo-Iranian region.
3. Name the important sites of the Harappan Culture. Initially they would have come in small numbers through the passes
4.
culture. e
Mention the probable causes for the decline of the Harappan in the northwestern mountains. Their initial settlements were in the
valleys of the north-west and the plains of the Punjab. Later, they
re
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). moved into Indo-Gangetic plains. As they were mainly a cattle-
keeping people, they were mainly in search of pastures. By 6th
1. Write a brief essay on the pre-historic period in India. century B.C., they occupied the whole of North India, which was
2. Describe the socio-economic condition of the Harappan referred to as Aryavarta. This period between 1500 B.C and 600
S

civilization. B.C may be divided into the Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period
(1500 B.C -1000 B.C) and the Later Vedic Period (1000B.C -
600 B.C).
Original Home of the Aryans
The original home of the Aryans is a debatable question and
there are several views. Different scholars have identified different

26 27
regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include the Arctic
region, Germany, Central Asia and southern Russia. Bala
Gangadhara Tilak argues that the Aryans came from the Arctic region
on astronomical calculations. However, the theory of southern Russia
appears to be more probable and widely accepted by historians.
From there, the Aryans moved to different parts of Asia and Europe.
They entered India in about 1500 B.C. and came to be known as
Indo-Aryans. They spoke the Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit.
Vedic Literature
The word ‘Veda’ is derived from the root ‘vid’, which means
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to know. In other words, the term ‘Veda’ signifies ‘superior
knowledge’. The Vedic literature consists of the four Vedas – Rig,
Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The Rig Veda is the earliest of the four
Vedas and it consists of 1028 hymns. The hymns were sung in praise
M
of various gods. The Yajur Veda consists of various details of rules
to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The Sama Veda is set to
tune for the purpose of chanting during sacrifice. It is called the
book of chants and the origins of Indian music are traced in it. The
Atharva Veda contains details of rituals.
e
Besides the Vedas, there are other sacred works like the
re
Brahmanas, the Upanishads, the Aranyakas and the epics Ramayana
and Mahabharata. The Brahmanas are the treatises relating to prayer
and sacrificial ceremony. The Upanishads are philosophical texts
dealing with topic like the soul, the absolute, the origin of the world
S
and the mysteries of nature. The Aranyakas are called forest books
and they deal with mysticism, rites, rituals and sacrifices. The author
of Ramayana was Valmiki and that of Mahabharata was Vedavyas.
Rig Vedic Age or Early Vedic Period (1500 - 1000 B.C.)
During the Rig Vedic period, the Aryans were mostly confined
to the Indus region. The Rig Veda refers to Saptasindhu or the land
28
of seven rivers. This includes the five rivers of Punjab, namely
Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with the Indus and
Saraswathi. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic
people can be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.
Political Organization
The basic unit of political organization was kula or family.
ia
Several families joined together on the basis of their kinship to form
a village or grama. The leader of grama was known as gramani. A
group of villages constituted a larger unit called visu. It was headed
by vishayapati. The highest political unit was called jana or tribe.
There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period
such as Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. The head of the
kingdom was called as rajan or king. The Rig Vedic polity was
normally monarchical and the succession was hereditary. The king
was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of
the army in his administration. There were two popular bodies called
the Sabha and Samiti. The former seems to have been a council of
elders and the latter, a general assembly of the entire people.
Social Life
The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society
was family or graham. The head of the family was known as
grahapathi. Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy
was prevalent among the royal and noble families. The wife took
care of the household and participated in all the major ceremonies.
Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual
and intellectual development. There were women poets like Apala,
Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
Women could even attend the popular assemblies. There was no
child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
29
 Both men and women wore upper and lower garments made
of cotton and wool. A variety of ornaments were used by both men
and women. Wheat and barley, milk and its products like curd and
ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food. The eating
of cow’s meat was prohibited since it was a sacred animal. Chariot
racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favourite
pastimes. The social divisions were not rigid during the Rig Vedic
period as it was in the later Vedic period.
Economic Condition
The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main
ed
occupation was cattle rearing. Their wealth was estimated in terms
of their cattle. When they permanently settled in North India they
began to practice agriculture. With the knowledge and use of iron
they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under
M
cultivation. Carpentry was another important profession and the
availability of wood from the forests cleared made the profession
profitable. Carpenters produced chariots and ploughs. Workers in
metal made a variety of articles with copper, bronze and iron.
Spinning was another important occupation and cotton and woolen
e
fabrics were made. Goldsmiths were active in making ornaments.
The potters made various kinds of vessels for domestic use.
re
Trade was another important economic activity and rivers
served as important means of transport. Trade was conducted on
barter system. In the later times, gold coins called nishka were used
S
as media of exchange in large transactions.
Religion
The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth,
fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces
into many gods and worshipped them. The important Rig Vedic
gods were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain)
30
and Indra (Thunder). Indra was the most popular among them during
the early Vedic period. Next in importance to Indra was Agni who
was regarded as an intermediary between the gods and people.
Varuna was supposed to be the upholder of the natural order. There
were also female gods like Aditi and Ushas. There were no temples
and no idol worship during the early Vedic period. Prayers were
offered to the gods in the expectation of rewards. Ghee, milk and
ia
grain were given as offerings. Elaborate rituals were followed during
the worship.
Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 B.C.)
The Aryans further moved towards east in the Later Vedic
Period. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans
to the eastern Gangetic plains. Several tribal groups and kingdoms
are mentioned in the later Vedic literature. One important
development during this period is the growth of large kingdoms.
Kuru and Panchala kingdoms flourished in the beginning. Parikshat
and Janamejaya were the famous rulers of Kuru kingdom. Pravahana
Jaivali was a popular king of the Panchalas. He was a patron of
learning. After the fall of Kurus and Panchalas, other kingdoms like
Kosala, Kasi and Videha came into prominence. The famous ruler
of Kasi was Ajatasatru. Janaka was the king of Videha with its
capital at Mithila. His court was adorned by scholar Yajnavalkya.
Magadha, Anga and Vanga seem to be the easternmost tribal
kingdoms. The later Vedic texts also refer to the three divisions of
India – Aryavarta (northern India), Madhyadesa (central India) and
Dakshinapatha (southern India).
Political Organization
Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period.
Many jana or tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or
rashtras in the later Vedic period. Hence the royal power had
31
increased along with the increase in the size of kingdom. The king
performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position.
They include Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha
(horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race). The kings also assumed
titles like Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi, (lord of all earth),
Ekrat and Samrat (sole ruler).
In the later Vedic period, a large number of new officials were
involved in the administration in addition to the existing purohita,
senani and gramani. They include the treasury officer, tax collector
and royal messenger. At the lower levels, the administration was
ed
carried on by the village assemblies. The importance of the Samiti
and the Sabha had diminished during the later Vedic period.
Economic Condition
Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the
M
people to clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation.
Agriculture became the chief occupation. Improved types of
implements were used for cultivation. Besides barley, rice and wheat
were grown. Knowledge of manure was another improvement.
e
Industrial activity became more varied and there was greater
specialization. Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery
re
made great progress. In addition to internal trade, foreign trade
became extensive. The Later Vedic people were familiar with the
sea and they traded with countries like Babylon. A class of hereditary
merchants (vaniya) came into existence. Vaisyas also carried on
S
trade and commerce. They organized themselves into guilds known
as ganas. Besides nishka of the Rig Vedic period, gold and silver
coins like satamana and krishnala were used as media of exchange.
Social Life
The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas
and Sudras) or the Varna system was thoroughly established during
32
the Later Vedic period. The two higher classes - Brahmana, and
Kshatriya enjoyed privileges that were denied to the Vaisya and
Sudra. A Brahmin occupied a higher position than a Kshatriya but
sometimes Kshatriyas claimed a higher status over the Brahmins.
Many sub-castes on the basis of their occupation appeared in this
period.
In the family, the power of the father increased during the
ia
Later Vedic period. There was no improvement in the status of
women. They were still considered inferior and subordinate to men.
Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child
marriages had become common. According the Aitreya Brahmana
a daughter has been described as a source of misery. However, the
women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.
Religion
Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their
importance. Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and
Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic
period. Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with
them became more elaborate. The importance of prayers declined
and that of sacrifices increased. Priesthood became a profession
and a hereditary one. The formulae for sacrifices were invented and
elaborated by the priestly class. Therefore, towards the end of this
period there was a strong reaction against priestly domination and
against sacrifices and rituals. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was
the direct result of these elaborate sacrifices. Also, the authors of
the Upanishads, which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned
away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge (jnana)
for peace and salvation.
33
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The Vedic Literature such as the four Vedas and the 1. The earliest of the Vedas
Brahmanas and other later Vedic literature.
(a) Rig (b) Yajur
2. The Rig Vedic polity, society and economy.
(c) Sama (d) Atharva

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3. Religious life of the Rig Vedic people.
2. Pravahana Jaivali was a popular king of
4. The changes during the Later Vedic period in the sphere
(a) Videha (b) Kasi
of polity and society.
(c) Kurus (d) Panchalas

ed
5. The increasing rites and rituals in the religious life of
the Later Vedic people. II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The author of Ramayana was ……
2. The Arctic home for the Aryans was suggested by

M
III. Match the following.
1. Nishka a) Later Vedic coin
2. Ushas b) Rig Vedic coin

e 3.
4.
Apala
Krishnala
c) Goddess
d) Woman poet
re
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) Indra and Varuna were the important gods during the Later
S

Vedic period.
b) The position of women improved during the Later Vedic
period.
c) The caste system was not rigid during the Later Vedic period.
d) The importance of Samiti and Sabha declined during the Later
Vedic period.
34 35
V. State whether the following statements are true or False. LESSON 4
1. The Aranyakas constitute the essence of Hindu philosophy. JAINISM AND BUDDHISM
2. The power of the kings had increased during the Later Vedic
period.
Learning Objectives
3. Iron was not known to the Rig Vedic people.
Students will acquire knowledge about
4. The Varna system was thoroughly established during the Rig

ia
1. The causes for the rise of Buddhism and Jainism.
Vedic period.
2. Early life of Mahavira and his teachings.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
3. Early life of Buddha and his teachings.

ed
1. Vedic literature.
4. The spread of Buddhism.
2. Original Home of the Aryans.
5. Causes for the decline of Buddhism in India,
3. Position of women during the Rig Vedic period.
4. Religion of Rig Vedic period.

M
The sixth century B.C. is considered a wonderful century in
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
history. Great thinkers like Buddha, Mahavira, Heraclitus, Zoroaster,
1. Write a note on the Rig Vedic polity. Confucius and Lao Tse lived and preached their ideas in this century.
2. Mention the religious life of Later Vedic people. In India, the republican institutions were strong in the 6th century

VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

e B.C. This enabled rise of heterodox sects against the orthodox
religion dominated by rites and rituals. Among them the most
re
1. Give a brief account of the socio-economic life of the Rig successful were Jainism and Buddhism whose impact on the Indian
Vedic Aryans. society was remarkable.
2. Assess the political and social conditions during the Later Vedic Causes for the Rise of Jainism and Buddhism
period.
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The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was
the religious unrest in India in the 6th century B.C. The complex
rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not
acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies were
also found to be too expensive. The superstitious beliefs and mantras
confused the people. The teachings of Upanishads, an alternative
to the system of sacrifices, were highly philosophical in nature and

36 37
therefore not easily understood by all. Therefore, what was needed
in the larger interests of the people was a simple, short and intelligible
way to salvation for all people. Such religious teaching should also
be in a language known to them. This need was fulfilled by the
teachings of Buddha and Mahavira.
Other than the religious factor, social and economic factors
also contributed to the rise of these two religions. The rigid caste
system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society. Higher
classes enjoyed certain privileges which were denied to the lower
classes. Also, the Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the
ed
priestly class. It should also to be noted that both Buddha and
Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya origin. The growth of trade led to
the improvement in the economic conditions of the Vaisyas. As a
result, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox
Varna system did not allow this. Therefore, they began to extend
M
support to Buddhism and Jainism. It was this merchant class that
extended the chief support to these new religions.
Jainism
Life of Vardhamana Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.)
e
Vardhamana Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara of the Jain
re
tradition. He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali to Kshatriya
parents Siddhartha and Trisala. He married Yasoda and gave birth
to a daughter. At the age of thirty he became an ascetic and wandered
for twelve years. In the 13th year of his penance, he attained the
S
highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Gnana. Thereafter, he was
called Mahavira and Jina. His followers were called Jains and his
religion Jainism. He preached his doctrines for 30 years and died at
the age of 72 at Pava near Rajagriha.
38
Teachings of Mahavira
The three principles of Jainism, also known as Triratnas (three
gems), are:
- right faith
- right knowledge
- right conduct.
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Right faith is the belief in the teachings and wisdom of
Mahavira. Right Knowledge is the acceptance of the theory that
there is no God and that the world has been existing without a creator
and that all objects possess a soul. Right conduct refers to the
observance of the five great vows:
- not to injure life
- not to lie
- not to steal
- not to acquire property
- not to lead immoral life.
MAHAVIRA
Both the clergy and laymen had to strictly
follow the doctrine of ahimsa. Mahavira regarded all objects, both
animate and inanimate, have souls and various degrees of
consciousness. They possess life and feel pain when they are injured.
Mahavira rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected to the
Vedic rituals. He advocated a very holy and ethical code of life.
Even the practice of agriculture was considered sinful as it causes
injury to the earth, worms and animals. Similarly the doctrine of
asceticism and renunciation was also carried to extreme lengths by
the practice of starvation, nudity and other forms of self-torture.
39
Spread of Jainism
Mahavira organised the Sangha to spread his teachings. He
admitted both men and women in the Sangha, which consisted of
both monks and lay followers. The rapid spread of Jainism was
due to the dedicated work of the members of the Sangha. It spread
rapidly in Western India and Karnataka. Chandragupta Maurya,
Kharavela of Kalinga and the royal dynasties of south India such as
the Gangas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas
patronized Jainism.
By the end of the fourth century B.C., there was a serious
ed
famine in the Ganges valley. Many Jain monks led by Bhadrabagu
and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belgola in Karnataka.
Those who stayed back in north India were led by a monk named
Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks. This
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led to the division of Jainism into two sects Svetambaras (white-
clad) and Digambaras (Sky-clad or Naked).
The first Jain Council was convened at Pataliputra by
Sthulabahu, the leader of the Digambaras, in the beginning of the 3rd
e
century B.C. The second Jain Council was held at Valabhi in 5th
century A.D. The final compilation of Jain literature called Twelve
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Angas was completed in this council.
Buddhism
Life of Gautama Buddha (567- 487 B.C.)
S
Gautama or Siddhartha, the founder
of Buddhism, was born in 567 B.C. in
Lumbini Garden near Kapilavastu. His father
was Suddodhana of the Sakya clan and
mother Mayadevi. As his mother died at child
birth, he was brought up by his aunt Prajapati
Gautami. At the age of sixteen he married GAUTAMA BUDDHA
40
Yasodhara and gave birth to a son, Rahula. The sight of an old man,
a diseased man, a corpse and an ascetic turned him away from
worldly life. He left home at the age of twenty nine in search of
Truth. He wandered for seven years and met several teachers but
could not get enlightenment. At last, he sat under a bodhi tree at
Bodh Gaya and did intense penance, after which he got
Enlightenment (Nirvana) at the age of thirty five. Since then he
ia
became known as the Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. He
delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benares and for the next
forty five years he led the life of a preacher. He died at the age of
eighty at Kusinagara.
The most important disciples of Buddha were Sariputta,
Moggallanna, Ananda, Kassapa and Upali. Kings like Prasenajit of
Kosala and Bimbisara and Ajatasatru of Magadha accepted his
doctrines and became his disciples. Buddha in his lifetime spread
his message far and wide in north India and visited places like
Benares, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Vaisali, Nalanda and Pataligrama. It
should be noted that he did not involve himself in fruitless
controversies regarding metaphysical questions like god, soul, karma,
rebirth, etc., and concerned himself with the practical problems
confronting man.
Teachings of Buddha
The Four Noble Truths of Buddha are:
- The world is full of suffering.
- The cause of suffering is desire.
- If desires are get rid off, suffering can be removed.
- This can be done by following the Eightfold Path.
The Eightfold Path consists of right view, right resolve, right
speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness
41
and right concentration. Buddha neither accepts god nor rejects the
existence of god. He laid great emphasis on the law of karma. He
argued that the condition of man in this life depends upon his own
deeds. He taught that the soul does not exist. However, he
emphasized Ahimsa. By his love for human beings and all living
creatures, he endeared himself to all. Even under the gravest
provocation he did not show the least anger or hatred and instead
conquered everyone by his love and compassion. His religion was
identical with morality and it emphasized purity of thought, word
and deed. He was a rationalist who tried to explain things in the
ed
light of reason and not on the basis of blind faith. Though he did not
make a direct attack on the caste system, he was against any social
distinctions and threw open his order to all. Therefore, Buddhism
was more a social than religious revolution. It taught the code of
practical ethics and laid down the principle of social equality.
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Spread of Buddhism
Buddha had two kinds of disciples – monks (bhikshus) and
lay worshippers (upasikas). The monks were organized into the
Sangha for the purpose of spreading his teachings. The membership
e
was open to all persons, male or female and without any caste
restrictions. There was a special code for nuns restricting their
re
residence and movement. Sariputta, Moggallana and Ananda were
some of the famous monks. The Sangha was governed on
democratic lines and was empowered to enforce discipline among
its members. Owing to the organised efforts made by the Sangha,
S
Buddhism made rapid progress in North India even during Buddha’s
life time. Magadha, Kosala, Kausambi and several republican states
of North India embraced this religion. About two hundred years
after the death of Buddha, the famous Mauryan Emperor Asoka
embraced Buddhism. Through his missionary effort Asoka spread
Buddhism into West Asia and Ceylon. Thus a local religious sect
was transformed into a world religion.
42
Buddhist Councils
The first Buddhist Council was held at Rajagraha under the
chairmanship of Mahakasapa immediately after the death of Buddha.
Its purpose was to maintain the purity of the teachings of the Buddha.
The second Buddhist Council was convened at Vaisali around 383
B.C. The third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra under the
patronage of Asoka. Moggaliputta Tissa presided over it. The final
ia
version of Tripitakas was completed in this council. The fourth
Buddhist Council was convened in Kashmir by Kanishka under the
chairmanship of Vasumitra. Asvagosha participated in this council.
The new school of Buddhism called Mahayana Buddhism came into
existence during this council. The Buddhism preached by the Buddha
and propagated by Asoka was known as Hinayana.
The Buddhist texts were collected and compiled some five
hundred years after the death of the Buddha. They are known as
the Tripitakas, namely the Sutta, the Vinaya and the Abhidhamma
Pitakas. They are written in the Pali language.
Causes for the Decline of Buddhism in India
The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism led to
the fall of popularity of Buddhism. The use of Pali, the language of
the masses as the language of Buddhism was given up from the 1st
century A.D. The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language
of the elite. After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of
idol worship and making offerings led to the deterioration of moral
standards. Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries
and the Turkish invaders in 12th century destroyed the monasteries.
All these factors contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India.
Contribution of Buddhism to Indian Culture
Buddhism has made a remarkable contribution to the
development of Indian culture.
43
 - The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it MODEL QUESTIONS
became one of the cherished values of our nation.
I. Choose the correct answer.
- Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was
notable. The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya are wonderful 1. Vardhamana Mahavira was born at
pieces of architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for the chaityas (a) Kapilavastu (b) Pataliputra
and viharas in different parts of India.
(c) Kundagrama (d) Kusumapura

ia
- It promoted education through residential universities like
2. The Tripitakas are written in the language of
those at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila.
(a) Sanskrit (b) Prakrit
- The language of Pali and other local languages developed
(c) Pali (d) Hindi

ed
through the teachings of Buddhism.
- It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other II. Fill in the blanks.
parts of Asia. 1. The first Jain Council was convened at …… by …….
2. The final compilation of Jain literature was called ……

M
Learning Outcome
3. The Buddhism preached by Asoka was known as …….
After learning this lesson the students will be to explain
III. Match the following.
1. The religious and other causes for the rise of Buddhism
and Jainism. 1. First Buddhist Council a) Vaisali

e
2. Early life of Mahavira and his principles of Triratna. 2.
3.
Second Buddhist Council
Third Buddhist Council
b) Kashmir
c) Rajagriha
re
3. Early life of Gautama Buddha and his important
principles like the four truths and eightfold path. 4. Fourth Buddhist Council d) Pataliputra
4. The patrons of Buddhism and the formation of the Sangha IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
as well as the spread of Buddhism. right.
S

5. Causes for the decline of Buddhism in India and its 1. The Four Noble Truths were the teachings of Mahavira.
contribution to Indian culture.
2. The adoption of Pali language led to the decline of Buddhism.
3. Idol worship was followed by the followers of Mahayana
Buddhism.

44 45
4. Buddha involved himself into controversial philosophical LESSON 5
arguments.
THE RISE OF MAGADHA AND
V. State whether the following statements are True or ALEXANDER’S INVASION
False.
1. Buddha neither accepts nor rejects the existence of God. Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
2. Mahavira asked his followers to strictly observe four great

ia
vows. 1. The rise of Magatha under the Haryanka, Saisunaga and
Nanda dynasties.
3. The first Buddhist Council was convened by Kanishka at
Kashmir. 2. The achievements of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru.

ed
4. Buddhism contributed to the spread of Indian culture to other 3. The Persian invasions and their impact.
parts of the world. 4. Causes and course of Alexander’s invasion.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 5. Effects of Alexander’s invasion.

M
1. Triratnas
2. Split in Jainism
In the beginning of the 6th century B.C., the northern India
3. Tripitakas consisted of a large number of independent kingdoms. Some of
4. Third Buddhist Council them had monarchical forms of government, while some others were
VII. Answer briefly (100 words). e republics. While there was a concentration of monarchies on the
Gangetic plain, the republics were scattered in the foothills of the
re
1. Discuss the spread of Jainism in various parts India. Himalayas and in northwestern India. Some of the republics
2. Account for the decline of Buddhism in India. consisted of only one tribe like the Sakyas, Licchavis and Mallas.
In the republics, the power of decision in all matters of state vested
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
with the Public Assembly which was composed of the tribal
S

1. Sketch the life and teachings of Mahavira. representatives or heads of families. All decisions were by a
2. Give a brief account of the life and teachings of Buddha. majority vote.

3. How did Buddhism become a world religion? The Buddhist literature Anguttara Nikaya gives a list of sixteen
great kingdoms called ‘Sixteen Mahajanapadas’. They were Anga,
Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala,
Matsya, Surasena, Asmaka, Avanti, Gandhara and Kambhoja. The

46 47
Jain texts also contain references to the existence of sixteen
kingdoms. In course of time, the small and weak kingdoms either
submitted to the stronger rulers or gradually got eliminated. Finally
in the mid 6th century B.C., only four kingdoms – Vatsa, Avanti,
Kosala and Magadha survived.
Vatsa
The Vatsa kingdom was situated on the banks of the river
Yamuna. Its capital was Kausambi near modern Allahabad. Its most
popular ruler was Udayana. He strengthened his position by entering
into matrimonial alliances with Avanti, Anga and Magadha. After
ed
his death, Vatsa was annexed to the Avanti kingdom.
Avanti
The capital of Avanti was Ujjain. The most important ruler of
M
this kingdom was Pradyota. He became powerful by marrying
Vasavadatta, the daughter of Udayana. He patronized Buddhism.
The successors of Pradyota were weak and later this kingdom was
taken over by the rulers of Magadha.
Kosala
e
Ayodhya was the capital of Kosala. King Prasenajit was its
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famous ruler. He was highly educated. His position was further
strengthened by the matrimonial alliance with Magadha. His sister
was married to Bimbisara and Kasi was given to her as dowry.
Subsequently there was a dispute with Ajatasatru. After the end of
S
the conflict, Prasenajit married the daughter of Bimbisara. After the
death of this powerful king, Kosala became part of the Magadha.
48
Magadha
Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged
powerful and prosperous. It became the nerve centre of political
activity in north India. Magadha was endowed by nature with certain
geographical and strategic advantages. These made her to rise to
imperial greatness. Her strategic position between the upper and
lower part of the Gangetic valley was a great advantage. It had a
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fertile soil. The iron ores in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron
deposits near Gaya added to its natural assets. Her location at the
centre of the highways of trade of those days contributed to her
wealth. Rajagriha was the capital of Magadha. During the reign of
Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of Magadha reached its
zenith.
Bimbisara (546 - 494 B.C.)
Bimbisara belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He consolidated
his position by matrimonial alliances. His first matrimonial alliance
was with the ruling family of Kosala. He married Kosaladevi, sister
of Prasenajit. He was given the Kasi region as dowry which yielded
large revenue. Bimbisara married Chellana, a princess of the Licchavi
family of Vaisali. This matrimonial alliance secured for him the safety
of the northern frontier. Moreover, it facilitated the expansion of
Magadha northwards to the borders of Nepal. He also married
Khema of the royal house of Madra in central Punjab. Bimbisara
also undertook many expeditions and added more territories to his
empire. He defeated Brahmadatta of Anga and annexed that
kingdom. He maintained friendly relations with Avanti. He had also
efficiently reorganized the administration of his kingdom.
Bimbisara was a contemporary of both Vardhamana Mahavira
and Gautama Buddha. However, both religions claim him as their
supporter and devotee. He seems to have made numerous gifts to
the Buddhist Sangha.
49
Ajatasatru (494 - 462 B.C.)
The reign of Ajatasatru was remarkable for his military conquests.
He fought against Kosala and Vaisali. His won a great success against
a formidable confederacy led by the Lichchavis of Vaisali. This had
increased his power and prestige. This war lasted for about sixteen
years. It was at this time that Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance
of the small village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra). He fortified it to
serve as a convenient base of operations against Vaisali.
Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower
of their religion. But it is generally believed that in the beginning he
ed
was a follower of Jainism and subsequently embraced Buddhism.
He is said to have met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted
in the sculptures of Barhut. According to the Mahavamsa, he
constructed several chaityas and viharas. He was also instrumental
M
in convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha soon after the
death of the Buddha.
The immediate successor of Ajatasatru was Udayin. He laid
the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra situated at the
e
confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and the Son. Later it became
famous as the imperial capital of the Mauryas. Udayin’s successors
re
were weak rulers and hence Magadha was captured by Saisunaga.
Thus the Haryanka dynasty came to an end and the Saisunaga
dynasty came to power.
Saisunaga dynasty
S
The genealogy and chronology of the Saisunagas are not clear.
Saisunaga defeated the king of Avanti which was made part of the
Magadhan Empire. After Saisunaga, the mighty empire began to
collapse. His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka. During his
reign the second Buddhist Council was held at Vaisali. Kalasoka
was killed by the founder of the Nanda dynasty.
50
Nandas
The fame of Magadha scaled new heights under the Nanda
dynasty. Their conquests went beyond the boundaries of the Gangetic
basin and in North India they carved a well-knit and vast empire.
Mahapadma Nanda was a powerful ruler of the Nanda
dynasty. He uprooted the kshatriya dynasties in north India and
ia
assumed the title ekarat. The Puranas speak of the extensive
conquests made by Mahapadma. The Hathigumpha inscription of
Kharavela of Kalinga refers to the conquest of Kalinga by the
Nandas. Many historians believe that a considerable portion of the
Deccan was also under the control of the Nandas. Therefore,
Mahapadma Nanda may be regarded as a great empire builder.
According to the Buddhist tradition, Mahapadma Nanda ruled
about ten years. He was succeeded by his eight sons, who ruled
successively. The last Nanda ruler was Dhana Nanda. He kept the
Magadhan empire intact and possessed a powerful army and
enormous wealth. The fabulous wealth of the Nandas is also
mentioned by several sources. The enormous wealth of the Nandas
is also referred to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the
poet Mamulanar. The flourishing state of agriculture in the Nanda
dominions and the general prosperity of the country must have
brought to the royal treasury enormous revenue. The oppressive
way of tax collection by Dhana Nanda was resented by the people.
Taking advantage of this, Chandragupta Maurya and Kautilya
initiated a popular movement against the Nanda rule. It was during
this time that Alexander invaded India.
51
PERSIAN AND GREEK INVASIONS
Persian Invasions
Cyrus (558 – 530 B.C)
Cyrus the Great was the greatest conqueror of the
Achaemenian Empire. He was the first conqueror who led an
expedition and entered into India. He captured the Gandhara region.
All Indian tribes to the west of the Indus river submitted to him and
paid tribute. His son Cambyses had no time to pay attention towards
India.
ed
Darius I (522 – 486 B.C.)
Darius I, the grandson of Cyrus, conquered the Indus valley
in 518 B.C. and annexed the Punjab and Sindh. This region became
the 20th Satrapy of his empire. It was the most fertile and populous
M
province of the Achaemenian Empire. Darius sent a naval expedition
under Skylas to explore the Indus.
Xerxes (465-456 B.C.)
Xerxes utilized his Indian province to strengthen his position.
e
He deployed Indian infantry and cavalry to Greece to fight his
opponents. But they retreated after Xerxes faced a defeat in Greece.
re
After this failure, the Achaemenians could not follow a forward policy
in India. However, the Indian province was still under their control.
Darius III enlisted Indian soldiers to fight against Alexander in 330
B.C. It is evident that the control of Persians slackened on the eve
S
of Alexander’s invasion of India.
Effects of the Persian Invasion
The Persian invasion provided an impetus to the growth of
Indo-Iranian commerce. Also, it prepared the ground for
Alexander’s invasion. The use of the Kharoshti script, a form of
Iranian writing became popular in northwestern India and some of
52
Asoka’s edicts were written in that script. We are able to see the
influence of Persian art on the art of the Mauryas, particularly the
monolithic pillars of Asoka and the sculptures found on them. The
very idea of issuing edicts by Asoka and the wording used in the
edicts are traced to Iranian influence. In short, the Iranian connection
with India proved more fruitful than the short-lived Indo-
Macedonian contact.
ia
Alexander’s Invasion of India (327-325 B.C.)
Political Condition on the eve of Alexander’s Invasion
After two centuries of the Persian invasion, Alexander from
Macedonia invaded India. On the eve of his invasion, there were a
number of small kingdoms in northwestern India. The leading kings
were Ambhi of Taxila, the ruler of Abhisara and Porus who ruled
the region between the rivers of Jhelum and Chenab. There were
many republican states like Nysa. In short, the northwestern India
remained the most disunited part of India and the rulers were fighting
with one another. They never come together against common enemy.
Yet, it was not easy for Alexander to overcome so many sources of
opposition.
Causes of the Invasion
Alexander ascended the throne of Macedonia after the death
of his father Philip in 334 B.C. He conquered the whole of Persia
by defeating Darius III in the battle of Arbela in 330 B.C. He also
aimed at further conquest eastwards and wanted to recover the lost
Persian Satrapy of India. The writings of Greek authors like
Herodotus about the fabulous wealth of India attracted Alexander.
Moreover, his interest in geographical enquiry and love of natural
history urged him to undertake an invasion of India. He believed
that on the eastern side of India there was the continuation of the
sea, according the geographical knowledge of his period. So, he
53
 thought that by conquering India, he would also conquer the eastern

Pushkalavathi
boundary of the world.
Battle of Hydaspes
India
In 327 B.C. Alexander crossed the Hindukush Mountains

Markanda

Bactria
and spent nearly ten months in fighting with the tribes. He crossed
the Indus in February 326 B.C. with the help of the bridge of boats.

ia
He was warmly received by Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila. From there

Drangiana
Alexander sent a message to Porus to submit. But Porus refused
and decided to fight against Alexander. Then Alexander marched
from Taxila to the banks of the river Hydaspes (Jhelum). On the

ed
other side of the river he saw the vast army of Porus. As there were
heavy floods in the river, Alexander was not able to cross it. After a
few days, he crossed the river and the famous battle of Hydaspes
was fought on the plains of Karri. It was a well-contested battle.

M
Although Porus had a strong army, he lost the battle. Alexander
was impressed by the courage and heroism of this Indian prince,
enia

treated him generously and reinstated him on his throne.

Syriya Babylon
omi
Arm

Alexander continued his march as far as the river Beas

opat

Alexander’s Campaigns

e encountering opposition from the local tribes. He wanted to proceed

Mes

still further eastwards towards the Gangetic valley. But he could not
a

re
do so because his soldiers refused to fight. Hardships of prolonged
k Se

warfare made them tired and they wanted to return home. Alexander
Blac

could not persuade them and therefore decided to return. He made

arrangements to look after his conquered territories in India. He
Egypt
n
S Se anea

divided the whole territory from the Indus to the Beas into three
err

provinces and put them under his governors. His retreat began in
Macedonia

a
dit

October 326 B.C. and the return journey was not free from ordeals.
Me

Greece Many republican tribes attacked his army. Anyhow he managed to

reach beyond the Indus. On his way he reached Babylon where he
fell seriously ill and died in 323 B.C.

54 55
Effects of Alexander’s invasion MODEL QUESTIONS
The immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was that it I. Choose the correct answer.
encouraged political unification of north India under the Mauryas.
The system of small independent states came to an end. Alexander’s 1. The capital of Magadha was
invasion had also paved the way for direct contact between India (a) Rajagriha (b) Ujjain
and Greece. The routes opened by him and his naval explorations
(c) Kosala (d) Kausambi
increased the existing facilities for trade between India and West

ia
Asia. However, his aim of annexing the northwestern India to his 2. Nanda dynasty was preceded by
empire was not fulfilled due his premature death. His authority in (a) Mauryas (b) Sisunagas
the Indus valley was a short-lived one because of the expansion of
(c) Haryankas (d) Guptas

ed
Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta Maurya.
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. Ajatasatru belonged to ……. dynasty.
Learning Outcome
2. The last ruler of Nanda dynasty was …..

M
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
3. The second Buddhist Council was held at …..
1. The rise of Magatha and the different dynasties ruled
over it. 4. Alexander died at …… in the year …..
2. The achievements of Bimbisara, Mahapadma Nanda and III. Match the following.
other kings.
e
3. Persian invasions and their occupation of northwest
1.
2.
Udayana
Pradyota
a) Kosala
b) Avanti
re
India.
3. Prasenajit c) Magadha
4. Effects of Persian invasion and occupation.
4. Bimbisara d) Vatsa
5. Causes and course of Alexander’s invasion of India.
S

IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is

6. Effects of Alexander’s invasion. right.
a) Alexander defeated Porus and annexed his kingdom.
b) Alexander defeated Porus and treated him generously.
c) Alexander could not win the army of Porus.
d) Alexander defeated Ambhi of Taxila with the help of Porus.
56 57
V. State whether the following statements are true or False. LESSON 6
1. Xerxes was the first Greek conqueror to enter into India. THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
2. The battle of Hydaspes was fought on the Karri plain.
3. Alexander annexed some portions of Gangetic valley before Learning Objectives
his departure.
Students will acquire knowledge about
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

ia
1. The sources for the study of the Mauryas.
1. Sixteen Mahajanapadas.
2. Chandragupta Maurya and his achievements.
2. Cyrus
3. Asoka and his achievements and the spread of Asoka’s

ed
3. Battle of Hydaspes. Dhamma.
4. Effects of Alexander’s invasion. 4. The salient features of the Mauryan administration.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words). 5. Art and architecture of the Mauryas.

M
1. Write briefly the achievements of Bimbisara. 6. Causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire.
2. Assess the impact of Persian invasions on India.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). The foundation of the Mauryan Empire opens a new era in
the history of India. For the first time, the political unity was achieved
1.
rulers.
e
Describe the rise of Magadha and the achievements of its
in India. Moreover, the history writing has also become clear from
this period due to accuracy in chronology and sources. Besides
re
2. Give an account of Alexander’s invasion of India.
plenty of indigenous and foreign literary sources, a number of
epigraphical records are also available to write the history of this
period.
S

Literary Sources
Kautilya’s Arthasastra
This book in Sanskrit was written by Kautilya, a contemporary
of Chandragupta Maurya. Kautilya was also called ‘Indian
Machiavelli’. The manuscript of Arthasastra was first discovered
by R. Shama Sastri in 1904. The Arthasastra contains 15 books

58 59
and 180 chapters but it can be divided into three parts: the first
deals with the king and his council and the departments of
government; the second with civil and criminal law; and the third
with diplomacy and war. It is the most important literary source for
the history of the Mauryas.
Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa
The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in
Sanskrit. Although written during the Gupta period, it describes how
Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas.
It also gives a picture on the socio-economic condition under the
ed
Mauryas.
Megasthenes’ Indica
Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of
M
Chandragupta Maurya. His book Indica has survived only in
fragments. Yet, his account gives details about the Mauryan
administration, particularly the administration of the capital city of
Pataliputra and also the military organization. His picture on
contemporary social life is notable. Certain unbelievable information
provided by him has to be treated with caution.
Other Literature
e valley, he marched to the northwest and subdued the territories up
re
Apart from these three important works, the Puranas and the
Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide information on the
Mauryas. The Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa
S
throw light on the role Asoka in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
Archaeological Sources
Edicts of Asoka
The inscriptions of Asoka were first deciphered by James
Princep in 1837. They are written in Pali language and in some
60
places Prakrit was used. The Brahmi script was employed for writing.
In the northwestern India Asokan inscriptions were found in Karoshti
script. There are fourteen Major Rock Edicts. The two Kalinga
Edicts are found in the newly conquered territory. The major pillar
Edicts were erected in important cities. There are minor Rock Edicts
and minor pillar Edicts. These Edicts of Asoka deal with Asoka’s
Dhamma and also instructions given to his officials. The XIII Rock
ia
Edict gives details about his war with Kalinga. The Pillar Edict VII
gives a summary of his efforts to promote the Dhamma within his
kingdom. Thus the Asokan inscriptions remain valuable sources for
the study of Asoka and the Mauryan Empire.
POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE MAURYAS
Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.)
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan
Empire. He, at the young age of 25, captured Pataliputra from the
last ruler of the Nanda dynasty, Dhanananda. In this task he was
assisted by Kautilya, who was also known as Chanakya or
Vishnugupta. After firmly establishing his power in the Gangetic
to the Indus. Then he moved to central India and occupied the region
north of Narmada river.
In 305 B.C., he marched against Selukas Niketar, who was
Alexander ’s General controlling the northwestern India.
Chandragupta Maurya defeated him and a treaty was signed. By
this treaty, Selukas Niketar ceded the trans-Indus territories – namely
Aria, Arakosia and Gedrosia – to the Mauryan Empire. He also
gave his daughter in marriage to the Mauryan prince. Chandragupta
made a gift of 500 elephants to Selukas. Megasthenes was sent to
the Mauryan court as Greek ambassador.
61
 Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life
and stepped down from the throne in favour of his son Bindusara.
Then he went to Sravana Belgola, near Mysore along with Jain
monks led by Bhadrabhagu and starved himself to death.
Bindusara (298 – 273 B.C.)
Bindusara was called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning

ia
slayer of enemies. He is said to have conquered the Deccan up to
Mysore. Taranatha, the Tibetan monk states that Bindusara
conquered 16 states comprising ‘the land between the two seas’.
The Sangam Tamil literature also confirms the Mauryan invasion of

ed
the far south. Therefore, it can be said that the Mauryan Empire
under Bindusara extended up to Mysore.
Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian
king Antiochus I. Bindusara wrote to Antiochus I asking for sweet

M
wine, dried figs and a sophist. The latter sent all but a sophist
because the Greek law prohibited sending a sophist. Bindusara
supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect. Bindusara appointed his
son Asoka as the governor of Ujjain.
Asoka the Great (273 – 232 B.C.)
e
There is little information regarding the early life of Asoka.
re
He acted as Governor of Ujjain and also suppressed a revolt in
Taxila during his father Bindusara’s reign. There was an interval of
four years between Asoka’s accession to the throne (273 B.C.)
S

and his actual coronation (269 B.C.). Therefore, it appears from

the available evidence that there was a struggle for the throne after
Bindusara’s death. The Ceylonese Chronicles, Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa state that Asoka captured power after killing his ninety
nine brothers including the his elder brother Susima. The youngest
brother Tissa was spared. But according to Taranatha of Tibet,
Asoka killed only six of his brothers. Asoka’s Edict also refers to

62 63
his brothers acting as officers in his administration. However, it is
clear that the succession of Asoka was a disputed one.
The most important event of Asoka’s reign was his victorious
war with Kalinga in 261 B.C. Although there is no detail about the
cause and course of the war, the effects of the war were described
by Asoka himself in the Rock edict XIII: “A hundred and fifty
thousand were killed and many times that number perished…” After
the war he annexed Kalinga to the Mauryan Empire. Another most
important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka embraced
Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta.
ed
Asoka and Buddhism
According some scholars, his conversion to Buddhism was
gradual and not immediate. About 261 B.C. Asoka became a Sakya
Upasaka (lay dsicple) and two and a half years later, a Bikshu
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(monk). Then he gave up hunting, visited Bodh-Gaya, and organized
missions. He appointed special officers called Dharma Mahamatras
to speed up the progress of Dhamma. In 241 B.C., he visited the
birth place of Buddha, the Lumbini Garden, near Kapilavastu. He
e
also visited other holy places of Buddhism like Sarnath, Sravasti
and Kusinagara. He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son
re
Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra who planted there the branch
of the original Bodhi tree. Asoka convened the Third Buddhist
Council at Pataliputra in 240 B.C. in order to strengthen the Sangha.
It was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa.
S
Extent of Asoka’s Empire
Asoka’s inscriptions mention the southernmost kingdoms –
Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras – as border-states.
Therefore these states remained outside the Mauryan Empire.
According to Rajatarangini, Kashmir was a part of the Mauryan
Empire. Nepal was also within the Mauryan empire. The
64
northwestern frontier was already demarcated by Chandragupta
Maurya.
Asoka’s Dhamma
Although Asoka embraced Buddhism and took efforts to
spread Buddhism, his policy of Dhamma was a still broad concept.
It was a way of life, a code of conduct and a set of principles to be
ia
adopted and practiced by the people at large. His principles of
Dhamma were clearly stated in his Edicts. The main features of
Asoka’s Dhamma as mentioned in his various Edicts may be summed
as follows:
1. Service to father and mother, practice of ahimsa, love of truth,
reverence to teachers and good treatment of relatives.
2. Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings and
avoiding expensive and meaningless ceremonies and rituals.
3. Efficient organization of administration in the direction of social
welfare and maintenance of constant contact with people
through the system of Dhammayatras.
4. Humane treatment of servants by masters and prisoners by
government officials.
5. Consideration and non-violence to animals and courtesy to
relations and liberality to Brahmins.
6. Tolerance among all the religious sects.
7. Conquest through Dhamma instead of through war.
The concept of non-violence and other similar ideas of
Asoka’s Dhamma are identical with the teachings of Buddha. But
he did not equate Dhamma with Buddhist teachings. Buddhism
remained his personal belief. His Dhamma signifies a general code
of conduct. Asoka wished that his Dhamma should spread through
all social levels.
65
Estimate of Asoka
Asoka was “the greatest of kings” surpassing Alexander the
Great and Julius Caesar and other renowned Emperors of the world.
According to H.G. Wells “Amidst the tens and thousands of names
of monarchs that crowd the columns of history, the name of Asoka
shines and shines almost alone, a star”. Asoka was true to his ideals.
He was not a dreamer but a man of practical genius. His Dhamma is
so universal that it appeals to humanity even today. He was an
example in history for his benevolent administration and also for
following the policy of non-aggression even after his victory in the
ed
war. His central ideal was to promote the welfare of humanity.
Later Mauryas
Asoka’s death in 232 B.C. was followed by the division of
the Mauryan Empire into two parts – western and eastern. The
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western part was ruled by Kunala, son of Asoka and the eastern
part by Dasaratha, one of the grand sons of Asoka. Due to the
Bactrian invasions, the western part of the empire collapsed. The
eastern part was intact under Samprati successor of Dasaratha. The
Pushyamitra Sunga. e
last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was assassinated by
re
Mauryan Administration
Central Government
The ascendancy of the Mauryas had resulted in the triumph
S
of monarchy in India. Other systems like republics and oligarchies
that were prevalent in the pre-Mauryan India had collapsed. Although
Kautilya the foremost political theorist of ancient India supported
the monarchial form of government, he did not stand for royal
absolutism. He advocated that the king should take the advice of
his ministry in running the administration. Therefore, a council of
ministers called Mantriparishad assisted the king in administrative
66
matters. It consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and
Yuvaraja. There were civil servants called Amatyas to look after
the day-to-day administration. These officers were similar to the
IAS officers of independent India. The method of selection of
Amatyas was elaborately given by Kautilya. Asoka appointed
Dhamma Mahamatras to supervise the spread of Dhamma. Thus
the Mauryan state had a well organized civil service.
ia
Revenue Department
Samharta, the chief of the Revenue Department, was in charge
of the collection of all revenues of the empire. The revenues came from
land, irrigation, customs, shop tax, ferry tax, forests, mines and pastures,
license fee from craftsmen, and fines collected in the law courts. The
land revenue was normally fixed as one sixth of the produce. The main
items of expenditure of the state related to king and his household,
army, government servants, public works, poor relief, religion, etc.
Army
The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the
control of Senapati. The salaries were paid in cash. Kautilya refers
to the salaries of different ranks of military officers. According to
Greek author Pliny, the Mauryan army consisted of six lakh infantry,
thirty thousand cavalry, nine thousand elephants and eight thousand
chariots. In addition to these four wings, there were the Navy and
Transport and Supply wings. Each wing was under the control of
Adyakshas or Superintendents. Megasthenes mentions six boards
of five members each to control the six wings of the military.
Department of Commerce and Industry
This department had controlled the retail and wholesale prices
of goods and tried to ensure their steady supply through its officers
called Adyakshas. It also controlled weights and measures, levied
custom duties and regulated foreign trade.
67
Judicial and Police Departments
Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal
courts. The chief justice of the Supreme Court at the capital was
called Dharmathikarin. There were also subordinate courts at the
provincial capitals and districts under Amatyas. Different kinds of
punishment such as fines, imprisonment, mutilation and death were
given to the offenders. Torture was employed to extract truth. Police
stations were found in all principal centres. Both Kautilya and Asokan
Edicts mention about jails and jail officials. The Dhamma
Mahamatras were asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust
ed
imprisonment. Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Asoka’s
inscriptions.
Census
The taking of Census was regular during the Mauryan period.
M
The village officials were to number the people along with other
details like their caste and occupation. They were also to count the
animals in each house. The census in the towns was taken by
municipal officials to track the movement of population both foreign
e
and indigenous. The data collected were cross checked by the spies.
The Census appears to be a permanent institution in the Mauryan
re
administration.
Provincial and Local Administration
The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with
S
their capitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The
provincial governors were mostly appointed from the members of
royal family. They were responsible the maintenance of law and
order and collection of taxes for the empire. The district
administration was under the charge of Rajukas, whose position
and functions are similar to modern collectors. He was assisted by
Yuktas or subordinate officials. Village administration was in the
68
hands of Gramani and his official superior was called Gopa who
was in charge of ten or fifteen villages.
Both Kautilya and Megasthanes provided the system of
Municipal administration. Arthasastra contains a full chapter on the
role of Nagarika or city superintendent. His chief duty was to
maintain law and order. Megasthenes refers to the six committees
of five members each to look after the administration of Pataliputra.
ia
These committees looked after: 1. Industries 2. Foreigners 3.
Registration of birth and deaths 4. Trade 5. Manufacture and sale
of goods 6. Collection of sales tax.
Mauryan Art and Architecture
The monuments before the period of Asoka were mostly made
of wood and therefore perished. The use of stone started from the
time of Asoka. Even of the numerous monuments of Asoka, only a
few have remained. His palace and monasteries and most of his
stupas have disappeared. The only remaining stupa is at Sanchi.
The artistic remains of the Mauryan period can be seen in the
following heads:
Pillars
The pillars erected by Asoka furnish the
finest specimen of the Mauryan art. Asokan
pillars with inscriptions were found in places like
Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and
Saranath. Their tops were crowned with figures
of animals like lion, elephant and bull. The
Saranath pillar with four lions standing back to
back is the most magnificent. The Indian
government adopted this capital with some
modifications as its state emblem.
Saranath Pillar
69
Stupas
Asoka built a number of stupas
throughout his empire but majority of them
were destroyed during foreign invasions.
Only a few have survived. The best example
is the famous Sanchi stupa with massive
dimensions. It was originally
solely blaming Asoka for the decline of the Mauryan empire may
not be correct because Asoka was more a pragmatist than an idealist.
There are multiple causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire
such as weak successors, partition of empire and administrative
abuses after Asoka’s reign. The combination of these factors
speeded up the breakup of the Mauryan empire and facilitated
Pushyamitra Sunga to drive away the Mauryan power and establish

ia
SANCHI STUPA

built with bricks but later the Sunga dynasty.

enlarged after the time of Asoka.
Learning Outcome
Caves

ed
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
The caves presented to the Ajivikas by Asoka
and his son Dasaratha remain important heritage of 1. The literary and epigraphical sources for the study of
the Mauryas. Their interior walls are polished like the Mauryas.
mirror. These were meant to be residences of monks.

M
2. The accession of Chandragupta Maurya and his
The caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya are achievements.
Four Lions
wonderful pieces of Mauryan architecture.
3. Bindusara’s military achievements.
Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas
4. Asoka’s spread of Dhamma through various means such

e
The causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire have been
widely debated by scholars. The traditional approach attributes the
decline to Asoka’s policies and his weak successors. Another
as issuing Edicts and appointing officers like Dhamma
Mahamatras.
re
approach holds the inadequate political and economic institutions 5. The salient features of the Mauryan art such as pillars,
to sustain such a vast empire. caves and stupas.

It was said that Asoka’s pro-Buddhist policies antagonized 6. Causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire.
S

the Brahmins who brought about a revolution led by Pushyamitra

Sunga. But Asoka was never acted against Brahmins. That Asoka’s
policy of non-violence reduced the fighting spirit of his army was
another charge against him. But Asoka had never slackened his
control over his empire despite following a pacifist policy. Therefore

70 71
 MODEL QUESTIONS c) The Indika written by Megasthenes gives details about the
Kalinga War.
I. Choose the correct answer.
d) Asoka’s Edicts provide information on the decline of the
1. The details of Asoka’s war with Kalinga is given in the Mauryan empire.
(a) Kalinga Edict (b) XIII Rock Edict V. State whether the following statements are true or False.
(c) Saranath Pillar (d) Arthasastra 1. Chandragupta Maurya became a follower of Buddhism at the

ia
2. The language mostly employed in the Edicts of Asoka is end of his reign.
(a) Pali (b) Sanskrit 2. Tamil Nadu was included in the Mauryan empire.
3. Asoka presented caves to the Ajivikas.
(c) Karoshti (d) Brahmi

ed
4. Pushyamitra Sunga put an end to the Mauryan rule.
II. Fill in the blanks.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. The Asokan Edicts were first deciphered by …….
1. Kautilya’s Arthasastra.
2. The last Mauryan king was …….

M
2. Kalinga War.
3. Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of …….
3. Megasthanes.
4. The state emblem of India was adopted from …… pillar. 4. Bindusara.
III. Match the following. VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1.
2.
Dharmamahamatras
Gopa
e
a) Village administration
b) Revenue administration
1. Write a note on the achievements of Chandragupta Maurya.
re
2. Mention the efforts taken by Asoka for the spread of
3. Nagarika c) Spread of Dhamma Buddhism.
4. Samharta d) City administration 3. Assess the significance of the Mauryan art.
S

IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is 4. Analyse the causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire.
right. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
a) The first part of Kautilya’s Arthasastra tells about war and 1. Give an account of Asoka’s achievements and his policy of
diplomacy. Dhamma.
b) Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa was written in the style of 2. Write in detail the salient features of the Mauryan
drama. administration.

72 73
 LESSON 7
POST-MAURYAN INDIA
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The Sunga rule and its importance.
2. The Satavahana rule and their contributions to culture.
3. The Sakas and Bactrians.
ed
4. Kanishka and his achievements.
5. Gandhara art and its salient features.
M
After the death of Asoka, his successors were not able to
keep the vast Mauryan Empire intact. The provinces started declaring
their independence. The northwest India slipped out of the control
of the Mauryas and a series of foreign invasions affected this region.
e
Kalinga declared its independence and in the further south the
Satavahanas established their independent rule. As a result, the
Mauryan rule was confined to the Gangetic valley and it was soon
re
replaced by the Sunga dynasty.
Sungas
The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga,
S
who was the commander-in-chief under the Mauryas. He
assassinated the last Mauryan ruler and usurped the throne. The
most important challenge to the Sunga rule was to protect north
India against the invasions of the Bactrian Greeks from the northwest.
The Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied it for
sometime. However, Pushyamitra succeeded in regaining the lost
74
territory. He also fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga
who invaded north India.
Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism. He
performed two asvamedha sacrifices. Buddhist sources refer him
as a persecutor of Buddhism. But there is enough evidence to show
that Pushyamitra patronised Buddhist art. During his reign the
Buddhist monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and
ia
further improved.
After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the
ruler. The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by
his minister Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of the Kanva dynasty.
The Kanva dynasty ruled for 45 years. After the fall of the Kanvas,
the history of Magatha was a blank until the establishment of the
Gupta dynasty.
The rule of the Sungas was important because they defended the
Gangetic valley from foreign invasions. In the cultural sphere, the Sungas
revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice. They also promoted the growth
of Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language. In short, the Sunga rule was
a brilliant anticipation of the golden age of the Guptas.
Satavahanas
In the Deccan, the Satavahanas
established their independent rule after the
decline of the Mauryas. Their rule lasted
for about 450 years. They were also known
as the Andhras. The Puranas and COINS OF SATAVAHANAS
inscriptions remain important sources for
the history of Satavahanas. Among the inscriptions, the Nasik and
Nanaghad inscriptions throw much light on the reign of Gautamiputra
Satakarni. The coins issued by the Satavahanas are also helpful in
knowing the economic conditions of that period.
75
 The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka. He was
succeeded by Krishna, who extended the kingdom up to Nasik in
the west. The third king was Sri Satakarni. He conquered western
Malwa and Berar. He also performed asvamedha sacrifices. The
seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He reigned
for a period of five years. Hala became famous for his book
Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakrit
language.
The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra
Satakarni. He ruled for a period of 24 years from 106 to 130 A.D.
ed
His achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his
mother Gautami Balasri. Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole
of Deccan and expanded his empire. His victory over Nagapana,
the ruler of Malwa was remarkable. He patronized Brahmanism.
Yet, he also gave donations to Buddhists.
M
Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son
Vashishtaputra Pulamayi. He extended the Satavahana power up to
the mouth of the Krishna river. He issued coins on which the image
of ships was inscribed. They reveal the naval power and maritime
e
trade of the Satavahanas. The last great ruler of Satavahanas was
Yajna Sri Satakarni.
re
Economic Condition
There was a remarkable progress in the fields of trade and
industry during the Satavahana rule. Merchants organized guilds to
S
increase their activities. The craft guilds organized by different
craftsmen such as potters, weavers and oil pressers also came into
existence. Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade.
The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas commercial activity.
Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan. The greatest port of
the Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west Deccan. Gandakasela
and Ganjam on the east coast were the other important seaports.
76
Cultural Contributions
The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism. They
built chaityas and viharas. They also made grants of villages and
lands to Buddhist monks. Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old
Amaravathi stupa. Their architecture in Nagarjunakonda was also
notable. Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with
the performance of asvamedha and rajasuya sacrifices. They also
ia
patronized the Prakrit language and literature. Hala’s Sattasai is an
excellent piece of Prakrit literature.
Foreign Invasions of Northwest India
Bactrians
Bactria and Parthia became independent from the Syrian
empire in the middle of the third century B.C. Demetrius, the Greek
ruler of Bactria invaded Afghanistan and Punjab and occupied them.
From Taxila, he sent two of his commanders, Appolodotus and
Menander for further conquests. Appolodotus conquered the Sindh
and marched up to Ujjain. Menander extended his rule up to Mathura
and from there he made attempts to capture Pataliputra. But he
was stopped by the army of Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra
Sunga.
Menander was also known as Milinda and the capital of his
kingdom was Sakala (Sialcot). He evinced much interest in
Buddhism and his dialogues with the Buddhist monk Nagasena was
compiled in the Pali work, Milindapanho (Questions of Milinda).
He also embraced Buddhism. A Greek ambassador Heliodorus
became a Vaishnavite and erected the Garuda Pillar at Besnagar.
The Greek influence in India lasted for more than a century after the
death Menander.
77
Sakas
The Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia and
captured them from the Greek rulers. Following the footsteps of
the Greeks, the Sakas gradually extended their rule over
northwestern India. There were two different groups of Sakas –
the Northern Satraps ruling from Taxila and the Western satraps
ruling over Maharashtra.
Kanishka’s Conquests
At the time of his accession his empire
included Afghanistan, Gandhara, Sind and
Punjab. Subsequently he conquered
Magadha and extended his power as far as
Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya. According to
Kalhana, Kanishka invaded Kashmir and

The founder the Saka rule in India in the first century B.C.
was Maues. His son and successor was Azes I, who was considered
to be the founder of the Vikrama era.
ia
occupied it. His coins are found in many
places like Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi and
Benares and therefore, he must have con-
Headless statue

ed
quered the greater part of the Gangetic plain. of Kanishka
Sakas rulers of Taxila were overthrown by the Parthians.
He also fought against the Chinese and acquired some
Kushanas territories from them. During the first expedition he was defeated
The Kushanas were a branch of Yuchi tribe, whose original by the Chinese general Pancho. He undertook a second expedition

M
home was central Asia. They first came to Bactria displacing the in which he was successful and he scored a victory over Panyang,
Sakas. Then they gradually moved to the son of Pancho. Kanishka annexed the territories of Kashgar,
the Kabul valley and seized the Yarkand and Khotan into his empire.
Gandhara region. The founder of the The empire of Kanishka was a vast one extending from
Kushana dynasty was Kujula
Kadphises or Kadphises I. He
occupied the Kabul valley and issued
e
Gold Conins of
Gandhara in the west to Benares in the east, and from Kashmir in
the north to Malwa in the south. His capital was Purushapura or
re
Kushanas modern day Peshawar. Mathura was another important city in his
coins in his name. His son Wima empire.
Kadphises or Kadphises II conquered the whole of northwestern
India as far as Mathura. He issued gold coins with high-sounding Kanishka and Buddhism
S

titles like the ‘Lord of the Whole World’. He was a devotee of
Lord Siva.
Kanishka (78 – 120 A.D.)
Kanishka was the most important ruler of the Kushana
dynasty. He was the founder of the Saka era which starts from 78
A.D. He was not only a great conqueror but also a patron of religion
and art.
78
Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign.
However, his coins exhibit the images of not only Buddha but also
Greek and Hindu gods. It reflects the Kanishka’s toleration towards
other religions. In the age of Kanishka the Mahayana Buddhism
came into vogue. It is different in many respects from the religion
taught by the Buddha and propagated by Asoka. The Buddha came
to be worshipped with flowers, garments, perfumes and lamps. Thus
79
image worship and rituals developed in Mahayana Buddhism.
Kanishka also sent missionaries to Central Asia and China
for the propagation of the new faith. Buddhist chaityas and viharas
were built in different places. He patronised Buddhist scholars like
Vasumitra, Asvagosha and Nagarjuna. He also convened the Fourth
Buddhist Council to discuss matters relating to Buddhist theology
and doctrine. It was held at the Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar
- Moulding human body in a realistic manner with minute
attention to physical features like muscles, moustache and
curtly hair.
- Thick drapery with large and bold fold lines.
- Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and symbolic
expressions.

in Kashmir under the presidentship of Vasumitra. About 500 monks
attended the Council. The Council prepared an authoritative
commentary on the Tripitakas and the Mahayana doctrine was given
ia
- The main theme was the new form of Buddhism – Mahayanism
– and the evolution of an image of Buddha.
A large number of monasteries were also built from first to

ed
final shape. Asvagosha was a great philosopher, poet and dramatist.
fourth centuries A.D. Ruins of about fifteen monasteries were found
He was the author of Buddhacharita. Nagarjuna from south India
in and around Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The Buddhist stupas
adorned the court of Kanishka. The famous physician of ancient
erected during this period had Graeco-Roman architectural impact.
India Charaka was also patronized by him.
The height of the stupa was raised and ornamentation was added to

M
Gandhara Art the structure of the stupa. These changes made the stupa more
The home of the Gandhara school of art is the territory in and attractive.
around Peshawar in northwestern India. The best of the Gandhara Mathura School of Art
sculpture was produced during the first and
The school of art that developed at Mathura in modern Uttar
second centuries A.D. It originated during the
reign of Indo-Greek rulers but the real patrons e Pradesh is called the Mathura art. It flourished in the first century
A.D. In its early phase, the Mathura school of art developed on
re
of this school of art were the Sakas and the
indigenous lines. The Buddha images exhibit the spiritual feeling in
Kushanas, particularly Kanishka. Gandhara art
his face which was largely absent in the Gandhara school. The
was a blend of Indian and Graeco-Roman
Mathura school also carved out the images of Siva and Vishnu along
elements. Specimens of Gandhara sculpture have
with their consorts Parvathi and Lakshmi. The female figures of
S

been found in Taxila, Peshawar and in several

yakshinis and apsaras of the Mathura school were beautifully carved.
places of northwest India. The Gandhara school
made sculptures of the Buddha in various sizes, Successors of Kanishka and end of Kushana Rule
REPRESENTATION OF
shapes and postures. The reliefs depict Buddha’s THE BUDDHA IN
The successors of Kanishka ruled for another one hundred
GANDHARA ART
birth, his renunciation and his preaching. The and fifty years. Huvishka was the son of Kanishka and he kept the
salient features of Gandhara art are: empire intact. Mathura became an important city under his rule.

80 81
Like Kanishka he was also a patron of Buddhism. The last important MODEL QUESTIONS
Kushana ruler was Vasudeva. The Kushana empire was very much
reduced in his rule. Most of his inscriptions are found in and around I. Choose the correct answer.
Mathura. He seems to have been a worshipper of Siva. After 1. The Sungas were succeeded by
Vasudeva, petty Kushan princes ruled for sometime in northwestern
(a) Mauryas (b) Kushanas
India.
(c) Kanvas (d) Satavahanas

ia
Learning Outcome
2. Nasik inscription describes the achievements of
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
(a) Pushyamitra Sunga (b) Gautamiputra Satakarni
1. The reign of Pushyamitra and the importance of Sunga
(c) Kanishka (d) Menander

ed
rule.
3. The author of Buddhacharita was
2. The Satavahana rule and Gautami Putra Satakarni’s
achievements. (a) Nagarjuna (b) Asvagosha

3. The socio-economic conditions of the Satavahana period (c) Vasumitra (d) Nagasena

M
and also their cultural contributions. II. Fill in the blanks.
4. Kanishka and his military achievements. 1. The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was …….
5. The role of Kanishka in the spread of Mahayana 2. The famous Prakrit book Sattasai was written by …..
Buddhism.

e
6. The salient features of the Gandhara art and also
3.
4.
…… was considered to be the founder of the Vikrama era.
Saka era was founded by ……. in the year…..
re
Mathura art.
5. The Garuda pillar at Besnagar was erected by …..
6. The Chinese General who was defeated by Kanishka was
…..
S

III. Match the following.

1. Sakala a) Azes I
2. Purushapura b) Pushyamitra Sunga
3. Pataliputra c) Menander
4. Taxila d) Kanishka

82 83
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is LESSON 8
right.
SANGAM AGE
a) The Sungas promoted the Sanskrit language.
b) The Satavahanas patronized Telugu language.
c) The Mahayana Buddhism adopted Pali as its language. Learning Objectives

d) The Mathura school of art developed on Indo-Greek style. Students will acquire knowledge about

ia
1. The Sangam literature and other sources for the Sangam
V. State whether the following statements are True or
period.
False.
2. The political history of the Sangam period.
1. The Sungas revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice.

ed
3. The Sangam polity and society.
2. Menander was a Bactrian ruler. 4. Religion and the position of women in the Sangam period.
3. Nasik was a great port on the east coast during the rule of 5. The economic condition of the Sangam age.
Satavahanas.
4. Gandhara art was a blend of Indian and Graeco-Roman

M
elements. The Sangam Age constitutes an important chapter in the history
of South India. According to Tamil legends, there existed three
VI. Write short notes (Any three points). Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu popularly
1. Gautamiputra Satakarni. called Muchchangam. These Sangams flourished under the royal
2.
3.
Menander.
Asvagosha. e patronage of the Pandyas. The first Sangam, held at Then Madurai,
was attended by gods and legendary sages but no literary work of
this Sangam was available. The second Sangam was held at
re
4. Mathura School of art. Kapadapuram but the all the literary works had perished except
VII. Answer briefly (100 words). Tolkappiyam. The third Sangam at Madurai was founded by
Mudathirumaran. It was attended by a large number of poets who
1. Assess the importance of the rule of Sungas.
S

produced voluminous literature but only a few had survived. These

2. Mention the cultural contributions of Satavahanas.
3. Examine the salient features of the Gandhara art.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the history of the Satavahanas.
2. Assess the achievements of Kanishka.
Tamil literary works remain useful sources to reconstruct the history
of the Sangam Age.
Sangam Literature
The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam,
Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics

84 85
– Silappathigaram and Manimegalai. Tolkappiyam authored by
Tolkappiyar is the earliest of the Tamil literature. It is a work on
Tamil grammar but it provides information on the political and socio-
economic conditions of the Sangam period. The Ettutogai or Eight
Anthologies consist of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai,
Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal
and Padirruppattu. The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten
works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,
Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu,
Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai
ed
and Malaipadukadam. Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided
into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram (valour).
Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with
ethics and morals. The most important among them is Tirukkural
authored by Thiruvalluvar. Silappathigaram written by Elango
M
Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable
information on the Sangam polity and society.
Other Sources
In addition to the Sangam literature, the Greek authors like
e
Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy mention the commercial
contacts between the West and South India. The Asokan inscriptions
re
mention the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers on the south of the
Mauryan empire. The Hathikumbha inscription of Kharavela of
Kalinga also mentions about Tamil kingdoms. The excavations at
Arikkamedu, Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other places reveal the
S
overseas commercial activities of the Tamils.
Period of Sangam Literature
The chronology of the Sangam literature is still a disputed
topic among the scholars. The sheet anchor of Sangam chronology
lies in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri Lanka and Cheran
86
Senguttuvan of the Chera dynasty were contemporaries. This is
confirmed by Silappathigaram as well as the Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa. Also the Roman coins issued by Roman emperors of
the first century A.D were found in plenty in various places of Tamil
Nadu. Therefore, the most probable date of the Sangam literature
has been fixed between the third century B.C. to third century A.D.
on the basis of literary, archaeological and numismatic evidences.
ia
Political History
The Tamil country was ruled by three dynasties namely the
Chera, Chola and Pandyas during the Sangam Age. The political
history of these dynasties can be traced from the literary references.
Cheras
The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala. Their capital
was Vanji and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. They
had the palmyra flowers as their garland. The Pugalur inscription of
the first century A.D refers to three generations of Chera rulers.
Padirruppattu also provides information on Chera kings. Perum
Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan
and Cheran Senguttuvan were the famous rulers of this dynasty.
Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to 2nd century A.D. His younger
brother was Elango Adigal, the author of Silappathigaram. Among
his military achievements, his expedition to the Himalayas was
remarkable. He defeated many north Indian monarchs. Senguttuvan
introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal
wife in Tamil Nadu. The stone for making the idol of Kannagi was
brought by him after his Himalayan expedition. The consecration
ceremony was attended by many princes including Gajabhagu II
from Sri Lanka.
87
Cholas
The Chola kingdom of the Sangam period extended from
modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh. Their capital
was first located at Uraiyur and then shifted to Puhar. Karikala was
a famous king of the Sangam Cholas. Pattinappalai portrays his
early life and his military conquests. In the Battle of Venni he defeated
the mighty confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas and eleven
minor chieftains. This event is mentioned in many Sangam poems.
Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by him in which
nine enemy chieftains submitted before him. Karikala’s military
ed
achievements made him the overlord of the whole Tamil country.
Trade and commerce flourished during his reign period. He was
responsible for the reclamation of forest lands and brought them
under cultivation thus adding prosperity to the people. He also built
Kallanai across the river Kaveri and also constructed many irrigation
M
tanks.
Pandyas
The Pandyas ruled over the present day southern Tamil Nadu.
were Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi ande
Their capital was Madurai. The earliest kings of the Pandyan dynasty
re
Mudathirumaran. There were two Neduncheliyans. The first one
was known as Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan (one who won
victories over the Aryan forces). He was responsible for the
execution of Kovalan for which Kannagi burnt Madurai. The other
S
was Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra (He who won the battle at
Talaiyalanganam) Neduncheliyan. He was praised by Nakkirar and
Mangudi Maruthanar. He wore this title after defeating his enemies
at the Battle of Talaiyalanganam, which is located in the Tanjore
district. By this victory Neduncheliyan gained control over the entire
Tamil Nadu. Maduraikkanji written by Mangudi Maruthanar
describes the socio-economic condition of the Pandya country
88
including the flourishing seaport of Korkai. The last famous Pandyan
king was Uggira Peruvaludhi. The Pandyan rule during the Sangam
Age began to decline due to the invasion of the Kalabhras.
Minor Chieftains
The minor chieftains played a significant role in the Sangam
period. Among them Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay and Adiyaman
ia
were popular for their philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets.
Therefore, they were known as Kadai Yelu Vallalgal. Although they
were subordinate to the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers, they were
powerful and popular in their respective regions.
Sangam Polity
Hereditary monarchy was the form of government during the
Sangam period. The king had also taken the advice of his minister,
court-poet and the imperial court or avai. The Chera kings assumed
titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan, Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar,
the Chola kings like Senni, Valavan and Killi and the Pandya kings
Thennavar and Minavar. Each of the Sangam dynasties had a royal
emblem – carp for the Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and bow for
the Cheras. The imperial court or avai was attended by a number of
chiefs and officials. The king was assisted by a large body of officials
who were divided into five councils. They were ministers (amaichar),
priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar)
and spies (orrar). The military administration was also efficiently
organized during the Sangam Age. Each ruler had a regular army
and their respective Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
Land revenue was the chief source of state’s income while
custom duty was also imposed on foreign trade. The Pattinappalai
refers to the custom officials employed in the seaport of Puhar. Booty
captured in wars was also a major income to the royal treasury.
89
Roads and highways were well maintained and guarded night and
day to prevent robbery and smuggling.
Sangam Society
Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands - Kurinji
(hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal
(coastal) and Palai (desert). The people living in these five divisions
had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.
· Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation,
hunting and honey collection.
ed
· Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation,
cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.
· Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
· Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and
M
salt manufacturing.
· Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.
Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, anthanar,
e
vanigar and vellalar. The ruling class was called arasar. Anthanars played
a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion. Vanigars carried on
trade and commerce. The vellalas were agriculturists. Other tribal groups
re
like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were
also found in the Sangam society. Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas,
Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
S
Religion
The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or
Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God. The worship of Murugan
was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan
was mentioned in the Sangam literature. He was honoured with six
abodes known as Arupadai Veedu. Other gods worshipped during
90
the Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Varunan
and Korravai. The Hero Stone or Nadu Kal worship was significant
in the Sangam period. The Hero Stone was erected in memory of
the bravery shown by the warrior in battle. Many hero stones with
legends inscribed on them were found in different parts of Tamil
Nadu. This kind of worshipping the deceased has a great antiquity.
Position of Women
ia
There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature to
trace the position of women during the Sangam age. Women poets
like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this
period and contributed to Tamil literature. The courage of women
was also appreciated in many poems. Karpu or Chaste life was
considered the highest virtue of women. Love marriage was a
common practice. Women were allowed to choose their life partners.
However, the life of widows was miserable. The practice of Sati
was also prevalent in the higher strata of society. The class of dancers
was patronized by the kings and nobles.
Fine Arts
Poetry, music and dancing were popular among the people of
the Sangam age. Liberal donations were given to poets by the kings,
chieftains and nobles. The royal courts were crowded with singing
bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts in folk songs
and folk dances. The arts of music and dancing were highly
developed. A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in the
Sangam literature. Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar. Koothu
was the most popular entertainment of the people.
Economy of the Sangam Age
Agriculture was the chief occupation. Rice was the common
crop. Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon
and a variety of fruits were the other crops. Jack fruit and pepper
91
were famous in the Chera country. Paddy was the chief crop in the
Chola and Pandya country.
The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular. They
include weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building and
making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory. There was a
great demand for these products, as the internal and external trade
was at its peak during the Sangam period. Spinning and weaving of
End of the Sangam Age
Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period
slowly witnessed its decline. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil
country for about two and a half centuries. We have little information
about the Kalabhra rule. Jainism and Buddhism became prominent
during this period. The Pallavas in the northern Tamil Nadu and
Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu drove the Kalabhras out of the

ia
cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality. The poems mention Tamil country and established their rule.
the cotton clothes as thin as a cloud of steam or a slough of a snake.
There was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes Learning Outcome

ed
woven at Uraiyur.
Both internal and foreign trade was well organized and briskly
carried on in the Sangam Age. The Sangam literature, Greek and
Roman accounts and the archaeological evidences provide detailed
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. The Sources for the study of the Sangam period including
the Sangam literature.
2. The Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers of the Sangam

M
information on this subject. Merchants carried the goods on the period and their achievements.
carts and on animal-back from place to place. Internal trade was 3. The Sangam polity including the administrative system
mostly based on the barter system. and other details.

External trade was carried between South India and the Greek 4. The Sangam society, the five divisions of landscape, their

e
kingdoms. After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman
trade assumed importance. The port city of Puhar became an
religious life and the position of women.
5. The economy during the Sangam period, particularly the
overseas commercial contacts during the Sangam period.
re
emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with
precious goods. Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi,
Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam. The author of
Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign trade.
S

Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman Emperors like
Augustus, Tiberius and Nero were found in all parts of Tamil Nadu.
They reveal the extent of the trade and the presence of Roman
traders in the Tamil country. The main exports of the Sangam age
were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon
and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones. Gold,
horses and sweet wine were the chief imports.

92 93
 MODEL QUESTIONS c) Horses and wine were the chief exports from Tamil Nadu.

I. Choose the correct answer. d) Madurai was the port-city of the Sangam Pandyas.

1. Pattini cult in Tamil Nadu was introduced by V. State whether the following statements are true or False.

(a) Pandyan Neduncheliyan (b) Cheran Senguttuvan 1. Arikkamedu was a seaport during the Sangam period.

(c) Elango Adigal (d) Mudathirumaran 2. Lord Murugan was the primary deity of the Sangam age.

ia
2. The Pandyan rule of the Sangam age declined due to the 3. Uraiyur was famous for pearls.
invasion of 4. The singing bards of the Sangam age were called as Irular.
(a) Satavahanas (b) Cholas VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

ed
(c) Kalabhras (d) Pallavas 1. Pattupattu.
II. Fill in the blanks. 2. Ettutogai.
1. The Battle of Venni was won by …… 3. Kadaiyelu Vallalgal

M
2. The earliest Tamil grammar work of the Sangam period was 4. Women poets of the Sangam period.
……
5. Muchchangam.
3. The two Tamil epics of the Sangam period are …… and ……
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
III. Match the following.
1. Assess the achievements of Cheran Senguttuvan.
1.
2.
Thennavar
Vanavar
a) Cheras
b) Cholas
e 2. Give an estimate of Karikala.
re
3. Write a note on the Pandya rulers of the Sangam period.
3. Senni c) Tribes
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
4. Eyinar d) Pandyas
1. Give an account of the political administration of the Sangam
S

IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is period.
right.
2. Discuss the socio-economic condition of ancient Tamil Nadu.
a) Coins issued by ancient Chinese kings are found in several
3. Assess the significance of the overseas commerce during the
parts of Tamil Nadu.
Sangam age.
b) Cotton textiles constitute the chief export to the Roman empire.

94 95
 LESSON 9
GUPTA EMPIRE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The sources for the study of Guptas.
2. Samudragupta’s achievements.
3. The achievements of Chandragupta II.
ed
4. The importance of Fahien’s visit to India.
5. Gupta administration, society and economy.
6. Literature, art, architecture and scientific development
M
during the Gupta period.
Sources
There are plenty of source materials to reconstruct the history
e
of the Gupta period. They include literary, epigraphical and
numismatic sources. The Puranas throw light on the royal genealogy
re
of the Gupta kings. Contemporary literary works like the
Devichandraguptam and the Mudhrakshasam written by
Visakadatta provide information regarding the rise of the Guptas.
The Chinese traveler Fahien, who visited India during the reign of
S
Chandragupta II, has left a valuable account of the social, economic
and religious conditions of the Gupta empire.
Apart from these literary sources, there are inscriptions like
the Meherauli Iron Pillar Inscription and the Allahabad Pillar
inscription. The first refers to the achievements of Chandragupta I.
The most important source for the reign of Samudragupta is the
Allahabad Pillar inscription. It describes his personality and
96
achievements. This inscription is engraved on an Asokan pillar. It is
written in classical Sanskrit, using the Nagari script. It consists of
33 lines composed by Harisena. It
describes the circumstances of
Samudragupta’s accession, his military
campaigns in north India and the
Deccan, his relationship with other
ia
contemporary rulers, and his
accomplishments as a poet and
Allahabad Pillar scholar.
Inscription
The coins issued by Gupta kings
contain legends and figures. These coins provide interesting details
about the titles and sacrifices performed by the Gupta monarchs.
Chandragupta I (320 – 330 A.D.)
The founder of the Gupta dynasty was Sri Gupta. He was
succeeded by Ghatotkacha. These two were called Maharajas.
Much information was not available about their rule. The next ruler
was Chandragupta I and he was the first to be called
Maharajadhiraja (the great king of kings). This title indicates his
extensive conquests. He strengthened his position by a matrimonial
alliance with the Licchavis. He married Kumaradevi, a princess of
that family. This added to the power and prestige of the Gupta family.
The Meherauli Iron Pillar inscription mentions his extensive
conquests. Chandragupta I is considered to be the founder of the
Gupta era which starts with his accession in A.D. 320.
Samudragupta (330-380 A.D.)
Samudragupta was the greatest of the rulers of the Gupta
dynasty. The Allahabad Pillar inscription provides a detailed account
of his reign. It refers to three stages in his military campaign:
97
 1. Against some rulers of North India
2. His famous Dakshinapatha expedition against South Indian
rulers
3. A second campaign against some other rulers of North India.
In the first campaign Samudragupta defeated Achyuta and
Nagasena. Achyuta was probably a Naga ruler. Nagasena belonged

ia
to the Kota family which was ruling over the upper Gangetic valley.
They were defeated and their states were annexed. As a result of
this short campaign, Samudragupta had gained complete mastery

ed
over the upper Gangetic valley.
Then Samudragupta marched against the South Indian
monarchs. The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that
Samudragupta defeated twelve rulers in his South Indian Expedition.

M
They were Mahendra of Kosala, Vyaghraraja of Mahakanthara,
Mantaraja of Kaurala, Mahendragiri of Pishtapura, Swamidatta of
Kottura, Damana of Erandapalla, Vishnugupta of Kanchi, Nilaraja
of Avamukta, Hastivarman of Vengi, Ugrasena of Palakka, Kubera
of Devarashtra and Dhananjaya of Kushtalapura. Samudragupta’s

e policy in South India was different. He did not destroy and annex
those kingdoms. Instead, he defeated the rulers but gave them back
re
their kingdoms. He only insisted on them to acknowledge his
suzerainty.
The third stage of Samudragupta’s campaign was to eliminate
S

his remaining north Indian rivals. He fought against nine kings,

uprooted them and annexed their territories. They were Rudradeva,
Matila, Nagadatta, Chandravarman, Ganapathinaga, Nagasena,
Achyuta, Nandin and Balavarman. Most of these rulers were
members of the Naga family, then ruling over different parts of north
India.

98 99
 After these military victories,
Samudragupta performed the
asvamedha sacrifice. He issued gold
and silver coins with the legend
‘restorer of the asvamedha’. It is GOLD COINS OF SAMUDRAGUPTA
because of his military achievements
Samudragupta was hailed as ‘Indian Napoleon’.
Extant of Samudragupta’s Empire
After these conquests, Samudragupta’s rule extended over
the upper Gangetic valley, the greater part of modern U.P., a portion
ed
of central India and the southwestern part of Bengal. These terri-
tories were directly administered by him. In the south there were
tributary states. The Saka and Kushana principalities on the west
and northwest were within the sphere of his influence. The kingdoms
M
on the east coast of the Deccan, as far as the Pallava Kingdom,
acknowledged his suzerainty.
Estimate of Samudragupta
Samudragupta’s military achievements remain remarkable in
e
the annals of history. He was equally great in his other personal
accomplishments. The Allahabad Pillar inscription speaks of his
re
magnanimity to his foes, his polished intellect, his poetic skill and
his proficiency in music. It calls him Kaviraja because of his ability
in composing verses. His image depicting him with Veena is found
in the coins issued by him. It is the proof of his proficiency and
S
interest in music. He was also a patron of many poets and scholars,
one of whom was Harisena. Thus he must be credited with a share
in the promotion of Sanskrit literature and learning, characteristic of
his dynasty. He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was
tolerant of other creeds. He evinced keen interest in Buddhism and
was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandu.
100
Chandragupta II (380-415 A.D.)
Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II
Vikramaditya. But according to some scholars, the immediate
successor of Samudragupta was Ramagupta, the elder brother of
Chandragupta II. But there is little historical proof for this.
Chandragupta II inherited the military genius of his father and
extended the Gupta Empire by his own conquests.
ia
He achieved this by a judicious combination of the policy of
diplomacy and warfare. Through matrimonial alliances he
strengthened his political power. He married Kuberanaga, a Naga
princess of central India. He gave his daughter Prabhavati in marriage
to the Vakataka prince Rudrasena II. The political importance of
this marriage lies in the fact that the Vakatakas occupied a
geographically strategic position in the Deccan. This alliance served
a useful purpose when Chandragupta-II undertook his campaign in
western India against the Sakas.
Conquest of Western India
The greatest of the military achievements of Chandragupta II
was his war against the Saka satraps of western India. Rudrasimha
III, the last ruler of the Saka satrap was defeated, dethroned and
killed. His territories in western Malwa and the Kathiawar Peninsula
were annexed into the Gupta Empire. After this victory he performed
the horse sacrifice and assumed the title Sakari, meaning, ‘destroyer
of Sakas’. He also called himself Vikramaditya
As a result of the conquest of western India, the western
boundary of the Empire reached to the Arabian Sea gaining access
to Broach, Sopara, Cambay and other sea ports. This enabled the
Gupta empire to control trade with the western countries. Ujjain
became an important commercial city and soon became the
alternative capital of the Guptas. The fine cotton clothes of Bengal,
101
Indigo from Bihar, silk from Banares, the scents of the Himalayas
and the sandal and species from the south were brought to these
ports without any interference. The western traders poured Roman
gold into India in return for Indian products. The great wealth of the
Gupta Empire was manifest in the variety of gold coins issued by
Chandragupta II.
Other Conquests
Chandragupta II defeated a confederacy of enemy chiefs in
Vanga. He also crossed the river Sindh and conquered Bactria. The
Kushanas ruling in this region were subdued by him. With these
ed
conquests, the Gupta empire extended in the west as far as western
Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar. In the northwest it extended beyond
the Hindukush up to Bactria. In the east, it included even eastern
Bengal and in the south the Narmada river formed the boundary.
M
Fahien’s Visit
The famous Chinese pilgrim, Fahien visited India during the
reign of Chandragupta II. Out of his nine years stay in India, he
spent six years in the Gupta empire. He came to India by the land
e
route through Khotan, Kashgar, Gandhara and Punjab. He visited
Peshawar, Mathura, Kanauj, Sravasti, Kapilavastu, Kusinagara,
re
Pataliputra, Kasi and Bodh Gaya among other places. He returned
by the sea route, visiting on the way Ceylon and Java. The main
purpose of his visit was to see the land of the Buddha and to collect
Buddhist manuscripts from India. He stayed in Pataliputra for three
S
years studying Sanskrit and copying Buddhist texts.
Fahien provides valuable information on the religious, social
and economic condition of the Gupta empire. According to him,
Buddhism was in a flourishing condition in the northwestern India
but in the Gangetic valley it was in a state of neglect. He refers to
the Gangetic valley as the ‘land of Brahmanism’. Fahien mentions
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the unsatisfactory state of some of the Buddhist holy places like
Kapilavastu and Kusinagara. According to him the economic
condition of the empire was prosperous.
Although his account is valuable in many respects, he did not
mention the name of Chandragupta II. He was not interested in
political affairs. His interest was primarily religion. He assessed
everything from the Buddhist angle. His observations on social
ia
conditions are found to be exaggerated. Yet, his accounts are useful
to know the general condition of the country.
Estimate of Chandragupta II
The power and glory of Gupta empire reached its peak under
the rule Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. He also contributed to the
general cultural progress of the age and patronized great literary
figures like Kalidasa. He promoted artistic activity. Because of the
high level of cultural progress that was achieved during this period,
the Gupta period is generally referred to as a golden age. A detailed
account of the cultural progress in the Gupta age is given below.
Successors of Chandragupta II
Kumaragupta was the son and successor of Chandragupta
II. His reign was marked by general peace and prosperity. He issued
a number of coins and his inscriptions are found all over the Gupta
empire. He also performed an asvamedha sacrifice. Most
importantly, he laid the foundation of the Nalanda University which
emerged an institution of international reputation. At the end of his
reign, a powerful wealthy tribe called the ‘Pushyamitras’ defeated
the Gupta army. A branch of the Huns from Central Asia made
attempts to cross the Hindukush mountains and invade India.
But it was his successor Skandagupta who really faced the
Hun invasion. He fought successfully against the Huns and saved
the empire. This war must have been a great strain on the
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government’s resources. After Skandagupta’s death, many of his
successors like Purugupta, Narasimhagupta, Buddhagupta and
Baladitya could not save the Gupta empire from the Huns. Ultimately,
the Gupta power totally disappeared due to the Hun invasions and
later by the rise of Yasodharman in Malwa.
Gupta Administration
According inscriptions, the Gupta kings assumed titles like
Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat
and Chakravartin. The king was assisted in his administration by
a council consisting of a chief minister, a Senapati or commander-
ed
in-chief of the army and other important officials. A high official
called Sandivigraha was mentioned in the Gupta inscriptions, most
probably minister for foreign affairs.
The king maintained a close contact with the provincial
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administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas
and Ayuktas. Provinces in the Gupta Empire were known as Bhuktis
and provincial governors as Uparikas. They were mostly chosen
from among the princes. Bhuktis were subdivided into Vishyas or
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districts. They were governed by Vishyapatis. Nagara Sreshtis
were the officers looking after the city administration. The villages
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in the district were under the control of Gramikas.
Fahien’s account on the Gupta administration provides useful
information. He characterises the Gupta administration as mild and
benevolent. There were no restrictions on people’s movements and
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they enjoyed a large degree of personal freedom. There was no
state interference in the individual’s life. Punishments were not severe.
Imposing a fine was a common punishment. There was no spy system.
The administration was so efficient that the roads were kept safe
for travelers, and there was no fear of thieves. He mentioned that
people were generally prosperous and the crimes were negligible.
Fahien had also appreciated the efficiency of the Gupta
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administration as he was able to travel without any fear throughout
the Gangetic valley. On the whole the administration was more liberal
than that of the Mauryas.
Social Life
The pre-Gupta period in India witnessed a series of foreign
invasions. Indian society had given way to those foreigners who
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had become permanent residents here. But during the Gupta period,
the caste system became rigid. The Brahmins occupied the top ladder
of the society. They were given enormous gifts by the rulers as well
as other wealthy people. The practice of untouchability had slowly
begun during this period. Fahien mentions that Chandalas were
segregated from the society. Their miserable condition was
elaborated by the Chinese traveler.
The position of women had also become miserable during the
Gupta period. They were prohibited from studying the religious texts
like the Puranas. The subjection of women to men was thoroughly
regularized. But it was insisted that they should be protected and
generously treated by men. The practice of Swyamvara was given
up and the Manusmriti suggested the early marriage for girls.
In the sphere of religion, Brahmanism reigned supreme during
the Gupta period. It had two branches - Vaishnavism and Saivism.
Most of the Gupta kings were Vaishnavaites. They performed
Aswamedha sacrifices. The worship of images and celebration of
religious festivals with elaborate rituals made these two religions
popular. Religious literature like the Puranas was composed during
this period. The progress of Brahmanism led to the neglect of
Buddhism and Jainism. Fahien refers to the decline of Buddhism in
the Gangetic valley. But a few Buddhist scholars like Vasubandhu
were patronized by Gupta kings. In western and southern India
Jainism flourished. The great Jain Council was held at Valabhi during
this period and the Jain Canon of the Swetambras was written.
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Art and Culture
The Gupta period witnessed a tremendous progress in the
field of art, science and literature and on account of this it has been
called “a golden age”. A few scholars even call this period a period
of renaissance. But it should be remembered that there was no dark
period before the Gupta rule. Therefore the cultural progress
witnessed during the Gupta period may be called the culmination of
Indian intellectual activities.
Art and Architecture
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In the history of Indian art and architecture, the Gupta period
occupies an important place. Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles
of art evolved during this period. But most of the architecture of this
period had been lost due to foreign invasions
like that of Huns. Yet, the remaining temples,
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sculptures and cave paintings provide an
idea about the grandeur of the Gupta art.
The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi
and the sculptures in the temple at Garhwas
near Allahabad remain important specimen
of the Gupta art. There was no influence of e works in classical Sanskrit came to be written in the forms of epic,
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Gandhara style. But the beautiful statue of
TEMPLE AT DEOGARH
standing Buddha at Mathura reveals a little
Greek style. The Buddha statue unearthed
at Saranath was unique piece of Gupta art.
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The Bhitari monolithic pillar of Skandagupta
is also remarkable.
Metallurgy had also made a wonderful
progress during the Gupta period. The
craftsmen were efficient in the art of casting
A PAINTING AT BAGH CAVE
metal statues and pillars. The gigantic copper
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statue of Buddha, originally found at Sultanganj now kept at
Birmingham museum, was about seven and a half feet height and
nearly a ton weight. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is still
free from rust though completely exposed to sun and rain for so
many centuries.
The paintings of the Gupta period are seen at Bagh caves
near Gwalior. The mural paintings of Ajantha mostly illustrate the
ia
life of the Buddha as depicted in the Jataka stories. The paintings at
Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were highly influenced by the Ajantha style.
The Gupta coinage was also remarkable. Samudragupta
issued eight types of gold coins. The legends on them throw much
light on the achievements of that marvelous king. The figures inscribed
on them are illustrative of the skill and greatness of Gupta numismatic
art. Chandragupta II and his successors had also issued gold, silver
and copper coins of different varieties.
Literature
The Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta
period. Nagari script had evolved from the Brahmi script. Numerous
lyrics, drama and prose. The best of the Sanskrit literature belonged
to the Gupta age.
Himself a great poet, Samudragupta patronized a number of
scholars including Harisena. The court of Chandragupta II was
adorned by the celebrated Navratnas. Kalidasa remain the foremost
among them. His master-piece was the Sanskrit drama Shakuntala.
It is considered one among the ‘hundred best books of the world’.
He wrote two other plays - the Malavikagnimitra and
Vikramorvasiya. His two well-known epics are Raghuvamsa and
Kumarasambhava. Ritusamhara and Meghaduta are his two
lyrics.
107
 Visakadatta was another celebrated author of this period. He
was the author of two Sanskrit dramas, Mudrarakshasa and
Devichandraguptam. Sudraka was a renowned poet of this age
and his book Mrichchakatika is rich in humour and pathos.
Bharavi’s Kritarjuniya is the story of the conflict between Arjuna
and Siva. Dandin was the author of Kavyadarsa and
Dasakumaracharita. Another important work of this period was
In the field of medicine, Vagbhata lived during this period. He
was the last of the great medical trio of ancient India. The other two
scholars Charaka and Susruta lived before the Gupta age. Vagbhata
was the author Ashtangasamgraha (Summary of the eight branches
of medicine).
Learning Outcome

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Vasavadatta written by Subhandhu. The Panchatantra stories After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
were composed by Vishnusarma during the Gupta period. The
1. The sources for the history of Guptas like the Allahabad
Buddhist author Amarasimha compiled a lexicon called Amarakosa.
Pillar inscription and their importance.

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The Puranas in their present form were composed during this
2. Samudragupta’s military achievements as well as his
period. There are eighteen Puranas. The most important among them
personal accomplishments.
are the Bhagavatha, Vishnu, Vayu and Matsya Puranas. The
Mahabharatha and the Ramayana were given final touches and 3. The conquests of Chandragupta II and his other qualities
written in the present form during this period. including patron of art and literature.

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Science 4. Gupta administration, society and economic progress as
described by Fahien, who visited India during this period.
The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the sphere
of mathematics, astronomy, astrology and medicine. Aryabhatta was 5. The growth of Sanskrit literature and the contribution of

e
a great mathematician and astronomer. He wrote the book
Aryabhatiya in 499 A.D. It deals with mathematics and astronomy.
scholars like Kalidasa and Visakadatta.

6. The art and architecture of the Gupta period as well as

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It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses. the progress in science including the contribution of
Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was spherical in Aryabhatta and others.
shape and that it rotates on its own axis. However, these views
were rejected by later astronomers like Varahamihira and
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Brahmagupta.
Varahamihira composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five
astronomical systems. He was also a great authority on astrology.
His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in Sanskrit literature. It
deals with a variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography,
architecture, weather, animals, marriage and omens. His
Brihadjataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
108 109
 MODEL QUESTIONS IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
I. Choose the correct answer.
a) Samudragupta annexed all his conquered territories of South
1. The Gupta era starts from the year India.
(a) 310 A.D. (b) 320 A.D. b) The Dakshinapatha expedition of Samudragupta was
(c) 330 A.D. (d) 300 A.D. mentioned by Fahien.

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2. The founder of the Nalanda University c) Samudragupta defeated the South Indian kings but gave them
back their kingdoms.
(a) Samudragupta (b) Chandragupta II
d) The North Indian conquests of Samudragupta did not result
(c) Kumaragupta (d) Skandagupta

ed
in the expansion of the Gupta empire.
3. The physician who lived during the Gupta age
V. State whether the following statements are true or False.
(a) Varahamihira (b) Vagbatha
1. The scholars known as Navratnas lived during the reign of
(c) Charaka (d) Susruta Samudragupta.

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II. Fill in the blanks. 2. The Gupta empire declined due to the invasion of the Huns.
1. The founder of the Gupta dynasty was ……. 3. The Gupta art adopted both the Nagara and Dravidian styles.
2. The Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu was patronized by ……. 4. The Guptas patronized the Sanskrit language.
3.
4.
The title ‘Sakari’ was assumed by …..
e
The epics written by Kalidasa are ……. and …….
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
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1. Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
5. The author of Brihatsamhita was ….. 2. Dakshinapatha expedition of Samudragupta.
III. Match the following. 3. Aryabhatta.
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1. Meghaduta a) Dandin 4. Metal artifacts under the Guptas.

2. Devichandraguptam b) Sudraka VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
3. Dasakumaracharita c) Kalidasa 1. Evaluate the impact of the conquest of western India by
4. Mrichchakatika d) Visakadatta Chandragupta II.

110 111
2. Write a brief account of Fahien’s visit to India and his LESSON 10
observation on India.
HARSHAVARDHANA (606 – 647 A.D.)
3. Examine the salient features of the Gupta administration.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
Learning Objectives
1. Give an account of the achievements of Samudragupta.
Students will acquire knowledge about
2. Describe the socio-economic life under the rule of Guptas.

ia
1. Sources for the study of Harsha.
3. Examine the cultural contributions of the Guptas.
2. The early life of Harsha.

3. The military activities of Harsha.

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4. Harsha’s contribution to Buddhism.

5. Nalanda University.

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The decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period of
political disorder and disunity in North India. It was only in the
beginning of the seventh century A.D. that Harshvardhana
succeeded in establishing a larger kingdom in north India.

e The chief sources for tracing the history of Harsha and his
times are the Harshacharita written by Bana and the Travel accounts
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of Hiuen Tsang. Bana was the court poet of Harsha. Hiuen Tsang
was the Chinese traveler who visited India in the seventh century
A.D. Besides these two sources, the dramas written by Harsha,
namely Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyardarsika also provide
S

useful information. The Madhuben plate inscription and the Sonpat

inscription are also helpful to know the chronology of Harsha. The
Banskhera inscription contains the signature of Harsha.
Early Life of Harsha
The founder of the family of Harsha was Pushyabhuti.
Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas. They called
112 113
themselves Vardhanas. After the Hun invasions they assumed
independence. The first important king of Pushyabhuti dynasty was
Prabhakaravardhana. His capital was Thaneswar, north of Delhi.
He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka.
After Prabhakaravardhana’s death, his elder son
Rajyavardhana came to the throne. He had to face problems right
from the time of his accession. His sister, Rajyasri had married the
Maukhari ruler called Grihavarman. The ruler of Malwa, Devagupta
in league with Sasanka, the ruler of Bengal had killed Grihavarman.
Immediately on hearing this news, Rajyavardhana marched against
ed
the king of Malwa and routed his army. But before he could return
to his capital, he was treacherously murdered by Sasanka. In the
meantime, Rajyasri escaped into forests. Harsha now succeeded
his brother at Thaneswar. His first responsibility was to rescue his
sister and to avenge the killings of his brother and brother-in-law.
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He first rescued his sister when she was about to immolate herself.
Harsha’s Military Conquests
In his first expedition, Harsha drove out Sasanka from Kanauj.
e
He made Kanauj his new capital. This made him the most powerful
ruler of north India. Harsha fought against Dhuruvasena II of Valabhi
re
and defeated him. Dhuruvasena II became a vassal.
The most important military campaign of Harsha was against
the Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II. Both the accounts of Hiuen
Tsang and the inscriptions of Pulakesin II provide the details of this
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campaign. Harsha with an ambition to extend his kingdom south of
the Narmada river marched against the Chalukya ruler. But the Aihole
inscription of Pulakesin II mentions the defeat of Harsha by
Pulakesin, who after this achievement assumed the title
Paramesvara. Hiuen Tsang’s accounts also confirm the victory of
Pulakesin.
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Harsha led another campaign against the ruler of Sindh, which
was an independent kingdom. But, it is doubtful whether his Sind
campaign was a successful one. Nepal had accepted Harsha’s
overlordship. Harsha established his control over Kashmir and its
ruler sent tributes to him. He also maintained cordial relations with
Bhaskaravarman, the ruler of Assam. Harsha’s last military campaign
was against the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success.
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Thus Harsha established his hold over the whole of north
India. The regions modern Rajasthan, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar
and Orissa were under his direct control. But his sphere of influence
was much more extensive. The peripheral states such as Kashmir,
Sind, Valabhi and Kamarupa acknowledged his sovereignty.
Harsha and Buddhism
In his early life, Harsha was a devout
Saiva but later he became an ardent Hinayana
Buddhist. Hiuen Tsang converted him to
Mahayana Buddhism. Harsha prohibited the
use of animal food in his kingdom and punished
those who kill any living being. He erected
thousands of stupas and established travellers’
rests all over his kingdom. He also erected
monasteries at the sacred places of Buddhists.
Once in five years he convened a gathering of HIUEN TSANG
representatives of all religions and honoured
them with gifts and costly presents. He brought the Buddhist monks
together frequently to discuss and examine the Buddhist doctrine.
Kanauj Assembly
Harsha organized a religious assembly at Kanauj to honour
the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang towards the close of his reign. He
invited representatives of all religious sects. It was attended by 20
115
kings, 1000 scholars from the Nalanda University, 3000 Hinayanists
and Mahayanists, 3000 Brahmins and Jains. The Assembly went
on continuously for 23 days. Hiuen Tsang explained the values of
Mahayana doctrine and established its superiority over others.
However, violence broke out and there were acts of arson. There
was also an attempt on the life of Harsha. Soon, it was brought
under control and the guilty were punished. On the final day of the
Assembly, Hiuen Tsang was honoured with costly presents.
Allahabad Conference
Hiuen Tsang mentions in his account about the conference
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held at Allahabad, known as Prayag. It was the one among the
conferences routinely convened by Harsha once in five years. Harsha
gave away his enormous wealth as gifts to the members of all religious
sects. According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha was so lavish that he
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emptied the treasury and even gave away the clothes and jewels he
was wearing. His statement might be one of admiring exaggeration.
Harsha’s Administration
The administration of Harsha was organized on the same lines
e
as the Guptas did. Hiuen Tsang gives a detailed picture about this.
The king was just in his administration and punctual in discharging
re
his duties. He made frequent visits of inspection throughout his
dominion. The day was too short for him. Taxation was also light
and forced labour was also rare. One sixth of the produce was
collected as land tax. Cruel punishments of the Mauryan period
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continued in the times of Harsha. Hiuen Tsang condemned the trials
as barbarous and superstitious. Harsha’s army consisted of the
traditional four divisions – foot, horse, chariot and elephant. The
number of cavalry was more than one lakh and the elephants more
than sixty thousands. This was much more than that of the Mauryan
army. The maintenance of public records was the salient feature of
Harsha’s administration. The archive of the Harsha period was
116
known as nilopitu and it was under the control of special officers.
Both good and bad events happened during his time had been
recorded.
Society and Economy under Harsha
Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang portray the social life in the times
of Harsha. The fourfold division of the society – Brahmin, Kshatriya,
ia
Vysya and Sudra – was prevalent. The Brahmins were the privileged
section of the society and they were given land grants by the kings.
The Kshatriyas were the ruling class. The Vysyas were mainly traders.
Hiuen Tsang mentions that the Sudras practiced agriculture. There
existed many sub castes. The position of women was not satisfactory.
The institution of Swyamvara (the choice of choosing her husband)
had declined. Remarriage of widows was not permitted, particularly
among the higher castes. The system of dowry had also become
common. The practice of sati was also prevalent. Hiuen Tsang
mentions three ways of disposal of the dead – cremation, water
burial and exposure in the woods.
The trade and commerce had declined during Harsha’s period.
This is evident from the decline of trade centres, less number of
coins, and slow activities of merchant guilds. The decline of trade in
turn affected the handicrafts industry and agriculture. Since there
was no large scale demand for goods, the farmers began to produce
only in a limited way. This led to the rise of self-sufficient village
economy. In short, there was a sharp economic decline as compared
to the economy of the Gupta period.
Cultural Progress
The art and architecture of Harsha’s period are very few and
mostly followed the Gupta style. Hiuen Tsang describes the glory of
the monastery with many storeys built by Harsha at Nalanda. He
also speaks of a copper statue of Buddha with eight feet in height.
117
The brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur with its rich architecture
is assigned to the period of Harsha.
Harsha was a great patron of learning. His biographer
Banabhatta adorned his royal court. Besides Harshacharita, he
wrote Kadambari. Other literary figures in Harsha’s court were
Matanga Divakara and the famous Barthrihari, who was the poet,
philosopher and grammarian. Harsha himself authored three plays -
Ratnavali, Priyadarsika and Nagananda. Harsha patronised the
Nalanda University by his liberal endowments. It attained
international reputation as a centre of learning during his reign. Hiuen
ed
Tsang visited the Nalanda University and remained as a student for
some time.
Nalanda University
The Chinese travelers of ancient India mentioned a number of
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educational institutions. The most famous among them were the
Hinayana University of Valabhi and the Mahayana University of
Nalanda. Hiuen Tsang gives a very
valuable account of the Nalanda
e
University. The term Nalanda means
“giver of knowledge”. It was founded
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by Kumaragupta I during the Gupta
period. It was patronised by his
successors and later by Harsha. The
professors of the University were
RUINS OF NALANDA UNIVERSITY
S
called panditas. Some of its
renowned professors were Dingnaga, Dharmapala, Sthiramati and
Silabadhra. Dharmapala was a native of Kanchipuram and he
became the head of the Nalanda University.
Nalanda University was a residential university and education
was free including the boarding and lodging. It was maintained with
the revenue derived from 100 to 200 villages endowed by different
118
rulers. Though it was a Mahayana University, different religious
subjects like the Vedas, Hinayana doctrine, Sankhya and Yoga
philosophies were also taught. In addition to that, general subjects
like logic, grammar, astronomy, medicine and art were in the syllabus.
It attracted students not only from different parts of India but from
different countries of the east. Admission was made by means of an
entrance examination. The entrance test was so difficult that not
ia
more than thirty percent of the candidates were successful. Discipline
was very strict. More than lectures, discussion played an important
part and the medium of instruction was Sanskrit.
Recent archeological excavations have brought to light the ruins
of the Nalanda University. It shows the grandeur of this centre of learning
and confirms the account given by the Chinese pilgrims. It had numerous
classrooms and a hostel attached to it. According to Itsing, the Chinese
pilgrim, there were 3000 students on its rolls. It had an observatory
and a great library housed in three buildings. Its fame rests on the fact
that it attracted scholars from various parts of the world. It was an
institution of advanced learning and research.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. The sources for the study of Harsha such as Harshacharita
and the travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang.
2. Harsha’s early life and his military adventures.
3. Harsha and his services to Buddhism like the Kanauj
Assembly and Allahabad Conference.
4. Socio-economic condition and cultural development
under the rule of Harsha.
5. The Nalanda University and its international reputation.
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 MODEL QUESTIONS c) Kanauj assembly was an assembly convened by Harsha once
in five years.
I. Choose the correct answer.
d) The Kanauj assembly went on peacefully without any religious
1. The original capital of Harshavardhana was strife.
(a) Pataliputra (b) Peshavar V. State whether the following statements are True or
(c) Thaneshwar (d) Delhi False.

ia
2. The Banskhera inscription contains the signature of 1. Baskaravarman was the ruler of Kashmir.
(a) Hiuen Tsang (b) Bana 2. Harsha patronized the Hinayana sect of Buddhism.
(c) Harsha (d) Pulakesin II 3. There was all-round economic prosperity during the reign of

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Harsha.
II. Fill in the blanks.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. The new capital established by Harsha was ……
1. Sources for the study of Harsha.
2. The archive of the Harsha period was known as ……

M
2. Travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang.
3. Dhuruvasena II was the ruler of …..
3. Kanuaj Assembly.
III. Match the following.
4. Allahabad Conference.
1. Bana a) Author of three plays
2.
3.
Dharmapala
Bharthrihari
e
b) Poet and philosopher
c) Biographer of Harsha
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Bring out the cultural progress under the rule of Harsha.
re
2. Write a brief account of the Nalanda University.
4. Harsha d) Head of the Nalanda University
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right. 1. Give an account of the life and achievements of
S

Harshavardhana.
a) The Kanauj assembly was organized by Harsha to honour
Hiuen Tsang. 2. Estimate the contributions of Harsha to Buddhism.
b) Representatives of Mahayana Buddhism were alone invited 3. Describe the administration and society under Harsha as
to the Kanauj assembly. explained by Hiuen Tsang.

120 121
 LESSON 11
SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS – I
PALLAVAS
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Origin of the Pallavas.
2. Achievements of Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I
and Rajasimha.
ed
3. Administration of the Pallavas.
4. Education and Literature under the Pallavas.
5. Art and architecture of the Pallavas.
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After the decline of the Sangam Age in the Tamil country, the
Kalabhra rule lasted for about 250 years. Thereafter, the Pallavas
established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam with its capital at
Kanchipuram. Their rule continued till Tondaimandalam was captured
century A.D. e
and annexed by the Imperial Cholas in the beginning of the tenth
re
Origin of the Pallavas
There are different views on the origin of the Pallavas. They
were equated with the Parthians, the foreigners who ruled western
S
India. Another view was that the Pallavas were a branch of the
Brahmin royal dynasty of the Vakatakas of the Deccan. The third
view relates the Pallavas with the descendents of the Chola prince
and a Naga princess whose native was the island of Manipallavam.
But these theories on the origin of the Pallavas were not supported
by adequate evidences.
122
Therefore, the view that the Pallavas were the natives of
Tondaimandalam itself was widely accepted by scholars. They are
also identical with the Pulindas mentioned in the inscriptions of
Asoka. When Tondaimandalam was conquered by the Satavahanas,
the Pallavas became their feudatories. After the fall of the
Satavahanas in the third century A.D., they became independent.
The Pallavas issued their earlier inscriptions in Prakrit and Sanskrit
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because of their Satavahana connections, and also patronised
Brahmanism.
Political History
The early Pallava rulers from 250 A.D. to 350 A.D. issued
their charters in Prakrit. Important among them were
Sivaskandavarman and Vijayaskandavarman. The second line of
Pallava rulers who ruled between 350 A.D. and 550 A.D. issued
their charters in Sanskrit. The most important ruler of this line was
Vishnugopa who was defeated by Samudragupta during his South
Indian expedition. The rulers of the third line who ruled from 575
A.D. to their ultimate fall in the ninth century issued their charters
both in Sanskrit and Tamil. Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this
line. He destroyed the Kalabhras and firmly established the Pallava
rule in Tondaimandalam. He also defeated the Cholas and extended
the Pallava territory up to the river Kaveri. Other great Pallava rulers
of this line were Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I, and
Narasimhavarman II.
Mahendravarman I (600 – 630 A.D.)
The long-drawn Pallava – Chalukya Conflict began during
his period. Pulakesin II marched against the Pallavas and captured
the northern part of their kingdom. Although a Pallava inscription
refers to the victory of Mahendravarman I at Pullalur, he was not
able to recover the lost territory.
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 Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the early part
of his career. He was converted to Saivism by the influence of the
Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar. He built a Siva temple
at Tiruvadi. He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara,
Satyasandha, Chettakari (builder of temples) Chitrakarapuli,
Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa.
He was a great builder of cave temples. The Mandagappattu
inscription hails him as Vichitrachitta who constructed a temple for
Brahma, Vishnu and Siva without the use of bricks, timber, metal
and mortar. His rock-cut temples are found in a number of places
ed
like Vallam, Mahendravadi, Dalavanur, Pallavaram, Mandagappattu
and Tiruchirappalli. He had also authored the Sanskrit work
Mattavilasa Prahasanam. His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents
in painting. He is also regarded as an expert in music. The music
inscription at Kudumianmalai is ascribed to him.
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Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.)
Narasimhavarman I was also known as Mamalla, which means
‘great wrestler’. He wanted to take avenge the defeat of his father
e
at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II. His victory over
Pulakesin II in the Battle of Manimangalam near Kanchi is mentioned
re
in Kuram copper plates. The Pallava army under General Paranjothi
pursued the retreating Chalukya army, entered Chalukya territory,
captured and destroyed the capital city of Vatapi. Narasimhavarman
I assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’. He regained the lost territory.
S
Another notable achievement of Narasimhavarman I was his naval
expedition to Sri Lanka. He restored the throne to his friend and
Sri Lankan prince Manavarma.
During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital
Kanchipuram. His description of Kanchi is vivid. He calls it a big
and beautiful city, six miles in circumference. It had 100 Buddhist
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monasteries in which about 10,000 Buddhist monks lived. According
to his account the people of Kanchi esteemed great learning and
the Ghatika at Kanchi served as a great centre of learning.
Narasimhavarman I was the founder of Mamallapuram and the
monolithic rathas were erected during his reign.
Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha (695 -722 A.D.)
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Narasimhavarman I was succeeded by Mahendravarman II
and Parameswarvarman I and the Pallava – Chalukya conflict
continued during their reign. Thereafter, Narasimhavarman II
became the ruler of the Pallava kingdom. He was also known as
Rajasimha. His regime was peaceful and he evinced more interest
in developing the art and architecture. The Shore temple at
Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram were
built in this period. He was also a great patron of art and letters.
The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his
court. He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade flourished
during his reign. Rajasimha assumed titles like Sankarabhakta,
Vadhyavidyadhara and Agamapriya.
He was succeeded by Parameswaravarman II and
Nandivarman II. The Pallava rule lasted till the end of the ninth
century A.D. The Chola king Aditya I defeated the last Pallava
ruler Aparajita and seized the Kanchi region. With this, the rule of
Pallava dynasty came to an end.
Administration of the Pallavas
The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. The
Pallava state was divided into Kottams. The Kottam was
administered by officers appointed by the king. The king was at the
centre of administration in which he was assisted by able ministers.
He was the fountain of justice. He maintained a well-trained army.
He provided land-grants to the temples known as Devadhana and
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also to the Brahmans known as Brahmadeya. It was also the
responsibility of the central government to provide irrigation facilities
to the lands. A number of irrigation tanks were dug by the Pallava
kings. The irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor were
dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I. Detailed information on
the tax system could also be traced from the Pallava inscriptions.
Land tax was the primary source of the government revenue. The
Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted from tax.
Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washer-men,
oil-pressers and weavers paid taxes to the government. The Pallava
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inscriptions throw much light on the village assemblies called sabhas
and their committees. They maintained records of all village lands,
looked after local affairs and managed temples.
Society under the Pallavas
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The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava
period. The caste system became rigid. The Brahmins occupied a
high place in the society. They were given land-grants by the kings
and nobles. They were also given the responsibility of looking after
the temples. The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism
e
and Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism and Jainism. The
Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the
re
growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known as the Bakthi
Movement. They composed their hymns in the Tamil language. These
hymns revealed the importance of devotion or Bakthi. The
construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved the way for the
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spread of these two religions.
Education and Literature
The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. Their capital
Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning. The Ghatika at Kanchi
was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India and
126
abroad. The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman
studied Vedas at Kanchi. Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer came to
study at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the
Nalanada University, belonged to Kanchi. Bharavi, the great Sanskrit
scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu. Dandin, another Sanskrit
writer adorned the court of Narasimhavarman II. Mahendravaraman
I composed the Sanskrit play Mattavilasaprahasanam. Tamil
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literature had also developed. The Nayanmars and Alwars composed
religious hymns in Tamil. The Devaram composed by Nayanmars
and the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed by Alwars represent
the religious literature of the Pallava period. Perundevanar was
patronized by Nandivarman II and he translated the Mahabharata
as Bharathavenba in Tamil. Nandikkalambagam was another
important work but the name of the author of this work is not known.
Music and dance also developed during this period.
Pallava Art and Architecture
It was a great age of temple building. The Pallavas introduced
the art of excavating temples from the rock. In fact, the Dravidian
style of temple architecture began with
the Pallava rule. It was a gradual
evolution starting from the cave
temples to monolithic rathas and
culminated in structural temples. The
development of temple architecture
under the Pallavas can be seen in four
stages. Rathas at Mamallapuram
Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples. This style
of Pallava temples are seen at places like Mandagappattu,
Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam,
Siyamangalam and Tirukalukkunram.
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 The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by as the theme of these sculptures such
the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at Mamallapuram. as the figures of lice-picking monkey,
Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful architectural elephants of huge size and the figure
monuments. The five rathas, popularly called as the of the ‘ascetic cat’ standing erect
Panchapanadava rathas, signifies five different styles of temple remain the proof for the talent of the
architecture. The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls. sculptor.
The most popular of these mandapas are Mahishasuramardhini The Fall of Ganges
Fine Arts

Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and Varaha Madapam.
In the next stage, Rajasimha
introduced the structural temples.
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Music, dance and painting had also developed under the
patronage of the Pallavas. The Mamandur inscription contains a
note on the notation of vocal music. The Kudumianmalai inscription

ed
These temples were built by using referred to musical notes and instruments. The Alwars and
the soft sand rocks. The Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes. Dance
Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and and drama also developed during this period. The sculptures of this
the Shore temple at Mamallapuram period depict many dancing postures. The Sittannavasal paintings
remain the finest examples of the

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belonged to this period. The commentary called Dakshinchitra was
Kailasanatha temple at
early structural temples of the compiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the title
Kanchipuram Pallavas. The Kailasanatha temple Chittirakkarapuli.
at Kanchi is the greatest
architectural master piece of the Pallava art.

e
The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structural
temples built by the later Pallavas. The Vaikundaperumal temple,
Learning Outcome

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

re
Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram 1. The different theories about the origin of the Pallavas.
belong to this stage of architecture.
2. The political history of the Pallavas and their military
The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of accomplishments
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sculpture. Apart from the sculptures found

3. Administrative system under the Pallavas.
in the temples, the ‘Open Art Gallery’ at
Mamallapuram remains an important 4. Their cultural contributions.
monument bearing the sculptural beauty of 5. Architectural achievements of the Pallavas.
this period. The Descent of the Ganges or
the Penance of Arjuna is called a fresco
Shore Temple at
Mamallapuram
painting in stone. The minute details as well

128 129
 MODEL QUESTIONS d) Both Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished during Pallava
period.
I. Choose the correct answer.
V. State whether the following statements are True or
1. The Pallava ruler who destroyed the Kalabhras False.
(a) Vishnugopa (b) Simhavishnu 1. The Sangam age was followed by the Pallava rule.
(c) Mahendravarman I (d) Rajasimha 2. Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the early part

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2. Hiuen Tsang visited Kanchi during the reign of of his career.
(a) Mahendravarman I (b) Narasimhavarman I 3. Monolithic rathas were erected at Kanchipuram by
Narasimhavarman I.
(c) Rajasimha (d) Nandivarman III

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VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. Origin of the Pallavas.
1. The Saiva saint who converted Mahendravarman I to Saivism
was …… 2. Ghatika at Kanchi.
3. Pallava Chalukya conflict.

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2. The commander of the Pallava army who destroyed Vatapi
…… 4. Bakthi Movement.
3. The title Mamalla was assumed by …… 5. Fine arts under the Pallavas.
III. Match the following. VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1.
2.
Perundevanar
Alwars e
a) Nalayiradivyaprabandam
b) Devaram
1.
2.
Give an account of the reign of Mahendravarman I.
Write a brief account on the military accomplishments of
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3. Nayanmars c) Mattavilasaprakasanam Narasimhavarman I.
4. Mahendravarman I d) Bharathavenba 3. Examine the administration system of the Pallavas.
4. Write a note on the social life under the Pallavas.
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
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right. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

a) Pallava period witnessed the decline of the Sanskrit language. 1. Give an account of the political history of the Pallavas.
b) Rajasimha destroyed Vatapi and assumed the title 2. Assess the cultural contributions of the Pallavas.
Vatapikondan. 3. Mention the salient features of the Pallava art.
c) Mahendravarman introduced the style of building structural
temples.

130 131
 LESSON 12
SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS – II
CHALUKYAS AND RASHTRAKUTAS
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The achievements of Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II.
2. Administration, social life and art and architecture under
the Chalukyas.
ed
3. Political history of the Rashtrakutas.
4. Administration and society under the Rashtrakutas.
5. Art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas.
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Besides the Pallavas, the Western Chalukyas and the
Rashtrakutas in the Deccan constitute important political forces.
Both these kingdoms had their rivals in the far south, namely the
Pallavas and later the Cholas. Their period has also been important
e
in the history of India for their cultural contributions.
Chalukyas (543 – 755 A.D.)
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The Western Chalukyas ruled over an extensive area in the
Deccan for about two centuries after which the Rashtrakutas became
powerful. The family of Western Chalukyas had its offshoots like
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the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
Pulakesin I was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty. He established
a small kingdom with Vatapi or Badami as its capital.
Pulakesin II (608-642 A.D.)
The most important ruler of this dynasty was Pulakesin II.
The Aihole inscription issued by him gives the details of his reign.
132
He fought with the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of
Mysore and established his suzerainty. Durvinita, the Ganga ruler
accepted his overlordship and even gave his daughter in marriage
to Pulakesin II. Another notable achievement of Pulakesin II was
the defeat of Harshavardhana on the banks of the river Narmada.
He put a check to the ambition of Harsha to conquer the south. In
his first expedition against the Pallavas, Pulakesin II emerged
ia
victorious. But he suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of
Narasimhavarman I near Kanchi. Subsequently, the Chalukya capital
Vatapi was captured and destroyed by the Pallavas. The most
important event in the reign of Pulakesin II was the visit of Hiuen
Tsang to his kingdom.
The successor of Pulakesin II was Vikramaditya. He once again
consolidated the Chalukya kingdom and plundered the Pallava capital,
Kanchi. Thus he had avenged his father’s defeat and death at the hands
of the Pallavas. Kirtivarman II was the last of the rulers of the Chalukyas.
He was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Administration and Social Life under the Chalukyas
The Chalukya administration was highly centralized unlike that
of the Pallavas and the Cholas. Village autonomy was absent under
the Chalukyas. The Chalukyas had a great maritime power. Pulakesin
II had 100 ships in his navy. They also had a small standing army.
The Badami Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus but they
gave respect to other religions. Importance was given to Vedic rites
and rituals. The founder of the dynasty Pulakesin I performed the
asvamedha sacrifice. A number of temples in honour of Vishnu,
Siva and other gods were also built during this period. Hiuen Tsang
mentioned about the decline of Buddhism in western Deccan. But
Jainism was steadily on the path of progress in this region. Ravikirti,
the court poet of Pulakesin II who composed the Aihole inscription
was a Jain.
133
Art and Architecture The second stage is
The Chalukyas were great patrons represented by the temples at
of art. They developed the vesara style Pattadakal. There are ten temples
in the building of structural temples. here, four in the northern style and
However, the vesara style reached its the remaining six in the Dravidian
culmination only under the Rashtrakutas style. The Papanatha temple is the
and the Hoysalas. The structural temples Virupaksha temple at most notable in the northern style.

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of the Chalukyas exist at Aihole, Badami CAVE TEMPLE AT AJANTA
Pattadakkal The Sangamesvara temple and the
and Pattadakal. Cave temple architecture was also famous under the Virupaksha temple are famous for their Dravidian style. The
Chalukyas. Their cave temples are found in Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik. Virupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha temple

ed
The best specimens of Chalukya paintings can be seen in the Badami at Kanchipuram. It was built by one of the queens of Vikramaditya
cave temple and in the Ajanta caves. The reception given to a Persian II. Sculptors brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction.
embassy by Pulakesin II is depicted in a painting at Ajantha. Rashtrakutas (755 – 975 A.D.)
The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages. The The Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and Kannada

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first stage is represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami. language was their mother tongue. Dantidurga was the founder of
Among the seventy temples found at Aihole, four are important. the Rashtrakuta dynasty. He defeated the Gurjaras and captured
1. Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat-roofed structure Malwa from them. Then he annexed the Chalukya kingdom by
consisting of a pillared hall. defeating Kirtivarman II. Thus, the Rashtrakutas became a
paramount power in the Deccan.
2.
3. Huchimalligudi temple.
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Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya.
His successor Krishna I was also a great conqueror. He
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defeated the Gangas and the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. He built
4. The Jain temple at Meguti. the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora. The
next important king of this dynasty was Govinda III. He achieved
Among the temples at Badami,
victories over north Indian kingdoms.
the Muktheeswara temple and the
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Melagutti Sivalaya are notable for
their architectural beauty. A group of
four rock-cut temples at Badami are
marked by high workmanship. The
walls and pillared halls are adorned
by beautiful images of gods and
Cave Temple at Badami
human beings.
134
His successor Amoghavarsha I (815- 880 A.D.) ruled for a
long period of 64 years. He had lost control over Malwa and
Gangavadi. Yet, his reign was popular for the cultural development.
He was a follower of Jainism. Jinasena was his chief preceptor. He
was also a patron of letters and he himself wrote the famous Kannada
work, Kavirajamarga. He had also built the Rashtrakuta capital,
the city of Malkhed or Manyakheda.
135
 Among the successors of Amoghavarsha I, Krishna III (936- Cultural Contributions
968 A.D.) was famous for his expeditions. He marched against the
The Rashtrakutas widely patronized the Sanskrit literature.
Cholas and defeated them at Takkolam. He marched further south
There were many scholars in the Rashtrakuta court. Trivikrama wrote
and captured Tanjore. He went as far as Rameswaram and occupied
Nalachampu and the Kavirahasya was composed by Halayudha
it for sometime. He built several temples in the conquered territories
during the reign of Krishna III. The Jain literature flourished under
including the Krishneswara temple at Rameswaram. Throughout his
the patronage of the Rashtrakutas. Amogavarsha I, who was a Jain
reign he possessed the Tondaimandalam region including the capital
patronized many Jain scholars. His teacher Jinasena composed

Kanchi. After his death, the power of the Rashtrakutas declined.
Administration
The Rashtrakuta Empire was divided into several provinces called
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Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva in verses. Another scholar
Gunabhadra wrote the Adipurana, the life stories of various Jain
saints. Sakatayana wrote the grammer work called Amogavritti.

ed
rashtras under the control of rashtrapatis. They were further divided The great mathematician of this period, Viracharya was the author
into vishayas or districts governed by vishayapatis. The next of Ganitasaram.
subdivision was bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the control
The Kannada literature saw its beginning during the period of
of bhogapatis. These officers were directly appointed by the central
the Rashtrakutas. Amogavarsha’s Kavirajamarga was the first
government. The village administration was carried on by the village

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poetic work in Kannada language. Pampa was the greatest of the
headmen. However, the village assemblies played a significant role in
Kannada poets. His famous work was
the village administration.
Vikramasenavijaya. Ponna was another
Society and Economy famous Kannada poet and he wrote
Santipurana.

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The Hindu sects of Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished during
the period of Rashtrakutas. Yet, they did not affect the progress of
Jainism under the patronage of Rashtrakuta kings and officers. Almost
Art and Architecture
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one third of the population of the Deccan were Jains. There were some The art and architecture of the
prosperous Buddhist settlements at places like Kanheri, Sholapur and Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and
Dharwar. There was harmony among various religions. There was a Elephanta. At Ellora, the most remarkable
college at Salatogi, situated in modern Bijapur district. An inscription temple is the Kailasa temple. It was excavated
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gives details of this educational centre. It was run by the income from
the endowments made by the rich as well as by all the villagers on
occasions of functions and festivals.
The economy was also in a flourishing condition. There was an
active commerce between the Deccan and the Arabs. The Rashtrakuta
kings promoted the Arab trade by maintaining friendship with them.
during the reign of Krishna I. It is carved out of
a massive block of rock 200 feet long, and 100 KAILASA TEMPLE
AT ELLORA
feet in breadth and height. The temple consists
of four parts - the main shrine, the entrance gateway, an intermediate
shrine for Nandi and mandapa surrounding the courtyard. The temple
stands on a lofty plinth 25 feet high. The central face of the plinth has

136 137
imposing figures of elephants and lions giving the impression that the MODEL QUESTIONS
entire structure rests on their back. It has a three-tiered sikhara or
tower resembling the sikhara of the Mamallapuram rathas. In the I. Choose the correct answer.
interior of the temple there is a pillared hall which has sixteen square 1. Aihole inscription was issued by
pillars. The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it beautiful
sculptures. The sculpture of the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the (a) Amoghavarsha I (b) Pulakesin II
Buffalo demon. In another sculpture Ravana was making attempts to (c) Govinda III (d) Dantidurga

ia
lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva. The scenes of Ramayana were
2. Who among the following defeated the Cholas at Takkolam?
also depicted on the walls. The general characteristics of the Kailasa
temple are more Dravidian. (a) Pulakesin II (b) Amoghavarsha I
(c) Vikramaditya I (d) Krishna III

ed
Elephanta is an island near Bombay. It was originally called
Sripuri. The Portuguese after seeing the large figure of an elephant named II. Fill in the blanks.
it Elephanta. The sculptural art of the Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in
this place. There is a close similarity between the sculptures at Ellora 1. …… was the capital of Rashtrakutas.
and those in Elephanta. They might have been carved by the same 2. The founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty was …..

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craftsmen. At the entrance to the sanctum there are huge figures of
dwara-palakas. In the walls of the prakara around the sanctum there 3. Sripuri was renamed as Elephanta by ……
are niches containing the images of Shiva in various forms - Nataraja, III. Match the following.
Gangadhara, Ardhanareesvara and Somaskanda. The most imposing
1. Ravikirti a) Vikramasenavijaya
figure of this temple is Trimurthi. The sculpture is six metre high. It is

e
said to represent the three aspects of Shiva as Creator, Preserver and
Destroyer.
2.
3.
Amoghavarsha I
Pampa
b) Ganitasaram
c) Aihole inscription
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Learning Outcome 4. Viracharya d) Kavirajamarga

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
S

1. The political history of the Chalukyas of Badami.

a) Ellora is an island near Bombay.
2. Art and architecture of the Chalukyas.
b) The Kailasa temple is at Ellora.
3. Achievements of the Rashtrakuta rulers.
c) The temples at Ellora were built during the Chalukya rule.
4. Cultural contributions of the Rashtrakutas.
d) The Kailasa temple at Ellora was built by Pulakesin II.
5. Literary developments during the Rashtrakuta rule.

138 139
V. State whether the following statements are True or LESSON 13
False.
IMPERIAL CHOLAS
1. iuen Tsang visited the Deccan during the reign of
Amoghavarsha I.
2. The beginning of Kannada literature commenced during the Learning Objectives
Rashtrakuta rule. Students will acquire knowledge about

ia
3. Dantidurga was the last ruler of the Chalukyas. 1. A brief history of early Cholas.

VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 2. Military conquests and other achievements of Rajaraja I.

1. Aihole inscription 3. Campaigns of Rajendra I and his accomplishments.

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2. Pattadakal 4. Salient features of the Chola administration.

3. Ellora 5. Literature, Art and architecture of the Cholas.

4. Elephanta

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VII. Answer briefly (100 words). After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas became
feudatories in Uraiyur. They became prominent in the ninth century
1. Give a brief account of the achievements of Pulakesin II.
and established an empire comprising the major portion of South
2. Give an estimate of Amoghavarsha I. India. Their capital was Tanjore. They also extended their sway in
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1.
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Give an account of the development of art and architecture
Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula. Therefore, they are called as
the Imperial Cholas. Thousands of inscriptions found in the temples
re
provide detailed information regarding the administration, society,
under the Chalukyas of Badami. economy and culture of the Chola period.
2. Evaluate the cultural contributions of the Rashtrakutas. The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya. He
captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 815 A.D. and built a temple
S

for Durga. His son Aditya put an end to the Pallava kingdom by
defeating Aparajita and annexed Tondaimandalam. Parantaka I was
one of the important early Chola rulers. He defeated the Pandyas
and the ruler of Ceylon. But he suffered a defeat at the hands of the
Rashtrakutas in the famous battle of Takkolam. Parantaka I was a
great builder of temples. He also provided the vimana of the famous

140 141
Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden roof. The two famous
Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account of the village
administration under the Cholas belong to his reign. After a gap of
thirty years, the Cholas regained their supremacy under Rajaraja I.
Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)
It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra
I that the Chola power reached its highest point of
glory. His military conquests were:
1. The defeat of the Chera ruler
ed
Bhaskararavivarman in the naval battle of
Kandalursalai and the destruction of the
STATUTE OF
Chera navy. RAJARAJA
2. The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and
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establishment of Chola authority in the Pandya country.
3. The conquest of Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi
located in the Mysore region.
4. The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son
e
Rajendra I. As the Sri Lankan king Mahinda V fled away
from his country, the Cholas annexed the northern Sri Lanka.
re
The capital was shifted from Anuradhapura to Polanaruva
where a Shiva temple was built
5. The Chola victory over the growing power of the Western
Chalukyas of Kalyani. Satyasraya was defeated and Rajaraja
S
I captured the Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places.
Hence the Chola power extended up to the river Tungabadhra.
6. The restoration of Vengi throne to its rulers Saktivarman and
Vimaladitya by defeating the Telugu Chodas. Rajaraja gave
his daughter Kundavai in marriage to Vimaladitya.
142
7. Rajaraja’s last military achievement was a naval expedition
against the Maldive Islands which were conquered.
By these conquests, the extent of the Chola empire under
Rajaraja I included the Pandya, Chera and the Tondaimandalam
regions of Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi and the
Telugu Choda territories in the Deccan and the northern part of
Ceylon and the Maldive Islands beyond India. Rajaraja assumed a
ia
number of titles like Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda and
Sivapadasekara. He was a devout follower of Saivism. He
completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or
Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D. He also helped in
the construction of a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.
Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)
Rajendra had demonstrated his military ability by participating
in his father’s campaigns. He continued his father’s policy of
aggressive conquests and expansion. His important wars were:
1. Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka attempted to recover from
the Cholas the northern part of Ceylon. Rajendra defeated
him and seized the southern Sri Lanka. Thus the whole of Sri
Lanka was made part of the Chola Empire.
2. He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya
countries.
3. He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and
the river Tungabadhra was recognised as the boundary bet-
ween the Cholas and Chalukyas.
4. His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to north
India. The Chola army crossed the Ganges by defeating a
number of rulers on its way. Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of
Bengal. To commemorate this successful north-Indian
143
 campaign Rajendra founded the city of
Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the famous
Rajesvaram temple in that city. He also excavated a large Cholas
irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the western side of the
city.
5. Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval expedition
to Kadaram or Sri Vijaya. It is difficult to pin point the real

ia
object of the expedition. Whatever its objects were, the naval
expedition was a complete success. A number of places were
Yadavas
occupied by Chola forces. But it was only temporary and no

ed
permanent annexation of these places was contemplated. He
Sakkarakkottam
assumed the title Kadaramkondan. W. Chalukyas
6. Rajendra I had put down all rebellions and kept his empire in Kalyani
Malkhed ti yas
tact.
K aka Rajahmundry

M
At the death of Rajendra I the extent of the Chola Empire Kadanbas
was at its peak. The river Tungabadhra was the northern boundary.
The Pandya, Kerala and Mysore regions and also Sri Lanka formed Bay of Bengal
Bavanasi
part of the empire. He gave his daughter Ammangadevi to the Vengi Nellore

e
Chalukya prince and further continued the matrimonial alliance
initiated by his father. Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the
Aribian Sea
Gangavadi Takkolam
Kanchi
re
most famous being Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram Kondan
Utiramerur
and Pandita Cholan. Like his father he was also a devout Saiva and
built a temple for that god at the new capital Gangaikondacholapuram. Gangaikondacholapuram
He made liberal endowments to this temple and to the Lord Nataraja Uraiyur Thanjavur
S

temple at Chidambaram. He was also tolerant towards the Vaishnava Madurai

and Buddhist sects. Korki
After Rajendra I, the greatness of the Chola power was
preserved by rulers like Kulottunga I and Kulottunga III. Kulottunga
Indian Ocean
I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter Ammangadevi.
He succeeded the Chola throne and thus united the Vengi kingdom
with the Chola Empire. During his reign Sri Lanka became
144 145
independent. Subsequently, Vengi and the Mysore region were
captured by the western Chalukyas. Kulottunga I sent a large
embassy of 72 merchants to China and maintained cordial relations
with the kingdom of Sri Vijaya. Under Kulottunga III the central
authority became weak. The rise of the feudatories like the
Kadavarayas and the emergence of the Pandya power as a challenge
to Chola supremacy contributed to the ultimate downfall of the Chola
Empire. Rajendra III was the last Chola king who was defeated by
Jatavarman Sundarapandya II. The Chola country was absorbed
into the Pandya Empire.
ed
Chola Administration
Central Government
The Cholas had an excellent system of administration. The
emperor or king was at the top of the administration. The extent
M
and resources of the Chola Empire increased the power and prestige
of monarchy. The big capital cities like Tanjore and
Gangaikondacholapuram, the large royal courts and extensive grants
to the temples reveal the authority of the king. They undertook royal
e
tours to increase the efficiency of the administration. There was
elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called
re
perundanam and sirudanam.
Revenue
The land revenue department was well organized. It was called
S
as puravuvarithinaikkalam. All lands were carefully surveyed and
classified for assessment of revenue. The residential portion of the
village was called ur nattam. These and other lands such as the
lands belonging to temples were exempted from tax. Besides land
revenue, there were tolls and customs on goods taken from one
place to another, various kinds of professional taxes, dues levied
on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial fines. During
146
the hard times, there were remission of taxes and Kulottunga I
became famous by abolishing tolls and earned the title – Sungam
Tavirtta Cholan. The main items of government expenditure were
the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation tanks and
canals.
Military Administration
ia
The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of
elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy. About seventy regiments were
mentioned in the inscriptions. The royal troops were called
Kaikkolaperumpadai. Within this there was a personal troop to
defend the king known as Velaikkarar. Attention was given to the
training of the army and military cantonments called kadagams
existed. The Cholas paid special attention to their navy. The naval
achievements of the Tamils reached its climax under the Cholas.
They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts. In fact, the
Bay of Bengal became a Chola lake for sometime.
Provincial Administration
The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each
mandalam into valanadus and nadus. In each nadu there were a
number of autonomous villages. The royal princes or officers were
in charge of mandalams. The valanadu was under periyanattar
and nadu under nattar. The town was known as nagaram and it
was under the administration of a council called nagarattar.
Village Assemblies
The system of village autonomy with sabhas and their
committees developed through the ages and reached its culmination
during the Chola rule. Two inscriptions belonging to the period of
Parantaka I found at Uttiramerur provide details of the formation
and functions of village councils. That village was divided into thirty
147
wards and each was to nominate its members to the village council.
The qualifications to become a ward member were:
a. Ownership of at least one fourth veli of land.
b. Own residence.
c. Above thirty years and below seventy years of age.
d. Knowledge of Vedas.
However, certain norms of disqualification were also
mentioned in the inscriptions. They were:
ed
a. Those who had been members of the committees for
the past three years.
b. Those who had failed to submit accounts as committee
members.
M
c. Those who had committed sins.
d. Those who had stolen the property of others.
From the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for
each ward by kudavolai system for a year. The names of eligible
e
persons were written on palm-leaves and put into a pot. A young
boy or girl would take out thirty names each for one ward. They
re
were divided into six variyams such as samvatsaravariyam,
erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha variyam, pon variyam and
puravuvari variyam to take up six different functions of the village
administration. The committee members were called
S
variyapperumakkal. They usually met in the temple or under a
tree and passed resolutions. The number of committees and ward
members varied from village to village.
Socio-economic Life
Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period.
148
Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges. The inscriptions
of the later period of the Chola rule mention about two major
divisions among the castes – Valangai and Idangai castes. However,
there was cooperation among various castes and sub-castes in social
and religious life. The position of women did not improve. The
practice of ‘sati’ was prevalent among the royal families. The
devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged during
ia
this period.
Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during
the Chola period. A number of temples were built with the patronage
of Chola kings and queens. The temples remained centres of
economic activity during this period. The mathas had great influence
during this period. Both agriculture and industry flourished.
Reclamation of forest lands and the construction
and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to
agricultural prosperity. The weaving industry,
particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi
flourished. The metal works developed owing
to great demand of images for temples and
utensils. Commerce and trade were brisk with
trunk roads or peruvazhis and merchant guilds. GOLD COIN OF
Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in RAJARAJA CHOLA
plenty at various denominations. Commercial
contacts between the Chola Empire and China, Sumatra, Java and
Arabia were extensively prevalent. Arabian horses were imported
in large numbers to strengthen the cavalry.
Education and Literature
Education was also given importance. Besides the temples
and mathas as educational centres, several educational institutions
also flourished. The inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and
Thirubhuvanai provide details of the colleges existed in these places.
149
Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like mathematics and architecture is the Siva temple at
medicine were taught in these institutions. Endowment of lands was Gangaikondacholapuram built by
made to run these institutions. Rajendra I. The Airavathesvara temple
The development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the at Darasuram in Tanjore District and the
Chola period. Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kampaharesvara
Kundalakesi belonged to 10th century. The Ramayana composed by temple at
Darasuram Sculptures Tribhuvanam are
Kamban and the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar

ia
are the two master-pieces of this age. Jayankondar’s examples of later Chola temples.
Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I. The Cholas also made rich contributions
The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three Chola to the art of sculpture. The walls of the Chola

ed
kings. The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi. The works on Tamil temples such as the Tanjore and
grammar like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain
Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by numerous icons of large size with fine
Buddhamitra were the products of the Chola age. execution. The bronzes of the Chola period
are world-famous. The bronze statues of

M
Art and Architecture
Nataraja or dancing Siva are master pieces.
The Dravidian style of art and Gangaikonda
The Chola paintings were found on the walls Cholapuram Temple
architecture reached its perfection under of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.
the Cholas. They built enormous
temples. The chief feature of the Chola
temple is the e Learning Outcome
re
vimana. The early After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
Chola temples Pragadeeswara Temple,
Tanjore 1. The rise of the Imperial Cholas.
were found at
Narthamalai and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district 2. The military accomplishments of Rajaraja I and his
S

and at Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district. The personality.

Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a 3. Rajendra I and his military conquests.
master-piece of South Indian art and architecture.
4. Village administration of the Cholas and its significance.
It consists of the vimana, ardhamandapa,
mahamandapa and a large pavilion in the front 5. Cultural achievements of the Imperial Cholas.
Chola Bronze
Nataraja known as the Nandimandapa. Another notable
contribution made by the Cholas to temple

150 151
 MODEL QUESTIONS c) Southern part of Sri Lanka was annexed by Rajaraja I.

I. Choose the correct answer. d) Sri Lanka declared its independence during the reign of
Rajendra I.
1. The Chola ruler who faced a defeat at the Battle of Takkolam
V. State whether the following statements are True or
(a) Aditya I (b) Rajaraja II False.
(c) Vijayalaya (d) Parantaka I 1. Rajaraja I helped to construct a Buddhist monastery at

ia
2. Author of the book Virasoliyam Tanjore.
(a) Bhavanandhi (b) Buddhamitra 2. Rajendra I captured the kingdom of Sri Vijaya.
(c) Pugalendi (d) Ottakuttar 3. Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war

ed
fought by Kulotunga I
II. Fill in the blanks.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. The naval battle of Kandalursalai took place during the reign
of …… 1. Brihadeeswaram.

M
2. The irrigation tank Cholagangam was constructed at …… by 2. Gangaikondacholapuram.
….. 3. Kudavolai system.
3. Kudavolai system was described in the inscriptions found at 4. Development of educational institutions under the Cholas.
……
III. Match the following.
e VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Describe the society and economy under the Imperial Cholas.
re
1. Uttiramerur inscriptions a) Rajaraja I
2. Write the development of Tamil literature under the Cholas.
2. Sungam Tavirtta Chola b) Rajendra I
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
3. Mudikondan c) Kulottunga I
1. Examine the achievements of Rajaraja I.
S

4. Jayankondan d) Parantaka I
2. Assess the military conquests of Rajendra I.
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right. 3. Describe the salient features of the Chola’s administration.

a) Rajaraja I took an expedition to Sri Vijaya.

b) Rajaraja I shifted his capital to Gangaikondacholapuram.

152 153
 LESSON 14
THE SPREAD OF INDIAN CULTURE IN OTHER
ASIAN COUNTRIES
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The spread of Indian culture in central Asia.
2. Indian cultural influence in China, Tibet and Sri Lanka.
3. Indian cultural influence over the South East Asia.
ed
4. Cultural contacts between India and Myanmar.
5. Art and architecture in the countries of South East Asia.
M
The spread of Indian culture and civilization to the other parts
of Asia constitutes an important chapter in the history of India. India
had established commercial contacts with other countries from the
earliest times. It had inevitably resulted in the spread of Indian
e
languages, religions, art and architecture, philosophy, beliefs, customs
and manners. Indian political adventurers even established Hindu
re
kingdoms in some parts of South East Asia. However, this did not
lead to any kind of colonialism or imperialism in the modern sense.
On the other hand these colonies in the new lands were free from
the control of the mother country. But they were brought under her
S
cultural influence.
Central Asia
Central Asia was a great centre of Indian culture in the early
centuries of the Christian era. Several monuments have been
unearthed in the eastern part of Afghanistan. Khotan and Kashkar
remained the most important centres of Indian culture. Several
154
Sanskrit texts and Buddhist monasteries were found in these places.
Indian cultural influence continued in this region till eighth century.
Indian culture had also spread to Tibet and China through Central
Asia.
India and China
China was influenced both by land route passing through
ia
Central Asia and the sea route through Burma. Buddhism reached
China in the beginning of the first century A.D. A number of Chinese
pilgrims like Fahien and Hiuen Tsang visited India. On the other
side, hundreds of Buddhist monks like Gunabhadra, Vajrabothi,
Dharmadeva and Dharmagupta visited China. Indian scholars
translated many Sanskrit works at the request of Chinese emperors.
This contact with China continued even in the thirteenth century
when the Mongols established their empire in China. Chinese art
had also been influenced by Indian art.
India and Tibet
Tibet was influenced by India from the seventh century. The
famous Buddhist king Gampo founded the city of Lhasa and
introduced Buddhism. The Tibetan alphabet was devised with the
help of Indian scholars. Later, the Indian scholars helped for the
establishment of Lamaism in Tibet. In the eleventh century the Pala
dynasty of Bengal had close contacts with Tibet. When Bengal was
attacked by the Muslim rulers, many Buddhist
monks sought shelter in Tibet.
India and Sri Lanka
Despite having different political history,
Sri Lanka experienced a great cultural influence
from India. Buddhist missionaries had spread
not only the religious faith but also cultural
SIGIRIYA PAINTING
traditions. The art of stone carving went to Sri
155
Lanka from India. In the fifth century, Buddha Ghosha visited Sri
Lanka and consolidated there the Hinayana Buddhism. The famous
paintings of Sigiriya were modeled on the Ajantha paintings.
Indian Culture in South East Asia
Indian culture had extended its mighty influence in the South
East Asian region consisting of the Malay Archipelago and Indo-
China. They are located across the Bay of Bengal. Being fertile and
rich in minerals, these lands attracted the attention of the Indians.
Moreover, the east coast of India is studded with numerous ports
and Indians undertook frequent voyages to these lands. The ancient
ed
traditions refer to traders’ voyages to Suvarnabhumi, (the land of
gold) a name generally given to all the countries of the East Asia.
Indians began to colonize the East Asia in the Gupta period. It was
further encouraged by the Pallavas. The Indian colonists established
M
great kingdoms and some of them lasted for more than a thousand
years. A number of dynasties with Indian names ruled in various
parts. Till the arrival of Islam in the fifteenth century, Indian culture
dominated this region.
Cambodia (Kambhoja)
e
Cambodia was colonised by Indians in the first century A.D.
re
They influenced the
native people called the
Khemers. The ruling
dynasty was known as
S
Kambojas and their
country was Kamboja
or modern Cambodia.
ANGKORWAT TEMPLE
Under the early rulers
Saivism and
Vaishnavism made steady progress. The Kamboja empire at its
greatest extent included Laos, Siam, part of Burma and the Malay
156
peninsula. Numerous Sanskrit inscriptions give us a detailed history
of its kings. A number of Hindu literary works like the Vedas, the
Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Panini’s grammar, Hindu
philosophical treatises were all known to the people of Cambodia.
Like the Pallava kings, they were called Varmans. Yasovarman
and Suryavarman II were two well-known rulers. Temples were
built in South Indian style. There are plenty of Sanskrit inscriptions.
ia
The most famous of these temples was the temple (wat) of Vishnu
built by Suryavarman II in his capital city Angkor. It was popularly
called as the Angkorwat Temple. It is standing on top of a terraced
structure. Each terrace is a sort of a covered gallery which contains
numerous relief sculptures. The temple is constructed on the
Dravidian style and the sculptures depict episodes from the
Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Kambhoja kingdom declined
only in fifteenth century.
Champa
Champa or South Annam is situated to the east of Cambodia.
The first Hindu dynasty was established by Sri Mara in the second
century A.D. A number of Sanskrit inscriptions throw light on the
history of Champa. Twelve Indian dynasties ruled over Champa
and by the thirteenth century Champa was annexed to Cambodia.
Under its Hindu rulers the Hindu religion and culture, customs and
manners were introduced in Champa. Saivism and Vaishnavism
flourished. Buddhism also existed side by side. Various works on
Hindu philosophy, grammar, fine arts and astrology were written.
Siam or Thailand
There were several states in Siam following Indian culture.
Thai script was developed with the help of Indian scholars. The
traditional laws of that country were composed on the model of
Dharmasastras. The temples at Bangkok contain many sculptures
depicting the Ramayana.
157
Sumatra and Java
The Malay Archipelago had remained an important link
between India and the Far East. Several Hindu kingdoms existed
here between fifth to fifteenth centuries A.D. The most important
Hindu kingdom in the big island of Sumatra was Sri Vijaya. It was a
great centre of trade and culture in the seventh century. Subsequently,
the Sri Vijaya kingdom developed into a powerful maritime and
commercial power known as the Sailendra empire extending its sway
over the neighbouring islands of Java, Bali, Borneo and over Cam-
bodia. The Sailendra rulers were Mahayana Buddhists and
ed
maintained cordial relations with the Indian kingdoms of the Palas
of Bengal and the Cholas of Tamil Nadu. Rajaraja Chola allowed
the Sailendra king Maravijayottungavarman to build a Buddhist
monastery at Nagapattinam. His son Rajendra conquered the
Sailendra kingdom for sometime. Later they became independent.
M
The Sailendra empire continued intact till the eleventh century A.D.
A Hindu kingdom was established in Java as early as the fourth
century A.D. In Central Java arose the kingdom of Mataram which
became a strong centre of Hindu religion and culture. It was
e
conquered by the Sailendras of Sumatra. Till the ninth century Java
continued to be a part of the Sailendra empire. Later it regained its
re
independence. Java attained greatness and splendour in art under
Sailendra rule.
The greatest monument of Indo-
S
Java art is the Borobudur which was
built during A.D. 750-850 under the
patronage of the Sailendras. It is
situated on the top of a hill. It consists
BOROBUDUR
of nine successive terraces, crowned MONUMENT
by a bell-shaped stupa at the centre of
the topmost terrace. The open galleries in the terraces contain 2000
158
bas-reliefs (small carved stone figures) illustrating various incidents
in the life of the Buddha. The lower parts are rich in decoration
while the upper portions are plain and unadorned. Borobudur is
described as an epic in stone, the most wonderful Buddhist stupa in
the world.
In the twelfth century, eastern Java with Kadiri as its capital
developed into the leading kingdom of Java. In the thirteenth and
ia
fourteenth centuries which marked the golden age of Javanese
culture, Majapahit became the capital of the far-flung Javanese
empire which included the neighbouring islands. Indian art and
literature flourished in Java to an extent unknown elsewhere. Still,
ruins of hundreds of temples and manuscripts based on the Sanskrit
language are found in Java. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata
were popular and even today furnish the theme for their popular
shadow-play. The fall of Majapahit brought to an end all artistic
activity in Java.
Bali
Bali came under the rule of Hindu dynasties as early as the
sixth century. I-Tsing refers to the prevalence of Buddhism there in
the seventh century. The stone and copper plate inscriptions from
that island show that it was colonised directly from India. Later it
became subordinate to Java. Its people continue to be Hindus and
even today we find the prevalence of the caste system there.
Myanmar
The cultural contacts between India and Burma (now
Myanmar) dates back to the period of Asoka, who sent his
missionaries there to preach Buddhism. Many Hindu kingdoms
existed in Burma. Pali and Sanskrit were the languages of Burma till
thirteenth century. Both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism were
followed by the Burmese.
159
 Thus for nearly fifteen hundred years Hindu kings were ruling MODEL QUESTIONS
over numerous islands of the Malay Archipelago and over the Indo-
China peninsula. Indian religions and Indian culture moulded the I. Choose the correct answer.
lives of the primitive inhabitants of these regions who were elevated 1. The Chola king who permitted the Sailendras to build
to a higher plan of civilization. monastery in Nagapattinam
(a) Vijayalaya (b) Rajaraja
Learning Outcome

ia
(c) Kulottunga (d) Rajendra
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
2. The Hindu Kingdom in Sumatra Island was
1. India’s influence over Central Asia.
(a) Khamboja (b) Sri Vijaya

ed
2. Cultural contacts between India and China.
(c) Champa (d) Annam
3. India and Sri Lanka through the ages.
II. Fill in the blanks.
4. Spread of Indian culture in the Countries of South East
Asia such as Indo-China, Malay Archipelago and
1. The city of Lhasa was founded by ……

M
Myanmar. 2. The capital of eastern Java ……
5. Hindu temples in South East Asia and their architecture. III. Match the following.
1. Angkorwat temple a) Sailendras

e 2.
3.
Borobudur
Sigiriya
b) Sri Lanka
c) South Annam
re
4. Champa d) Suryavarman II
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
S

a) Borobudur is the greatest monument of Indo-Java art.

b) Borobudur was a Vashnavite temple.
c) Sailendra rulers were Saivites.
d) The scenes from Ramayana are carved in Borobudur.

160 161
V. State whether the following statements are True or LESSON 15
False.
EARLY MEDIEVAL INDIA
1. The first Hindu dynasty of Champa was established by Sri
Mara.
2. The kingdom of Bali was influenced by Buddhism. Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

ia
1. A brief history of the Rajput kingdoms.
1. Angkorwat
2. Causes and results of the Arab conquest of Sind.
2. Borobudur
3. Mahmud of Ghazni and his invasions.

ed
3. Cultural contacts between India and Myanmar
4. Mahmud of Ghori’s invasions.
4. India and Bali.
5. Causes for the failure of Hindu states.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Trace the cultural contacts between India and China.

M
2. Write a short note on Indo-Java Art. After the death of Harsha, there was no political unity in north
India for about five centuries. The country was split up into a number
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). of states which were constantly fighting and changing their frontiers.
1. Give an account of the spread of Indian culture in South East The important kingdoms in north India were Kashmir, Gandhara,

2.
Asia.
e
Assess the impact of Indian cultural influence in other parts of
Sind, Gujarat, Kanauj, Ajmir, Malwa, Bengal and Assam. In the
early eighth century Kashmir was dominant. Then, the Palas of
re
Asia Bengal reigned supreme till the Pratiharas became the most powerful
rulers of north India. But in the tenth century, the Rashtrakutas of
Deccan tried to extend their power in north India but ultimately
failed in their attempt.
S

Rajput Kingdoms
The dominance of Rajputs began from the seventh and eighth
centuries and lasted till the Muslim conquest in the twelfth century.
Even after that, many Rajput states continued to survive for a long
time. In the period of Muslim aggression, the Rajputs were the main
defenders of the Hindu religion and culture.

162 163
 There are several theories about the origin of Rajputs. They
were considered as the descendents of the foreign invaders and the
Indian Kshatriyas. The foreign invaders were Indianized and
absorbed into Indian society. Many legends of Rajputs support this
theory. Therefore, it can be said that diverse elements constitute in
the shaping of the Rajput clan. They became homogenous by constant
intermarriage and by adopting common customs. They made war
as their chief occupation. However, trade and agriculture also
prospered. The Arab travellers refer to the prosperity of the land
and the great trade of the cities. They built strong forts.
ed
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were the earliest of the Rajput rulers.
Its first great leader was Harischandra. He conquered extensive
territory in Rajaputana and ruled with his capital at Bhinmal. The
Gurjaras were in different branches. One branch ruled Gujarat and
another at Avanthi. The Pratiharas involved themselves in a three-
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cornered contest with the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of
Deccan. Later the Pratiharas became weak. The Chauhans, the most
valiant of the Rajput races, ruled Ajmir. Vigraharaj was their most
important king, who occupied Delhi. Therefore the Chauhans faced
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the onslaught of the Muslims under Muhammad of Ghori. The
Paramaras were also important Rajput rulers of this period. The
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most important king was Bhoja. His military conquests as well as
cultural contributions remain notable in the history of Rajputs.
Constant fighting weakened the Rajputs. Also, they never
united against a common enemy. Their lack of political foresight
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and constant rivalries prevented any combined opposition to the
Muslim invaders.
Arab Conquest of Sind (712 A.D.)
The religion Islam was born at Mecca in Arabia. Its founder
was Prophet Muhammad. But his teachings made the wealthy people
of Mecca his enemies. Therefore, he migrated to Medina in 622
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A.D., which was the starting point of the Muslim calendar and the
Muslim era called hijra. After eight years he returned to Mecca
with his followers. He died in 632 A.D.
The followers of Muhammad set up an empire called the
Caliphate. The Umayyads and the Abbasids were called the caliphs.
They expanded their rule by conquests and spread their religion
Islam. In 712 A.D., Muhammad bin Qasim invaded Sind. He was
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the commander of the Umayyad kingdom. Qasim defeated Dahir,
the ruler of Sind and killed him in a well-contested battle. His capital
Aror was captured. Qasim extended his conquest further into Multan.
Qasim organized the administration of Sind. The people of Sind
were given the status of zimmis (protected subjects). There was no
interference in the lives and property of the people. Soon, Qasim
was recalled by the Caliph.
However, Sind continued to be under the Arabs. But the
Muslims could not expand their authority further into India due to
the presence of the powerful Pratihara kingdom in western India.
Although the conquest of Sind did not lead to further conquests
immediately, it had resulted in the diffusion of Indian culture abroad.
Many Arab travelers visited Sind. Indian medicine and astronomy
were carried to far off lands through the Arabs. The Indian numerals
in the Arabic form went to Europe through them.
Since Sind was a part of the Arab empire, the
inflow of Indian knowledge was great.
Mahmud of Ghazni and his Invasions
By the end of the ninth century A.D., the
Abbasid Caliphate declined. The Turkish
governors established independent kingdoms and
the Caliph became only a ritual authority. One
PORTRAIT OF
among them was Alptigin whose capital was
MAHMUD OF GHAZNI Ghazni. His successor and son-in-law Sabuktigin
165
wanted to conquer India from the north-west. He succeeded in
capturing Peshawar from Jayapala. But his raids did not produce a
lasting effect. He was succeeded by his son, Mahmud
Mahmud of Ghazni (A.D. 997-1030).
Mahmud is said to have made seventeen raids into India. At
that time, North India was divided into a number of Hindu states.
On the frontier of India, there existed the Hindu Shahi kingdom
which extended from the Punjab to Kabul. The other important
kingdoms of north India were Kanauj, Gujarat, Kashmir, Nepal,
Malwa and Bundelkhand. The initial raids were against the Hindu
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Shahi kingdom in which its king Jayapala was defeated in 1001.
After this defeat, Jayapala immolated himself because he thought
that his defeat was a disgrace. His successor Anandapala fought
against Mahmud but he was also defeated in the Battle of Waihind,
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the Hind Shahi capital near Peshawar in 1008. In this battle,
Anandapala was supported by the rulers of Kanauj and Rajasthan.
As a result of his victory at Waihind, Mahmud extended his rule
over most of the Punjab.
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The subsequent raids of Mahmud into India were aimed at
plundering the rich temples and cities of northern India. In 1011, he
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raided Nagarkot in the Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Delhi. In
1018, Mahmud plundered the holy city of Mathura and also attacked
Kanauj. The ruler of Kanauj, Rajyapala abandoned Kanauj and
later died. Mahmud returned via Kalinjar with fabulous riches. His
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next important raid was against Gujarat. In 1024, Mahmud marched
from Multan across Rajaputana, defeated the Solanki King
Bhimadeva I, plundered Anhilwad and sacked the famous temple
of Somanatha. Then, he returned through the Sind desert. This was
his last campaign in India. Mahmud died in 1030 A.D.
Mahmud was not a mere raider and plunderer of wealth. He
built a wide empire from the Punjab in the east to the Caspian sea on
166
the west and from Samarkand in the north to Gujarat in the south. The
Ghaznavid empire roughly included Persia, Trans-oxyana, Afghanistan
and Punjab. His achievements were due to his leadership and restless
activity. Mahmud was considered a hero of Islam by medieval historians.
He also patronized art and literature. Firdausi was the poet-laureate in
the court of Mahmud. He was the author of Shah Namah. Alberuni
stayed in Mahmud’s court and wrote the famous Kitab-i-Hind, an
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account on India. His conquest of Punjab and Multan completely
changed the political situation in India. He paved the way for the Turks
and Afghans for further conquests and make deeper incursions into the
Gangetic valley at any time. He drained the resources of India by his
repeated raids and deprived India of her manpower. The exhaustion of
India’s economic resources and man power had its adverse effect on
the political future of India. The Hindu Shahi kingdom was guarding the
gates of India against foreign invaders. Mahmud destroyed it and thus
India’s frontiers became defenceless. The inclusion of Punjab and
Afghanistan in Ghazni’s kingdom made the subsequent Muslim conquests
of India comparatively easy.
Muhammad Ghori
The Ghoris started as vassals of Ghazni but became
independent after the death of Mahmud. Taking advantage of the
decline of the Ghaznavid empire, Muizzuddin Muhammad popularly
known as Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni under their control.
Having made his position strong and secure at Ghazni, Muhammad
Ghori turned his attention to India. Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he
wanted to conquer India and extend his empire in this direction.
In 1175, Muhammad Ghori captured Multan and occupied
whole of Sind in his subsequent expeditions. In 1186 he attacked
Punjab, captured it from Khusru Malik and annexed it to his domin-
ions. The annexation of Punjab carried his dominion eastward to
the Sutlej and led his invasion of the Chauhan kingdom.
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The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192)
Realising their grave situation, the Hindu
princes of north India formed a confederacy
under the command of Prithiviraj Chauhan.
Prithviraj rose to the occasion, and defeated
Ghori in the battle of Tarain near Delhi in 1191
A.D. Muhammad Ghori felt greatly humiliated PORTRAIT OF PRITHIVIRAJ
of Tarain and Chandawar contributed to the establishment of Turkish
rule in India.
Causes for the failure of Hindu kingdoms
The causes for the downfall of Hindu states have to be analysed
historically. The most important cause was that they lacked unity.
They were divided by factions. The Rajput princes exhausted one

CHAUHAN
by this defeat. To avenge this defeat he made
serious preparations and gathered an army of 1,20,000 men. He
came with this large force to Lahore via Peshawar and Multan. He
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another by their mutual conflicts. Secondly, many Hindu states were
declining in power. Their military methods were out of date and far
inferior to those of Muslims. Indians continued to rely on elephants
while the Muslims possessed quick-moving cavalry. The Muslims

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sent a message to Prithviraj asking him to acknowledge his soldiers had better organization and able leaders. Their religious
supremacy and become a Muslim. Prithviraj rejected this proposal zeal and their greed for the greater wealth of India provided stimulus
and prepared to meet the invader. He gathered a large force to them. Among the Hindus, the duty of fighting was confined to a
consisting of 3,00,000 horses, 3000 elephants and a large body of particular class, the Kshatriyas. Moreover, the Hindus were always
foot soldiers. Many Hindu rajas and chieftains also joined him. In

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on the defensive, which was always a weak position.
the ensuing Second Battle of Tarain in 1192, Muhammad Ghori
thoroughly routed the army of Prithiviraj, who was captured and Learning Outcome
killed.
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
The second battle of Tarain was a decisive battle. It was a

e
major disaster for the Rajputs. Their political prestige suffered a
serious setback. The whole Chauhan kingdom now lay at the feet
1. A brief history of the Rajput kingdoms in northern India.

2. Arab Conquest of Sind and its results.

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of the invader. The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly established 3. Causes and results of the Mahmud of Ghazni’s invasion
in India at Ajmer and a new era in the history of India began. After of India.
his brilliant victory over Prithiviraj at Tarain, Muhammad Ghori
4. Mahmud of Ghori and his capture of Indian territories.
returned to Ghazni leaving behind his favourite general Qutb-ud-
S

din Aibak to make further conquests in India. Aibak consolidated 5. Causes for the failure of the Hindu states against Muslim
his position in India by occupying places like Delhi and Meerut. In invasions.
1193 he prepared the ground for another invasion by Muhammad
Ghori. This invasion was directed against the Gahadavala ruler
Jayachandra. Muhammad routed Jayachandra’s forces. Kanauj was
occupied by the Muslims after the battle of Chandawar. The Battles

168 169
 MODEL QUESTIONS c) Rajputs stood united against the Muslim invasions.

I. Choose the correct answer. d) Mahmud of Gahzni handed over the Indian possessions to
Aibak.
1. The Second Battle of Tarain was fought in the year
V. State whether the following statements are True or
(a) 1190 (b) 1191 False.
(c) 1192 (d) 1292 1. The Ghoris originally remained vassals under the Ghazni rulers.

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2. The author of Kitab-i-Hind 2. Prithiviraj Chauhun defeated Mahmud of Ghori in the first
(a) Firdausi (b) Barani Battle of Tarain.
(c) Mahmud (d) Alberuni VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

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II. Fill in the blanks. 1. Muhammad bin Qasim.
1. The ruler of Sind during the invasion of Muhammad bin Qasim 2. Second Battle of Tarain.
….. 3. Gurjarapratiharas

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2. The first Muslim kingdom in India was firmly established at 4. Alberuni
……
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
III. Match the following.
1. Assess the impact of the Arab conquest of Sind.
1. Gurjarapratiharas a) Kanauj
2. Rajyapala b) Bhinmal e 2.
3.
Bring out the causes for the decline of Rajput kingdoms.
Analyse the causes for the failure of Hindu states against the
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3. Solankis c) Aror Muslim invasions.
4. Dahir d) Anhilwad VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is 1. Give an account of the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni.
S

right.
2. Examine the military conquests of Mahmud of Ghori.
a) The important cause for the defeat of Hindu states was lack
of unity among them.
b) Indians possessed efficient cavalry to fight against the
Muslims.

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 LESSON 16
DELHI SULTANATE
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Political History of Delhi Sultanate.
2. Slave Dynasty – Aibak, Iltutmish, Raziya, Balban.
3. Khaljis – Alauddin Khalji’s achievements.
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4. Tughlaqs – Mahmud-bin-Tughlaq and his experiments.
5. Firoz Tughlaq and his administration.
6. Sayyids and Lodis.
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The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the
establishment of Delhi Sultanate which existed from A.D. 1206 to
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1526. Five different dynasties – the Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids
and Lodis – ruled under the Delhi Sultanate. Not only they extended
their rule over North India, but also they penetrated into the Deccan
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and South India. Their rule in India resulted in far-reaching changes
in society, administration and cultural life.
Slave Dynasty
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The Slave dynasty was also called Mamluk dynasty. Mamluk
was the Quranic term for slave. The Slave dynasty ruled Delhi from
A.D. 1206 to 1290. In fact, three dynasties were established during
this period. They were
1. Qutbi dynasty (1206-1211) founded by Qutbuddin Aibak.
2. First Ilbari dynasty (1211- 1266) founded by Iltutmish.
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3. Second Ilbari dynasty (1266-1290) founded by Balban.
Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-1210)
Qutbuddin Aibak was a slave of
Muhammad Ghori, who made him the Governor
of his Indian possessions. He set up his military
headquarters at Indraprasta, near Delhi. He raised
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a standing army and established his hold over north
India even during the life time of Ghori. After the
death of Ghori in 1206, Aibak declared his Qutbuddin Aibak
independence. He severed all connections with
the kingdom of Ghori and thus founded the Slave dynasty as well as the
Delhi Sultanate. He assumed the title Sultan and made Lahore his capital.
His rule lasted for a short period of four years. Muslim writers call
Aibak Lakh Baksh or giver of lakhs because he gave liberal donations
to them. Aibak patronized the great scholar Hasan Nizami. He also
started the construction of after the name of a famous Sufi saint Khwaja
Qutbuddin Bakthiyar. It was later completed by Iltutmish. Aibak died
suddenly while playing chaugan (horse polo) in 1210. He was
succeeded by his son Aram Baksh, who was replaced by Iltutmish
after eight months.
Iltutmish (1211-1236)
Iltutmish belonged to the Ilbari tribe and
hence his dynasty was named as Ilbari dynasty.
His half brothers sold him as a slave to Aibak,
who made him his-son-in law by giving his
daughter in marriage to him. Later Aibak
appointed him as iqtadar of Gwalior. In 1211
Iltutmish defeated Aram Baksh and became
Sultan. He shifted his capital from Lahore to
Delhi. During the first ten years of his reign he
QUTB MINAR
concentrated on securing his throne from his
173
rivals. In the meantime, Temujin popularly known
as Chengiz Khan, the leader of the Mongols,
started invading Central Asia. He defeated
Jalaluddin Mangabarni, the ruler of Kwarizam.
Mangabarni crossed the river Indus and sought
asylum from Iltutmish. Iltutmish refused to give him
shelter in order to save his empire from the
onslaught of the Mongols. Fortunately for
Iltutmish, Chengiz Khan retuned home without
PORTRAIT OF
entering into India. In fact, the Mongol policy of
CHENGIZ KHAN
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Iltutmish saved India from the wrath of Chengiz
Khan.
Iltutmish marched against Bengal and Bihar and reasserted
his control over them. He also annexed Sind and Multan into the
Delhi Sultanate. He suppressed the Rajput revolts and recovered
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Ranthampur, Jalor, Ajmir and Gwalior. He led an expedition against
the Paramaras of Malwa but it was not successful.
Iltutmish was a great statesman. He received the mansur, the
letter of recognition, from the
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Abbasid Caliph in 1229 by which he
became the legal sovereign ruler of
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India. Later he nominated his
daughter Raziya as his successor.
Thus the hereditary succession to
SILVER TANKA OF ILTUTMISH
Delhi Sultanate was initiated by
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Iltutmish. He patronized many scholars and a number Sufi saints came
to India during his reign. Minhaj-us-Siraj, Taj-ud-din., Nizam-ul-mulk
Muhammad Janaidi, Malik Qutb-ud-din Hasan and Fakhrul-Mulk Isami
were his contemporary scholars who added grandeur to his court. Apart
from completing the construction of Qutb Minar at Delhi, the tallest
stone tower in India (238 ft.), he built a magnificent mosque at Ajmir.
174
Iltutmish introduced the Arabic coinage into India and the silver tanka
weighing 175 grams became a standard coin in medieval India. The
silver tanka remained the basis of the modern rupee. Iltutmish had also
created a new class of ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders, the
Forty.
Raziya (1236-1240)
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Although Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziya as his
successor, the Qazi of Delhi and Wazir put Ruknuddin Feroz on the
throne. When the governor of Multan revolted, Ruknuddin marched
to suppress that revolt. Using this opportunity, Raziya with the
support of Amirs of Delhi seized the throne of Delhi Sultanate. She
appointed an Abyssinian slave Yakuth as Master of the Royal
Horses. Also, Raziya discarded the female apparel and held the
court with her face unveiled. She even went for hunting and led the
army. This aroused resentment among the Turkish nobles. In 1240,
Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda revolted against her. She went in
person to suppress the revolt but Altunia killed Yakuth and took
Raziya prisoner. In the meantime, the Turkish nobles put Bahram,
another son of Iltutmish on the throne. However, Raziya won over
her captor, Altunia, and after marrying him proceeded to Delhi. But
she was defeated and killed.
The fall of Raziya paved the way for the ascendancy of the
Forty. In the next six years, Bahram and Masud ruled Delhi. There
ensued a struggle for supremacy between the Sultans and the nobles.
In 1246 Balban succeeded in putting Nasiruddin Mahmud, a
younger son of Iltutmish, as Sultan.
Era of Balban (1246-1287)
Ghiyasuddin Balban, who was also known as Ulugh Khan,
served as Naib or regent to Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud. He also
strengthened his position by marrying his daughter to the Sultan.
Balban was all powerful in the administration but he had to face the
175
intrigues of his rivals in the royal court. He had overcome all the
difficulties. In 1266 Nasiruddin Mahmud died without issues and
Balban ascended the throne.
Balban’s experience as the regent made him to understand
the problems of Delhi Sultanate. He knew that the real threat to the
monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty. He was convinced
that only by enhancing the power and authority of the monarchy he
could face the problems. According to Balban the Sultan was God’s
shadow on earth and the recipient of divine grace. Balban introduced
rigorous court discipline and new customs such as prostration and
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kissing the Sultan’s feet to prove his superiority over the nobles. He
also introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress the nobles
and people with his wealth and power. He stood forth as the
champion of Turkish nobility. At the same time he did not share
power with other nobles. Indian Muslims were not given important
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post in the government. He appointed spies to monitor the activities
of the nobles.
Balban was determined to break the power of the Forty, the
Turkish nobles. He spared only the most obedient nobles and
e
eliminated all others by fair or foul means. Malik Baqbaq, the
governor of Badaun, was publicly flogged for his cruelty towards
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his servants. Haybat Khan, the governor of Oudh, was also punished
for killing a man who was drunk. Sher Khan, the governor of
Bhatinda was poisoned. Instead of expanding his kingdom, Balban
paid more attention to the restoration of law and order. He
S
established a separate military department - diwan-i-arz – and
reorganized the army. The outskirts of Delhi were often plundered
by the Mewatis. Balban took severe action against them and
prevented such robberies. Robbers were mercilessly pursued and
put to death. As a result, the roads became safe for travel.
176
In 1279, Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against
Balban. It was suppressed and he was beheaded. In the northwest
the Mongols reappeared and Balban sent his son Prince Mahmud
against them. But the prince was killed in the battle and it was a
moral blow to the Sultan. Balban died in 1287. He was undoubtedly
one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate. He enhanced the
power of the monarchy. However, he could not fully safeguard India
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from the Mongol invasions.
When Balban died, one of his grandsons Kaiqubad was made
the Sultan of Delhi. After four years of incompetent rule, Jalaluddin
Khalji captured the throne of Delhi in 1290.
The Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)
The advent of the Khalji dynasty marked the zenith of Muslim
imperialism in India. The founder of the Khalji dynasty was Jalaluddin
Khalji. He was seventy years old when he came to power. He was
generous and lenient. Malik Chhajju, nephew of Balban was allowed
to remain the governor of Kara. His leniency was misunderstood as
weakness. When Chhajju revolted, it was suppressed but he was
pardoned. When the thugs (robbers) looted the country, they were
allowed to go after a severe warning. In 1292 when Malik Chhajju
revolted for the second time, he was replaced by his son-in-law,
Alauddin Khalji. In 1296 Alauddin Khalji took
an expedition to Devagiri and returned to Kara.
During the reception there, Alauddin Khalji
treacherously murdered his father-in-law
Jalaluddin Khalji and usurped the throne of
Delhi.
Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)
Alauddin Khalji made enormous gifts to
Alauddin Khalji
the hostile nobles and Amirs of Delhi to win
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 over them to his side. Those who still opposed him accession were
punished severely. He framed regulations to control the nobles. He
was convinced that the general prosperity of the nobles, inter-
marriages between noble families, inefficient spy-system and drinking
Empire of
liquor were the basic reasons for the rebellions. Therefore, he passed
Alauddin Khilji
Kabul four ordinances. He confiscated the properties of the nobles. The
Peshavar intelligence system was reorganized and all the secret activities of

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the nobles were immediately reported to the Sultan. The public sale
of liquor and drugs was totally stopped. Social gatherings and
Multan festivities without the permission of Sultan were forbidden. By such

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harsh measures his reign was free from rebellions.
Delhi Oudh
Reforms of Alauddin Khalji
Gaur Alauddin Khalji maintained a large permanent standing army
Chitore Prayag
Anhilvara Bengal and paid them in cash from the royal treasury. According the Ferishta,

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he recruited 4,75,000 cavalrymen. He introduced the system of
dagh (branding of horses) and prepared huliya (descriptive list of
soldiers). In order to ensure maximum efficiency, a strict review of
Dauladabad army from time to time was carried out.
Warangal
Aribian Sea
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Bay of Bengal
The introduction of paying salaries in cash to the soldiers led
to price regulations popularly called as Market Reforms. Alauddin
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Khalji established four separate markets in Delhi, one for grain;
another for cloth, sugar, dried fruits, butter and oil; a third for horses,
Dwarasamudra slaves and cattle; and a fourth for miscellaneous commodities. Each
market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-i-
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Mandi. The supply of grain was ensured by holding stocks in

Madurai government store-houses. Regulations were issued to fix the price
of all commodities. A separate department called Diwani Riyasat
Indian Ocean was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat. Every merchant
was registered under the Market department. There were secret
agents called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding
the functioning of these markets. The Sultan also sent slave boys to

178 179
buy various commodities to check prices. Violation of regulations
was severely punished. Harsh punishment was given if any shop-
keeper charged a higher price, or tried to cheat by using false weights
and measures. Even during the famine the same price was maintained.
We are not sure whether the market regulations in Delhi were also
applied in the provincial capitals and towns.
Apart from market reforms, Alauddin Khalji took important
steps in the land revenue administration. He was the first Sultan of
Delhi who ordered for the measurement of land. Even the big
landlords could not escape from paying land tax. Land revenue was
ed
collected in cash in order to enable the Sultan to pay the soldiers in
cash. His land revenue reforms provided a basis for the future
reforms of Sher Shah and Akbar.
Military Campaigns
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Alauddin Khalji sent his army six times against the Mongols. The
first two was successful. But the third Mongol invader Khwaja came
up to Delhi but they were prevented from entering into the capital city.
The next three Mongol invasions were also dealt with
e
severely. Thousands of Mongols were killed. The
northwestern frontier was fortified and Gazi Malik
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was appointed to as the Warden of Marches to protect
the frontier.
The military conquests of Alauddin Khalji
include his expedition against Gujarat, Mewar and
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the Deccan. He sent Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan
Rani Padmini to capture Gujarat in 1299. The king and his
daughter escaped while the queen was caught and
sent to Delhi. Kafur, an eunuch, was also taken to Delhi and later
he was made the Malik Naib – military commander. Then in 1301,
Alauddin marched against Ranthampur and after a three month’s
siege it fell. The Rajput women committed jauhar or self-immolation.
180
Alauddin next turned against Chittor. It was the powerful state in
Rajasthan. The siege lasted for several months. In 1303 Alauddin
stormed the Chittor fort. Raja Ratan Singh and his soldiers fought
valiantly but submitted. The Rajput women including Rani Padmini
performed jauhar. This Padmini episode was graphically mentioned
in the book Padmavath written by Jayasi.
Alauddin Khalji’s greatest achievement was the conquest of
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Deccan and the far south. This region was ruled by four important
dynasties – Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of
Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of
Madurai. In Alauddin sent Malik Kafur
against the ruler of Devagiri,
Ramachandra Deva, who submitted and
paid rich tributes. In 1309 Malik Kafur
launched his campaign against Warangal.
Its ruler Pratabarudra Deva was defeated
and enormous booty was collected from ALAI DARWAZA
him. Malik Kafur’s next target was the
Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala III. He was defeated and a vast quantity of
booty was seized and sent to Delhi. Kafur next marched against the
Pandyas. Vira Pandya fled the capital Madurai and Kafur seized
enormous wealth from the Pandya kingdom and returned to Delhi.
Alauddin Khalji died in 1316. Although the Sultan was illiterate,
he patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan. He also
built a famous gateway known as Alai Darwaza and constructed a
new capital at Siri.
Mubarak Shah and Khusru Shah were the successors of
Alauddin Khalji. Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, killed the
Sultan Khusru Shah and ascended the throne of Delhi under the
title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in 1320.
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The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Juna Khan to fight against
Warangal. He defeated Pratabarudra and returned with rich booty.
Ghiyasuddin laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad near Delhi. Ulugh
Khan was said to have treacherously killed his father and ascended
the throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351)
He was a very attractive character in the history of medieval
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India owing to his ambitious schemes and novel experiments. His
enterprises and novel experiments ended in miserable failures
because they were all far ahead of their time. He was very tolerant
in religious matters. He maintained diplomatic relations with far off
countries like Egypt, China and Iran. He also introduced many liberal
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and beneficial reforms. But all his reforms failed. Contemporary
writers like Isami, Barani and Ibn Battutah were unable to give a
correct picture about his personality. But, Muhammad bin Tughlaq
was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary,
religious and philosophical education.
Transfer of Capital e financial difficulties, Muhammad bin Tughlaq increased the land
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Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to make Devagiri his second
capital so that he might be able to control South India better. In
1327 he made extensive preparations for the transfer of royal
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household and the ulemas and Sufis from Delhi to Devagiri, which
was renamed as Daulatabad. When they resisted the Sultan enforced
his orders ruthlessly and caused great hardship of the population of
Delhi. The distance between these two places was more than 1500
kilometres. Many people died during the rigorous journey in the
summer. After two years, the Sultan abandoned Daulatabad and
asked them to return to Delhi.
182
Token Currency
In 1329-30 Muhammad bin
Tughlaq introduced a token currency.
There was a shortage of silver through
out the world in the fourteenth COPPER COINS OF
MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ
century. Kublai Khan issued paper
money in China. In the same manner, Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued
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copper coins at par with the value of the silver tanka coins. But he
was not able to prevent forging the new coins. The goldsmiths began
to forge the token coins on a large scale. Soon the new coins were
not accepted in the markets. Finally, Muhammad bin Tughlaq
stopped the circulation of token currency and promised to exchange
silver coins for the copper coins. Many people exchanged the new
coins but the treasury became empty. According the Barani, the
heap of copper coins remained lying on roadside in Tughlaqabad.
Taxation in Doab
The failure of these two experiments affected the prestige of
the Sultan and enormous money was wasted. In order to overcome
revenue on the farmers of Doab (land between Ganges and Yamuna
rivers). It was an excessive and arbitrary step on the farmers. A
severe famine was also ravaging that region at that time. It had
resulted in a serious peasant revolts. They fled from the villages but
Muhammad bin Tughlaq took harsh measures to capture and punish
them. The revolts were crushed.
Agricultural Reforms
However, the Sultan realized later that adequate relief measures
and the promotion of agriculture were the real solution to the
problem. He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for
cultivation) were given to the farmers to buy seed and to extend
183
cultivation. A separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi
was established. Model farm under the state was created in an area
of 64 square miles for which the government spent seventy lakh
tankas. This experiment was further continued by Firoz Tughlaq.
Rebellions
The latter part of Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign witnessed a
spate of rebellions by the nobles and provincial governors. The
rebellion of Hasan Shah resulted in the establishment of the Madurai
Sultanate. In 1336 the Vijayanagar kingdom was founded. In 1347
Bhamini kingdom was established. The governors of Oudh, Multan
ed
and Sind revolted against the authority of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
In Gujarat Taghi rose in revolt against the Sultan who spent nearly
three years in chasing him. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s health became
worse and he died in 1351. According to Baduani, the Sultan was
M
freed from his people and the people from the Sultan. According to
Barani, Muhammad bin Tughlaq was a mixture of opposites. His
reign marked the beginning of the process of its decline.
Firoz Tughlaq (1351-1388)
e
After the death of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq in 1351 Firoz
Tughlaq had the unique distinction of being chosen as sultan by the
re
nobles. He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin
convert as wazir (prime minister). The wazir helped the Sultan in his
administration and maintained the prestige of the Sultanate during
this period.
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Military Campaigns
After his accession Firoz had to face the problem of preventing
the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. He tried to safeguard his
authority over north India instead of reasserting his authority over
the Deccan and south India. He led two expeditions to Bengal but
they were not successful. Bengal became free from the control of
184
Delhi Sultanate. Firoz led a campaign against Jajnagar (modern
Orissa). He returned with rich booty acquired from the temples. He
marched against Nagarkot and made its ruler to pay tributes. During
this campaign the Sultan collected 1300 Sanskrit manuscripts from
the Jawalamukhi temple library and got them translated into Persian.
Firoz next marched against Thatta in the Sind region and crushed a
rebellion there.
ia
Administrative Reforms
The reign of Firoz Tughlaq was more notable for his
administration. He strictly followed the advice of the ulemas in
running the administration. He pleased the nobles and assured
hereditary succession to their properties. Thus the iqta system was
not only revived but also it was made hereditary. As per the Islamic
law he levied the taxes. Jiziya was strictly imposed on non-Muslims.
He was the first Sultan to impose irrigation tax. But at the same time
he dug irrigation canals and wells. The longest canal was about 200
kilometres from Sutlej to Hansi. Another canal was between Yamuna
and Hissar. There were about 1200 fruit gardens in and around
Delhi yielding more revenue. The special tax on 28 items was
abolished by him since they were against the Islamic law. He also
developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of
slaves were employed. About 300 new towns were built during his
reign. The famous among them was Firozabad near Red Fort in
Delhi, now called Firoz Shah Kotla. Old monuments like Jama
Masjid and Qutb-Minar were also repaired.
A new department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created to
take care of orphans and widows. Free hospitals and marriage
bureaus for poor Muslims were also established. Firoz patronized
scholars like Barani and Afif. As he was guided by the ulemas, he
was intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis. He treated Hindus
as second grade citizens and imposed Jiziya. In this respect he was
185
the precursor of Sikandar Lodi and Aurangazeb. Also he increased
the number of slaves by capturing the defeated soldiers and young
persons. In his regime the number of slaves had increased to one
lakh eighty thousand. When Firoz died in 1388 the struggle for power
between the Sultan and the nobles started once again. His successors
had to face the rebellion of the slaves created by Firoz.
In the following years, the Delhi Sultanate had disintegrated
further. Many provinces like Malwa and Gujarat declared their
independence. The invasion of Timur in 1398 had worsened the
situation. When Timur entered Delhi there was no opposition and
ed
he sacked Delhi for three days murdering thousands of people and
looting enormous wealth. He withdrew from India in 1399 and his
invasion in fact delivered a death blow to the Tughlaq dynasty.
Sayyids (1414-1451)
M
Before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as
governor of Multan. He captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty
in 1414. He tried to consolidate the Delhi Sultanate but in vain. He died
in 1421 and was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah. Muhammad
e
Shah who succeeded him was always busy against conspirators and
gradually lost control over his nobles. Buhlul Khan Lodi dominated
re
everything. Muhammad Shah died in 1445 and was succeeded by his
son Alam Shah (1445-1451) the weakest of the Sayyid princes. He
handed over the throne to Buhlul Lodi and retired to Badaun.
Lodis (1451-1526)
S
The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, were Afghans. Buhlul
Lodi was the first Afghan ruler while his predecessors were all Turks.
He died in 1489 and was succeeded by his son, Sikandar Lodi.
Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517) was the greatest of the three Lodi
sovereigns. He brought the whole of Bihar under his control, many
Rajput chiefs were defeated. He attacked Bengal and forced its ruler
186
to conclude a treaty with him, and extended his empire from the Punjab
to Bihar. He was a good administrator. Roads were laid and many
irrigational facilities were provided for the benefit of the peasantry.
Despite certain laudable qualities, he was a bigot. He destroyed many
Hindu temples and imposed many restrictions on the Hindus. Yet, he
was one of the great Lodi sultans who made the sultanate strong and
powerful.
ia
Sikandar Lodi was succeeded by his eldest son Ibrahim Lodi
who was arrogant. He insulted his nobles openly in court and humiliated
them. Those nobles who revolted were put to death. His own uncle,
Alauddin revolted. Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of the Punjab was
insulted and disaffection between king and courtier became very
common. Greatly displeased by the arrogance of Ibrahim, Daulat Khan
Lodi invited Babur to invade India. Babur marched against Delhi and
defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat (1526).
The Afghan kingdom lasted for only seventy-five years.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. Political History of Delhi Sultanate from 1206 to 1526
A.D.
2. The rulers of Slave Dynasty – Aibak, Iltutmish, Raziya,
Balban – and their achievements.
3. Khalji Dynasty – Alauddin Khalji’s military achievements
and reforms.
4. Tughlaq Dynasty – Mahmud-bin-Tughlaq’s achievements
and his administrative experiments.
5. Firoz Tughlaq and his administration.
6. Sayyids and Lodis and the decline of Delhi Sultanate.
187
 MODEL QUESTIONS b) Alai Darwaza was built by Mahmud-bin-Tughlaq.

I. Choose the correct answer. c) The department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created by Firoz
Tughlaq to take care of orphans and widows.
1. Arabic coinage of tanka was introduced in India by
d) Iltutmish introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress
(a) Alauddin Khalji (b) Iltutmish the nobles and people.
(c) Mahmud-bin Tughlaq (d) Firoz Tughlaq V. State whether the following statements are True or

ia
2. The commander of the South Indian expedition under Alauddin False.
Khalji 1. Tughril Khan, the governor of Bengal revolted against Balban.
(a) Alauddin Khalji (b) Qutbuddin Aibak 2. Firoz Tughlaq patronized poets like Amir Khusrau.

ed
(c) Malik Kafur (d) Jalaluddin Khalji 3. Daulat Khan Lodi invited Babur to invade India.
II. Fill in the blanks. VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Ramachandra Deva was the ruler of …… 1. Raziya

M
2. Author of the book Padmavathi was ….. 2. The Forty
3. …… collected Sanskrit manuscripts from the library at 3. Token Currency
Jawalamukhi temple.
4. Sayyids
4. The last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate was ……
III. Match the following. e 5. Lodis
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
re
1. Mahmud-bin-Tughlaq a) Theory of Kingship
1. Assess the achievements of Qutbuddin Aibak.
2. Alauddin Khalji b) Hasan Nizami
2. Examine the Market reforms of Alauddin Khalji.
3. Balban c) Market Reforms
S

3. Write a note on the South Indian expedition of Malik Kafur.

4. Qutbuddin Aibak d) Token Currency
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right. 1. Give an estimate of the achievements of Iltutmish.
2. Examine the rule of Balban and his theory of kingship.
a) The agricultural department, Diwan-i-Kohi was established
by Alauddin Khalji. 3. Evaluate the personality of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
4. Write an essay on the reforms of Firoz Tughlaq.
188 189
 LESSON 17 legal and political activities. There was no clear law of succession
during this period. All the sons had equal claim to the throne. Iltutmish
INDIA UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATE
even nominated his daughter in preference to his sons. But such
nominations or successions were to be accepted by the nobles.
Sometimes ulemas played crucial role in accepting the succession
Learning Objectives
to the throne. However, the military superiority remained the main
Students will acquire knowledge about factor in matters of succession.

ia
1. Administration under the Delhi Sultanate. Central Government
2. Economic Condition under the Delhi Sultanate. The Sultan was assisted by a number of departments and
3. Social Life under the Delhi Sultanate. officials in his administration. The post of Naib was the most powerful

ed
one. The Naib practically enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan and
4. Art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate.
exercised general control over all the departments. Next to him was
5. Literary Development. the Wazir who was heading the finance department called Diwani
Wizarat.

M
Administration The military department was called Diwani Ariz. It was
headed by Ariz-i-mumalik. He was responsible for recruiting the
The establishment and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate led to
soldiers and administering the military department. He was not the
the evolution of a powerful and efficient administrative system. At
commander-in-chief of the army. The Sultan himself was the
its zenith the authority of Delhi Sultan had extended as far south as

e
Madurai. Although the Delhi Sultanate had disintegrated, their
administrative system made a powerful impact on the Indian
commander-in-chief of the army. The military department was first
set up by Balban and it was further improved by Alauddin Khalji
re
under whom the strength of the army crossed three lakh soldiers.
provincial kingdoms and later on the Mughal system of administration.
Alauddin introduced the system of branding of the horses and
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam. payment of salary in cash. Cavalry was given importance under the
The Sultans considered themselves as representatives of the Caliph. Delhi Sultanate.
S

They included the name of the Caliph in the khutba or prayer and
Diwani Rasalat was the department of religious affairs. It
inscribed it on their coins. Although Balban called himself the shadow
was headed by chief Sadr. Grants were made by this department
of God, he continued to practice of including the name of Caliph in
for the construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs and
the khutba and coins. Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz
madrasas. The head of the judicial department was the chief Qazi.
Tughlaq obtained mansur or letter of permission from the Caliph.
Other judges or qazis were appointed in various parts of the
The office of the Sultan was the most important in the Sultanate. Muslim personal law or sharia was followed in civil
administrative system. He was the ultimate authority for the military,
190 191
matters. The Hindus were governed by their own personal law and
their cases were dispensed by the village panchayats. The criminal
law was based on the rules and regulations made by the Sultans.
The department of correspondence was called Diwani Insha. All
the correspondence between the ruler and the officials was dealt
with by this department.
Local Administration
The provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were called iqtas.
They were initially under the control of the nobles. But the governors
of the provinces were called the muqtis or walis. They were to
ed
maintain law and order and collect the land revenue. The provinces
were divided into shiqs and the next division was pargana. The
shiq was under the control of shiqdar. The pargana comprising a
number of villages was headed by amil. The village remained the
M
basic unit of the administration. The village headman was known as
muqaddam or chaudhri. The village accountant was called patwari.
Economy
After consolidating their position in India, the Delhi Sultans
were classified into three categories: e
introduced reforms in the land revenue administration. The lands
re
1. iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of
payment for their services.
2. khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and
S
the revenues collected were spent for the maintenance of royal
court and royal household.
3. inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or
religious institutions.
The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue,
and sometimes even one half of the produce. They also paid other
192
taxes and always led a hand-to-mouth living. Frequent famines made
their lives more miserable.
However, Sultans like Muhammad bi Tughlaq and Firoz
Tughlaq took efforts to enhance agricultural production by providing
irrigational facilities and by providing takkavi loans. They also
encouraged the farmers to cultivate superior crop like wheat instead
of barley. Firoz encouraged the growth of horticulture. Muhammad
ia
bin Tughlaq created a separate agricultural department, Diwani
Kohi.
During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained
momentum. A number of cities and towns had grown during this
period. Lahore, Multan, Broach, Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad,
Delhi and Jaunpur were important among them. Delhi remained the
largest city in the East. The growth of trade and commerce was
described by contemporary writers. India exported a large number
of commodities to the countries on the Persian Gulf and West Asia
and also to South East Asian countries. Overseas trade was under
the control of Multanis and Afghan Muslims. Inland trade was
dominated by the Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra
merchants. Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated
for smooth transport and communication. Particularly the royal roads
were kept in good shape. Sarais or rest houses on the highways
were maintained for the convenience of the travelers.
Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period.
Sericulture was introduced on a large scale which made India less
dependent on other countries for the import of raw silk. Paper
industry had grown and there was an extensive use of paper from
14th and 15th centuries. Other crafts like leather-making, metal-crafts
and carpet-weaving flourished due to the increasing demand. The
royal karkhanas supplied the goods needed to the Sultan and his
household. They manufactured costly articles made of gold, silver
193
and gold ware. The nobles also aped the life style of Sultans and
indulged in luxurious life. They were well paid and accumulated
enormous wealth.
The system of coinage had also developed during the Delhi
Sultanate. Iltutmish issued several types of silver tankas. One silver
tanka was divided into 48 jitals during the Khalji rule and 50 jitals
during the Tughlaq rule. Gold coins or dinars became popular during
the reign of Alauddin Khalji after his South Indian conquests. Copper
coins were less in number and dateless. Muhammad bin Tughlaq
had not only experimented token currency but also issued several
ed
types of gold and silver coins. They were minted at eight different
places. At least twenty five varieties of gold coins were issued by
him.
Social Life
M
There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society
during this period. Traditional caste system with the Brahmins on
the upper strata of the society was prevalent. The subservient position
of women also continued and the practice of sati was widely
e
prevalent. The seclusion of women and the wearing of purdah
became common among the upper class women. The Arabs and
re
Turks brought the purdah system into India and it became
widespread among the Hindu women in the upper classes of north
India.
During the Sultanate period, the Muslim society remained
S
divided into several ethnic and racial groups. The Turks, Iranians,
Afghans and Indian Muslims developed exclusively and there were
no intermarriages between these groups. Hindu converts from lower
castes were also not given equal respect. The Muslim nobles
occupied high offices and very rarely the Hindu nobles were given
high position in the government. The Hindus were considered zimmis
194
or protected people for which they were forced to pay a tax called
jiziya. In the beginning jiziya was collected as part of land tax.
Firoz Tughlaq separated it from the land revenue and collected jiziya
as a separate tax. Sometimes Brahmins were exempted from paying
jiziya.
Art and Architecture
ia
The art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate period was
distinct from the Indian style. The Turks
introduced arches, domes, lofty towers
or minarets and decorations using the
Arabic script. They used the skill of the
Indian stone cutters. They also added
colour to their buildings by using
QUWWAT-UL-ISLAM MOSQUE
marbles, red and yellow sand stones.
In the beginning, they converted temples and other structures
demolished into mosques. For example, the Quwwat-ul-Islam
mosque near Qutub Minar in Delhi was built by using the materials
obtained from destroying many Hindu and Jain temples. But later,
they began to construct new structures. The most magnificent building
of the 13th century was the Qutub Minar which was founded by
Aibek and completed by Iltutmish. This seventy one metre tower
was dedicated to the Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakthiyar Kaki. The
balconies of this tower were projected from the main building and it
was the proof of the architectural skills of that period. Later, Alauddin
Khalji added an entrance to the Qutub Minar called Alai Darwaza.
The dome of this arch was built on scientific lines.
The buildings of the Tughlaq period were constructed by
combining arch and dome. They also used the cheaper and easily
available grey colour stones. The palace complex called Tughlaqabad
with its beautiful lake was built during the period of Ghyasuddin
195
Tughlaq. Muhammad bin Tughlaq built the tomb of Ghyasuddin on
a high platform. The Kotla fort at Delhi was the creation of Firoz
Tughlaq. The Lodi garden in Delhi was the example for the
architecture of the Lodis.
Music
New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were
introduced during this period. Amir Khusrau introduced many new
ragas such as ghora and sanam. He evolved a new style of light
music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian systems.
The invention of sitar was also attributed to him. The Indian classical
ed
work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of
Firoz Tughlaq. Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great
musicians of this period. Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great
lover of music. He encouraged the composition of a great musical
M
work called Man Kautuhal.
Literature
The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature. Many of
them had great love for Arabic and Persian literature. Learned men
the rulers. Besides theology and poetry, the e
came from Persia and Persian language got encouragement from
re
writing of history was also encouraged. Some
of the Sultans had their own court historians.
The most famous historians of this period were
Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin
S
Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif. Barani’s Tarikh-
i-Firoz Shahi contains the history of Tughlaq
dynasty. Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-
Nasari, a general history of Muslim dynasties AMIR KHUSRAU
up to 1260.
196
Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous Persian writer of
this period. He wrote a number of poems. He experimented with several
poetical forms and created a new style of Persian poetry called Sabaq-
i-Hind or the Indian style. He also wrote some Hindi verses. Amir
Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin’s conquests. His
famous work Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.
Sanskrit and Persian functioned as link languages in the Delhi
ia
Sultanate. Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into
Persian. The book Tutu Nama or Book of the Parrot became popular
and translated into Turkish and later into many European languages.
The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana belonged to the period
of Zain-ul-Abidin, the ruler of Kashmir. Many Sanskrit works on
medicine and music were translated into Persian.
In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the most famous work.
Regional languages also developed during this period. Chand Baradi
was the famous Hindi poet of this period. Bengali literature had also
developed and Nusrat Shah patronized the translation of Mahabaratha
into Bengali. The Bakthi cult led to development of Gujarati and Marathi
languages. The Vijayanagar Empire patronized Telugu and Kannada
literature.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. Central government and Local administration under the
Delhi Sultanate.
2. Economic life of the people of India under the Delhi
Sultanate.
3. Social condition and the impact of Muslim rule on Indian
society.
4. Architectural contributions of the Delhi Sultanate.
5. Persian and other scholars lived during the Delhi
Sultanate and their contribution.
197
 MODEL QUESTIONS c) Inam land is the land assigned to soldiers for their services in
wars.
I. Choose the correct answer.
d) Diwan-i-Kohi was the department of Land Revenue.
1. The governors of the provinces in Delhi Sultanate were called
the V. State whether the following statements are True or
False.
(a) Shikdars (b) Muqtis
1. The finance department under the Delhi Sultanate was called

ia
(c) Patwaris (d) Chaudris Diwani Wizarat.
2. The Kotla fort at Delhi was the creation of 2. The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into
(a) Firoz Tughlaq (b) Iltutmish Sanskrit.

ed
(c) Alauddin Khalji (d) Sikkandar Lodi 3. The Hindus were considered zimmis and they were forced to
pay a tax called jiziya.
II. Fill in the blanks.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. The military department under the Delhi Sultanate was called

M
…… 1. Diwani Wizarat
2. New ragas such as ghora and sanam were introduced by ……. 2. Coinage under the Delhi Sultanate.
III. Match the following. 3. Amir Khusrau
1. Minhaj-us-Siraj a) Rajatarangini 4. Qutub Minar
2. Amir Khusrau e
b) Tabaqat-i-Nasari VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
re
3. Kalhana c) Kitab-ul-Hind 1. Give a brief account of local administration under the Delhi
Sultanate.
4. Alberuni d) Sabaq-i-Hind
2. Trace the economic condition under the Delhi Sultanate.
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
S

right. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

a) Iqta land is the land assigned to officials instead of payment 1. Examine the administration of the Delhi Sultanate.
for their services. 2. Evaluate the cultural contributions of the Sultans of Delhi.
b) Khalisa land is the land under the direct control of village
councils.

198 199
 LESSON 18
BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Rise and spread of Bhakti Movement in India.
2. Sufism and its development in India.
3. Bhakti saints like Sankara, Ramanuja and others.
ed
4. Ramananda, Kabir and Guru Nanak and their teachings.
5. Bhakti Movement in Bengal and Maharashtra.
6. Importance of Bhakti Movement.
M
We have already studied the rise of Bhakti cult in Tamil Nadu
during the seventh and eight centuries. The Saivaite Nayanmars and
Vashnavaite Alwars preached the Bhakti cult under the Pallavas,
medieval India is a different kind. This medieval e
Pandyas and Cholas. But, the spread of Bhakti movement in
re
Bhakti movement was the direct result of the
influence of the spread of Islam in India.
Monotheism or belief in one God, equality and
brotherhood of man and rejection of rituals and
S
class divisions are the distinctive characteristics
of Islam. These Islamic ideas created a profound
impact on the religious leaders of this period.
Moreover, the preaching of Sufi teachers shaped
Khwaja
the thinking of Bhakti reformers like Ramananda, MuinuddinChishti
Kabir and Nanak.
200
Sufism
Sufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam. It had its
origin in Persia and spread into India in the eleventh century. The
first Sufi saint Shaikh Ismail of Lahore started preaching his ideas.
The most famous of the Sufi saints of India was Khwaja Muinuddin
Chishti, who settled in Ajmer which became the centre of his
activities. He had a number of disciples who are called Sufis of the
ia
Chishti order. Another well known Sufi saint was Bahauddin
Zakariya who came under the influence of another famous mystic
Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. His branch of Sufi saints was known as
the Sufis of the Suhrawardi Order. Yet another famous Sufi saint
was Nizamuddin Auliya who belonged to the Chishti order and who
was a mighty spiritual force. These Sufi saints are revered even
today by not only Muslims but by a large number of Hindus. Their
tombs have become popular places of pilgrimage for both
communities.
Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective
means of the realisation of God. Love of God meant love of humanity
and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was tantamount to
service to God. In Sufism, self discipline was considered an essential
condition to gain knowledge of God by sense of perception. While
orthodox Muslims emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay stress
on inner purity. While the orthodox believe in blind observance of
rituals, the Sufis consider love and devotion as the only means of
attaining salvation. According to them one must have the guidance
of a pir or guru, without which spiritual development is impossible.
Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers. Other
ideas emphasised by Sufism are meditation, good actions,
repentance for sins, performance of prayers and pilgrimages, fasting,
charity and suppression of passions by ascetic practices.
201
 These liberal and unorthodox features of Sufism had a
profound influence on medieval Bhakti saints. In the later period,
Akbar, the Mughal emperor, appreciated Sufi doctrines which
shaped his religious outlook and religious policies. When the Sufi
movement was becoming popular in India, about the same time the
Bhakti cult was gaining strength among the Hindus. The two parallel
movements based on the doctrines of love and selfless devotion
contributed a great deal to bringing the two communities closer
together. However, this trend did not last long.
Bhakti Movement
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In the ninth century Sankara started a
Hindu revivalist movement giving a new
orientation to Hinduism. He was born in Kaladi
in Kerala. His doctrine of Advaita or Monism
M
was too abstract to appeal to the common man.
Moreover, there was a reaction against the
Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahman (God
without attributes) with the emergence of the
idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes). SANKARA
e
In the twelfth century, Ramanuja, who was born at
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Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai, preached Visishtadvaita.
According to him God is Sagunabrahman. The
creative process and all the objects in creation
are real but not illusory as was held by
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Sankaracharya. Therefore, God, soul, matter are
real. But God is inner substance and the rest are
his attributes. He also advocated prabattimarga
or path of self-surrender to God. He invited the
downtrodden to Vaishnavism.
Ramanuja
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In the thirteenth century, Madhava from Kannada region
propagated Dvaita or dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma.
According to his philosophy, the world is not an illusion but a reality.
God, soul, matter are unique in nature. Nimbarka and
Vallabhacharya were also other preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti
in the Telungana region. Surdas was the disciple of Vallabhacharya
and he popularized Krishna cult in north India. Mirabai was a great
devotee of Krishna and she became popular in Rajasthan for her
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bhajans. Tulsidas was a worshipper of Rama and composed the
famous Ramcharitmanas, the Hindi version of Ramayana.
In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Ramananda, Kabir
and Nanak remained great apostles of the Bhakti cult. They drew
inspiration from old masters but showed a new path. They helped
the common people to shed age-old superstitions and attain salvation
through Bhakti or pure devotion. Unlike the early reformers, they
were not linked with any particular religious creed and did not believe
in rituals and ceremonies. They condemned polytheism and believed
in one god. They also denounced all forms of idolatry. They strongly
believed in Bhakti as the only means of salvation. They also
emphasised the fundamental unity of all religions.
Ramananda
Ramananda was born at Allahabad. He was originally a
follower of Ramanuja. Later he founded his own sect and preached
his principles in Hindi at Banaras and Agra. He was a worshipper
of Rama. He was the first to employ the vernacular medium to
propagate his ideas. Simplification of worship and emancipation of
people from the traditional caste rules were his two important
contributions to the Bhakti movement. He opposed the caste system
and chose his disciples from all sections of society disregarding caste.
His disciples were: a) Kabir, a Muslim weaver b) Raidasa, a cobbler
c) Sena, a barber d) Sadhana, a butcher e) Dhanna, a Jat farmer
f) Naraharai, a goldsmith and g) Pipa, a Rajput prince.
203
Kabir
Among the disciples of Ramananda the most famous was
Kabir. He was born near Banaras to a brahmin widow. But he was
brought up by a Muslim couple who were weavers by profession.
He possessed an inquiring mind and while in
Benares learnt much about Hinduism. He
became familiar with Islamic teachings also and
Ramananda initiated him into the higher
knowledge of Hindu and Muslim religious and
philosophical ideas. Kabir’s object was to
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reconcile Hindus and Muslims and establish
harmony between the two sects. He denounced
idolatry and rituals and laid great emphasis on
KABIR the equality of man before God. He emphasised
the essential oneness of all religions by describing
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Hindus and Muslims ‘as pots of the same clay’. To him Rama and
Allah, temple and mosque were the same. He regarded devotion to
god as an effective means of salvation and urged that to achieve this
one must have a pure heart, free from cruelty, dishonesty, hypocrisy
and his followers are called Kabirpanthis. e
and insincerity. He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints
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Guru Nanak
Another well-known saint-preacher of
the medieval period was Guru Nanak, founder
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of the Sikh religion and a disciple of Kabir.
He was born in Talwandi near Lahore. He
denounced caste distinctions and rituals like
bathing in holy rivers. His conception of
religion was highly practical and sternly GURU NANAK
ethical. He exhorted people to give up selfish-
ness, falsehood and hypocrisy and to lead a life of truth, honesty
204
and kindness. ‘Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world’ was
one of his famous sayings. His life was dedicated to establishing
harmony between Hindus and Muslims. His followers were known
as Sikhs.
Chaitanya was another well-known saint and reformer of
Bengal who popularised the Krishna cult. He renounced the world,
became an ascetic and wandered all over the country preaching his
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ideas. He proclaimed the universal brotherhood of man and con-
demned all distinction based on religion and caste. He emphasised
love and peace and showed great sympathy to the sufferings of
other people, especially that of the poor and the weak. He believed
that through love and devotion, song and dance, a devotee can feel
the presence of God. He accepted disciples from all classes and
castes and his teachings are widely followed in Bengal even today.
Gnanadeva was the founder of the Bhakti Movement in
Maharashtra in the thirteenth century. It was called Maharashtra
dharma. He wrote a commentary of Bhagavat Gita called
Gnaneswari. Namadeva preached the gospel of love. He opposed
idol worship and priestly domination. He also opposed the caste
system. In the sixteenth century, Ekanatha opposed caste
distinctions and sympathetic towards the lower castes. He composed
many lyrics and his bhajans and kirtans were famous. Another Bhakti
saint of Maharashtra was Tukaram, a contemporary of Sivaji. He
was responsible for creating a background for Maratha nationalism.
He opposed all social distinctions.
Importance of the Bhakti Movement
The importance of the Bhakti movement was very great.
Various preachers spoke and wrote in the regional languages. So,
the Bhakti movement provided an impetus for the development of
regional languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc.
Through these languages they made direct appeal to the masses. As
205
the caste system was condemned by the Bhakti saints, the lower MODEL QUESTIONS
classes were raised to a position of great importance. The
importance of women in society was also increased because the I. Choose the correct answer.
Bhakti movement gave equal importance to them. Moreover, the 1. The most famous disciple of Ramananda
Bhakti movement gave to the people a simple religion, without
(a) Kabir (b) Ramadas
complicated rituals. They were required to show sincere devotion
to God. The new idea of a life of charity and service to fellow people (c) Namadeva (d) Chaitanya

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developed. 2. Madhva preached his principles in
Learning Outcome (a) Tamil (b) Bengali
(c) Kannada (d) Marathi

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After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

1. Origin and spread of Bhakti Movement in medieval India. II. Fill in the blanks.
2. Sufism and its different orders such as Chishti and 1. Ajmer was the centre of the activities of the Sufi saint …….
Suhrwardi Orders. 2. Nimbarka and Vallabhacharya preached their teachings in

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3. Early Bhakti saints like Sankara, Ramanuja and others. …… region.
4. The teachings of Ramananda, Kabir and Guru Nanak. 3. Tukaram was a contemporary of ……
5. Bhakti Movement in Bengal and Maharashtra. III. Match the following.
6. Importance of Bhakti Movement.
e 1.
2.
Sankara
Ramanuja
a) Allahabad
b) Kaladi
re
3. Nanak c) Sriperumbudur
4. Ramananda d) Talwandi
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
S

right.
a) Gnanadeva was the founder of Bhakti movement in Bengal.
b) He wrote a commentary of Bhagavat Gita called
Gnaneswari.
c) He was a contemporary of Sivaji.
d) He was a disciple of Guru Nanak.

206 207
V. State whether the following statements are True or LESSON 19
False.
VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI KINGDOMS
1. Nizamuddin Auliya belonged to the Chishti order.
2. Chaitanya was a well-known Bhakti saint and reformer of
Maharashtra. Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
3. Ramanuja’s philosophy was known as Vishistadvaida.

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1. Sources for the study of Vijayanagar Empire.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
2. Political History of the Vijayanagar Empire.
1. Chishti Order
3. Administration and Social life.

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2. Ramanuja
4. Economic Condition and Cultural contributions.
3. Guru Nanak
5. A brief history of the Bahmani kingdom.
4. Kabir
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).

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1. Trace the spread of Sufism in India. VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE

2. Bring out the importance of Bhakti Movement in medieval Sources

India. The history of Vijayanagar Empire constitutes an important
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1.
e
Give an account of the rise and spread of Bhakti movement
chapter in the history of India. Four dynasties – Sangama, Saluva,
Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672.
re
The sources for the study of Vijayanagar are varied such as literary,
in medieval India. archaeological and numismatics. Krishnadevaraya’s
Amukthamalyada, Gangadevi’s Maduravijayam and Allasani
Peddanna’s Manucharitam are some of the indigenous literature of
S

this period.
Many foreign travelers visited the Vijayanagar Empire and
their accounts are also valuable. The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta,
Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler Abdur Razzak
and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes were among them who
left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
208 209
 The copper plate inscriptions such as the
Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide
the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar
rulers. The Hampi ruins and other monuments of
Vijayanagar provide information on the cultural
contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers. The
numerous coins issued by the Vijayanagar rulers
IBN BATTUTA contain figures and legends explaining their tittles
and achievements.
Political History
ed
Vijayanagar was founded in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of
the Sangama dynasty. They were originally served under the Kakatiya
rulers of Warangal. Then they went to Kampili where they were
imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu
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fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya. They also proclaimed
their independence and founded a new city on the south bank of the
Tungabhadra river. It was called Vijayanagar meaning city of victory.
The decline of the Hoysala kingdom enabled Harihara and
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Bukka to expand their newly founded kingdom. By 1346, they
brought the whole of the Hoysala kingdom under their control. The
re
struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate of Madurai lasted for
about four decades. Kumarakampana’s expedition to Madurai was
described in the Maduravijayam. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans
and as a result, the Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of
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South India up to Rameswaram.
The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani
kingdom lasted for many years. The dispute over Raichur Doab,
the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also
over the fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta led to this long-
210
drawn conflict. The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva
Raya II. But he could not win any clear victory over the Bahmani
Sultans. After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak. The next
dynasty, Saluva dynasty founded by Saluva Narasimha reigned only
for a brief period (1486-1509).
Krishna Deva Raya (1509 – 1530)
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The Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. The
greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya belonged to
the Tuluva dynasty. He possessed great military ability. His imposing
personality was accompanied by high intellectual quality. His first
task was to check the invading Bahmani forces.
By that time the Bahmani kingdom was replaced
by Deccan Sultanates. The Muslim armies were
decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by
Krishna Deva Raya. Then he invaded Raichur
Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with
the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. But,
Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured KRISHNA
the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he marched DEVA RAYA
on Bidar and captured it.
Krishna Deva Raya’s Orissa campaign was also successful.
He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the
whole of Telungana. He maintained friendly relations with the
Portuguese. Albuquerque sent his ambassadors to Krishna Deva
Raya.
Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions. He was a
great patron of literature and art and he was known as Andhra Bhoja.
Eight eminent scholars known as Ashtadiggajas were at his royal
court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called
211
Andhrakavita Pitamaga. His important works include
Manucharitam and Harikathasaram. Pingali Suranna and Tenali
Ramakrishna were other important scholars. Krishna Deva Raya
himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit
works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Ushaparinayam.
He repaired most of the temples of south India. He also built
the famous Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at
Vijayanagar. He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory
of his queen Nagaladevi. Besides, he built a large number of
Rayagopurams.
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After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the
throne. During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of
Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar defeated him at the Battle
of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as Raksasa
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Thangadi. Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of
Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally considered
to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire. However, the
Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about
another century. Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the
was Sri Ranga III. e
important rulers of this dynasty. The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom
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Administration
The administration under the Vijayanagar Empire was well
organized. The king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial
S
and legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeal. The
succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary.
Sometimes usurpation to the throne took place as Saluva Narasimha
came to power by ending the Sangama dynasty. The king was
assisted by a council of ministers in his day to day administration.
212
The Empire was divided into different administrative units
called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas. The
governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak.
Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the
administration.
Besides land revenue, tributes and gifts from vassals and feudal
chiefs, customs collected at the ports, taxes on various professions
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were other sources of income to the government. Land revenue
was fixed generally one sixth of the produce. The expenditure of
the government includes personal expenses of king and the charities
given by him and military expenditure. In the matter of justice, harsh
punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were
followed.
The Vijayanagar army was well-organized and efficient. It
consisted of the cavalry, infantry, artillery and elephants. High-breed
horses were procured from foreign traders. The top-grade officers
of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars. They were granted
land in lieu of their services. These lands were called amaram.
Soldiers were usually paid in cash.
Social Life
Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence
of four castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the
Vijayanagar society. Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the
splendour of buildings and luxurious social life in the city of
Vijayanagar. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress.
Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people. Paes
mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of
their household servants. Nicolo Conti refers to the prevalence of
slavery. Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were
some of the amusements.
213
 The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha
was their family deity. But other dynasties were Vaishnavites.
Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was very popular. But all kings were
tolerant towards other religions. Borbosa referred to the religious
freedom enjoyed by everyone. Muslims were employed in the
administration and they were freely allowed to build mosques and
worship. A large number of temples were built during this period
and numerous festivals were celebrated. The Epics and the Puranas
were popular among the masses.
The position of women had not improved. However, some of
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them were learned. Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana authored
the famous work Maduravijayam. Hannamma and Thirumalamma
were famous poets of this period. According to Nuniz, a large number
of women were employed in royal palaces as dancers, domestic
servants and palanquin bearers. The attachment of dancing girls to
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temples was in practice. Paes refers to the flourishing devadasi
system. Polygamy was prevalent among the royal families. Sati was
honoured and Nuniz gives a description of it.
Economic Condition
e
According to the accounts of the foreign travelers, the
re
Vijayanagar Empire was one of the wealthiest parts of the world at
that time. Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the
people. The Vijayanagar rulers provided a stimulus to its further
growth by providing irrigation facilities. New tanks were built and
S
dams were constructed across the rivers like Tunghabadra. Nuniz
refers to the excavation of canals.
There were numerous industries and they were organized into
guilds. Metal workers and other craftsmen flourished during this
period. Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur
district. Vijayanagar was also a great centre of trade. The chief gold
214
coin was the varaha but weights and measures varied from place
to place. Inland, coastal and overseas trade led to the general
prosperity. There were a number of seaports on the Malabar coast,
the chief being Cannanore. Commercial contacts with Arabia, Persia,
South Africa and Portugal on the west and with Burma, Malay
peninsula and China on the east flourished. The chief items of exports
were cotton and silk clothes, spices, rice, iron, saltpeter and sugar.
ia
The imports consisted of horses, pearls, copper, coral, mercury,
China silk and velvet clothes. The art of shipbuilding had developed.
Cultural Contributions
The temple building activity further gained momentum during
the Vijayanagar rule. The chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara
architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or
gateways and the Kalyanamandapam with carved pillars in the
temple premises. The sculptures on the pillars were carved with
distinctive features. The horse was the most common animal found
in these pillars. Large mandapams contain one hundred pillars as
well as one thousand pillars in some big temples. These mandapams
were used for seating the deity on festival occasions. Also, many
Amman shrines were added to the already existing temples during
this period.
The most important temples of the
Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi
ruins or the city of Vijayanagar.
Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy
temples were the best examples of this style.
The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha
temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples
for the magnificence of the Vijayanagara
style of temple architecture. The Raya EASTERN GOPURAM OF
Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and VARADHARAJA PERUMAL TEMPLE
215
 Chidambaram speak the glorious
epoch of Vijayanagar. They were
continued by the Nayak rulers in
the later period. The metal images
of Krishna Deva Raya and his
queens at Tirupati are examples
for casting of metal images. Music
Elephant Chariot – Hampi Ruins and dancing were also patronized
by the rulers of Vijayanagar.
Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and
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Tamil flourished in the regions. There was a great development in
Sanskrit and Telugu literature. The peak of literary achievement was
reached during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya. He himself was a
scholar in Sanskrit and Telugu. His famous court poet Allasani
Peddanna was distinguished in Telugu literature. Thus the cultural
M
contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers were many-sided and
remarkable.
Bahmani Kingdom
e
The founder of the Bahmani kingdom was Alauddin Bahman
Shah also known as Hasan Gangu in 1347. Its capital was Gulbarga.
There were a total of fourteen Sultans ruling over this kingdom.
re
Among them, Alauddin Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I and Firoz
Shah were important. Ahmad Wali Shah shifted the capital from
Gulbarga to Bidar. The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its
peak under the rule of Muhammad Shah III. It extended from the
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Arabian sea to the Bay of Bengal. On the west it extended from
Goat to Bombay. On the east, it extended from Kakinada to the
mouth of the river Krishna. The success of Muhammad Shah was
due to the advice and services of his minister Mahmud Gawan.
216
Mahmud Gawan
The Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the guidance of
Mahmud Gawan. He was a Persian merchant. He came to India at the
age of forty two and joined the services of Bahmani kingdom. Slowly
he became the chief minister due to his personal qualities. He remained
loyal to the kingdom. He lived a simple life and was magnanimous. He
was also a learned person. He possessed a great knowledge of
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mathematics. He made endowments to build a college at Bidar which
was built in the Persian style of architecture. He was also a military
genius. He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and the
sea pirates on the Arabian sea. His conquests include Konkan, Goa
and Krishna-Godavari delta. Thus he expanded the Bahmani Empire
through his conquests.
His administrative reforms were also important. They were aimed
to increase the control of Sultan over the nobles and provinces. Royal
officers were appointed in each province for this purpose. Most of the
forts were under the control of
these officers. Allowances were
reduced to the nobles who shirked
their responsibility. This was
disliked by the nobles. So, the
Deccani nobles organised a plot
against Gawan. They induced the
Sultan to punish him with death
sentence. After the execution of Ruins of Golkonda Fort
Gawan, the Bahmani kingdom
began to decline. Muhammad Shah was succeeded by weak Sultans.
During this period the provincial governors declared their independence.
By the year 1526, the Bahmani kingdom had disintegrated into five
independent sultanates. They were Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, Berar,
Golkonda and Bidar and known as Deccan Sultanates.
217
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Literary and other sources for the study of Vijayanagar
Empire. 1. The family deity of Sangama rulers was
2. Four dynasties of Vijayanagar and Krishna Deva Raya’s (a) Durga (b) Vittala
accomplishments.
3. Administrative system and social life under the (c) Virupaksha (d) Rama

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Vijayanagar Empire.
2. Mahmud Gawan was a trader from
4. Economic conditions under the Vijayanagar Empire.
5. Literature, art and architecture of the Vijayanagar (a) Arabia (b) Morocco
Empire.
(c) Portugal (d) Persia

ed
6. Bahmani kingdom and Mahmud Gawan’s achievements.
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. Krishna Deva Raya belonged to ….. dynasty.
2. Hazara Ramaswamy temple was built at …..

M
3. The founder of the Bahmani kingdom …..
III. Match the following.
1. Abdur Razzak a) Venice

e 2.
3.
Ibn Battuta
Domingo Paes
b) Persia
c) Morocco
re
4. Nicolo de Conti d) Portugal
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
S

a) The Bahmani capital was shifted from Gulbarga to Berar.

b) The Bahmani capital was shifted from Gulbarga to Bidar.
c) The Bahmani capital was shifted from Bidar to Gulbarga.
d) The Bahmani capital was shifted from Berar to Gulbarga.

218 219
V. State whether the following statements are True or LESSON 20
False.
THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
1. Kumarakamapana wrote Maduravijayam.
2. Allasani Peddanna was a Kannada scholar.
Learning Objectives
3. Amukthamalyadha was written by Krishna Deva Raya in
Students will acquire knowledge about
Telugu language.

ia
1. Political History of the Mughal Empire.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
2. Babur and his achievements.
1. Sangama dynasty
3. Humayuns’ difficulties and the Sur interregnum.

ed
2. Provincial administration under the Vijayanagar.
4. Akbar and his achievements – Religious policy.
3. Hasan Gangu.
5. Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
4. Position of women in Vijayanagar Empire.
6. Aurangazeb and his religious policy.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).

M
7. Causes for the decline of the Mughal empire.
1. Write a note on the foreign travelers who visited the
Vijayanagar Empire.
Political History
2. Examine the growth of literature under the Vijayanagar rule.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1.
e
Estimate the achievements of Krishna Deva Raya.
Babur (1526-1530)
Babur was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India. His
re
original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad. He
2. Examine the cultural contributions of the Vijayanagar rulers. was related to Timur from his father’s side and
3. Give an estimate of Mahmud Gawan. to Chengiz Khan through his mother. Babur
succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as the
S

ruler of Farghana. But he was soon defeated by

his distant relative and as a result lost his
kingdom. He became a wanderer for sometime
till he captured Kabul from one of his uncles. BABUR
Then, Babur took interest in conquering India
and launched four expeditions between 1519 and 1523.

220 221
Military Conquests
On the eve of Babur’s invasion of India, there were five
prominent Muslim rulers – the Sultans of Delhi, Gujarat, Malwa,
Bengal and the Deccan – and two prominent Hindu rulers – Rana
Sangha of Mewar and the Vijayanagar Empire. Once again by the
end of 1525, Babur started from Kabul to conquer India. He
occupied Lahore easily by defeating its governor, Daulat Khan Lodi.
Then he proceeded against Delhi where Ibrahim Lodi was the Sultan.
On 21st April 1526 the first Battle of Panipat took place between
Babur and Ibrahim Lodi, who was killed in the battle. Babur’s
ed
success was due his cavalry and artillery. Babur occupied Delhi
and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra. Babur proclaimed himself
as “Emperor of Hindustan”.
His subsequent victories over Rana Sangha and the Afghans
M
secured his position as the ruler of India. Rana Sangha of Mewar
was a great Rajput warrior. He marched against Babur and in the
Battle of Khanua (near Agra) held in 1527 Babur won a decisive
victory over him. Babur assumed the title Ghazi.
e
In 1528, Babur captured Chanderi from another Rajput ruler
Medini Rai. In the next year, Babur defeated the Afghans in the
re
Battle of Gogra in Bihar. By these victories, Babur consolidated his
power in India. Babur died at Agra in 1530 at the age of forty
seven.
Estimate of Babur
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Babur was a great statesman and a man of solid achievements.
He was also a great scholar in Arabic and Persian languages. Turki
was his mother tongue. He wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in
Turki language. It provides a vivid account of India. He frankly
confesses his own failures without suppressing any facts. He was
also a naturalist and described the flora and fauna of India.
222
Humayun (1530-1540)
Humayun was the eldest son of Babur.
Humayun means “fortune” but he remained the
most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal Empire.
Humayun had three brothers, Kamran, Askari
and Hindal. Humayun divided the empire among
his brothers but this proved to be a great blunder
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on his part. Kamran was given Kabul and
HUMAYUN Kandahar. Sambhal and Alwar were given to
Askari and Hindal.
When Humayun was busy with fighting the Afghans in the
east, he got the news that Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was advancing
towards Delhi. Therefore, he hastily concluded a treaty with the
Afghan leader Sher Khan (later Sher Shah) and proceeded towards
Gujarat.
Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed
Askari as its governor. But soon Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat
from Askari who fled from there. In the meantime Sher Khan became
powerful in the east. Humayun marched against him and in the Battle
of Chausa, held in 1539, Sher Khan destroyed the Mughal army
and Humayun escaped from there. Humayun reached Agra to
negotiate with his brothers. But as they were not cooperative,
Humayun was forced to fight with Sher Khan alone in the Battle of
Bilgram in 1540. This battle was also known as Battle of Kanauj.
Humayun was thoroughly defeated by Sher Khan. After losing his
kingdom, Humayun became an exile for the next fifteen years.
Sur Interregnum (1540-1555)
The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah, whose original
name was Farid. He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of
Sasaram in Bihar. Later, Farid served under the Afghan ruler of
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Bihar, who gave him the title Sher Khan for his bravery. We have
already seen how he defeated Humayun at the Battle of Chausa
and became the ruler of Delhi in 1540.
Sher Shah Sur (1540-1545)
Sher Shah waged extensive wars with the
Rajputs and expanded his empire. His conquests
include Punjab, Malwa, Sind, Multan and
Bundelkhand. His empire consisted of the whole of
North India except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and
Gujarat.
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Sher Shah’s Administration SHER SHAH
SUR
Although his rule lasted for five years, he
organized a brilliant administrative system. The central government
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consisted of several departments. The king was assisted by four
important ministers:
1. Diwan –i- Wizarat – also called as Wazir - in charge
of Revenue and Finance.
2.
3.
Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army.
Diwan-i-Rasalat- Foreign Minister. e towards other religions. He employed Hindus in important offices.
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4. Diwan-i-Insha- Minister for Communications.
Sher Shah’s empire was divided into forty seven sarkars.
Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif (judge) were the
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two officers in charge of the administration in each sarkar. Each
sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar (military
officer), Amin (land revenue), Fotedar (treasurer) Karkuns
(accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana.
There were also many administrative units called iqtas.
224
The land revenue administration was well organized under
Sher Shah. Land survey was carefully done. All cultivable lands
were classified into three classes – good, middle and bad. The state’s
share was one third of the average produce and it was paid in cash
or crop. His revenue reforms increased the revenue of the state.
Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called “Dam” and they were
in circulation till 1835.
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Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying
four important highways. They were: 1. Sonargaon to Sind 2. Agra
to Burhampur 3. Jodhpur to Chittor and 4. Lahore to Multan. Rest
houses were built on the highways for the convenience of the
travelers. Police was efficiently reorganized and crime was less during
his regime.
The military administration was also efficiently reorganized
and Sher Shah borrowed many ideas like the branding of horses
from Alauddin Khalji.
Estimate of Sher Shah
Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant
He was also a patron of art and architecture. He built a new city on
the banks of the river Yamuna near Delhi. Now the old fort called
Purana Qila and its mosque is alone surviving. He also built a
Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master
pieces of Indian architecture. Sher Shah also patronized the learned
men. Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work
Padmavat during his reign.
After Sher Shah’s death in 1545 his successors ruled till 1555
when Humayun reconquered India.
225
Humayun (1555-1556)
When Humayun left India in 1540, he married Hamida Banu
Begum on his way to Sind. When they stayed in Amorkot, a Hindu
kingdom ruled by Rana Prasad, Akbar was born in 1542. Humayun
then proceeded to Iran and sought help from its ruler. He later defeated
his brothers, Kamran and Askari. In the meantime the Sur dynasty in
India was declining rapidly. In 1555, Humayun defeated the Afghans

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and recovered the Mughal throne. After six months, he died in 1556
due to his fall from the staircase of his library. Although Humayun was
not a good General and warrior, he was kind and generous. He was

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also learned and a student of mathematics, astronomy and astrology.
He also loved painting and wrote poetry in Persian language.
Akbar (1556-1605)
Akbar was one of the greatest monarchs of India. He

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succeeded the throne after his father Humayun’s death. But his
position was dangerous because Delhi was seized
by the Afghans. Their commander-in-Chief, Hemu,
was in charge of it. In the second Battle of Panipat
in 1556, Hemu was almost on the point of victory.
But an arrow pierced his eye and he became e
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unconscious. His army fled and the fortune
favoured Akbar. The Mughal victory was decisive.
During the first five years of Akbar’s reign, AKBAR

Bairam Khan acted as his regent. He consolidated the Mughal

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empire. After five years he was removed by Akbar due to court

intrigues and sent to Mecca. But on his way Bairam was killed by
an Afghan.
Akbar’s military conquests were extensive. He conquered
northern India from Agra to Gujarat and then from Agra to Bengal.
He strengthened the northwest frontier. Later, he went to the Deccan.

226 227
Relations with Rajputs
The Rajput policy of Akbar was notable. He married the
Rajput princess, the daughter of Raja Bharamal. It was a turning
point in the history of Mughals. Rajputs served the Mughals for four
generations. Many of them rose to the positions of military generals.
Raja Bhagawan Das and Raja Man Singh were given senior positions
in the administration by Akbar. One by one, all Rajput states
submitted to Akbar.
But the Ranas of Mewar continued to defy despite several
defeats. In the Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap Singh was severely
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defeated by the Mughal army led by Man Singh in 1576. Following
the defeat of Mewar, most of the leading Rajput rulers had accepted
Akbar’s suzerainty.
Akbar’s Rajput policy was combined with a broad religious
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toleration. He abolished the pilgrim tax and later the jiziya. The Rajput
policy of Akbar proved to be beneficial to the Mughal state as well
as to the Rajputs. The alliance secured to the Mughals the services
of the bravest warriors. On the other hand it ensured peace in
rose to important positions. e
Rajasthan and a number of Rajputs who joined the Mughal service
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Religious Policy
Akbar rose to fame in the pages of history due to his religious
policy. Various factors were responsible for his religious ideas. The
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most important among them were his early contacts with the sufi
saints, the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput
women, his association with intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak
and his two illustrious sons – Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl – and his
ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.
In the beginning of his life, Akbar was a pious Muslim. Soon
after marrying Jodh Bai of Amber, he abolished the pilgrim tax and
228
in 1562, he abolished jiziya. He allowed his Hindu wives to worship
their own gods. Later, he became a skeptical Muslim. In 1575, he
ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship)
at his new capital Fatepur Sikri. Akbar invited learned scholars from
all religions like Hinduism, Jainism, Christianity and Zoroastrianism.
He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political
matters. In 1579, he issued the “Infallibility Decree” by which he
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asserted his religious powers.
In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or
Divine Faith. It believes in one God. It contained good points of all
religions. Its basis was rational. It upholds no dogma. It was aimed
at bridging the gulf that separated different religions. However, his
new faith proved to be a failure. It fizzled out after his death. Even
during his life time, it had only fifteen followers including Birbal.
Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith.
Land Revenue Administration
Akbar made some experiments in the land revenue
administration with the help of Raja Todar Mal. The land revenue
system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system. It was
further improved by Raja Todar Mal. It was known as Dahsala
System which was completed in 1580. By this system, Todar Mal
introduced a uniform system of land measurement. The revenue was
fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten
years. The land was also divided into four categories – Polaj
(cultivated every year), Parauti (once in two years), Chachar (once
in three or four years) and Banjar (once in five or more years).
Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
Mansabdari System
Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration.
Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The
229
lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles. Princes
of royal blood received even higher ranks. The ranks were divided
into two – zat and sawar. Zat means personal and it fixed the
personal status of a person. Sawar rank indicated the number of
cavalrymen of a person who was required to maintain. Every sawar
had to maintain at least two horses. The mansab rank was not
hereditary. All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals
were directly made by the emperor.
Jahangir (1605-1627)
When Akbar died, Prince Salim
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succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror
of World) in 1605. Jahangir’s rule witnessed a
spate of rebellions. His son Khusrau revolted
but was defeated and imprisoned. One of his
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supporters, Guru Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru, was
beheaded.
Nur Jahan JAHANGIR
In 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as
e
Nur Jahan (Light of World). Her father Itimaduddauala was a
respectable person. He was given the post
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of chief diwan. Other members of her family
also benefited from this alliance. Nur Jahan’s
elder brother Asaf Khan was appointed as
Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the
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nobles. In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter,
NUR JAHAN
Arjumand Banu Begum (later known as
Mumtaj), married Jahangir’s third son, prince
Khurram (later Shah Jahan).
It was believed by some historians that Nur Jahan formed a
group of “junta” and this led to two factions in the Mughal court.
230
This drove Shah Jahan into rebellion against his father in 1622, since
he felt that Jahangir was completely under Nur Jahan’s influence.
However, this view is not accepted by some other historians. Till
Jahangir became weak due to ill health, he only took important
political decisions. It is revealed from his autobiography.
However, it is clear that Nur Jahan dominated the royal
household and set new fashions based on Persian traditions. She
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encouraged Persian art and culture in the court. She was a constant
companion of Jahangir and even joined him in his hunting.
The rise of Shah Jahan was due to his personal ambitions. He
rose in revolt against his father who ordered him to go to Kandahar.
This rebellion distracted the activities of the empire for four years.
After Jahangir’s death in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the
support of the nobles and the army. Nur Jahan was given a pension
and lived a retired life till her death eighteen years later.
Shah Jahan (1627-1658)
Shah Jahan launched a prolonged
campaign in the northwest frontier to recover
Kandahar and other ancestral lands. The
Mughal army lost more than five thousand lives
during the successive invasions between 1639
and 1647. Then Shah Jahan realized the futility
of his ambition and stopped fighting. SHAH JAHAN AND
MUMTAJ – A PAINTING
His Deccan policy was more successful.
He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and annexed it. Both Bijapur
and Golkonda signed a treaty with the emperor. Shah Jahan carved
four Mughal provinces in the Deccan – Khandesh, Berar, Telungana
and Daulatabad. They were put under the control of his son
Aurangazeb.
231
War of Succession
Kabul Aurangzeb’s Empire
The last years of Shah Jahan’s reign were clouded by a bitter
Peshawar
war of succession among his four sons – Dara Shikoh (crown
prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor of
Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat).
Towards the end of 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill at Delhi for some time Panipat
but later recovered. But the princes started fighting for the Mughal Jats Deli

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throne. Rajputs Agra
Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle. He entered Rajaputs
the Agra fort after defeating Dara. He forced Shah Jahan to surrender. Allahabad

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Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort Patna
and strictly put under vigil. But he was not ill-treated. Shah Jahan
lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara. Gondwana
He died in 1666 and buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal. Diu

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Aurangazeb (1658-1707) Mumbai
Marathas
Aurangazeb was one of the ablest of the
Aribian Sea
Mughal kings. He assumed the title Alamgir, World
Conqueror. His military campaigns in his first ten Bay of Bengal
years of reign were a great success. He
suppressed the minor revolts. But he faced serious e Goa
re
difficulties in the latter part of his reign. The Jats
and Satnamis and also the Sikhs revolted against AURANGAZEB Calicut
him. These revolts were induced by his harsh Cochin Polygars
religious policy.
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Deccan Policy Indian Ocean

The Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of
Akbar, who conquered Khandesh and Berar. Jahangir fought against
Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar. During the Shah Jahan’s reign,
Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive Deccan
policy. When he became the Mughal emperor, for the first twenty

232 233
five years, he concentrated on the northwest frontier. At that time,
the Maratha ruler, Sivaji carved out an independent Maratha
kingdom in the territories of north and south Konkan.
To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided
to invade Bijapur and Golkonda. He defeated Sikandar Shah of
Bijapur and annexed his kingdom. Then, he proceeded against
Golkonda and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty. It was also
annexed by him. In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms
was a political blunder on the part of Aurangazeb. The barrier
between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there
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ensued a direct confrontation between them. Also, his Deccan
campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury. According to J.N. Sarkar,
the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangazeb.
Religious Policy
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Aurangazeb was a staunch and orthodox Muslim in his
personal life. His ideal was to transform India into an Islamic state.
He created a separate department to enforce moral codes under a
high-powered officer called Muhtasib. Drinking was prohibited.
e
Cultivation and use of bhang and other drugs were banned.
Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court. He discontinued
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the practice of Jarokhadarshan. He also discontinued the celebration
of Dasarah and royal astronomers and astrologers were also
dismissed from service.
Initially Aurangazeb banned the construction of new Hindu
S
temples and repair of old temples. Then he began a policy of
destroying Hindu temples. The celebrated temples at Mathura and
Benares were reduced to ruins. In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and
pilgrim tax. He was also not tolerant of other Muslim sects. The
celebration of Muharram was stopped. His invasions against the
Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith.
234
He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru
Tej Bahadur. This had resulted in the transformation of Sikhs into a
warring community.
His religious policy was responsible for turning the Rajputs,
the Marathas and Sikhs into the enemies of Mughal empire. It had
also resulted in the rebellions of the Jats of Mathura and the Satnamis
of Mewar. Therefore, Aurangazeb was held responsible for the
ia
decline of the Mughal empire.
Personality and Character of Aurangazeb
In his private life, Aurangazeb was industrious and disciplined.
He was very simple in food and dress. He earned money for his
personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those copies. He
did not consume wine. He was learned and proficient in Arabic and
Persian languages. He was a lover of books. He was devoted to his
religion and conducted prayers five times a day. He strictly observed
the Ramzan fasting.
In the political field, Aurangazeb committed serious mistakes.
He misunderstood the true nature of the Maratha movement and
antagonized them. Also, he failed to solve the Maratha problem
and left an open sore. His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates
also proved to be a wrong policy.
His religious policy was also not successful. Aurangazeb was
an orthodox Sunni Muslim. But his move to apply his religious
thought rigidly in a non-Muslim society was a failure. His antagonistic
policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to rally the Muslims
to his side. On the other hand it had strengthened political enemies
of the Mughal Empire.
235
Causes for the Downfall of the Mughals MODEL QUESTIONS
The Mughal Empire declined rapidly after the death of I. Choose the correct answer.
Aurangazeb. The Mughal court became the scene of factions among
the nobles. The weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir 1. Babur wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi in the language of
Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and looted Delhi in 1739. (a) Persian (b) Hindi
The causes for the downfall of the Mughal Empire were varied. To
(c) Arabic (d) Turki
some extent, the religious and Deccan policies of Aurangazeb

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contributed to its decline. The weak successors and demoralization 2. The original name of Shah Jahan was
of the Mughal army also paved the way for it. The vastness of the (a) Salim (b) Khurram
empire became unwieldy. The financial difficulties due to continuous
(c) Dara Shikoh (d) Farid

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wars led to the decline. The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals
was felt when the Europeans began to settle in India. Further, the II. Fill in the blanks.
invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali weakened the 1. The Battle of Chausa took place between ….. and …… in
Mughal state. Thus the decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire the year …..
was due to the combination of political, social and economic factors.

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2. In the Battle of Haldighati …….. was defeated by the Mughal
Learning Outcome army led by …….
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain 3. During the last years of his life Shah Jahan was lovingly nursed
by his daughter …….
Aurangazeb.
e
1. Political History of the Mughal Empire from Babur to
III. Match the following.
re
2. Achievements of Babur and the difficulties of Humayun. 1. Battle of Haldighati a) 1540
3. Sur interregnum – Sher Shah’s administration. 2. Second Battle of Panipat b) 1539
4. The reign of Akbar – his administration, Mansabdari 3. Battle of Chausa c) 1576
S

system and religious policy. 4. Battle of Bilgram d) 1556

5. Jahangir, Shah Jahan and the War of Succession. IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
6. Deccan policy of Aurangazeb and his religious policy. right.
7. Decline of the Mughal empire a) The Deccan policy of Akbar led to the decline of the Mughals.
b) The religious policy of Aurangazeb was one among the causes
for the decline of the Mughal empire.
236 237
c) Aurangazeb had supported the Muslim Sultanates of Deccan.
d) The antagonistic policies of Aurangazeb towards non-Muslims
helped him to rally the Muslims to his side.
V. State whether the following statements are True or
False.
1. Babur defeated the Rajputs in the Battle of Gogra in Bihar.

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2. The Zabti system was further improved by Raja Todar Mal.
3. Shah Jahan executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur.

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VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Tuzuk-i-Baburi.
2. Sur Interregnum.
3. Raja Todar Mal.

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4. Din Ilahi.
5. Nur Jahan.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Bring out the achievements of Babur.
e
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2. Write a brief not on the War of Succession in the last years of
Shah Jahan.
3. Analyse the causes for the decline of the Mughal Empire.
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VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

1. Give an account of the salient features of the administration
of Sher Shah.
2. Assess the achievements of Akbar.
3. Evaluate the religious policy of Aurangazeb.

238
 LESSON 21
INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALS

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

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1. The Causes for the Vellore Mutiny.

1. Economic and Social life under the Mughal Empire.

2. Mughal nobility and their way of life.

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3. Agriculture and Trade.

4. Cultural Development – Art and Architecture.

5. Mughal paintings and Literature.

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Economic and Social Life
The Mughal period saw important social and economic

e developments. During this period, many European travelers and

traders came to India and their accounts contain a mine of information
re
about the socio-economic conditions of India. In general, they
described the wealth and prosperity of India and also the luxurious
life of the aristocratic classes. On the other side, they also mentioned
the poverty and sufferings of the ordinary people such as peasants
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and artisans.
Mughal Nobility
The nobles of the Mughal period formed a privileged class.
Most of them were foreigners such as Turks and Afghans. But there
was tussle between them throughout this period. However, many of
them settled down in India and made it their permanent home. They

239
readily assimilated themselves into the Indian society and culture.
At the same time they retained some of their personal traits. From
the time of Akbar, the Hindus, particularly the Rajputs were included
in the nobility. For example, mention may be made about Raja Man
Singh, Raja Birbal and Raja Todar Mal. Later, the Marathas also
joined the Mughal service and rose to the position of nobles.
The Mughal nobles were paid high salaries but their expenses
were also very high. Each noble maintained a large number of
servants, horses, elephants, etc. The nobles tried follow the luxurious
life style of the Mughal emperors. They wore fine clothes and ate
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imported fruits. Costly jewels were worn by men and women. They
also made costly presents to the emperors.
Rural Masses
While the wealthy people wore silk and cotton clothes, the
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poor people wore the minimum cloths. They suffer from insufficient
clothing even during the winter. Nikitin observed that the people of
Deccan were bare-footed. It might be due to high cost of leather.
Rice, millets and pulses were the staple food of the common people.
e
Fish was popular on the coastal region. While ghee and oil were
cheaper, salt and sugar were more expensive. As plenty of cattle
re
were kept by the rural people, milk and milk products were available
in plenty.
Agriculture
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An estimate claims that the population of India at the beginning
of the seventeenth century was about 125 million. As plenty of land
was available for cultivation, agriculture was prosperous. A large
variety of crops such as wheat, rice, gram, barley, pulses were
cultivated. Commercial crops such as cotton, indigo, sugarcane and
oil-seeds were also cultivated. During the seventeenth century two
new crops, namely, tobacco and maize were added. Potato and
240
red chillies came later in the eighteenth century. But, no new
agricultural technique was introduced during this period. However,
India was able to export food items like rice and sugar to the
neighbouring countries.
Growth of Trade
The Indian trading classes were large in numbers and spread
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throughout the country. They were well organized and highly professional.
Seth, bohra traders specialized in long distance trade while local traders
were called banik. Another class of traders was known as banjaras,
who specialized in carrying bulk goods. The banjaras used to move to
long distances with their goods on the back of oxen. Bulk goods were
also taken through rivers on boats. The trading community did not belong
to one caste or religion. The Gujarathi merchants included the Hindus,
Jains and Muslims. In Rajasthan, Oswals, Maheshwaris and Agarwals
came to be called the Marwaris. Multanis, Khatris and Afghanis
conducted trade with central Asia. In south India, the Chettis on the
Coramandal coast and the Muslim merchants of Malabar were the
most important trading communities.
Bengal exported sugar, rice as well as delicate muslin and
silk. The Coramandal coast became a centre of textile production.
Gujarat was an entry point of foreign goods. From there, fine textiles
and silk were taken to north India. Indigo and food grains were
exported from north India through Gujarat. It was also the distribution
centre for the luxury products of Kashmir such as shawls and carpets.
The major imports into India were certain metals such as tin and
copper, war horses and luxury items such as ivory. The balance of
trade was maintained by the import of gold and silver. The growth
of foreign trade had resulted in the increased import of gold and
silver in the seventeenth century. The Dutch and English traders who
came to Gujarat during the seventeenth century, found that Indian
traders were alert and brisk.
241
Cultural Development under the Mughals Akbar also built a palace-
The Mughal period witnessed a significant and widespread cum-fort complex at Fatepur
development in cultural activity. It was manifest in the sphere of art Sikri (City of Victory), 36
and architecture, painting, music and literature. In this cultural kilometres from Agra. Many
development, Indian traditions were blended with Turko-Iranian buildings in Gujarathi and
culture which was brought into India by the Mughals. Bengali styles are found in this
complex. Gujarathi style

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Art and Architecture buildings were probably built for
Fatepur Sikri
The architecture of the Mughals includes the magnificent forts, his Rajput wives. The most
palaces, public buildings, mosques magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid

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and mausoleums. The Mughals and the gateway to it called Buland Darwaza
were fond of laying gardens with or the Lofty Gate. The height of the gateway
running water. Some of the is 176 feet. It was built to commemorate
Mughal gardens such as the Nishat Akbar ’s victory over Gujarat. Other
Bagh in Kashmir, the Shalimar important buildings at Fatepur Sikri are Jodh

Bagh at Lahore and the Pinjore
garden in the Punjab have survived
even today. During the reign of
Sher Shah, the mausoleum at
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Bai’s palace and Panch Mahal with five
storeys.
Purana Qila During Akbar’s reign, the Humayun’s
tomb was built at Delhi and it had a massive

e
Sasaram in Bihar and the Purana Qila near Delhi were built. These
two monuments are considered as the architectural marvels of
dome of marble. It may be considered the
precursor of the Taj Mahal. Akbar’s tomb at
PANCH MAHAL
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medieval India. Sikandara near Agra was completed by Jahangir. Nur Jahan built
Large scale construction of buildings started with the advent the tomb of Itimaddaulah at Agra. It was constructed wholly of
of Akbar. He built many forts and the white marble with floral designs
most famous one was the Agra Fort. made of semi-precious stones on
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It was built in red sandstone. His other
forts are at Lahore and Allahabad.
The climax of fort-building reached its
climax during the reign of Shah Jahan.
The famous Red Fort at Delhi with its
Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and
DIWAN-I-KHAS
Diwan-i-Khas was his creation.
242
the walls. This type of decoration
was called pietra dura. This
method became more popular
during the reign of Shah Jahan. The
pietra dura method was used on a
large scale in the Taj Mahal by
Buland Darwaza
243
 Shah Jahan. Taj Mahal is considered
a jewel of the builder’s art. It
contains all the architectural forms
developed by the Mughals. The
chief glory of the Taj is the massive
dome and the four slender minarets.
The decorations are kept to the
Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayana
were produced in miniature form. Many other Indian fables became
the miniature paintings in the Art Studio established by Akbar.
Historical works such as Akbar Nama also remained the main themes
of Mughal paintings. The most important work is Hamznama, which
consisted 1200 paintings. Indian colours such as peacock blue,
Indian red began to be used.

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TAJ MAHAL minimum. Mughal paintings reached its climax during the reign of
Mosque building had reached its peak during Shah Jahan’s Jahangir. He employed a number of painters like Abul Hasan, Bishan
reign. The Moti Masjid at Agra was built entirely in white marble. Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar, Govardhan and Ustad Mansur. Apart

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The Jama Masjid at Delhi was built in red stone. from painting the scenes of hunting, battles and royal courts, progress
The Mughal architectural traditions continued in the eighteenth was made in portrait painting and paintings of animals. Many albums
and early nineteenth century. Their influence in the provincial containing paintings and calligraphy were produced during the
kingdoms is clearly visible. Many features of Mughal tradition can Mughal period. Later, the influence of European painting could be
seen.

be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar.
Paintings and Music
The contribution of Mughals to the
art of painting was remarkable. The
foundation for the Mughal painting was laid
by Humayun when he was staying in Persia.
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He brought with him two painters – Mir
Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India.
These two painters became famous during
Akbar’s reign. Akbar commissioned the
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M
Music had also developed under the Mughals. Akbar
patronized Tansen of Gwalior. Tansen composed many ragas.
Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also fond of music.
e Language and Literature
Persian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire
by the time of Akbar’s reign. Abul Fazl was a great scholar and
historian of his period. He set a style of prose writing and it was
followed by many generations. Many historical works were written
during this period. They include Ain-i-Akbari and Akabar Nama

illustrations of several literary and religious
texts. He invited a large number of painters
from different parts of the country to his Mughal Gemstone
court. Both Hindus and Muslims joined in Painting
this work. Baswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions
as Akabar’s court artists.
authored by Abul Fazl. The leading poet of that period was his
brother Abul Faizi. The translation of Mahabharata into the Persian
language was done under his supervision. Utbi and Naziri were the
two other leading Persian poets.
Jahangir’s autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was famous for
its style. He also patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib

244 245
Khan and Niamatullah. Shah Jahan also patronized many writers MODEL QUESTIONS
and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of Padshah Nama
and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama. His son Dara Shikoh I. Choose the correct answer.
translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian 1. Panch Mahal is at
language. Many historical works were written during the reign of
(a) Delhi (b) Agra
Aurangazeb. Famous dictionaries of the Persian language were also
compiled during the Mughal period. (c) Lahore (d) Fatepur Sikri

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Regional languages such as Bengali, Oriya, Rajasthani and 2. Tansen belonged to
Gujarathi had also developed during this period. Many devotional (a) Persia (b) Gujarat
works including the Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated
(c) Ajmer (d) Gwalior

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into regional languages. From the time of Akbar, Hindi poets were
attached to the Mughal court. The most influential Hindi poet was II. Fill in the blanks.
Tulsidas, who wrote the Hindi version of the Ramayana, the 1. Hamzanama is a compilation of …….
Ramcharitmanas.
2. Akbar patronized the musician called ……

M
Learning Outcome III. Match the following.
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain 1. Abul Fazl a) Padshanama
1. Socio-economic life under the Mughals. 2. Inayat Khan b) Akbar Nama

e
2. The social and economic life of the nobles and also the
rural masses.
3. Abdul Hamid Lahori c) Translation of
Mahabharata into Persian
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3. Agriculture and trade under the Mughals – chief exports 4. Abul Faizi d) Shah Jahan Nama
and imports. IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
4. Cultural development during the Mughals. right.
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5. Art and architecture, palaces, forts, mosques and Mughal a) New agricultural technique was introduced during the Mughal
gardens. period.
6. Development of Mughal Paintings and their significance.
b) New crops like tobacco and maize were introduced in the
seventeenth century.
7. Growth of language and literature.
c) Salt and sugar were cheaper in the Mughal period.
d) Rice, barley and pulses were the commercial crops.

246 247
V. State whether the following statements are True or LESSON 22
False.
THE MARATHAS
1. The Mughal nobles were paid very low salary.
2. Milk and milk products were available in plenty during the
Mughal period. Learning Objectives

VI. Write short notes (Any three points). Students will acquire knowledge about

ia
1. The Mughal Nobility. 1. The rise of the Marathas.

2. Fatepur Sikri. 2. Life and achievements of Shivaji.

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3. Abul Fazl. 3. Shivaji’s administration.

4. Pietra dura. 4. Rise of the Peshwas.

VII. Answer briefly (100 words).

1. Mention the economic condition of the rural masses during

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The Rise of the Marathas
the Mughal period.
Various factors contributed to the rise of Marathas in the
2. Write a note on the internal and foreign trade under the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The physical environment of
Mughals. the Maratha country shaped certain peculiar qualities among the
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. e
Give an account of the cultural development under the
Marathas. The mountainous region and dense forests made them
brave soldiers and adopt guerilla tactics. They built a number of
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forts on the mountains. The spread of the Bhakti movement in
Mughals.
Maharashtra inculcated a spirit of religious unity among them. The
2. Examine the salient features of the Mughal art and architecture. spiritual leaders like Tukkaram, Ramdas, Vaman Pandit and Eknath
3. Trace the growth of language and literature under the Mughal fostered social unity. The political unity was conferred by Shivaji.
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rule. The Marathas held important positions in the administrative and

military systems of Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmadnagar.
There were a number of influential Maratha families such as the
Mores and Nimbalkers. But the credit of establishing a powerful
Maratha state goes to Shahji Bhonsle and his son Shivaji.

248 249
Shivaji (1627-1680): His Life and Conquests
Shivaji was born at Shivner in 1627. His father was Shahji
Bhonsle and mother Jija Bai. He inherited the jagir of Poona from
his father in 1637. After the death of his
guardian, Dadaji Kondadev in 1647, Shivaji
assumed full charge of his jagir. Even before
that he conquered Raigarh, Kondana and
Torna from the ruler of Bijapur.
He captured Javli from a Maratha
chief, Chanda Rao More. This made him the
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master of Mavala region. In 1657, he
SHIVAJI
attacked the Bijapur kingdom and captured
a number of hill forts in the Konkan region. The Sultan of Bijapur
sent Afzal Khan against Shivaji. But Afzal Khan was murdered by
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Shivaji in 1659 in a daring manner.
Shivaji’s military conquests made him a legendary figure in
the Maratha region. Many came forward to join his army. The
Mughal emperor Aurangazeb was anxiously watching the rise of
e
Maratha power under Shivaji. He sent the Mughal governor of the
Deccan, Shaista Khan against Shivaji. Shivaji suffered a defeat at
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the hands of the Mughal forces and lost Poona. But Shivaji once
again made a bold attack on Shaista Khan’s military camp at Poona
in 1663, killed his son and wounded Khan. This daring attack
affected the prestige of Khan and he was recalled by Aurangazeb.
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In 1664, Shivaji attacked Surat, the chief port of the Mughals and
plundered it.
This time Aurangazeb sent Raja Jai Singh of Amber to fight
against Shivaji. He made elaborate preparations and succeeded in
besieging the Purander fort where Shivaji lodged his family and
treasure. Shivaji opened negotiations with Jai Singh and the Treaty
250
of Purander was signed in 1665. According to the treaty, Shivaji
had to surrender 23 forts to the Mughals out of 35 forts held by
him. The remaining 12 forts were to be left to Shivaji on condition
of service and loyalty to Mughal empire. On the other hand, the
Mughals recognized the right of Shivaji to hold certain parts of the
Bijapur kingdom. As Shivaji asked to exempt him from personal
service to the Mughals, his minor son Shambaji was granted a
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mansab of 5000.
Shivaji visited Agra in 1666 but he was imprisoned there.
But, he managed to escape from prison and made military
preparations for another four years. Then he renewed his wars
against the Mughals. Surat was plundered by him for the second
time in 1670. He also captured all his lost territories by his conquests.
In 1674 Shivaji crowned himself at Raigarh and assumed the title
Chatrapathi. Then he led an expedition into the Carnatic region and
captured Ginjee and Vellore. After his return from this expedition,
Shivaji died in 1680.
Shivaji’s Administration
Shivaji was also a great administrator. He laid the foundations
of a sound system of administration. The king was the pivot of the
government. He was assisted by a council of ministers called
Ashtapradhan. However, each minister was directly responsible to
Shivaji.
1. Peshwa – Finance and general administration. Later he became
the prime minister.
2. Sar-i-Naubat or Senapati – Military commander, a honorary
post.
3. Amatya – Accountant General.
251
4. Waqenavis – Intelligence, posts and household affairs.
5. Sachiv – Correspondence.
6. Sumanta – Master of ceremonies.
7. Nyayadish – Justice.
8. Panditarao – Charities and religious administration.
Most of the administrative reforms of Shivaji were based on
the practices of the Deccan sultanates. For example, Peshwa was
the Persian title.
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The revenue system of Shivaji was based on that of Malik
Amber of Ahmadnagar. Lands were measured by using the measuring
rod called kathi. Lands were also classified into three categories –
paddy fields, garden lands and hilly tracks. He reduced the powers
of the existing deshmuks and kulkarnis. He appointed his own
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revenue officials called karkuns.
Chauth and sardeshmukhi were the taxes collected not in the
Maratha kingdom but in the neighbouring territories of the Mughal
empire or Deccan sultanates. Chauth was one fourth of the land
e
revenue paid to the Marathas in order to avoid the Maratha raids.
Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of ten percent on those lands
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which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights.
Shivaji was a man of military genius and his army was well
organized. The regular army consisted of about 30000 to 40000
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cavalry supervised by havaildars. They were given fixed salaries.
There were two divisions in the Maratha cavalry – 1. bargirs,
equipped and paid by the state; and 2. silahdars, maintained by the
nobles. In the infantry, the Mavli foot soldiers played an important
role. Shivaji also maintained a navy.
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The forts played an important role in the military operations
of the Marathas. By the end of his reign, Shivaji had about 240
forts. Each fort was put under the charge of three officers of equal
rank as a precaution against treachery.
Shivaji was really a constructive genius and nation-builder.
His rise from jagirdar to Chatrapathi was spectacular. He unified
the Marathas and remained a great enemy of the Mughal empire.
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He was a daring soldier and a brilliant administrator.
Successors of Shivaji
There ensued a war of succession after the death of Shivaji
between his sons, Shambaji and Rajaram. Shambaji emerged
victorious but later he was captured and executed by the Mughals.
Rajaram succeeded the throne but the Mughals made him to flee to
the Ginjee fort. He died at Satara. He was succeeded by his minor
son Shivaji II with his mother Tara Bai as regent. The next ruler was
Shahu in whose reign the Peshwas rose to power.
The Peshwas (1713-1818)
Balaji Viswanath (1713-1720)
Balaji Viswanath began his career as a small revenue official
and became Peshwa in 1713. As Peshwa, he made his position the
most important and powerful as well as hereditary. He played a
crucial role in the civil war and finally made Shahu as the Maratha
ruler. He sought the support of all Maratha leaders for Shahu. In
1719, Balaji Viswanath got certain rights from the then Mughal
emperor, Farukh Siyar. First, the Mughal emperor recognized Shahu
as the Maratha king. Second, he allowed Shahu to collect Chauth
and Sardeshmukhi from the six Mughal provinces of the Deccan
including the Carnatic and Mysore.
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Baji Rao I (1720-1740)
Baji Rao was the eldest son of Balaji Viswanath. He
succeeded his father as Peshwa at the age young age of twenty.
The Maratha power reached its zenith under him. He initiated the
system of confederacy among the Maratha chiefs. Under this system,
each Maratha chief was assigned a territory which could be
administered autonomously. As a result, many Maratha families
After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Marathas emerged
a great power in India but they could not succeed in preventing the
establishment of British power in India. The important causes for
the downfall were that there was lack of unity among the Maratha
chiefs like Holkar, Scindia and Bhonsle. Also, the superiority of the
British army and fighting methods ultimately won.

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became prominent and established their authority in different parts Learning Outcome
of India. They were the Gaekwad at Baroda, the Bhonsle at Nagpur, Students will understand
the Holkars at Indore, the Scindias at Gwalior, and the Peshwas at

ed
Poona. After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761) 1. Causes for the rise of the Marathas.

Balaji Baji Rao succeeded his father as Peshwa at the young 2. Early career and military achievements of Shivaji.
age of nineteen. The Maratha king Shahu died in 1749 without issue. 3. Salient features of the Maratha administration under

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His nominated successor Ramraja was imprisoned by the Peshwa Shivaji.
Balaji Baji Rao at Satara. The full control of the Maratha kingdom
came under the Peshwa. 4. The rise of Peshwas and the significance of the Third
Battle of Panipat.
Peshwa entered into an agreement with the Mughal Emperor

e
in 1752. According to it the Peshwa gave assurance to the Mughal
Emperor that he would protect the Mughal Empire from internal
and external enemies for which the Chauth of the northwest provinces
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and the total revenue of the Agra and Ajmer provinces would be
collected by the Marathas.
Thus when Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India, it became the
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responsibility of the Marathas to protect India. The Marathas fought

very bravely against Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of
Panipat in 1761. But they got defeated. Many Maratha leaders and
thousands of soldiers died in this battle. Balaji Baji Rao also died
on hearing the sad end of this battle. Also, this battle gave a death
blow to the Maratha power. Thereafter, the Maratha confederacy
weakened due to internal conflicts among the Maratha chiefs.

254 255
 MODEL QUESTIONS d) Shivaji increased the powers of the existing revenue officials.

I. Choose the correct answer. V. State whether the following statements are True or
False.
1. Shivaji was born at
1. When Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded the Mughal Emperor faced
(a) Satara (b) Poona him.
(c) Shivner (d) Bijapur 2. In the Third Battle of Panipat Nadir Shah defeated the

ia
2. The Treaty of Purander was concluded in Maratha forces.
(a) 1660 (b) 1665 3. Mores and Nimbalkers belonged to Maratha family.
(c) 1670 (d) 1675 VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

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II. Fill in the blanks. 1. Treaty of Purander.
1. The guardian of Shivaji was ….. 2. Ashtapradhan.
2. The immediate successor of Shivaji was …. 3. Third Battle of Panipat.

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3. The Third Battle of Panipat took place in the year …. between VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
……and …… 1. Trace the causes for the rise of Marathas.
III. Match the following. 2. Write a note on Balaji Viswanath.
1.
2.
Peshwa
Scindia
a) Gwalior
b) Poona e VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the life and achievements of Shivaji.
re
3. Holkar c) Indore 2. Mention the salient features of the administration of Shivaji.
4. Bhonsle d) Nagpur 3. Examine the rise of the Peshwas and their achievements.
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
S

right.
a) The revenue system of Shivaji was based on that of Cholas.
b) Lands were measured by using the measuring rod called kathi.
c) Lands were classified into four categories as under the
Marathas.

256 257
 LESSON 23
THE COMING OF EUROPEANS
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The coming of the Portuguese to India.
2. Establishment of the Dutch, French, English and Danish
Trading centres in India.
ed
3. The Anglo-French Rivalry in the Carnatic region.
4. Rise of British power in Bengal.
M
The commercial contacts between India and Europe were
very old via the land route either through the Oxus valley or Syria
or Egypt. But, the new sea route via the Cape
of Good Hope was discovered by Vasco da
Gama in 1498. Thereafter, many trading
companies came to India and established their e The Dutch
re
trading centres. They entered India as traders
at the outset but by the passage of time
indulged in the politics of India and finally
established their colonies. The commercial
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rivalry among the European powers led to
political rivalry. Ultimately, the British VASCO DA GAMA
succeeded in establishing their rule India.
The Portuguese
The Portuguese traveler Vasco da Gama reached the port of
Calicut on 17 May 1498 and he was warmly received by Zamorin,
258
the ruler of Calicut. He returned to Portugal in the next year. Pedro
Alvarez Cabral arrived in 1500 and Vasco da Gama also made a
second trip in 1502. They established trading stations at Calicut,
Cannanore and Cochin.
The first governor of the Portuguese in India was Francis de
Almeida. Later in 1509 Albuquerque was made the governor of the
Portuguese territories in India. In 1510, he captured Goa from the
ia
ruler of Bijapur. Thereafter, Goa became the capital of the
Portuguese settlements in India. Albuquerque captured Malacca and
Ceylon. He also built a fort at Calicut. He encouraged his countrymen
to marry Indian women. Albuquerque died in 1515 leaving the
Portuguese as the strongest naval power in India.
The successors of Albuquerque established Portuguese
settlements at Daman, Salsette and Bombay on the west coast and
at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast.
However, the Portuguese power declined in India by the end of the
sixteenth century. They lost all their possessions in India except Goa,
Diu and Daman in the next century.
The Dutch East India Company was established in 1602. The
merchants of this company came to India and established their
settlements at Masulipattinam, Pulicat, Surat, Karaikal,
Nagapattinam, Chinsura and Kasimbazar. In the seventeenth century
they won over the Portuguese and emerged the most dominant power
in European trade in the East. Pulicat was their main centre in India
and later it was replaced by Nagapattinam. In the middle of the
seventeenth century the English began to emerge as a big colonial
power. The Anglo-Dutch rivalry lasted for about seven decades
during which period the Dutch lost their settlements to the British
one by one.
259
The English
The English East India Company was established in 1600 and
the Charter was issued by Queen Elizabeth of England. Captain
Hawkins arrived at the royal court of Jahangir in 1609 to seek
permission to establish English trading centre at Surat. But it was
refused by the Mughal Emperor due to Portuguese pressure. Later
in 1612, Jahangir issued a farman (permission letter) to the English
and they established a trading factory at Surat in 1613.
Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of James I, the
king of England to the Mughal court in 1615. He obtained permission
ed
from Jahangir to establish English trading factories in different parts
of India.
The English established their factories at Agra, Ahmadabad,
Baroda and Broach by 1619. The English East India Company
M
acquired Bombay from Charles II, the then king of England. In 1639,
Francis Day founded the city of Madras where the Fort St. George
was built. In 1690, an English factory was established at a place
called Sutanuti by Job Charnock. Later it developed into the city of
e
Calcutta where Fort William was built. Later, Calcutta became the
capital of British India. Thus Bombay, Madras, Calcutta became
re
three presidency towns of the English settlements in India.
The French
The French East India Company was formed in 1664 by
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Colbert, a Minister under Louis XIV. The first French factory in
India was established at Surat by Francis Caron. Later, Maracara
set up a factory at Masulipattinam. Francois Martin founded
Pondicherry in 1673. Other French factories in India were
Chandranagore, Mahe and Karaikal. Francois Martin was the first
governor of Pondicherry, the headquarters of the French possessions
in India.
260
The Danes
Denmark also established trade settlements in India. Their
settlement at Tranquebar was founded in 1620. Another important
Danish settlement in India was Serampore in Bengal. Serampore
was their headquarters in India. They failed to strengthen themselves
in India and they sold all their settlement in India to the British in
1845.
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Anglo-French Rivalry
In the beginning of the eighteenth century, the English and the
French were competing with each other to establish their supremacy
in India. Both of them used the political turmoil prevalent in India as
a result of the decline of the Mughal Empire in their favour and
indulged in internal politics. The Anglo-French rivalry in India was
manifest in the Carnatic region and in Bengal.
The Carnatic Wars
The downfall of the Mughal Empire led to the independence
of Deccan under Nizam-ul-Mulk. The Carnatic region also formed
part of the Nizam’s dominion. The ruler of
the Carnatic accepted the suzerainty of the
Nizam. In 1740, the Austrian War of
Succession broke out in Europe. In that war
England and France were in the opposite
camps. They came into conflict in India also.
The French governor of Pondicherry,
Dupleix opened attack on the English in
DUPLEIX
1746 and thus began the First Carnatic War
(1746-1748). The English sought help from the Nawab of Carnatic,
Anwar Uddin. But the French concluded a treaty with his rival
Chanda Sahib. The English army crushed a defeat on the French in
the Battle of Adyar, near Madras. In the meantime, the Treaty of
261
Aix-la-Chappelle was concluded in 1748 to end the Austrian
Succession War. Thus the First Carnatic War came to an end.
But the English and French continued to take opposite sides
in the internal politics of India. This had resulted in the Second
Carnatic War (1749-1754). Dupleix supported the cause of Muzafar
Jang, who wanted to become the Nizam of Hyderabad and Chanda
Sahib, an aspirant for the throne of Arcot. The troops of these three
defeated Anwar Uddin, who was with the British in the First Carnatic
War, and killed him in the Battle of Ambur in 1749. After this victory,
Muzafar Jung became the Nizam and Chanda Sahib the Nawab of
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Arcot. Muhammad Ali, son of Anwar Uddin escaped to
Tiruchirappalli. The English sent troops in support of him. In the
meantime, the British commander Robert Clive captured Arcot. He
also inflicted a severe defeat on the French at Kaveripakkam.
Chanda Sahib was captured and beheaded in Tanjore. Meanwhile
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Dupleix was replaced by Godeheu as the French governor. The
war came to an end by the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.
The outbreak of the Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe
led to the Third Carnatic War (1758-1763). Count de Lally was
e
the commander of the French troops. The British General Sir Eyre
Coote defeated him at Wandiwash in 1760. In the next year,
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Pondicherry was captured and destroyed by the British troops. The
Seven Years War came to an end by the Treaty of Paris in1763.
The Third Carnatic War also ended. The French agreed to confine
its activities in Pondicherry, Karaikkal, Mahe and Yenam. Thus the
S
Anglo-French rivalry came to a close with British success and French
failure.
The causes for the French failure can be summed up as follows:
1. Commercial and naval superiority of the English.
2. Lack of support from the French government.
262
3. French had support only in the Deccan but the English had a
strong base in Bengal.
4. English had three important ports – Calcutta, Bombay and
Madras but French had only Pondicherry.
5. Difference of opinion between the French Generals.
6. England’s victory in the European wars decided the destiny
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of the French in India.
Establishment of British Power in Bengal
Bengal remained one of the fertile and wealthy regions of India.
The English ascendancy in Bengal proved to be the basis for the
expansion of English rule in India. The
conflict between the Nawab of Bengal,
Siraj-ud-Daula and the English led to the
Battle of Plassey held on 23 June 1757.
Robert Clive, the Commander of the British
troops emerged victorious by defeating the
Nawab’s army. The easy English victory
was due to the treachery of Mir Jabar, the
Commander of Nawab’s army. However,
the victory of the British in the Battle of
Plassey marked the foundation of the British
rule in India. Robert Clive
In 1764, the English once again defeated the combined forces
of the Nawab of Oudh, the Mughal Emperor and the Nawab of
Bengal in the Battle of Buxar. The English military superiority was
decisively established. In 1765, Robert Clive was appointed as the
Governor of Bengal. In the same year, the Treaty of Allahabad was
concluded by which the Mughal Emperor granted the Diwani rights
to the English East India Company. Thus the British power in India
was thoroughly established.
263
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Growth and decline of Portuguese power in India. 1. The first Portuguese governor in India
2. Dutch, English, French and Danish settlements in India. (a) Vasco da Gama (b) Almaida
3. Anglo-French Rivalry and the three Carnatic wars. (c) Albuquerque (d) Francois Martin

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4. Growth of British Power in Bengal and the Battle of 2. The Battle of Plassey took place in
Plassey.
(a) 1767 (b) 1757
(c) 1764 (d) 1747

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II. Fill in the blanks.
1. Captain Hawkins arrived at the royal court of…….
2. Serampur was a ….. settlement.

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3. The Treaty of Paris led to end of ……..Carnatic War.
III. Match the following.
1. Job Charnock a) Tranquebar

e 2.
3.
The Danes
Francis Day
b) Calcutta
c) Pondicherry
re
4. Francois Martin d) Madras
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
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a) The Austrian Succession War led to Third Carnatic War.

b) The Seven Years War led to the Second Carnatic War.
c) Robert Clive won the Battle of Plassey.
d) The French were eliminated from Bengal due to the Carnatic
Wars.

264 265
V. State whether the following statements are True or TIME LINE
False.
From 1500 A.D to 1600 A.D.
1. Sir Thomas Roe came to India as ambassador of Charles II.
1500 1 Unit = 10 Years
2. Dupleix was replaced by Godeheu as the French governor.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. Vasco Da Gama

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2. Albuquerque
3. Dutch settlements in India

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4. Battle of Plassey
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1510 - The Portuguese Captured Goa
1. Trace the rise and fall of Portuguese power in India.

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2. Write a note on the rise of British power in Bengal.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Give an account of the Anglo-French rivalry in India.

e
re
1520
S

1526 - First Battle of Panipat

1530 - Death of Babur

266 267
 1575 - Constuction of Ibatat Khana

1540 - Battle of Kanauj 1580

1582 - Din ilahi

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1550 1590

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1555 - Death of Humayun
1556 - Second Pattle of Panipat

1560 e
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1600
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1565 - Battle of Talaikotta

1570

268 269
 TIME LINE
From : 1600 A.D to 1700 A.D.

1 Unit = 10 Years
1639 - Francis Day founded the City of Madras
1600 – Establishment of English East
Indian Company 1640

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1605 - Jahangir came to power

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1608 - Captain Hawkins arrived India

1650
1610

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1615 - Arrival of Sir Thomas Roa

e 1660
re
1620
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1665 - Treaty of Purandar

1627 - Birth of Shivaji

1670

1630

270 271
1674 - Coronation of Shivaji

1680

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1690

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1700
S

272
 STANDARD XII - HISTORY
SYLLABUS
Periods
Unit I
1. India under East India Company’s Rule -
Administration - Charter Acts - Expansion
policy - Colonial and Economic policies
2. Education under the Company’s Rule - Social and
Modernisation Reforms introduced by British
Governors - General (Reforms of Bentinck
and Dalhousie)
Unit II
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3. British Rule in Tamil Nadu - Palayakkarar
Rebellion - Vellore Mutiny
4. The Great Revolt of 1857 - Causes - Results -
First War of Indian Independence - End of
Company’s Rule - Queen’s Proclamation e 10
re
Unit III
5. Socio - Religious Reform Movements in the
S
19th century India (Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj,
Theosophical Society, Ramakrishna Movement,
Muslim, Parsi and Sikh Reform Movements)
6. Changes in Indian Administration after 1858
(1861 Act - Ripon- 1892 Act-Administrative
Reforms under Lord Curzon and their effects)
v vi
Unit IV
7. India’s Freedom Movement (First two phases) -
Emergence - Growth - Moderates - Extremists -
Minto - Morley Reforms - Home Rule Movement –
Montagu - Chelmsford Reforms 15
8. India’s Freedom Movement (Gandhian Period) -
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Non-Co-operation Movement - Swarajya Party -
10
Simon Commission - Salt Satyagraha -
Round Table Conferences - Gandhi - Irwin Pact –
Individual Satyagraha - Cripps Mission -Quit India
ed
Movement etc.) 15
10 9. Role of Tamil Nadu in India’s Freedom Movement
(Justice Party’s Rule, Congress Movement) 15
Unit V
10 10. India after Independence - Social, Economic,
Scientific and Technological Progress -
Foreign Policy (1947 - 2000) 10
Unit VI
11. Renaissance - Discovery of Sea Routes -
Reformation - Counter Reformation 15
12. American War of Independence -
French Revolution - Causes and Results 10
Unit VII
13. Industrial and Agrarian Revolutions -
Causes – Results 10
 14. Spread of Colonialism - Imperialism - CONTENTS
First World War - Russian Revolution MODERN INDIAN HISTORY
League of Nations 15 Sub. Page
No. No.
Unit VIII
1. India Under the English East India Company: 1
15. Rise of Fascism and Nazism -
Warren Hastings (1772-1785)
Second World War - Causes - Results 10

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2. Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793) 15
Unit IX 3. The Marquess of Wellesley (1798-1805) 24

16. Growth of Asian Nations - China and Japan 4. Lord Hastings (1813-1823) 37

ed
after Second World War 15 5. Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835) 46
6. Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856) 56
Unit X 7. Revenue Administration and Economic
17. U.N.O and its role in World Peace. 10 Policy of the British 66

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8. Educational and Social Reforms 76
18. Cold Wars - Super Powers - Regional Security
9. Palayakkarar Rebellion 86
Agreements (NATO,”SEATO and Warsaw Pact) -
Growth of Atomic Weapons - Missiles - Peace 10. Vellore Mutiny 95
Efforts - Fall of Socialist States - Liberalisation – 11. The Great Revolt of 1857 102
Globalisation - World Today.
e 15 12. British India After 1858: Lord Lytton (1876-1880),
Lord Ripon (1880-1884) And Lord Curzon (1899-1905) 114
re
13. Socio-Religious Reform Movements 125
14. Indian National Movement (1885-1905) 139
15. Indian National Movement (1905-1916) 148
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16. The Indian National Movement (1917-1947) 158

17. Role of Tamil Nadu in the Indian National Movement 177
18. The Justice Party Rule 186
19. Constitutional Development (1858 – 1947) 194
20. India After Independence 206

vii viii
 MODERN WORLD HISTORY SOME OF THE IMPORTANT GOVERNOR-GENERALS
GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF FORT WILLIAM IN BENGAL
21. Renaissance 223
(Regulating Act of 1773)
22. Geographical Discoveries 234
23. The Reformation and Counter Reformation 242
24. The American War of Independence (1776-1783) 252 Name Period
25. French Revolution 261 Warren Hastings 1774-1785

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26. Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions 273 Earl (Marquess) Cornwallis 1786-1793
27. First World War 284 Richard Wellesley, Earl of Mornington 1798-1805
28. Russian Revolution of 1917 295 Marquess Cornwallis (Second time Govenor General) 1805
29. The League of Nations 304 Marquess of Hastings (Earl of Moira) 1813-1823

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30. Rise of Fascism and Nazism 314 Lord William Bentinck 1828-1833
31. Second World War 326 GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA
32. Growth of Asian Nations: China And Japan 335 (Charter Act of 1833)
33. United Nations Organisation 343 Lord William Bentinck 1833-1835

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34. The Cold War 353 Earl of Dalhousie 1848-1856
35. World Today 360 Lord Canning 1856-1858
GOVERNORS-GENERAL AND VICEROYS
(Act of 1858)
Lord Canning 1858-1862

e Baron (Earl of) Lytton I

Marquess of Ripon
1876-1880
1880-1884
re
Lord Curzon 1899-1904
Baron Chelmsford 1916-1921
Lord Irwin 1926-1931
Earl of Willingdon 1931-1934
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Marquess of Linlithgow 1934-1936

Mountbatten 24 March 1947 - 15 August 1947
AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Mountbatten 1947-1948
Rajagopalachari 1948-1950

ix x
 LESSON 1 In 1639, Francis Day established the city of
Madras and constructed the Fort St. George. On
INDIA UNDER THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY:
the west coast, the Company obtained Bombay on
WARREN HASTINGS (1772-1785)
lease from their King, Charles II for a rent of 10
pounds per annum in 1668. By the year 1690, Job
Learning Objectives
Charnock, the agent of the East India Company
purchased three villages namely, Sutanuti,

Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The growth of East India Company’s Rule in India.
2. Reforms introduced by the first Governor-General, Warren
Hastings.
ia
Govindpur and Kalikatta, which, in course of time, Warren Hastings
grew into the city of Calcutta. It was fortified by
Job Charnock, who named it Fort William after the English King,

ed
William III. The factories and trading centres which the English
3. Provisions, merits and defects of the Regulating Act of 1773. established all along the sea-coast of India were grouped under three
4. Expansion policy of Warren Hastings - the First Maratha presidencies namely Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.
War and the Second Mysore War.
5. Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the Battle of Buxar
in 1764, the Company became a political power. India was under

M
6. Impeachment of Warren Hastings.
the East India Company’s rule till 1858 when it came under the direct
The English East India Company administration of the British Crown. Robert Clive was the first
The English East India Company was established on 31 Governor of Fort William under the Company’s rule. He was
December 1600 as per the Royal Charter issued by the Queen of succeeded by Verelst and Cartier. In 1772, the Company appointed

e
England, Elizabeth I. The Company had sent Captain Hawkins to the
court of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir in 1608 to secure permission
Warren Hastings as the Governor of Fort William.
Reforms of Warren Hastings
re
to establish a “factory” (store house of goods) at Surat. It was turned
When Warren Hastings assumed the administration of Bengal
down initially. However, in 1613, Jahangir issued
in 1772, he found it in utter chaos. The financial position of the
the firman permitting the East India Company to
Company became worse and the difficulties were intensified by
establish its first trading post at Surat. Subsequently,
S

famine. Therefore, Warren Hastings realized the immediate need for

Sir Thomas Roe obtained more trading rights and
privileges for the East India Company. Accordingly,
the English set up business centres at Agra,
Ahmedabad and Broach. Slowly the English East
India Company succeeded in expanding its area
Sir Thomas Roe of trade.
introducing reforms.
Abolition of the Dual System
The East India Company decided to act as Diwan and to
undertake the collection of revenue by its own agents. Hence, the
Dual System introduced by Robert Clive was abolished. As a measure

1 2
to improve the finances of the Company, Warren Hastings reduced
the Nawab’s allowance of 32 lakhs of rupees to half that amount.
He also stopped the annual payment of 26 lakhs given to the Mughal
Emperor.
Revenue Reforms
After the abolition of the Dual System, the responsibility of
collecting the revenue fell on the shoulders of the Company. For that
purpose, a Board of Revenue was established at Calcutta to
supervise the collection of revenue. English Collectors were appointed
in each district. The treasury was removed from Murshidabad to
ed
Calcutta and an Accountant General was appointed. Calcutta thus
became the capital of Bengal in 1772 and shortly after of British
India.
The Board of Revenue farmed out the lands by auction for a
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period of five years instead of one year in order to find out their real
value. The zamindars were given priority in the auction. However,
certain good measures were taken to safeguard the interests of the
peasants. Arbitrary cesses and unreasonable fines were abolished.
e
Besides, restrictions were imposed on the enhancement of rent. Yet,
the system was a failure. Many zamindars defaulted and the arrears
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of revenue accumulated.
Reorganisation of the Judicial System
The judicial system at the time of Warren Hastings’ ascendancy
S
was a store-house of abuses. The Nawab who was hitherto the chief
administrator of justice, misused his powers. Often, his judgments
were careless. The zamindars who acted as judges at lower levels
within their own areas were highly corrupt and prejudiced. On the
whole, the judicial institution suffered from extreme corruption.
Warren Hastings felt the necessity of reorganising the judicial
system. Each district was provided with a civil court under the
3 4
Collector and a criminal court under an Indian Judge. To hear appeals
from the district courts two appellate courts, one for civil cases and
another for criminal cases, were established at Calcutta. The highest
civil court of appeal was called Sadar Diwani Adalat, which was to
be presided over by the Governor and two judges recruited from
among the members of his council. Similarly, the highest appellate
criminal court was known as Sadar Nizamat Adalat which was to
ia
function under an Indian judge appointed by the Governor-in-Council.
Experts in Hindu and Muslim laws were provided to assist the
judges. A digest of Hindu law was prepared in Sanskrit by learned
Pandits and it was translated into Persian. An English translation of
it – Code of Hindu Laws – was prepared by Halhed.
Trade Regulations and other Reforms
Warren Hastings abolished the system of dastaks, or free passes
and regulated the internal trade. He reduced the number of custom houses
and enforced a uniform tariff of 2.5 percent for Indian and non-Indian
goods. Private trade by the Company’s servants continued but within
enforceable limits. Weavers were given better treatment and facilities
were made to improve their condition. He also introduced a uniform
system of pre-paid postage system. A bank was started in Calcutta. He
improved the police in Calcutta and the dacoits were severely dealt with.
The Regulating Act of 1773
The Regulating Act of 1773 opened a new chapter in the
constitutional history of the Company. Previously, the Home
government in England consisted of the Court of Directors and the
Court of Proprietors. The Court of Directors were elected annually
and practically managed the affairs of the Company. In India, each
of the three presidencies was independent and responsible only to
the Home Government. The government of the presidency was
conducted by a Governor and a Council.
 The following conditions invited the Parliamentary intervention
in the Company’s affairs. The English East India Company became
a territorial power when it acquired a wide dominion in India and
also the Diwani rights. Its early administration was not only corrupt
but notorious. When the Company was in financial trouble, its servants
were affluent. The disastrous famine which broke out in Bengal in
1770 affected the agriculturists. As a result, the revenue collection
(iv) The Governor-General in Council was made supreme over the
other Presidencies in matters of war and peace.
(v) Provision was made in the Act for the establishment of a
Supreme Court at Calcutta consisting of a Chief Justice and
three junior judges. It was to be independent of the Governor-
General in Council. In 1774, the Supreme Court was established
by a Royal Charter.

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was poor. In short, the Company was on the brink of bankruptcy. In
(vi) This Act prevented the servants of the Company including the
1773, the Company approached the British government for an
Governor-General, members of his council and the judges of
immediate loan. It was under these circumstances that the Parliament
the Supreme Court from receiving directly or indirectly any

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of England resolved to regulate the affairs of the Company. Lord
gifts in kind or cash.
North, the Prime Minister of England, appointed a select committee
to inquire into the affairs of the Company. The report submitted by Merits and Demerits of the Act
the Committee paved the way for the enactment of the Regulating The significance of the Regulating Act is that it brought the
Act. affairs of the Company under the control of the Parliament. Besides,

M
Provisions of the Act it proved that the Parliament of England was concerned about the
welfare of Indians. The greatest merit of this Act is that it put an
The Regulating Act reformed the Company’s Government at
end to the arbitrary rule of the Company and provided a framework
Home and in India. The important provisions of the Act were:
for all future enactments relating to the governing of India.
(i)
e
The term of office of the members of the Court of Directors
was extended from one year to four years. One-fourth of them
The main defect of the Act was that the Governor-General
was made powerless because the council which was given supreme
re
were to retire every year and the retiring Directors were not
power often created deadlocks by over-ruling his decision. However,
eligible for re-election.
many of these defects were rectified by the Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
(ii) The Governor of Bengal was styled the Governor-General of
Expansionist Policy of Warren Hastings
Fort William whose tenure of office was for a period of five
S

years.
(iii) A council of four members was appointed to assist the
Governor-General. The government was to be conducted in
accordance with the decision of the majority. The Governor-
General had a casting vote in case of a tie.
Warren Hastings was known for his expansionist policy. His
administration witnessed the Rohilla War, the First Anglo-Maratha
War and the Second Anglo-Mysore War.
The Rohilla War (1774)
Rohilkand was a small kingdom situated in between Oudh and
the Marathas. Its ruler was Hafiz Rahmat Khan. He concluded a

5 6
defensive treaty in 1772 with the Nawab of Oudh fearing an attack
by the Marathas. But no such attack took place. But, the Nawab
demanded money. When Rahmat Khan evaded, the Nawab with the
help of the British invaded Rohilkand. Warren Hastings, who sent
the British troops against Rohilkand was severely crticised for his
policy on Rohilla affair.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)
Later in May 1782, the Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren
Hastings and Mahadaji Scindia. Accordingly, Salsette and Bassein
were given to the British. Raghunath Rao was pensioned off and
Madhav Rao II was accepted as the Peshwa.
The Treaty of Salbai established the British influence in Indian
politics. It provided the British twenty years of peace with the
Marathas. The Treaty also enabled the British to exert pressure on

ia
Mysore with the help of the Marathas in recovering their territories
The Marathas were largely remained disunited since the Third
from Haider Ali. Thus, the British, on the one hand, saved themselves
Battle of Panipet (1761). The internal conflict among the Marathas
from the combined opposition of Indian powers and on the other,
was best utilized by the British in their expansionist policy. In 1775,

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succeeded in dividing the Indian powers.
there was a dispute for the post of Peshwa between Madhav Rao
and his uncle Ragunatha Rao. The British authorities in Bombay The Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)
concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunatha Rao in March 1775.
The first Anglo-Mysore War took place in 1767-69. Haider Ali
Rahunatha Rao promised to cede Bassein and Salsette to the British
emerged victorious against the British and at the end of the War a

M
but later when he was unwilling to fulfill his promise, the British
defensive treaty was concluded between Haider Ali
captured them. This action of the Bombay Government was not
and the British. After eleven years, the Second
approved by Warren Hastings. In 1776, Warren Hastings sent Colonel
Mysore War broke out and the main causes for the
Upton to settle the issue. He cancelled the Treaty of Surat and
second Anglo-Mysore War were:
concluded the Treaty of Purander with Nana Fadnavis, another

e
Maratha leader. According to this treaty Madhava Rao II was
accepted as the new Peshwa and the British retained Salsette along
1. The British failed to fulfill the terms of the
defensive treaty with Haider when he was
re
with a heavy war indemnity. attacked by the Marathas in 1771.
Haider Ali
However, the Home authorities rejected the Treaty of 2. There was an outbreak of hostilities between
Purander. Warren Hastings also considered the Treaty of Purandar the English and the French (an ally of Haider)
S

as a ‘scrap of paper’ and sanctioned operations against the Marathas.
In the meantime, the British force sent by the Bombay Government
was defeated by the Marathas.
In 1781, Warren Hastings dispatched British troops under the
command of Captain Popham. He defeated the Maratha chief,
Mahadaji Scindia, in a number of small battles and captured Gwalior.
during the American War of Independence.
3. The British captured Mahe, a French settlement within Haider’s
territories.
4. Haider Ali formed a grand alliance with the Nizam of
Hyderabad and the Marathas against the British in 1779.
The War began when the British led their forces through

7 8
Haider’s territory without his permission to capture Guntur in the
Northern Sarkars. Haider Ali defeated Colonel Baillie and captured
Arcot in 1780. In the next year, Warren Hastings, by a clever stroke
of diplomacy, divided the Confederacy. He made peace with the
Nizam, won the friendship of Bhonsle and came to an understanding
with the Scindia (both Marathas). Consequently, Haider was isolated
without any alliance. He was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Porto
Novo in March 1781. In December 1782, Haider died of cancer at
the age of sixty and his death was kept secret till his son Tipu Sultan
assumed power.
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The Second Mysore War came to an end by the Treaty of
Mangalore in 1783. Accordingly, all conquests were mutually
restored and the prisoners on both sides were liberated.
Pitt’s India Act, 1784
M
The Regulating Act proved to be an unsatisfactory document
as it failed in its objective. In January 1784, Pitt the Younger (who
became Prime Minister of England after the General Elections)
introduced the India Bill in the British Parliament. Despite bitter
e
debate in both the Houses, the bill was passed after seven months
and it received royal assent in August 1784. This was the famous
re
Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
Main Provisions
(i) A Board of Control consisting of six members was created.
S
They were appointed by the Crown.
(ii) The Court of Directors was retained without any alteration in
its composition.
(iii) The Act also introduced significant changes in the Indian
administration. It reduced the number of the members of the
Governor-General’s Council from four to three including the
Commander-in-Chief.
9 10
Pitt’s India Act constitutes a significant landmark with regard
to the foreign policy of the Company. A critical review of the Act
reveals that it had introduced a kind of contradiction in the functions
of the Company. The Court of Directors controlled its commercial
functions, whereas the Board of Control maintained its political affairs.
In fact, the Board represented the King, and the Directors symbolised
the Company.
ia
The Impeachment of Warren Hastings
The Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was a rude shock and bitter
disappointment for Warren Hastings. The Prime Minister’s speech
censuring the policy of the Government of Bengal was considered
by Warren Hastings as a reflection on his personal character. His
image and reputation were tarnished in England. Therefore, he
resigned and left India in June 1785.
In 1787, Warren Hastings was impeached in the Parliament by
Edmund Burke and the Whigs for his administrative excess. Burke
brought forward 22 charges against him. The most important of them
were related to the Rohilla War, the Case of Nanda Kumar, the
treatment of Raja Chait Singh of Benares and the pressures on the
Begums of Oudh. After a long trail which lasted till 1795, Warren
Hastings was completely acquitted. He received pension from the
Company and lived till 1818.
Nanda Kumar was an influential official in Bengal. He
was hanged to death by the verdict of the Supreme Court at
Calcutta for a petty offence of forgery. The English law was
applied in this judgement. It was contended that Warren
Hastings and Sir Elija Impey, the judge of the Supreme Court
conspired against Nanda Kumar. Warren Hastings imposed
heavy penalty on the Raja Chait Singh of Benares for his delay
in payment of tribute and deposed him in an unjust manner.
 The Begums of Oudh were mother and grand mother of the Learning Outcome
Nawab of Oudh. Warren Hastings helped the Nawab by After learning this lesson the students will be to explain
sending his troops to the help of Nawab who squeeze money
from the Begums. This was a highhanded policy. 1. How the East India Company established its rule in
India.
Estimate of Warren Hastings
2. The reforms of Warren Hastings such as revenue,
He was a gifted personality endowed with ‘strong will, great judicial and trade.

ia
energy and resourcefulness’. His long stay in Bengal ‘in the shadow
of the Mughal cultural tradition’ gave him, enough opportunity to learn 3. The purpose of the Regulating Act, its merits and
oriental languages such as Bengali (the local language) and Persian defects.

ed
(the diplomatic language) and to develop ‘oriental tastes’. Since he 4. Expansion policy of Warren Hastings and the outcome
considered Indian culture as a basis for sound Indian administration, of the first Anglo-Maratha War and second Anglo-
he patronised the learning of Indian languages and arts. His task was Mysore War.
a challenging one since he was surrounded by hostile forces. “He
5. The importance of the Pitt’s India Act of 1784.
faced his external enemies with unflinching courage and unfailing

M
resource, and his internal opponents with extraordinary patience and 6. The general achievements of Warren Hastings
firmness.” It was on the foundation which Warren Hastings laid down,
that others erected a ‘stately edifice’.

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11 12
 MODEL QUESTIONS V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. The English East India Company was established on 31
I. Choose the correct answer.
December 1600.
1. The Battle of Plassey took place in the year
2. The Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings
(a) 1757 (b) 1764 and Madhava Rao II.
(c) 1772 (d) 1777 VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

ia
2. The Second Mysore War came to an end by the Treaty of 1. Rohilla War.
(a) Salbai (b) Mangalore 2. Pitt’s India Act.
(c) Purander (d) Mysore 3. Second Anglo Mysore War.

ed
II. Fill in the blanks. VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. The Dual System was introduced by …….. 1. Write a note on the First Anglo-Maratha War.
2. Haider Ali died in the year …….. 2. Discuss the main provisions of the Regulating Act.
III. Match the following. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

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1. Francis Day a. Pitt’s India Act 1. Give an account of the reforms of Warren Hastings.
2. Sadar Diwani Adalat b. Rohilkand 2. Examine the expansionist policy of Warren Hastings.
3. Hafiz Rahmat Khan c. Fort St. George
4.
IV.
Board of Control
e
d. Civil Court
Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
re
right.
a) Warren Hastings assumed the Governorship of Fort William in
1774.
b) Rohilla War took place during the administration of Warren
S

Hastings.
c) According to the Regulating Act the term of office of the Court
of Directors was five years.
d) Raja Chait Singh was the ruler of Oudh.

13 14
 LESSON 2
LORD CORNWALLIS (1786-1793)
Learning Objectives
Students will understand
1. The Third Mysore War and Tipu Sultan’s efforts to defeat the
British.
2. Administrative Reforms of Lord Cornwallis.
ed
3. Judicial Reforms.
4. Police and other reforms.
5. Achievements of Lord Cornwallis.
M
Lord Cornwallis, a warrior-statesman, succeeded Warren
Hastings as Governor-General in 1786. He belonged to an influential
and aristocratic family which had wider political connections. He
was also a close friend of Prime Minister Pitt and of Dundas, the
e
most influential member of the Board of Control. He distinguished
himself as a remarkable soldier in the American War of Independence.
re
Although he surrendered at York Town in 1781 before the American
troops, his reputation was not spoiled. He still enjoyed the confidence
of the authorities at Home. After his return from
America he was offered the Governor-
S
Generalship in India.
Cornwallis was prompted by a strong
sense of public duty and enjoyed the respect as
well as the confidence of his fellow
countrymen. The Parliament was prepared to
LORD CORNWALLIS give him extraordinary legal powers to carry
15
out radical reforms in the administration of Bengal. It amended Pitt’s
India Act in 1786 so as enable him to overrule the decision of the
majority of his council, if necessary. The appointment of Cornwallis
was significant in one respect. A new tradition of choosing a person
from an aristocratic family for the post of Governor-General was
initiated. It was his good fortune that he had an excellent team of
subordinates comprising John Shore, James Grant, and Sir William
ia
Jones. Although Cornwallis commenced his work under beneficial
circumstances, he had to carry out his policy with caution.
Tipu Sultan and the Third Mysore War (1790-92)
The Treaty of Mangalore (1784) exhibited the military strength
of Mysore, exposed English weaknesses and increased Tipu’s
strength. Like his father he wanted to eliminate the English from
India. His other designs were to wreak vengeance on the Nizam and
on the Marathas as they had betrayed his father during the hour of
need.
The chief causes for the Third Mysore War were:
1. Tipu Sultan strengthened his position by undertaking various
internal reforms. This created worries to the British, the Nizam
of Hyderabad and the Marathas.
2. Moreover, Tipu made attempts to seek the help of France and
Turkey by sending envoys to those countries.
3. He also expanded his territories at the cost of his neighbours,
particularly the Raja of Travancore, who was an ally of the
British.
4. In 1789, the British concluded a tripartite alliance with the
Nizam and the Marathas against Tipu.
16
 War broke out in May 1790 between the
English and Tipu. It was fought in three phases.
The first phase commenced when Medows, the
Governor of Madras, initially directed the
campaign to invade Mysore but Tipu’s rapid
movements halted the progress of the English
troops and inflicted heavy losses on them. In the
meantime, Cornwallis himself assumed command Tipu Sultan
in December 1790. This was the beginning of
the second phase of the war. Marching from Vellore, he captured
ed
Bangalore in March 1791, but Tipu’s brilliant strategies prolonged
the war and Cornwallis was forced to retreat to Mangalore due to
lack of provisions. The third phase of the war began when timely aid
from the Marathas with plenty of provisions helped him to resume
his campaign and marched against Srirangapattinam again. This time
M
Tipu was at a disadvantage. Swiftly the English forces occupied the
hill forts near Srirangapattinam and seized it in February 1792. Tipu
Sultan concluded the Treaty of Srirangapattinam with the British.
The terms of the treaty were as follows:
(i)
(ii) e
Tipu had to give up half his dominions.
He had to pay a war indemnity of three crore rupees
re
and surrender two of his sons as hostages to the English.
(iii) Both sides agreed to release the prisoners of war.
The Treaty of Srirangapattinam is a significant event in the
S
history of South India. The British secured a large territory on the
Malabar Coast. In addition they obtained the Baramahal district and
Dindugal. After this war, although the strength of Mysore had been
reduced, it was not extinguished. Tipu had been defeated but not
destroyed.
17
Reforms
The internal reforms of Cornwallis can be studied under three
main heads.
(i) Administrative reforms
(ii) Revenue reforms or Permanent Settlement (given in
Lesson -7)
ia
(iii) Judicial and other reforms
Administrative Reforms
The greatest work of Cornwallis was the purification of the
civil service by the employment of capable and honest public servants.
He aimed at economy, simplification and purity. He found that the
servants of the Company were underpaid. But they received very
high commissions on revenues. In addition to that they conducted
forbidden and profitable private trade in the names of relatives and
friends. Cornwallis, who aimed at cleansing the administration,
abolished the vicious system of paying small salaries and allowing
enormous perquisites. He persuaded the Directors of the Company
to pay handsome salaries to the Company servants in order that they
might free themselves from commercial and corrupting activities.
Further, Cornwallis inaugurated the policy of making
appointments mainly on the basis of merit thereby laying the
foundation of the Indian Civil Service. To cut down on extravagances,
he abolished a number of surplus posts. Another major reform that
Cornwallis introduced was the separation of the three branches of
service, namely commercial, judicial and revenue. The collectors,
the king-pins of the administrative system were deprived of their
judicial powers and their work became merely the collection of
revenue.
18
Judicial Reforms was based upon the principle of Montesquieu, “the Separation of
Powers”, which was popular in the West in 18th century. In order to
In the work of judicial reorganization, Cornwallis secured the
curb undue exercise of authority Cornwallis made all officials
services of Sir William Jones, who was a judge and a great scholar.
answerable to the courts.
Civil and criminal courts were completely reorganized.
Police Reforms
1. At the top of the judicial system, the highest civil and criminal
courts of appeal, namely Sadar Diwani Adalat and Sadar The effective implementation of judicial reforms required the

Nizamat Adalat were functioning at Calcutta. Both of them
were presided over by the Governor-General and his Council.
2. There were four provincial courts of appeal at Calcutta, Dacca,
ia
reorganisation of police administration. The District Judge controlled
the police. Each district was divided into thanas or police circles
each of which was about 20 square miles. It was placed under an
Indian officer called the daroga who was ably assisted by many

ed
Murshidabad and Patna, each under three European judges
constables. However, the police organization was not effective. In
assisted by Indian advisers.
the words of Marshman, ‘the daroga enjoyed almost unlimited power
3. District and City courts functioned each under a European of extortion and became the scourge of the country”.
judge. Every district was provided with a court. As already
Other Reforms

M
stated, Cornwallis had taken away from the collectors of their
judicial powers and made them solely responsible for the Cornwallis reformed the Board of Trade which managed the
collection of revenue. As a result, District Judges were commercial investments of the Company. With the aid of Charles
appointed. Grant, he eradicated numerous abuses and corrupt practices. Fair
treatment was given to weavers and Indian workers. He increased
4.
the bottom of the judicial system.
e
Indian judges or Munsiffs were appointed to all the courts at
the remuneration for honest service.
Estimate of Cornwallis
re
In criminal cases, Muslim law was improved and followed. In
civil cases, Hindu and Muslim laws were followed according to the Cornwallis, a blue-blooded aristocrat, was an ardent patriot.
religion of the litigants. In suits between Hindus and Muslims, the He discharged his duties fearlessly, and his life was an embodiment
judge was the deciding authority. Cornwallis was merciful by of ‘duty and sacrifice’. He perceived the danger of Tipu’s growing
S

temperament. He hated barbarous punishments and abolished those
like mutilation and trial by ordeal.
Cornwallis was better known as a law giver than as an
administrator. With the help of his colleague, George Barlow,
Cornwallis prepared a comprehensive code, covering the whole field
of administration’, judicial, police, commercial and fiscal. This Code
power and curtailed it by boldly discarding the policy of
nonintervention. As an administrator, he consolidated the Company’s
position in India and started the tradition of efficient and pure
administration. Although there were defects in his Permanent
Settlement of Land Revenue, his administrative and judicial reforms
were solid achievements. He may be regarded the parent of the Indian

19 20
Administrative Service and founder of an efficient and clean system MODEL QUESTIONS
of administration.
Sir John Shore (1793-98) succeeded Cornwallis as Governor I. Choose the correct answer.
General and his administration was uneventful.
1. Lord Cornwallis introduced
(a) Mahalwari System
Learning Outcome

ia
(b) Permanent Revenue Settlement
The students have learnt
(c) Ryotwari System
1. The causes, course and results of the Third Mysore
War. (d) Jagirdari System

ed
2. Changes made in the administrative machinery by II. Fill in the blanks.
Cornwallis. 1. Lord Cornwallis prepared the law code with the help of his
3. Judicial reforms and its importance. colleague ……..
III. Match the following.

M
4. Reorganization of police.
5. A general estimate on the administration of Lord 1. Tripartite Alliance a. 1784
Cornwallis. 2. Treaty of Srirangapattinam b. 1786
3. Treaty of Mangalore c. 1789

e 4. Amendment to Pitt’s India Act d. 1792

re
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) Tipu Sultan concluded the Treaty of Srirangapattinam with the
French.
S

b) Daroga was a revenue official.

c) The Third Anglo-Mysore War took place after the death of
Haider Ali.

21 22
V. State whether the following statements are True or False. LESSON 3
1. The Treaty of Mangalore exposed the weakness of the THE MARQUESS OF WELLESLEY (1798-1805)
English.
2. During the time of Lord Cornwallis Hindu Law followed in Learning Objectives
criminal cases. Students will come to understand

VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. The political condition of India at the time of the arrival of

ia
Lord Wellesley
1. Treaty of Srirangapattinam.
2. The Meaning of Subsidiary System
2. Police Reforms of Lord Cornwallis. 3. Merits and defects of the Subsidiary System

ed
VII. Answer briefly (100 words). 4. The Indian states that come under this system
1. Discuss the causes for the Third Mysore War. 5. Fourth Mysore War and the final fall of Tipu Sultan

2. Write the judicial reforms of Lord Cornwallis. 6. War with the Marathas.
7. Estimate of Lord Wellesley
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

M
1. Estimate the reforms of Lord Cornwallis.
The appointment of Richard Colley Wellesley as Governor-
“Cornwallis’ life was embodiment of duty and sacrifice” – General marks an epoch in the history of British India. He was a
Justify. great imperialist and called himself ‘a Bengal tiger’. Wellesley came

e to India with a determination to launch a forward policy in order to

make ‘the British Empire in India’ into ‘the British Empire of India’.
re
The system that he adopted to achieve his object is known as the
‘Subsidiary Alliance’.
Political Condition of India at the time
of Wellesley’s Arrival
S

In the north-western India, the danger of

Zaman Shah’s aggression posed a serious threat
to the British power in India. In the north and
central India, the Marathas remained a
formidable political power. The Nizam of
LORD WELLESLEY Hyderabad employed the Frenchmen to train his

23 24
army. The political unrest in the Karnatak region continued and Tipu
Sultan had remained the uncompromising enemy of the British.
Moreover, the policy of neutrality adopted by Sir John Shore,
the successor of Cornwallis, created a kind of political unrest in India
and greatly affected the prestige of the English. His non-intervention
policy contributed much to the growth of anti-British feelings. Further,
Napoleon’s move for an Eastern invasion created a fear among
aggression and to help its ruler maintain internal peace. The
protected state should give some money or give part of its
territory to the British to support the subsidiary force.
2. The protected state should cut off its connection with European
powers other than the English and with the French in particular.
The state was also forbidden to have any political contact even
with other Indian powers without the permission of the British.

ia
English statesmen. It was in this light that Wellesley moulded his
3. The ruler of the protected state should keep a British Resident
policy. Preservation of British prestige and removal of French danger
at his court and disband his own army. He should not employ
from India were Wellesley’s twin aims.
Europeans in his service without the sanction of the paramount

ed
He was also thoroughly convinced that only a strong British power.
power in India could reduce and control the existing tyranny and
4. The paramount power should not interfere in the internal affairs
corruption in Indian states. Therefore, he reversed the nonintervention
of the protected state.
policy of his predecessor and formulated his master plan namely the

M
‘Subsidiary Alliance’. Benefits to the British

The Subsidiary System Wellesley’s Subsidiary System is regarded as one of the master-
strokes of British imperialism. It increased the military strength of
The predecessors of Wellesley concluded alliances with Indian
the Company in India at the expense of the protected states. The
princes like the Nawab of Oudh and the Nizam of Hyderabad. They

e
received subsidies from the Indian rulers for the maintenance of British
troops, which were used for the protection of respective Indian states.
territories of the Company were free from the ravages of war thereby
establishing the stability of the British power in India. The position of
the British was strengthened against its Indian and non-Indian
re
Wellesley enlarged and consolidated the already existing system.
enemies. Under the system, expansion of British power became easy.
However, his originality was revealed in its application.
Thus Wellesley’s diplomacy made the British the paramount power
Main Features of Subsidiary Alliance in India.
S

1. Any Indian ruler who entered into the subsidiary alliance with Defects of the Subsidiary System
the British had to maintain a contingent of British troops in his
The immediate effect of the establishment of subsidiary forces
territory. It was commanded by a British officer. The Indian
was the introduction of anarchy because of the unemployment of
state was called ‘the protected state’ and the British
thousands of soldiers sent away by the Indian princes. The freebooting
hereinafter were referred to as ‘the paramount power’. It
activities of disbanded soldiers were felt much in central India where
was the duty of the British to safeguard that state from external
the menace of Pindaris affected the people.

25 26
 Further, the subsidiary system had a demoralizing effect on
the princes of the protected states. Safeguarded against external
danger and internal revolt, they neglected their administrative
responsibilities. They preferred to lead easy-going and pleasure-
seeking lives. As a result misgovernment followed. In course of time,
the anarchy and misrule in several states had resulted in their
annexation by the British. Thus, the subsidiary system proved to be a
preparation for annexation.
Furthermore, the British collected very heavy subsidies from
the protected princes and this had adversely affected their economy.
ed
Enforcement of the Subsidiary System
Hyderabad: Hyderabad was the first state which was brought
under Wellesley’s Subsidiary System in 1798. The treaty concluded
in 1798 was an ad hoc measure. It fixed the amount to be paid annually
M
at Rs.24 lakhs for the subsidiary force. In accordance with the treaty,
all the French troops in Hyderabad were disbanded and replaced by
a subsidiary British force. A new treaty was concluded in 1800 by
which the Nizam ceded large territories to the Company and this
constitutes the famous Ceded Districts.
e
Oudh: The threat of invasion by Zaman Shah of Afghanistan
re
was the pretext for Wellesley to force the Nawab of Oudh to enter
into a subsidiary treaty. Accordingly, the Nawab gave the British the
rich lands of Rohilkhand, the lower Doab and Gorakhpur for the
maintenance of an increased army which the British stationed in the
S
capital of Oudh. The strength of Nawab’s own army was reduced.
For the maintenance of law and order the British were authorised to
frame rules and regulations. By this, the British acquired the right to
interfere in the internal matters of Oudh. Although the Company
obtained a fertile and populous territory, which increased its resources,
the highhanded action of Wellesley was severely criticized.
27
Tanjore, Surat and the Karnatak
Wellesley assumed the administration of Tanjore, Surat and
the Karnatak by concluding treaties with the respective rulers of
these states. The Maratha state of Tanjore witnessed a succession
dispute. In 1799, Wellesley concluded a treaty with Serfoji. In
accordance with this treaty the British took over the administration
of the state and allowed Serfoji to retain the title of Raja with a
ia
pension of 4 lakhs of rupees.
Raja Sarbhoji was a man of culture and attractive manners.
He was the disciple of Schwarts. He built the Saraswathi Mahal
Library in Tanjore which contains valuable books and manuscripts.
He patronized art and culture.
The principality of Surat came under British protection as early
as 1759. The Nawab of this historic city died in 1799 and his brother
succeeded him. The change of succession provided Wellesley an
opportunity to take over the administration of Surat. The Nawab
was allowed to retain the title and given a pension of one lakh of
rupees.
The people of Karnatak had been suffering for a long time by
the double government. The Nawab, Umadat-ul-Umara was an
incompetent ruler noted for his extravagance and misrule. He died in
the middle of 1801 and his son, Ali Hussain became the Nawab.
Wellesley asked him to retire with a liberal pension leaving the
administration to the English. Since he refused, Wellesley signed a
treaty with Azim-ud daulah, the nephew of the deceased Nawab in
1801. Accordingly the entire military and civil administration of the
Karnatak came under the British.
The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799)
The circumstances which led to the Fourth Mysore War can
be summarized as follows: Tipu Sultan wanted to avenge his
28
humiliating defeat and the terms imposed on him by the British. He
also aimed at making Mysore a strong state. Tipu worked continuously
to secure help to fight British imperialism. He took efforts to seek
the help of the France, Arabia, Kabul and Turkey. He corresponded
with the Revolutionary French Government in July 1798. At
Srirangapattinam, a Jacobian Club was started and the flag of the
French Republic was hoisted. The tree of Liberty was also planted.
Later, when Napoleon came to power, Tipu received a friendly letter
from Napoleon (who was in Egypt at that time).
It was at this juncture that Wellesley reached Calcutta with a
ed
mind already filled with fear of Napoleon. Therefore, he prepared for a
war against Mysore. As a part of his strategy, Wellesley tried to revive
the Triple Alliance of 1790 with the Marathas. Though his proposal was
not accepted by the Marathas, they promised to remain neutral. However,
a Subsidiary Alliance with the Nizam was concluded by the British and
M
as a consequence, the French force at Hyderabad was disbanded.
Wellesley set out to persuade Tipu to accept a pact of subsidiary
alliance and wrote letters requesting the Tipu to dismiss the French,
to receive an English envoy, and to make terms with the Company
e
and its allies. Tipu paid scant attention to Wellesley’s letters and
thus the Fourth Anglo-Mysore war started.
re
The war was short and decisive. As planned, the Bombay army
under General Stuart invaded Mysore from the west. The Madras
army, which was led by the Governor-General’s brother, Arthur
S
Wellesley, forced Tipu to retreat to his capital Srirangapattinam.
Although severely wounded, he fought till his capital Srirangapattinam
was captured and he himself was shot dead.
Mysore After the War
With the fall of Tipu Sultan the kingdom of Mysore fell at the
feet of Wellesley. He restored Hindu rule at the central part of the
29
kingdom. A five year old boy, Krishnaraja III, a descendant of the
dethroned Hindu Raja, was enthroned at Mysore, which became the
capital almost after two hundred years. Purnaiya, the previous
minister, became Diwan. The remaining parts of the kingdom were
divided between the British and the Nizam. The whole of Kanara,
Wynad, Coimbatore, Dharmapuri and Srirangapattinam were retained
by the British whereas the Nizam was given the areas around Gooty
ia
and a part of Chittoor and Chitaldurg districts. A British Resident
was stationed at Mysore. Tipu’s family was sent to the fort of Vellore.
Wellesley and the Marathas
The only power that remained outside the purview of the
subsidiary system was the Marathas. Nana Fadnavis provided the
leadership to the Marathas. He was responsible for the preservation
of independence of his country from the onslaught of the British. By
extending a helping hand to Cornwallis against Tipu he was able to
acquire a large slice of territory as the share of the Marathas from
the kingdom of Mysore. His death in 1800 removed the last great
Maratha leader.
Peshwa Baji Rao II, despite his stately appearance and
immense learning, lacked political wisdom. The infighting among the
Maratha leaders proved to be self-destructive. Jaswant Rao Holkar
and Daulat Rao Scindia were fighting against each other. The Peshwa
supported Scindia against Holkar. Holkar marched against the
Peshwa. The combined forces of Scindia and the Peshwa were utterly
defeated. The city of Poona fell at the feet of the victor who did not
hesitate to commit all sorts of atrocities, including the torturing of
rich inhabitants. With rich booty Holkar returned to his capital.
Peshwa Baji Rao II was in great danger, so he fled to Bassein
where he signed the Treaty of Bassein with the British in 1802. It
was a subsidiary treaty and the Peshwa was recognized as the head
of the Maratha kingdom. Although it was nominal, the treaty was
30
 considered the crowning triumph of Wellesley’s Subsidiary System.
In accordance with this document, the foreign policy of the Marathas
came under British control and therefore any action of the Maratha
chiefs against the British was successfully prevented. That is the
reason why the Marathas considered the treaty as a document of
surrendering their independence.
As an immediate response to the Treaty of Bassein, the

ia
British troops marched under the command of Arthur Wellesley
towards Poona and restored the Peshwa to his position. The forces
of Holkar vanished from the Maratha capital.

ed
The Second Maratha War (1803-1805)
Daulat Rao Scindia and Raghoji Bhonsle took the Treaty of
Bassein as an insult to the national honour of the Marathas. Soon the
forces of both the chieftains were united and they crossed the river

M
Narmada. Wellesley seized this opportunity and declared war in
August 1803.
Arthur Wellesley captured Ahmadnagar in August 1803 and
defeated the combined forces of Scindia and Bhonsle at Assaye near

e Aurangabad.
Subsequently, Arthur Wellesley carried the war into Bhonsle’s
re
territory and completely defeated the Maratha forces on the plains
of Argaon. As a result, the Treaty of Deogaon was signed between
Bhonsle and Wellesley. The former signed the subsidiary treaty which
S

forced him to give up the province of Cuttack in Orissa.

The campaign of British commander Lord Lake against the
forces of Scindia was rather dramatic. Lake triumphantly entered
the historic city of Delhi and took Shah Alam, the Mughal Emperor
under British protection. Lake was quick in consolidating his
conquests. By negotiating with the Raja of Bharatpur, he occupied
Agra. Sadly this military engagement proved to be a battle of great

31 32
slaughter in which thousands of Maratha soldiers perished. Scindia
signed a subsidiary treaty with the British. It is known as the Treaty
of Surji –Arjungaon.
During the war against Bhonsle and Scindia, Holkar remained
aloof because he was Scindia’s enemy. However, when Wellesley
offered an alliance, Holkar made extreme demands. This made
Wellesley to declare war against Holkar. The campaign against Holkar
Learning Outcome
After studying this lesson the student has understood that
1. The political condition in India was not favourable to the
British
2. The techniques of Subsidiary System by which Wellesley
expanded the British control over the Indian states.

ia
3. The manner in which the Indian states were admitted into
was well-organised but the English generals for the first time
this system.
committed blunders. Holkar remained unsubdued.
4. Later this led to their permanent inclusion into the British
Estimate of Wellesley

ed
empire.
An unscrupulous annexationist and an advocate of forward policy, 5. The Fourth Mysore War and the defeat of Tipu Sultan
Wellesley was one of the greatest empire-builders that England had ever removed an important threat to the expansion of the British
produced. Wellesley converted the British Empire in India to the British in India.
Empire of India. The establishment of British paramountcy in India was

M
6. The Second Maratha War exposed the weaknesses of the
his supreme task. He located the weak spots of the Indian powers and Maratha confederacy and the advantages of the British.
applied his political technique (namely Subsidiary Alliance). By the
7. Wellesley was able to make the Company an imperial power
annexation of Karnatak and Tanjore he paved the way for the formation
in the Indian subcontinent.
of the Madras Presidency. He rightly deserves to be called the maker of

e
the erstwhile Madras Presidency and the creator of the Province of
Agra. In this manner a great part of the Indian subcontinent was brought
re
under Company protection. “He turned the East India Company from a
trading corporation into an imperial power”.
Sir George Barlow was the next Governor-General
for two years (1805-07). The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 took
S

place during his administration. He was succeeded by Lord

Minto (1807-13) who concluded the Treaty of Amritsar with
Ranjit Singh of Punjab in 1809. The Charter Act of 1813
was passed during this period.

33 34
 MODEL QUESTIONS V State whether the following statements are True or False.
I. Choose the correct answer. 1. Sir John Shore was the successor of Lord Wellesley.
1. The first state which was brought under Wellesley’s Subsidiary 2. Baji Rao signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802.
System in 1798 was
3. After the fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu’s family was sent to
(a) Oudh (b) Tanjore the Fort of Vellore.

ia
(c) Surat (d) Hyderabad VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
II. Fill in the blanks. 1. Defects of the Subsidiary System.
1. The fourth Anglo-Mysore war took place in the year …… 2. Treaty of Bassein

ed
2. The Subsidiary treaty signed by Scindia with the British is know VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
as ……..
1. Point out the main features of the Subsidiary System.
III. Match the following.
2. Discuss the circumstances that led to the fourth Mysore War.
1. Krishnaraja III a. Marathas

M
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
2. Serfoji b. Karnatak
1. Examine the enforcement of the Subsidiary System by Lord
3. Nana Fadnavis c. Mysore Wellesley.
4. Umadat-ul-Umara d. Tanjore 2. Estimate the achievements of Lord Wellesley.
IV.
e
Find out the correct statement. Only one statement alone
is correct.
re
a. Tanjore was the first state which was brought under Wellesley’s
Subsidiary System in 1798.
b. Wellesley tried to revive the Triple Alliance of 1789.
S

c. Peshwa Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein with the

British in 1802.
d. Scindia signed the Treaty of Deogaon with the British

35 36
 LESSON 4
LORD HASTINGS (1813-1823)
Learning Objectives
Students will come to know
1. The condition of India when Lord Hastings became
Governor-General.
2. The War with Nepal, the kingdom of the Gurkhas.
ed
3. Who were the Pindaris and how they were exterminated.
4. The third and Final War with the Marathas.
5. The causes for the defeat of the Marathas at the hands of the
British.
M
6. The Reforms introduced by Lord Hastings.
7. An estimate of Lord Hastings.
e
Lord Hastings became Governor-
General in 1813. He adopted a vigorous
forward policy and waged wars extensively.
re
His aggressive and imperialist polices paved
the way for the general of expansion of the
British Empire. He further expanded the
British power in India.
S
The conditions in India when he assumed
power posed a serious threat to the British
LORD HASTINGS
administration. There was anarchy in central
India. The Pindaris plundered the whole region and the Marathas
could not control them. Also, there was infighting among the Maratha
chiefs. Yet, they were aiming at the expulsion of the British from
37
India. The Peshwa was secretly plotting against the British. Hastings
was also troubled by the expansion of the Gurkha power. Therefore,
Hastings determined to restore order by suppressing the Pindaris
and to eliminate threats to the British power by waging wars with the
Marathas and the Gurkhas.
War against the Gurkhas (1814-16)
ia
Nepal emerged as a powerful Gurkha state in 1768. This country
is situated to the north of India with its boundary touching China in
the north and Bengal and Oudh in the east and south, respectively. In
1801, the British acquired the districts of Gorakhpur and Basti from
the Nawab of Oudh. This move brought the boundary of Nepal to
touch the British frontier. The aggressions of the Gurkhas into the
British territories culminated in a war. In May 1814, the Gurkhas
attacked the British police post and killed 18 policemen and their
officer. Hastings declared war on Nepal. In 1814 several battles were
fought between the British and the Gurkhas. Amar Singh Thapa, the
able General of Nepal Army was forced to surrender.
In March 1816, the Treaty of Sagauli was concluded. The
Gurkhas gave up their claim over the Tarai region and ceded the
areas of Kumaon and Garhwal to the British. The British now secured
the area around Simla and their north-western borders touched the
Himalayas. The Gurkhas had to withdraw from Sikkim and they also
agreed to keep a British Resident at Katmandu. It was also agreed
that the kingdom of Nepal would not employ any other foreigner in
its services other than the English. The British had also obtained the
sites of hill stations like Simla, Mussoori, Nainital, Ranikhet and
developed them as tourist and health resorts. After this victory in the
Gurkha War Hastings was honoured with English peerage and he
became Marquis of Hastings.
38
Suppression of the Pindaris
The origin of Pindaris is lost in obscurity. The first reference
about them is during the Mughal invasion of Maharashtra. They did
not belong to any particular caste or creed. They used to serve the
army without any payment but instead were allowed to plunder.
During the time of Baji Rao I, they were irregular horsemen attached
to the Maratha army. It is worth mentioning here that they never
out. The Maratha chiefs fought amongst themselves and their
successors were invariably weak and incapable. The relationships
of powerful Maratha chiefs like the Bhonsle, Gaekwar, Scindia, Holkar
and the Peshwa were ridden with mutual jealousies.
Peshwa Baji Rao II wanted to become the head of the Maratha
Confederacy and at the same time wanted freedom from the British
control. His Chief Minister Tirimbakji encouraged him.

ia
helped the British. They were mostly active in the areas of Rajputana
On the advice of the Company, the Gaekwar sent his Prime
and the Central Provinces and subsisted on plunder. Their leaders
Minister Gangadhar Shastri to negotiate with the Peshwa. On his
belonged to both the Hindu as well as the Muslim communities. Chief
way back, Gangadhar Shastri, was murdered at Nasik in July 1815,

ed
amongst them were Wasil Muhammad, Chitu and Karim Khan. They
at the instance of Triambakji.
had thousands of followers.
This caused a lot of anger not only among the Marathas but
In 1812, the Pindaris plundered the districts of Mirzapur and
also among the British. The latter asked the Peshwa to handover
Shahabad and in 1815 they raided the Nizam’s dominions. In 1816,
Triambakji to them. Peshwa handed over his Minister to the British,

M
they plundered the Northern Circars. Lord Hastings determined to
who lodged him in Thana jail from where he escaped. Consequently,
suppress the Pindaris. For this he gathered a large army of 1,13,000
on 13 June 1817, the British Resident Elphinstone forced the Peshwa
men and 300 guns and attacked the Pindaris from four sides. He
to sign the Treaty of Poona. Baji Rao gave up his desire to become
himself took command of the force from the north while Sir Thomas
the supreme head of the Marathas.
Hislop commanded the force from the south. By 1818, the Pindaris

e
were completely suppressed and all their bands disintegrated. Karim
Khan was given a small estate in the Gorakhpur district of the United
Third Maratha War (1817-1819)
But soon the Peshwa undid this treaty with the British and on
re
Provinces. Wasil Muhammad took refuge in the Scindia’s camp but 5 November 1817 attacked the British Residency. He was defeated
the latter handed him over to the British. Wasil committed suicide in at a place called Kirkee. Similarly, the Bhonsle chief, Appa Sahib
captivity and Chitu escaped to the forest, where a tiger killed him. also refused to abide by the Treaty of Nagpur, which he had signed
Thus, by 1824, the menace of the Pindaris came to an end.
S

with the British on 17 May 1816. According to this treaty, Nagpur

Downfall of the Maratha Confederacy
The third major achievement of Lord Hastings was against the
Marathas. In reality, the Maratha power had weakened considerably
after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) and the two subsequent
wars against the British. But the Marathas had not finally crushed
came under the control of the Company. He fought with the British
in the Battle of Sitabaldi in November 1817, but was defeated. The
Peshwa now turned to Holkar for help, but Holkar too was defeated
by the British on 21 December 1817 at Baroda. Therefore, by
December 1817 the dream of a Mighty Maratha Confederacy was
finally shattered.

39 40
 In 1818, Scindia was also forced to sign a new treaty with the
British on the basis of which Ajmer was given to the Nawab of Bhopal,
who also accepted the British suzerainty. The Gaekwar of Baroda,
while accepting the Subsidiary Alliance, agreed to hand over certain
areas of Ahmedabad to the British. The Rajput states which were
under the Pindaris were freed after the latter’s suppression.
The year 1818 was a significant year on account of major
Madras Presidency by Sir Thomas Munroe. In the sphere of
judiciary, the Cornwallis Code was improved. The Police system of
Bengal was extended to other regions. The importance of Indian
Munsiffs had increased during his administration. The separation of
judicial and revenue departments was not rigidly followed. Instead,
the District Collector acted as Magistrate.
Hastings had also encouraged the foundation of vernacular

ia
political achievements for the British. The Maratha dream of schools by missionaries and others. In 1817, the Hindu College was
establishing themselves as the paramount power in India was established at Calcutta by the public for the teaching of English and
completely destroyed. Thus, the last hurdle in the way of British western science. Hastings was the Patron of this college. He

ed
paramountcy was removed. encouraged the freedom of the Press and abolished the censorship
introduced in 1799. The Bengali Weekly, Samachar Darpan was
Causes of the Defeat of the Marathas
started in 1818 by Marshman, a Serampore missionary.
There were several reasons for the defeat of the Marathas in
Estimate
the Anglo-Maratha Wars. The main reasons were:

M
Lord Hastings was an able soldier and a brilliant administrator.
§ Lack of capable leadership
His liberal views on education and Press are commendable. He
§ Military weakness of the Marathas. suppressed the Pindaris, defeated the Marathas and curbed the power
§ The major drawback of the Maratha power was mutual of the Gurkhas. His territorial gains strengthened the British power

§ e
bitterness and lack of cooperation amongst themselves.
The Marathas hardly left any positive impact on the conquered
in India. He was considered the maker of the Bombay Presidency.
In short, he completed and consolidated the work of Wellesley.
re
territories. Lord Hastings was succeeded by Lord Amherst
(1823-28) who fought the First Anglo-Mysore War
§ The Marathas did not have cordial relations with other princes
(1824-26).
and Nawabs of India.
S

§ The Marathas failed to estimate correctly the political and

diplomatic strength of the British.
Reforms of Hastings
The Governor-Generalship of Lord Hastings witnessed not only
territorial expansion but also the progress of administration. He
approved the Ryotwari system of land revenue introduced in the

41 42
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After studying this lesson the student is able to explain I. Choose the correct answer.

1. The chief tasks that Lord Hastings had to fulfil when he 1. Lord Hastings declared war on Nepal in the year
came to India. (a) 1814 (b) 1815
2. The Gurkhas were defeated in the war and surrendered to (c) 1816 (d) 1817
the British.

ia
II. Fill in the blanks.
3. The Pindaris remained a nuisance to the peace and
1. In 1768 ……. emerged as a powerful Gurkha state.
tranquillity of central India and the efforts taken by
Hastings to eliminate them. 2. The third Battle of Panipat took place in the year …..

ed
4. The weaknesses of the Maratha confederacy and the III. Match the following.
supremacy of the British, who overpowered them.
1. Amar Singh Thapa a. Pindaris
5. The Reforms of Lord Hastings.
2. Karim Khan b. Bengali Weekly

M
3. Sir Thomas Munroe c. General of Nepal
4. Samachar Darpan d. Ryotwari System
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is

e a)
right.
Lord Hasings adopted the polify of non-intervention.
re
b) Treaty of Saugali was concluded in 1815,
c) The leaders of Pindrais belonged to Sikh community.
d) Lord Hastings was the patron of the Hindu College at Calcutta.
S

V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

1. After the Gurkha war, the Gurkhas had agreed to keep a British
Resident at Kathmandu.
2. Triambakji was the Chief Minister of Baji Rao II.

43 44
VI. Write short notes (Any three points). LESSON 5
1. Gurkha War. LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK (1828-1835)
2. Reforms of Lord Hastings.
Learning Objectives
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
Students will understand
1. Discuss the efforts taken by Lord Hastings to eliminate the
1. Bentinck’s basic attitude towards reforms.

ia
Pindaris.
2. Mention the causes for the downfall of the Maratha 2. His policy towards the Indian states.
Confederacy. 3. His cordial relations with Ranjit Singh.

ed
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). 4. The Charter Act of 1833 and its importance.
1. Evaluate the administration of Lord Hastings. 5. Bentinck’s financial and administrative reforms.
2. Examine the causes and effects of the Third Maratha War. 6. His social reforms – Abolition of Sati, Suppression
of Thugs and prevention of female infanticide.

M
7. His educational reforms.

Lord William Bentinck assumed the office of the Governor-

General in 1828. Born in 1774 he commenced his career as a soldier

e and later at the young age of twenty two he became a Member of

Parliament. He was appointed the Governor of Madras in 1803. He
re
supported Sir Thomas Munroe on revenue administration. The Vellore
Mutiny of 1806 had resulted in Bentinck’s
recall. However, his appointment again to the
higher office as Governor-General shows his
S

real greatness. As Governor-General, Bentinck

had initiated an era of progress and reforms.
He was undoubtedly the first Governor-
General of British India who acted on the
dictum that “the welfare of the subject peoples
was a main, perhaps the primary, duty of the
LORD WILLIAM BENTINCK British in India”.

45 46
Policy Towards Indian States
William Bentinck adopted a policy of non-intervention and
non-aggression with Indian states. If at all he interfered in the affairs
of the Indian states, it was only to end any form of misgovernment
and never to annex any territory.
Mysore
country behaved in an unruly way by abducting a few subjects of
British India with the evil intention of sacrificing them to the goddess
Kali. Therefore, the Governor-General acted promptly to avert any
recurrence of such cruel abhorrent act and annexed this country.
Coorg
Vira Raja was a ruthless ruler of Coorg who treated his people

ia
with savage barbarity and killed all his male relatives. Lord William
In Mysore, Hindu rule under Krishnaraja III was restored by
Bentinck decided to deal with him effectively and sent Colonel Lindsay
Wellesley. In the beginning, the young Raja functioned well along
to capture Mercara, the capital of the Coorg state. The Raja was
with his able minister Puranaiya. Later, when the young raja assumed
deposed in 1834 and the state was annexed.

ed
full control of the government he proved incompetent. The peasantry
of the state suffered from many grievances. There was no redressal. Relations with Ranjit Singh
Consequently, a revolt of the peasants broke out in 1830 and it was
Lord William Bentinck was the first Governor-General to
suppressed with the help of an army from Madras. Nonetheless, the
visualise a Russian threat to India. Hence, he was eager to negotiate
British authorities took over the administration of Mysore State and

M
friendly relations both with the ruler of Punjab, Maharajah Ranjit
placed it under the control of a commissioner. The Raja was given a
Singh and also with the Amirs of Sind. His earnest desire was that
pension.
Afghanistan should be made a buffer state between India and any
Sir Mark Cubbon was commissioner from 1834 to possible invader. As an initial measure, an exchange of gifts took
1861 and his administration was beneficial to the people place between Lahore, the capital of Punjab and Calcutta, the seat
of Mysore. Even today, the famous Cubbon Park in
e
Bangalore city has been named after him to remind his
of Governor-General. It was then followed by the meeting of Bentinck
and Ranjit Singh on 25 October, 1831 at Rupar on the bank of the
re
services to Mysore. river Sutlej amidst show and splendor. The Governor-General was
successful in winning the friendship of Ranjit Singh and the Indus
Cachar and Jaintia
Navigation Treaty was concluded between them. This treaty opened
The principality of Cachar lying in the North East Frontier came up the Sutlej for navigation. In addition, a commercial treaty was
S

under the protection of the British in accordance with the Treaty of
Yandaboo concluded at the end of the first Burmese War. The Raja
of this small state was assassinated in 1832 but there was no heir to
succeed him. Bentinck annexed this state at the wish of the people.
Jaintia was one of the territories brought under the custody of
the British after the first Anglo-Burmese War. The ruler of the small
negotiated with Ranjit Singh. A similar treaty was also concluded
with the Amirs of Sind.
Charter Act of 1833
The Regulating Act of 1773 made it compulsory to renew the
Company’s Charter after twenty years. Hence, the Charter Act of
1793 was passed by the Parliament. It extended the life of Company

47 48
for another twenty years and introduced minor changes in the existing
set up. The Charter Act of 1813 provided one lakh of rupees annually
for the promotion of Indian education. It also extended the Company’s
charter for another twenty years.
The Charter Act of 1833 was a significant constitutional
instrument defining the scope and authority of the East India Company.
The liberal and utilitarian philosophy of Bentham was made
popular by the provisions of this Act. Following were the important
provisions:
(i) The English East India Company ceased to be a
ed
commercial agency in India. In other words, it would function
hereafter as the political agent for the Crown.
(ii) The Governor-General of Fort William was hereafter
called ‘the Governor- General of India’. Thus, Bentinck was the
M
first Governor-General of India’.
(iii) A Law Member was appointed to the Governor-General’s
Council. T. B. Macaulay was the first Law Member of the Governor-
General-in-Council.
e
(iv) The Act categorically stated ‘that no native of India, nor
any natural born subject of His Majesty, should be disabled from
re
holding any place, office, or employment, by reason of his religion,
place of birth, descent or colour”. It was this enactment which laid
the foundation for the Indianisation of public services.
S
After twenty years, the Charter Act of 1853 was passed and
it was the last in the series of Charter Acts.
Reforms of Lord William Bentinck
The advent of Lord William Bentinck ushered in a new era in
the annals of India in many ways. Although his tenure of office
49
covered only a short span of seven years, it saw a period of enduring
reforms. They may be classified as financial, administrative, social
and educational.
Financial Reforms
When Bentinck assumed the Governor-Generalship in 1828,
the financial position of the Company was poor. The exchequer was
ia
very weak. The state budget showed a deficit of one million rupees.
It became necessary on the part of the Governor-General to take
effective steps to improve the financial condition. To achieve this he
adopted the following measures:
He reduced the salaries and allowances of all officers and
additional staff were removed. In the military department, he abolished
the system of double batta. (Batta was an allowance to troops on
active service.) By these financial reforms at the time of his departure,
he left the treasury with a surplus of Rs.1.5 millions.
Administrative Reforms
Bentinck’s administrative reforms speak of his political maturity
and wisdom. In the judicial department he abolished the provincial
courts of appeal established by Cornwallis. They were largely
responsible for the huge arrears of cases. This step was readily
accepted by the Directors since it cut down their expenditure. Another
good measure of Bentinck was the introduction of local languages in
the lower courts and English in the higher courts in the place of
Persian. Even in matters of revenue Bentinck left his mark. He
launched the revenue settlements of the North West Province under
the control of R.M. Bird. This settlement was for a period of 30
years and it was made either with the tillers of the soil, or with the
landowners.
50
Social Reforms
The social reforms of William Bentinck made his name immortal
in the history of British India. These include the abolition of Sati, the
suppression of Thugs and the prevention of female infanticide.
Abolition of Sati
The practice of sati, the age old custom of burning of widows
alive on the funeral pyre of their husbands was prevalent in India from
ancient times. This inhuman social custom was very common in northern
India more particularly in Bengal. Bentinck was greatly distressed when
ed
he received a report of 800 cases of sati in a single year and that from
Bengal. He determined to abolish this practice which he considered an
offence against natural justice. Therefore, he became a crusader against
it and promulgated his Regulation XVII on 4 December 1829 prohibiting
the practice of sati. Those who practiced sati were made liable for
M
punishment by law courts as accessories to the crime. The Regulation
was extended to the Madras and Bombay Presidencies in 1830.
Suppression of Thugs
e
The most commendable measure which Bentinck undertook
and which contributed to the material welfare of the people was the
suppression of the ‘thugs’. They were hereditary robbers. They went
re
about in small groups of fifty to hundred posing as commercial gangs
or pilgrims ‘strangling and robbing peaceful travellers’. They
increased in number in central and northern India during the 18th
S
century when anarchy reigned after the disintegration of the Mughal
Empire. A campaign was systematically organised by Colonel
Sleeman from 1830 against the thugs. During the course of five years
nearly 2000 of them were captured. A greater number of them were
exterminated and the rest were transported to the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. For his role in the suppression of thugs, Sir William
Sleeman was known as “Thugee Sleeman”.
51
Female Infanticide
Female infanticide was one of the horrible and heartless deeds
committed even by civilized people. This practice killing female infants
was very much prevalent in places like Rajputana, Punjab, Malwa
and Cutch. Bentinck took effective steps to prevent the ritual of child
sacrifice at Saugar Island in Bengal. He not only prohibited female
infanticide but declared them as punishable crime.
ia
Introduction of English Education
The introduction of English Education was a significant event
of Lord William Bentinck’s administration. He appointed a committee
headed by Lord Macaulay to make recommendations for the
promotion of education. In his report, Macaulay emphasized the
promotion of European literature and science through English medium
to the people of India. This recommendation was wholeheartedly
accepted by William Bentinck. The Government Resolution in 1835
made English the official and literary language of India. In the same
year, William Bentinck laid foundation of the Calcutta Medical
College.
Estimate of William Bentinck
Bentinck was a “straightforward, honest, upright, benevolent,
sensible man”. His social reforms such as abolition of sati and
prevention of child sacrifice eradicated age old evils from Hindu
society. It is gratifying to note that “Bentinck acted where others
had talked”. To enforce the regulations regarding the prohibition of
sati, he was prepared to risk his own position. Such courage and
straightforwardness were seldom found among the administrators of
those days. His educational reforms heralded a new age in India.
52
 MODEL QUESTIONS
After William Bentinck, Lord Auckland (1836-42)
became Governor-General. The First Afghan War I. Choose the correct answer.
(1836-42) was fought during his administration. Due to 1. English was adopted as the official language of British India in
his failure in Afghanistan he was recalled in 1842. Lord
(a) 1833 (b) 1835
Ellenborough succeeded him and ended the Afghan War.
He also annexed the Sindh. His successor, Lord Hardinge (c) 1837 (d) 1839

ia
(1844-48) fought the first Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) and 2. The practice of Sati was abolished during the administration of
concluded the Treaty of Lahore.
(a) Warren Hastings (b) Lord Cornwallis

Learning Outcome (c) Lord Wellesley (d) Lord William Bentinck

ed
After learning this lesson, the student should be able to II. Fill in the blanks.
explain 1. The Vellore Mutiny broke out in the year ……
1. William Bentinck, despite following the policy of 2. In the military department Lord William Bentinck abolished

M
nonintervention, compelled to annex the states like the system of …….
Mysore.
III. Match the following.
2. He achieved friendship with Raja Ranjit Singh of
Punjab and concluded the Treaty of Amritsar. 1. Lord Macaulay a. Thugs

e
3. The importance of the Charter of 1833.
4. Bentinck’s efficient administrative measures through
2.
3.
Vira Raja
William Sleeman
b. Law Member
c. Punjab
re
financial and administrative reforms 4. Ranjit Singh d. Coorg
5. Bentinck inaugurated an era of social reforms which IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
included the abolition of sati, suppression of thugs right.
S

and prevention of female infanticide.

a) The Regulating Act of 1773 made it mandatory to renew the
6. His educational reforms remained the basis for the Company’s Charter after thirty years.
modernization of India.
b) The Charter Act of 1833 provided five lakhs of rupees for the
promotion of Indian education.
c) The Charter Act of 1833 made Lord William Bentinck the first
Governor General of India.

53 54
d) The Charter Act of 1853 was renewed after twenty years. LESSON 6
V. State whether the following statements are True or False. LORD DALHOUSIE (1848-1856)
1. Lord William Bentinck assumed the office of the Governor
General in 1838. Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
2. Lord William Bentinck laid the foundation for the Calcutta
Medical College. 1. Dalhousie’s policy of annexation.

ia
VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 2. Annexation of Punjab and Lower Burma.
1. Ranjit Singh. 3. Doctrine of Lapse, its application to Indian states.

ed
2. Sati 4. Annexation of Oudh on the pretext of misrule.
3. Lord Macaulay. 5. Dalhousie’s domestic reforms including the
introduction of railways and telegraphs.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
6. His educational and other reforms.
1. Discuss the important provisions of the Charter act of 1833.

M
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). Lord Dalhousie was the youngest
1. Examine the policy of Lord William Bentinck towards the Governor-General of India when he assumed
Indian states. charge at the age of 36 in 1848. His early career

2.
e
“Bentinck inaugurated an era of social reforms” – Comment.
was remarkable. He studied in Christ Church,
Oxford. He became Member of Parliament and
enjoyed the confidence of Sir Robert Peel, the
re
Prime Minister of England. He did much for the
progress of railway construction in England as
LORD DALHOUSIE
the president of the Board of Trade. In 1847, he
S

was offered the Governor-Generalship of India which he accepted

and arrived at Calcutta in January 1848.
Policy of Annexation
The most important aspect of Dalhousie’s administration is related
to “the great drama of annexation”. His aims for expanding the
Company’s territories were administrative, imperial, commercial and

55 56
financial. Although he used different reasons for annexation, his main
objective was to end misrule in the annexed states, as in the case of the
annexation of Oudh. He aimed at providing the beneficent administration
to the people of the annexed states. At the same time he had in his mind
the advantages of annexation to the British such as imperial defence,
commercial and financial benefits. Though Dalhousie did not come to
India to follow a policy of annexation, but he was able to consolidate
British rule in India by his policy of annexation. His great annexations
include the Punjab, Lower Burma, most of the Central Provinces and
Oudh.
ed
Annexation of Punjab
At the end of the second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, Punjab was
annexed by Dalhousie. He organized the administration of Punjab very
efficiently. The province was divided into small districts under the control
M
of District Officers who were called Deputy Commissioners. These
commissioners with the help of their assistants came into close contact
with people. Revenue and judicial departments were combined to secure
concentration of power and responsibility. The laws and procedure were
simplified in accordance with the custom of the people. The overall
e
administration of Punjab was entrusted to the Chief Commissioner. In
fact, the Governor-General was the virtual ruler of Punjab. The services
re
of Lawrence brothers in the administration of Punjab were notable.
Within three years perfect order was restored in the province. It was
efficiently defended from internal and external enemies. In 1859, Sir
John Lawrence became the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab.
S
Second Burmese War and the Annexation of Lower Burma
In 1852, commercial disputes in Rangoon prompted new hostilities
between the British and the Burmese. After the end of the second
Burmese War (1852), Dalhousie annexed Lower Burma with its
capital at Pegu. Major Arthur Phayre was appointed the Commissioner
of the new province. His administration also proved to be efficient. The
57
annexation of Lower Burma proved beneficial to Britain. Rangoon,
Britain’s most valuable acquisition from the war became one of the biggest
ports in Asia.
Doctrine of Lapse
Dalhousie also took advantage of every opportunity to acquire
territory by peaceful means. The East India Company was rapidly
ia
becoming the predominant power in India. It had concluded alliances
with Indian rulers. It promised to support them and their heirs in return
for various concessions. Although this type of agreement favoured the
British, Dalhousie sought to acquire even more power. According to the
Hindu Law, one can adopt a son in case of no male heir to inherit the
property. The question arose whether a Hindu ruler, holding his state
subordinate to the paramount power, could adopt a son to succeed his
kingdom. It was customary for a ruler without a natural heir to ask the
British Government whether he could adopt a son to succeed him.
According to Dalhousie, if such permission was refused by the British,
the state would “lapse” and thereby become part of the British India.
Dalhousie maintained that there was a difference in principle between
the right to inherit private property and the right to govern. This principle
was called the Doctrine of Lapse.
The Doctrine of Lapse was applied by Dalhousie to Satara and it
was annexed in 1848. Jhansi and Nagpur were annexed in 1854. As a
result of these annexations, a large part of the Central Provinces came
under the British rule. The new province was governed by a Chief
Commissioner from 1861.
Although the Doctrine of Lapse cannot be regarded as illegal, its
application by Dalhousie was disliked by Indian princes. The advantages
of the annexations of Satara, Jhansi and Nagpur were substantial to the
British. Dalhousie was blamed for using the Doctrine of Lapse as an
instrument in pursuing his policy of annexation. After the Mutiny of 1857,
the doctrine of lapse was withdrawn.
58
 Later during the Mutiny of 1857, Rani Lakshmi Bai
of Jhansi played an important role in fighting against the
British.
Annexation of Oudh
The British relations with the state of Oudh go back to the
Treaty of Allahabad in 1765. Right from Warren Hastings, many
was appointed for a newly acquired territory. Under military reforms
Dalhousie shifted the headquarters of Bengal Artillery from Calcutta
to Meerut. Simla was made the permanent headquarters of the army.
Railways
The introduction railways in India inaugurated a new economic
era. There were three major reasons for the British to take interest
in its quick development. The first reason was commercial. The

ia
Governor-Generals advised the Nawab of Oudh to improve the
second main reason was administrative. The third reason was defense.
administration. But, misrule continued there and the Nawab was under
At the time of revolt and disturbance, movement of the forces was
the assumption that the British would not annex Oudh because of his
much easier through railways. Lord Dalhousie’s contribution in the
loyalty to them. In 1851, William Sleeman, Resident at Lucknow,

ed
development of railways is worth commending. In 1853, he penned
reported on the “spectacle of human misery and careless misrule”.
his Railway Minute formulating the future policy of railways in India.
But Sleeman was against the policy of annexing Oudh. After surveying
He started the “guarantee system” by which the railway companies
the situation in Oudh, Dalhousie annexed it in 1856. Nawab Wajid
were guaranteed a minimum interest of five percent on their
Ali was granted a pension of 12 lakhs of rupees per year. The annexed
investment. The government retained the right of buying the railway
territory came under the control of a Chief Commissioner.

M
Dalhousie’s annexation of Oudh, the last one among his
annexations, created great political danger. The annexation offended
the Muslim elite. More dangerous was the effect on the British army’s
Indian troops, many of whom came from Oudh, They had occupied a
at the end of the period of contract. The first railway line connecting
Bombay with Thane was opened in 1853. Railway lines connecting
from Calcutta to the Raniganj coal-fields was opened in 1854 and
from Madras to Arakkonam in 1856.

e
privileged position before its annexation. Under the British
Government they were treated as equals with the rest of the
The first railway in the world was opened in 1825 in
England.
re
population. This is a loss of prestige for them. In these various ways, Telegraph
the annexation of Oudh contributed to the Mutiny of 1857. Similarly, the use of Telegraph brought marvelous changes
Domestic Reforms of Dalhousie in communication system. In India, Lord Dalhousie’s contribution
in this respect is commendable. In 1852, O’Shaughnessy was
Dalhousie’s territorial acquisition transformed the map of India.
S

appointed the Superintendent of Telegraph Department. Main cities

He was not only a conqueror but also a great administrator. The
of the country viz., Calcutta, Peshawar, Bombay and Madras were
appointment of a Lieutenant-Governor to Bengal enabled Dalhousie
telegraphically connected. About 4000 miles long Telegraph lines
concentrate on administration. His greatest achievement was the
were laid before the departure of Dalhousie. During the 1857
molding of the new provinces into a modern centralized state. For
Revolt, the system of telegraphic communication proved a boon
the newly acquired territories, he introduced the centralized control
for the English and the military value of Dalhousie’s creation was
called “Non-Regulation System”. Under this system a Commissioner
much realized at that time.

59 60
Postal Reform
The foundation of modern postal system was laid down by
Lord Dalhousie. A new Post Office Act was passed in 1854.
Consequently, irrespective of the distance over which the letter was
sent, a uniform rate of half an anna per post card was charged
throughout India. Postage stamps were introduced for the first time.
Education

ia
Dalhousie had also evinced in the development of education. The
educational Despatch of Sir Charles Wood (1854) was considered the
“Intellectual Charter of India”. It provided an outline for the

ed
comprehensive scheme of education at primary, secondary and collegiate
levels. Dalhousie fully accepted the views of Charles Wood and took
steps to carry out the new scheme. Departments of Public Instructions
were organized. The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were
founded in 1857.

M
Public Works Department
Before the period of Dalhousie, the job of the Public Works
Department was done by the Military Board. Dalhousie created a
separate Public Works Department and allotted more funds for cutting

e
canals and roads. The Upper Ganges Canal was completed in 1854.
Many bridges were constructed. By modernizing the Public Works
re
Department he laid the foundations of the engineering service in India.
Estimate of Dalhousie
Dalhousie left India in 1856. The outbreak of Mutiny in the
S

following year led to a severe criticism of his policy of annexation.

Exhausted by his years of overwork in India, he fell ill and died in
1860. There is no doubt that Dalhousie was an able administrator
and visionary. He increased the extent of British India and
consolidated it. He inaugurated an era of progress on many sides.
He was the father of Railways and Telegraphs. He introduced the
process of modernization of India. Hence, he is hailed as “the maker
of modern India”.

61 62
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After studying this lesson, the students will be able to I. Choose the correct answer.
explain 1. Punjab was annexed by Dalhousie in the year
1. Dalhousie’s policy of annexation of states like Oudh (a) 1839 (b) 1849
was aimed at providing beneficent rule to Indian
states. (c) 1853 (d) 1856

ia
2. His annexation of Punjab, Lower Burma and most 2. Lawrence brothers lent their services in the administration of
of central India was nothing but expansion of British (a) Burma (b) Punjab
imperialism.

ed
(c) Bengal (d) Mysore
3. The Doctrine of Lapse was a tool in the hands of
II. Fill in the blanks.
Dalhousie for his policy of annexation.
1. The first railway line between Bombay and Thane was opened
4. Dalhousie remained a progressive reformer by
in the year…..
introducing modern methods of communication such

M
as railways and telegraphs. 2. The foundation of modern postal system was laid down by
……
5. The student can give an impartial estimate of
Dalhousie. III. Match the following.

e 1.
2.
Wood’s Despatch
Second Burmese War
a. 1857
b. 1856
re
3. Annexation of Oudh c. 1852
4. Foundation of the University of Madras d. 1854
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
S

right.
a) The doctrine of lapse was introduced by Lord Wellesley.
b) The doctrine of lapse can be regarded as illegal.
c) The doctrine of lapse was applied to annex Lower Burma.
d) The doctrine of lapse was withdrawn after the Mutiny of 1857.

63 64
V. State whether the following statements are True or LESSON 7
False.
REVENUE ADMINISTRATION AND
1. In 1850, O’Shaughnessy was appointed the Superintendent of ECONOMIC POLICY OF THE BRITISH
Telegraph Department.
2. The first railway line connecting Bombay with Thane was Learning Objectives
opened in 1853. Students will understand

ia
VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. The British agrarian policy.
1. Wood’s Despatch. 2. Different Land Revenue Systems introduced by the British.
2. Second Burmese War.

ed
3. The Merits and demerits of the revenue administration.
3. Dalhousie’s Postal Reforms 4. British policy towards the handicrafts industry.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words). 5. Causes for the decline of the Indian handicrafts.
1. Discuss the annexation of Oudh by Lord Dalhousie.

M
2. Explain the principle and application of the Doctrine of Lapse. British Agrarian Policy
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). It is a well-known fact that India is primarily an agricultural
1. Critically examine the annexation policy of Lord Dalhousie. country. The overwhelming majority of its people depend on

2. Estimate the reforms of Lord Dalhousie.

e agriculture for sustenance. If the crop is good, prosperity prevails
otherwise it leads to famine and starvation.
re
Till the 18th century, there was a strong relation between
agriculture and cottage industries in India. India was not only ahead
in the field of agriculture than most other countries but it also held a
prominent place in the world in the field of handicraft production.
S

The British destroyed handicraft industry in the country while

unleashing far-reaching changes in the country’s agrarian structure
by introducing new systems of land tenures and policies of revenue
administration.
India’s national income, foreign trade, industrial expansion and
almost every other dominion of economic activity, depended on the

65 66
country’s agriculture. The British policies revolved around getting
maximum income from land without caring much about Indian
interests of the cultivators. They abandoned the age -old system of
revenue administration and adopted in their place a ruthless policy of
revenue collection.
After their advent, the British principally adopted three types
of land tenures. Roughly 19 per cent of the total area under the
British rule, i.e., Bengal, Bihar, Banaras, division of the Northern
Western Provinces and northern Karnatak, were brought under the
Zamindari System or the Permanent Settlement. The second
ed
revenue system, called the Mahalwari Settlement, was introduced
in about 30 per cent of the total area under British rule i.e., in major
parts of the North Western Provinces, Central Provinces and the
Punjab with some variations. The Ryotwari System covered about
51 per cent of the area under British rule comprising part of the
M
Bombay and Madras Presidencies, Assam and certain other parts of
British India.
The Permanent Settlement
e
Lord Cornwallis’ most conspicuous administrative measure was
the Permanent Land Revenue Settlement of Bengal, which was
re
extended to the provinces of Bihar and Orissa. It is appropriate to
recall that Warren Hastings introduced the annual lease system of
auctioning the land to the highest bidder. It created chaos in the
revenue administration.
S
Cornwallis at the time of his appointment was instructed by
the Directors to find a satisfactory and permanent solution to the
problems of the land revenue system in order to protect the interests
of both the Company and the cultivators. It obliged the Governor-
General to make a thorough enquiry into the usages, tenures and
rents prevalent in Bengal. The whole problem occupied Lord
67
Cornwallis for over three years and after a prolonged discussion with
his colleagues like Sir John Shore and James Grant he decided to
abolish the annual lease system and introduce a decennial (Ten years)
settlement which was subsequently declared to be continuous. The
main features of the Permanent Settlement were as follows:
(i) The zamindars of Bengal were recognised as the owners
of land as long as they paid the revenue to the East India
ia
Company regularly.
(ii) The amount of revenue that the zamindars had to pay to
the Company was firmly fixed and would not be raised
under any circumstances. In other words the Government
of the East India Company got 89% leaving the rest to
the zamindars.
(iii) The ryots became tenants since they were considered
the tillers of the soil.
(iv) This settlement took away the administrative and judicial
functions of the zamindars.
The Permanent Settlement of Cornwallis was bitterly criticised
on the point that it was adopted with ‘undue haste’. The flagrant
defect of this arrangement was that no attempt was made ever either
to survey the lands or to assess their value. The assessment was
made roughly on the basis of accounts of previous collections and it
was done in an irregular manner. The effects of this system both on
the zamindars and ryots were disastrous. As the revenue fixed by
the system was too high, many zamindars defaulted on payments.
Their property was seized and distress sales were conducted leading
to their ruin. The rich zamindars who led luxurious lives left their
villages and migrated into towns. They entrusted their rent collection
to agents who exacted all kinds of illegal taxes besides the legal ones
from the ryots.
68
 This had resulted in a great deal of misery amongst the peasants
and farmers. Therefore Lord Cornwallis’ idea of building a system
of benevolent land-lordism failed. Baden Powell remarks, “The
zamindars as a class did nothing for the tenants”. Though initially the
Company gained financially, in the long run the Company suffered
financial loss because land productivity was high, income from it was
meagre since it was a fixed sum. It should be noted that in pre-
British period a share on the crop was fixed as land tax.
Nevertheless, this system proved to be a great boon to the
zamindars and to the government of Bengal. It formed a regular
ed
income and stabilised the government of the Company. The zamindars
prospered at the cost of the welfare of the tenants.
Ryotwari Settlement
The Ryotwari settlement was introduced mainly in Madras,
M
Berar, Bombay and Assam. Sir Thomas Munro introduced this system
in the Madras Presidency. Under this settlement, the peasant was
recognised as the proprietor of land. There was no intermediary like
a Zamindar between the peasant and the government. So long as he
e
paid the revenue in time, the peasant was not evicted from the land.
Besides, the land revenue was fixed for a period from 20 to 40 years
re
at a time. Every peasant was held personally responsible for direct
payment of land revenue to the government. However, in the end,
this system also failed. Under this settlement it was certainly not
possible to collect revenue in a systematic manner. The revenue
S
officials indulged in harsh mesuares for non payment or delayed
payment.
Mahalwari Settlement
In 1833, the Mahalwari settlement was introduced in the Punjab,
the Central Provinces and parts of North Western Provinces. Under
this system the basic unit of revenue settlement was the village or
69
the Mahal. As the village lands belonged jointly to the village
community, the responsibility of paying the revenue rested with the
entire Mahal or the village community. So the entire land of the village
was measured at the time of fixing the revenue.
Though the Mahalwari system eliminated middlemen between
the government and the village community and brought about
improvement in irrigation facility, yet its benefit was largely enjoyed
ia
by the government.
British Policy towards Indian Handicrafts
The European companies began arriving on the Indian soil from
16th century. During this period, they were constantly engaged in
fierce competition to establish their supremacy and monopoly over
Indian trade. Not surprisingly, therefore, initial objective of the English
East India Company was to have flourishing trade with India. Later,
this objective was enlarged to acquire a monopoly over this trade
and obtain its entire profit. Although the trade monopoly thus acquired
by the Company in India was ended by the Charter Act of 1833, yet
the British Policy of exploiting the resources of India continued
unabated. In this respect, the nature of the British rule was different
from the earlier rulers.
As far as the traditional handicraft industry and the production
of objects of art were concerned, India was already far ahead of
other countries in the world. The textiles were the most important
among the Indian industries. Its cotton, silk and woolen products
were sought after all over the world. Particularly, the muslin of Dacca,
carpets of Lahore, shawls of Kashmir, and the embroidery works of
Banaras were very famous. Ivory goods, wood works and jewellery
were other widely sought after Indian commodities.
Apart from Dacca, which was highly famous for its muslins, the
other important centres of textile production were Krishnanagar, Chanderi,
70
Arni and Banaras. Dhotis and dupattas of Ahmedabad, Chikan of
Lucknow, and silk borders of Nagpur had earned a worldwide fame.
For their silk products some small towns of Bengal besides, Malda and
Murshidabad were very famous. Similarly, Kashmir, Punjab and western
Rajasthan were famous for their woolen garments.
Besides textiles, India was also known widely for its shipping,
leather and metal industries. Indian fame as an industrial economy
rested on cutting and polishing of marble and other precious stones
and carving of ivory and sandalwood. Moradabad and Banaras were
famous for brass, copper, bronze utensils. Nasik, Poona, Hyderabad
ed
and Tanjore were famous for other metal works. Kutch, Sind and
Punjab were known for manufacturing arms. Kolhapur, Satara,
Gorakhpur, Agra, Chittor and Palaghat had likewise earned a
reputation for their glass industries. Making of gold, silver and
diamond jewellery was another important industrial activity in which
M
many places in India specialized. These entire handicrafts industry
indicated a vibrant economy in India.
Despite enjoying such fame in the world, the Indian handicraft
industry had begun to decline by the beginning of the 18th century.
e
There were many reasons for it. First, the policies followed by the
English East India Company proved to be highly detrimental to the
re
Indian handicrafts industry. The Indian market was flooded with the
cheap finished goods from Britain. It resulted in a steep decline in
the sale of Indian products both within and outside of the country. In
1769, the Company encouraged the cultivation of raw silk in Bengal
S
while imposing service restrictions on the sale of its finished products.
In 1813 strategies were devised by the Company to enhance the
consumption of finished goods from Britain. In this respect the tariff
and octroi policies were suitably modified to suit the British
commercial interests. To cite an example, in 1835 only a minimal
import of British duty of 2.5 per cent was imposed on the import of
71
British manufactured cotton cloth whereas a very high 15 per cent
export duty was charged on Indian cotton textiles as per the new
maritime regulations.
Moreover, goods from England could only be brought by the
English cargo ships. As a result of all these policies, the Indian textiles
could not enter the British market, whereas the Indian market was
flooded with British goods.
ia
Thus, with the rise of British paramountcy in India, the process
of decline in the power and status of Indian rulers had set in. Thus,
the demands for the domestic luxury goods like royal attires, armory
and objects of art by the Indian royalty also reduced
drastically.
So, with the disappearance of the traditional dynasties, their
nobility also passed into oblivion. This led to a sharp decline in the
demand for traditional luxury goods.
Besides, the Industrial revolution led to the invention of new
machinery in Europe. Power looms replaced handlooms. In India
also the advent of machines led to the decline of handicraft as now
the machine-made products were available at cheaper rate and more
goods could be produced in much lesser time.
Finally, the new communication and transport facilities brought
about a revolution in public life. Earlier, goods used to be transported
either by bullock carts or by ships. Thus, during the rainy season, it
was not always convenient to carry on with the normal transportation.
But now conditions were changed with the introduction of railways
and steamer services. Concrete roads were laid to connect the
country’s agricultural hinterland. The import of goods from England
also increased with the simultaneous increase in exports of raw
materials from India, leading to massive loss of jobs among Indian
artisans and craftsman who lost their only means to livelihood.
72
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
The students have learnt I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The objectives of the British agrarian policy. 1. The Permanent Settlement was introduced by
2. The Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari System and the (a) Lord Cornwallis (b) Lord Wellesley
Mahalwari systems of land revenue.
(c) Lord William Bentinck (d) Lord Dalhousie

ia
3. The economic impact of British land revenue administration.
II. Fill in the blanks.
4. The Indian handicrafts industry and its importance.
1. The basic unit of revenue settlement under the Mahalwari
5. British policy of exploitation. system was ……

ed
6. The decline of the Indian handicrafts industry due to the III. Match the following.
Industrial Revolution in England.
1. Muslin a. Banares
2. Silk b. Tanjore

M
3. Carpets c. Dacca
4. Metal works d. Lahore
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is

e a)
right.
The Permanent Settlement took away the judicial functions of
re
zamindars.
b) There was an intermediary like zamindar between the
government and peasants under the Ryotwari settlement.
S

c) Indian handicrafts began to decline by the early 16th century.

d) The Industrial Revolution in England had encouraged the Indian
handloom industries.

73 74
V. State whether the following statements are True or False. LESSON 8
1. Warren Hastings introduced the annual leasing system of EDUCATIONAL AND SOCIAL REFORMS
auctioning the lands.
2. Banaras was famous for embroidery works. Learning Objectives

3. The East India Company modified the tariff and octroi policies Students will understand
to suit the Indian commercial interests. 1. The language and educational policies of the British.

ia
VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 2. Debates over the introduction of English education
1. Mahalwari Settlement. in India.

ed
2. Ryotwari Settlement. 3. Introduction of social reforms in India.

VII. Answer briefly (100 words). 4. Legislation on women.

1. Point out the salient features of the Permanent Land revenue 5. Struggle against the Caste system and the legislation
Settlement. relating to abolition of caste discrimination.

M
2. Write a note on the Indian handicrafts industry.
Language and Education Policy
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
Initially, the East India Company did not evince any particular
1. Examine the economic impact of the British land revenue interest in matters of education. Although the British had captured

2.
administration.
e
Analyse the causes for the decline of Indian handicrafts
Bengal in 1757, yet the responsibility of imparting education remained
only in Indian hands. The study of ancient texts written in Arabic,
re
industry. Persian and Sanskrit still continued. In 1781, Warren Hastings
established a Madrasa in Calcutta to encourage the study of Muslim
laws along with Arabic and Persian languages.
A decade later in 1791 due to the sincere efforts of the British
S

resident, Jonathan Duncan, a Sanskrit College was established to

promote the study of Hindu laws and philosophy in Banaras.
Therefore, it must be contended that during the first three decades
of the 19th century, the development of education took place only
through the traditional institutions.

75 76
 It is apparent from the government and Church records that
the state of oriental learning at the time of the establishment of the
Company’s rule in Bengal, there were about 80,000 traditional
institutions of learning in Bengal alone, which means that there was
at least one institution for every four hundred people in that province.
Different educational surveys of Madras, Bombay and Punjab also
demonstrate similar facts. There was at least one school in every
village of India at that time.
The East India Company began to adopt a dual policy in the
sphere of education. It discouraged the prevalent system of oriental
ed
education and gave importance to western education and English
language. The Charter Act of 1813 adopted a provision to spend
one lakh rupees per annum for the spread of education in India.
Although there was a prolonged debate pertaining to education
M
during the course of a general discussion on the Act of 1813 in the
British Parliament, yet the matter continued to generate debate for
the next 20 years. Consequently, not even a single penny out of the
allocated funds could be spent on education.
e
The contemporary British scholars were divided into two groups
on the issue of development of education in India. One group, called
re
the Orientalists, advocated the promotion of oriental subjects through
Indian languages. The other group, called the Anglicists, argued
the cause of western sciences and literature in the medium of English
language.
S
In 1829, after assuming the office of the Governor-General of
India, Lord William Bentinck, emphasized on the medium of English
language in Indian education. In the beginning of 1835, the 10
members of the General Committee of Public Instruction were clearly
divided into two equal groups. Five members including the Chairman
of the committee Lord Macaulay were in favour of adopting English
77
as medium of public instruction whereas the other five were in favour
of oriental languages.
The stalemate continued till 2 February 1835
when the Chairman of the committee, Lord
Macaulay announced his famous Minute
advocating the Anglicist point of view.
Consequently, despite fierce opposition from all
ia
quarters, Bentinck got the resolution passed on 7
March 1835 which declared that henceforth,
government funds would be utilized for the
LORD MACAULAY
promotion of western literature and science
through the medium of English language.
In 1854, Sir Charles Wood sent a comprehensive dispatch as
a grand plan on education. The establishment of departments of public
instructions in five provinces and introduction of the pattern of grants
in aid to encourage private participation in the field of education were
recommended. Besides, the dispatch also laid emphasis on the
establishment of schools for technical education, teacher and women
education. Over and above all these, the dispatch recommended the
establishment of one University each in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras,
on the model of the London University. Consequently, within the next
few years, the Indian education became rapidly westernized.
Social Policies and Legislation
In the beginning, the British interest was limited to trade and
earning profits from economic exploitation. Therefore, they did not
evince any interest in taking the issue of social or religious reforms.
They were apprehensive of interfering with the social and religious
customs and institutions of the Indians because of the fear that they
might lose trade advantage. Thus, they adopted the policy of extreme
precaution and indifference towards social issues in India. The one
78
reason why they indulged in criticizing the customs and traditions of
India was to generate a feeling of inferiority complex among the
Indians.
However, in the mid-19th century the social and religious
movements, launched in India, attracted the attention of the
Company’s administration towards the country’s social evils. The
propaganda carried out by the Christian missionaries also stirred the
minds of the educated Indians. Western thought and education and
views expressed in different newspapers and magazines had their
own impact. Some of the British administrators like Lord William
ed
Bentinck had evinced personal interest in the matter. There were
primarily two areas in which laws were enacted, laws pertaining to
women emancipation and the caste system.
Social Laws Concerning Women
M
The condition of women, by the time the British established
their rule, was not encouraging. Several evil practices such as the
practice of Sati, the Purdah system, child marriage, female infanticide,
bride price and polygamy had made their life quite miserable. The
e
place of women had come to be confined to the four walls of her
home. The doors of education had been shut for them. From economic
re
point of view also her status was miserable. There was no social
and economic equality between a man and woman. A Hindu woman
was not entitled to inherit any property. Thus, by and large, she was
completely dependent on men.
S
During the 19th and 20th centuries some laws were enacted
with the sincere efforts of social reformers, humanists and some
British administrators to improve the condition of women in Indian
society. The first effort in this direction was the enactment of law
against the practice of Sati during the administration of Lord William
Bentinck.
79
Female Infanticide
Female infanticide was another inhuman practice afflicting the
th
19 century Indian society. It was particularly in vogue in Rajputana,
Punjab and the North Western Provinces. Colonel Todd, Johnson
Duncan, Malcolm and other British administrators have discussed
about this evil custom in detail. Factors such as family pride, the
fear of not finding a suitable match for the girl child and the hesitation
ia
to bend before the prospective in-laws were some of the major reasons
responsible for this practice. Therefore, immediately after birth, the
female infants were being killed either by feeding them with opium
or by strangulating or by purposely neglecting them. Some laws were
enacted against this practice in 1795, 1802 and 1804 and then in
1870. However, the practice could not be completely eradicated
only through legal measures. Gradually, this evil practice came to be
done away through education and public opinion.
Widow Remarriage
There are many historical evidences to suggest that widow
remarriage enjoyed social sanction during ancient period in India. In
course of time the practice ceased to prevail increasing the number
of widows to lakhs during the 19th century. Therefore, it became
incumbent on the part of the social reformers to make sincere efforts
to popularize widow remarriage by writing in newspapers and
contemporary journals.
Prominent among these reformers were Raja Rammohan Roy
and Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. They carried out large scale
campaigns in this regard mainly through books, pamphlets and
petitions with scores of signatures. In July 1856, J.P. Grant, a member
of the Governor-General’s Council finally tabled a bill in support of
the widow remarriage, which was passed on 13 July 1856 and came
to be called the Widow Remarriage Act, 1856.
80
Child Marriage In the meantime, a new social consciousness also dawned
among the Indians. Abolition of’ untouchability became a major issue
The practice of child marriage was another social stigma for
of the 19th century social and religious reform movements in the
the women. In November 1870, the Indian Reforms Association
country. Mahatma Gandhi made the removal of untouchability a part
was started with the efforts of Keshav Chandra Sen. A journal called
of his constructive programme. He brought out a paper, The Harijan,
Mahapap Bal Vivah (Child marriage: The
and also organised the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
Cardinal Sin) was also launched with the efforts of B.M.
Malabari to fight against child marriage. In 1846, the minimum Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar

ia
marriageable age for a girl was only 10 years. dedicated his entire life for the
welfare of the downtrodden. In
In 1891, through the enactment of the Age of Consent Act,
Bombay, he formed a Bahiskrit
this was raised to 12 years. In 1930, through the Sharda Act, the

ed
Hitkarini Sabha in July 1924 for this
minimum age was raised to 14 years. After independence, the limit
purpose. Later, he also organised
was raised to 18 years in 1978.
the Akhil Bharatiya Dalit Varg JYOTIRAO PHULE
Dr. AMBEDKAR
Purdah System Sabha to fight against caste
oppression. Jyotirao Phule in Western India and Shri Narayana Guru

M
Similarly, voices were raised against the practice of Purdah during
the 19th and 20th century. The condition of women among the peasantry in Kerala respectively established the Satya Sadhak Samaj and the
was relatively better in this respect. Purdah was not so much prevalent Shri Narayana Dharma Partipalana Yogam to include self-esteem
in Southern India. Through the large scale participation of women in the among the downtrodden.
national freedom movement, the system disappeared without any specific
legislative measure taken against it.
e
Struggle against the Caste System and the related Legislation
In the Madras Presidency also the beginning
of 20th century witnessed the rise of Self-respect
Movement of Periyar E.V.R. In order to eradicate
re
this evil practice many other individual and institutional
Next to the issue of women emancipation, the caste system
efforts were also made. These movements were
became the second most important issue of social reforms. In fact,
directed mainly in removing the disabilities suffered
the system of caste had become the bane of Indian society. NARAYANA GURU
by Harijans in regard to drawing of water from public
S

The caste system was primarily based on the fourfold division wells, getting entry into temples and admission into
of society viz. Brahmins, Kshatriya, Vaishyas and Shudras. On schools.
account of their degradation in their social status, the Shudras were
subjected to all kinds of social discrimination. In the beginning of the
19th century the castes of India had been split into innumerable sub-
castes on the basis of birth.

81 82
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
The students should be able to explain I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The system of education prevalent in India before the advent 1. Jonathan Duncan established a Sanskrit college at
of the British.
(a) Madras (b) Bombay
2. The Company’s policy towards educational development in
(c) Calcutta (d) Banaras
India.

ia
2. The Widow Remarriage Act was passed in the year
3. The debates between the Orientalists and Anglicists
relating to the introduction of western education and the (a) 1846 (b) 1856
language of English.

ed
(c) 1870 (d) 1891
4. Macaulay’s Minute on Education and the importance of II. Fill in the blanks.
Woods Despatch.
1. The Sarada Act raised the minimum marriageable age for girls
5. Legislation relating to the abolition of social evils such as to …… years.

M
the practice of Sati, female Infanticide.
2. The Bahiskrit Hitkarini Sabha was formed by …..
6. The position of women in Indian society and the role of
3. The Macaulay’s Minute was announced in the year ……
reformers in the emancipation of women and the related
legislation. III. Match the following.

e
7. The measures taken to the eradication of discrimination
under the caste system.
1.
2.
Harijan Sevak Sangh
Satya Shodak Samaj
a. Narayana Guru
b. Periyar E.V.R.
re
3. Narayana Dharma
Paripalana Yogam c. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
4. Self Respect Movement d. Mahatma Gandhi
S

5. Ahila Bharatiya Dalit

Varg Sabha e. Jyotirao Phule

83 84
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is LESSON 9
right.
PALAYAKKARAR REBELLION
a. Orientalists advocated the promotion of oriental subjects
through Indian languages. Learning Objectives
b. In 1829 Widow Remarriage Act was enactd. Students will come to know

c. Jyotirao Phule established the Shri Narayana Dharma 1. The Palayakkarar system in Tamil Nadu.

ia
Parlipalana Yogam. 2. The role of Puli Thevar in the anti-British rebellion.
d. In 1830 the Sharda Act was passed. 3. The rise of Kattabomman and his fight against the British.

V. State whether the following statements are True or False. 4. The second rebellion led by the Marudu Brothers.

ed
1. Warren Hastings established a Madrasa in Bombay.
2. The Anglicists argued for the cause of western sciences and In Tamil Nadu, as in other parts of India, the earliest
literature in the medium of English language. expressions of opposition to British rule took the form of localized

M
3. Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar carried out campaigns to popularize rebellions and uprisings. Chief among these was the revolt of the
widow remarriage. Palayakkarars (Poligars) against the East India Company.

VI. Write short notes (Any three points). The Palayakkarar system had evolved with the extension of
Vijayanagar rule into Tamil Nadu. Each Palayakkarar was the holder
1.
2.
Macaulay’s Minute
Female Infanticide e of a territory or Palayam (usually consisting of a few villages), granted
to him in return for military service and tribute. In most cases, the
re
Palayakkarars gave little attention to perform their duties and were
3. Purdah system
interested in increasing their own powers. With their numerical
VII. Answer briefly (100 words). strength, extensive resources, local influence and independent attitude,
1. Write a note on Charles Woods Despatch. the Palayakkarars came to constitute a powerful force in the political
S

system of south India. They regarded themselves as independent,

2. Discuss the measures taken by reformers to eradicate
discrimination under the caste system.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Examine the educational policy of the British.
sovereign authorities within their respective Palayams, arguing that
their lands had been handed down to them across a span of sixty
generations. Such claims were brushed aside by the East India
Company.

2. Give an account of the social legislations for the emancipation

of women.
85 86
Puli Thevar
Among the Palayakkarars, there were two blocs, namely the
Western and the Eastern blocs. The Western bloc had Marava
Palayakkarars and the Eastern bloc had Telugu Palayakkarars. Puli
Thevar of Nerkkattumseval headed the former and Kattabomman of
Panchalamkuruchi led the latter. These two Palayakkarars refused
to pay the kist (tribute) to the Nawab and rebelled.
Many of the neighbouring Palayakkarars put up certain pretexts
and did not pay the tribute. Mahfuz Khan, with the assistance of the
British army under Col. Heron undertook an expedition to suppress
ed
the revolt in March 1755. Puli Thevar and the Marava Palayakkarars
of the Western bloc stood firm against the British. Col. Heron decided
to deal with the Maravas firmly.
Col. Heron tried to change the mind of Puli Thevar by diplomatic
M
moves and by show of force. But he failed in his attempts. Puli Thevar
proceeded to consolidate his position by organising the Marava
Palayakkarars of the West into a strong confederacy. He also attemp-
ted to get the support of Haider Ali of Mysore and the French against
e
the British. The British approached Ramnad, Pudukottai and the Dutch
for help. Haider Ali couldn’t help Puli Thevar due to a Mysore-
re
Maratha struggle. Yusuf Khan (Khan Sahib) was entrusted by the
British with the duty of tackling Puli Thevar and his allies.
Puli Thevar attacked Madurai and captured it from Mahfuz
Khan. Puli Thevar’s military success had no parallel. The native ruler
S
triumphed against the British. It is a clear demonstration of the Marava
might and the heroism of the patriots. But Yusuf Khan recaptured
Madurai. With the help of the Palayakkarars of the Eastern bloc and
the king of Travancore, Yusuf Khan had many victories. After fierce
battles, Nerkkattumseval was attacked in 1759. In 1767, this city
was captured by Col. Campbell. Puli Thevar escaped and died in
87
exile without finally fulfilling his purpose of checking the growth of
the British influence. Although his attempt ended in failure, he leaves
a valiant trail of a struggle for independence in the history of South
India.
Vira Pandya Kattabomman
Vira Pandya Kattabomman became the Palayakkarar of
ia
Panchalamkuruchi at the age of thirty on the death of his father,
Jagavira Pandya Kattabomman. The Company’s
administrators, James London and Colin Jackson
had considered him as a man without education but
of peaceful disposition. Yet, several events led to
the conflict between Kattabomman and East India
Company. During this period the collection of tribute
served as a cause of friction. The Nawab of Arcot
who had this right surrendered it to the English under
the provisions of the Karnatac Treaty of 1792.
KATTABOMMAN Therefore, the chief of Panchalamkuruchi,
Kattabomman had to pay tribute to the English. In
September 1798, the tribute from Kattabomman fell into arrears.
Collector Jackson in his characteristic arrogance and rashness
wrote letters to Kattabomman in a threatening language. There is a
tradition to indicate that Kattabomman declared : “ It rains, the land
yields, why should we pay tax to the English?” By the 31 May 1789,
the total arrears of tribute from Kattabomman amounted to 3310
pagodas. Though Jackson wanted to send an army against
Kattabomman, the Madras Government did not give permission.
Hence, on the 18 August 1798 Jackson sent an order to
Kattabomman to meet him at Ramanathapuram within two weeks.
In the meantime, Kattabomman went with arrears of tribute to meet
Jackson. Kattabomman was humiliated twice by Jackson when the
88
former wanted to meet him at Tirukuttalam and Srivilliputttur. But he
was told that he could meet the collector only at Ramanathapuram.
Despite this humiliation, Kattabomman followed Jackson for twenty
three days in a journey of 400 miles through the latter’s route and
reached Ramanathapuram on the 19 September.
An interview was granted by Jackson and Kattabomman
cleared most of the arrears leaving only 1090 pagodas as balance.
missions Panchalamkuruchi. Thus a close association between
Kattabomman and Marudu Pandyan established. The events now
moved to a crisis. In August 1798 the son of the Palayakkarar of
Sivagiri and his adviser visited Panchalamkuruchi and held
consultations. Kattabomman decided to establish his influence in
Sivagiri with the aid of the son of the Palayakkarar. As the
Palayakkarar of Sivagiri was a tributary to the Company, the Madras

ia
Council considered this move as a challenge to its own authority and
During this interview Kattabomman and his Minister, Sivasubramania
ordered war against Kattabomman.
Pillai, had to stand before the arrogant collector for three hours
together. Still he did not permit them to leave the place, but directed Expedition to Panchalamkuruchi

ed
them to stay inside the fort. Kattabomman suspected the intensions
In May 1799, Lord Wellesley issued orders from Madras for
of Jackson. Hence, he tried to escape with his minister and brother
the advance of forces from Tiruchirappalli, Thanjavur and Madurai
Oomathurai. At the gate of the fort there followed a clash, in which
to Tirunelveli. Major Bannerman, armed with extensive powers,
some people including Lieutenant Clarke were killed. Sivasubramania
assumed the command of the expedition. On the 1 September, 1799
Pillai was taken prisoner. But Kattabomman escaped.

M
the Major served an ultimatum directing Kattabomman to surrender
After his return to Panchalamkuruchi, Kattabomman appealed and attend on him at Palayamkottai on the 4th. Kattabomman replied
to the Madras Council submitting the facts. The Madras Government that he would submit on a lucky day.
directed Kattabomman to appear before a Committee. Meanwhile,
Bannerman considered this reply as evasive and decided on
the government released Sivasubramania Pillai and suspended the

e
Collector, Jackson. In response Kattabomman decided to submit. He
appeared before the Committee, with William Brown, William Oram
military action. On 5 September Kattabomman’s fort was attacked.
On the 16th reinforcements reached from Palayamkottai. In a clash
re
at Kolarpatti the Palayakkarar troops suffered heavy casualty and
and John Casmayor as members. The Committee found Kattabomman
Sivasubramania Pillai was taken prisoner. Kattabomman escaped to
not guilty. S. R. Lushington was now appointed Collector in the place
Pudukkottai. The ruler of Pudukkottai captured Kattabomman from
of Jackson, latter was eventually dismissed from service.
the jungles of Kalapore and handed him over to the British.
S

League of the Palayakkarars

Fall of Kattabomman
Thus the English removed the source of grievance to
Bannerman brought the prisoners to an assembly of the
Kattabomman. Yet, the humiliation suffered by Kattabomman
Palayakkarars and after a mockery of trial sentenced them
affected his self-respect. During this time, Marudu Pandyan of
to death. Sivasubramania Pillai was executed at Nagalapuram
Sivaganga organized the South Indian Confederacy of rebels against
on the 13th of September. On the 16th of October Vira Pandyan
the British. The Tiruchirappalli Proclamation was made. He sent
was tried before an assembly of Palayakkarars, summoned at

89 90
Kayattar. In an assertive tone and with contempt for death
he admitted the charges levelled against him. Thereupon, Bennerman
announced death penalty. On the 17th of October
Kattabomman was hanged to death at a conspicuous spot near
the old fort of Kayattar. Vira Pandyan faced the last moments of
his life with the pride of a hero.
Marudu Brothers
The British forces quickly overpowered the remaining
insurgents. The Marudu brothers and their sons were put to death.
Oomathurai and Sevatiah were beheaded at Panchalamkuruchi on
16 November, 1801. Seventy-three of the principal rebels were
sentenced to transportation. So savage and extensive was the death
and destruction wrought by the English that the entire region was
left in a state of terror.

ia
The suppression of the Palayakkarar rebellions of 1799 and
Despite the exemplary repression of Palayakkarars in 1799,
1800-1801 resulted in the liquidation of the influence of the chieftains.
rebellion broke out again in 1800, this time in a more cohesive and
Under the terms of the Karnatac Treaty (31 July, 1801), the British
united manner. Although the 1800-1801 rebellion was to be

ed
assumed direct control over Tamil Nadu. The Palayakkararr system
categorized in the British records as the Second Palayakkarar War,
came to a violent end and the Company introduced the Zamindari
it assumed a much broader character than its predecessor. It was
settlement in its place.
directed by a confederacy consisting of Marudu Pandian of Sivaganga,
Gopala Nayak of Dindugal, Kerala Verma of Malabar and Krishnappa

M
Nayak and Dhoondaji of Mysore. Learning Outcome

The insurrection, which broke out in Coimbatore in June 1800, After studying this lesson the student is able to explain
soon spread to Ramanathapuram and Madurai. By May 1801, it had 1. The functioning of Palayakkarar system in Tamil
reached the northern provinces, where Marudu Pandian and Nadu.

e
Melappan provided the leadership. Oomathurai, the brother of
Kattabomman emerged as a key leader. In February 1801, Oomathurai
2. Their relations with the British as tributaries.
3. The rise and fall of Puli Thevar against the British
re
and two hundred men by a cleverly move took control of
Panchalamkuruchi Fort. dominance.

The fort now re-occupied and reconstructed by rebel forces, 4. Vira Pandya Kattabomman and the valiant struggle
Panchalamkuruchi became the centre of the uprising. Three thousand against the British arrogance.
S

armed men of Madurai and Ramanathapuram, despatched by Marudu 5. The Rebellion led by Marudu Brothers and their
Pandian, joined up with the Panchalamkuruchi forces. However, failure against the mighty British.
British forces quickly asserted itself. The Palayakkarar forces based
at Panchalamkuruchi were crushed. By the orders of the government,
the site of the captured fort was ploughed up and sowed with castor
oil and salt so that it should never again be inhabited.

91 92
 MODEL QUESTIONS c) Sivasubramania Pillai was the minister of Marupandiyan.

I. Choose the correct answer. d) The South Indian confederacy was organized under the
leadership of Oomaithirai.
1. Nerkattumseval was captured by
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
(a) Col. Heron (b) Col. Campbell
1. The Palayakkarar system had evolved with the extension of
(c) Colin Jackson (d) Puli Thevar Vijayanagar rule into Tamil Nadu.

ia
2. Collector Jackson sent an order to Kattabomman to 2. The Palayakkarar of Sivagiri was a tributary to the Company.
meet him at
3. Oomathurai and Sevatiah were beheaded at Madurai.
(a) Madurai (b) Panchalamkurichi

ed
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
(c) Ramanathapuram (d) Srivilliputtur
1. Puli Thevar
II. Fill in the blanks.
2. Palayakkarar system
1. Virpandiya Kattabomman was the son of …..
3. Bannerman

M
2. Kattabomman was hanged to death at ….
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
3. The expedition to Panchalamkurichi was commanded by ……
1. Write a note on South Indian Rebellion of 1801.
III. Match the following.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1.
2.
Marudu Pandiyan
Gopal Nayak b. Mysore e
a. Nerkattumseval
1. Estimate the valiant struggle of Kattabomman against the
British.
re
3. Kerala Varma c. Malabar
4. Krishnappa Nayak d. Dindigal
5. Puli Thevar e. Sivaganga
S

IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is

right.
a) The Palayakkarars constitute a powerful force in the political
system of North India.
b) Yusuf Khan was also known as Khan Sahib.

93 94
 LESSON 10 sacrifice of individuals like Puli Thevar, Kattabomman and Marudu
Brothers had no parallel. But all these leaders never organised the
VELLORE MUTINY
common people for a unified and meaningful cause. The ideas of
nationalism, political consciousness and organized struggle came much
Learning Objectives
later.
Students will understand
In Vellore the native sepoys rose in revolt in 1806.This incident
1. The Causes for the Vellore Mutiny. differs from other previous rebellions in. The earlier rebellions were

ia
2. The objectives of this Mutiny. those of the native rulers. The Vellore Mutiny was organized by
the sepoys. The earlier rebellions had only a regional interest.
3. The suppression of the Mutiny.
Every prince wanted to safeguard his own kingdom at any cost.

ed
4. The nature of this anti-British uprising. But Vellore Mutiny was the result of spontaneous outflow of the
feelings of the sepoys who served under the Company. It was a
protest by the sepoys against the Company. This protest showed the
Vellore was the capital of erstwhile North Arcot district in Tamil future possibilities.

M
Nadu. At present, this district is named after its capital Vellore. It is Causes
a well fortified and beautiful city.
Several causes are attributed to the Vellore Mutiny. Indian
sepoys had to experience numerous difficulties when they went to
serve in the Company’s army.

e The sepoys were forced to serve under the Company since

their earlier patrons (the native chieftains) were all disappearing from
re
the scene. The strict discipline, practice, new weapons, new methods
and uniforms were all new to the sepoys. Anything new appears to
be difficult and wrong for a man who is well-settled in the old way of
life for a long-time.
S

Vellore Fort
With the expansion of the East India Company’s rule in India,
the native rulers and their dependents suffered. The native rulers
either submitted or rebelled. These rebellions had no clear vision or
ideal but purely motivated by the territorial interest of the native rulers
and their ambition to preserve the old feudal order. The heroism and
Sir John Cradock, the commander-in-chief, with the -approval
of Lord-William Bentinck, the Governor of Madras, introduced a
new from of turban, resembling a European hat. Wearing ear rings
and caste marks were also prohibited.
The sepoys were asked to shave the chin and to trim the
moustache. The sepoys felt that these were designed to insult them

95 96
and their religious and social traditions. There was also a popular
belief that this was the beginning of a process by which all of them
would be converted to Christianity.
The English treated the Indian sepoys as their inferior. There
was the racial prejudice. This was the psychological base for the
sepoy mutinies in India during the Company’s rule.
The sepoys once served the local chieftains (either Hindu or
Muslim). The chieftains were their own kinsmen but now they served
under the foreigners. They can never forget their original loyalties.
ed
The Vellore uprising was preceded by a series of protests by
the Indian troops. In May 1806, the 4th Regiment rose in revolt against
the new turban. The Commander-in-Chief took severe action the
sepoys who were found guilty were punished with 500 to 900 lashes.
Before the mutiny secret associations were formed and meetings
M
held in which Tipu’s family took part.
On June 17th 1806 a sepoy of the 1st Regiment named
Mustapha Beg, secretly informed his commanding officer, Colonel
Forbes, that a plot had been planned for the extermination of the
e
European officers and troops. But this was not taken seriously .
On the eve of the Mutiny at Vellore Fettah Hyder, the first
re
son of Tipu, tried to form an alliance against the English and sought
the help of the Marathas and the French.
Fettah Hyder received secret information through one
S
Mohommed Malick.Besides, princes Fettah Hyder and Moiz-ud-Deen
in particular were active in planning the execution of the Mutiny.
Thus, there was the desire to revive the old Muslim rule in this
region. The sepoys were aware of the tragic end of Puli Thevar, Khan
Sahib, Kattabomman, Marudu Brothers, Tipu Sultan and others. Hence
there were ill-feelings about the British in the minds of the sepoys.
All these led to the rebellion.
97
Course of the Mutiny
On July 10th in the early morning the native sepoys of the 1st
and 23 rd Regiments started the revolt . Colonel Fancourt, who
commanded the garrison, was their first victim. Colonel Me Kerras
of the 23rd Regiment, was shot down on the parade-ground. Major
Armstrong was the next officer to be killed during the mutiny. About
a dozen other officers were also killed.
ia
Major Cootes who was outside the fort dashed to Ranipet, 14
miles away, and informed Colonel Gillespie at 7 am . Col. Gillespie
reached the Vellore fort at 9 A.M.
Meantime, the rebels proclaimed Futteh Hyder, Tipu’s first son,
as their new ruler and hoisted tiger-striped flag of Tipu Sultan. But
the uprising was swiftly crushed by Col. Gillespie. 800 Indian soldiers
were found dead in the fort alone. Six hundred soldiers were
imprisoned in Tiruchi and Vellore. Some rebels were hung, some shot
dead. The uprising was thus brought to a bloody end. Tipu’s son was
sent to Calcutta. The commander-in-chief and the governor were
recalled.
Vellore Mutiny failed. There was no proper leadership. The
rebellion was also not well organized. But it is the starting point of a
new era of the resistance of the sepoys to the British rule. The 18th
century was marked by the resistance of the local chieftains. The
first six decades of 19th century was marked by the resistance of
sepoys.
K.K. Pillai rejects the thesis that Vellore Mutiny led to the
1857 revolt. V.D. Savarkar calls the Vellore Mutiny of 1806 as the
prelude to the first War of Indian Independence in 1857. N. Sanjivi
proclaims that the Tamils had taken the real lead in the Indian freedom
struggle. K. Rajayyan argues that this mutiny was a continuation of
the Marudu Brothers’ resistance movement against the colonial rule.
98
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
The students have learnt I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The multiple causes that led to this outbreak of Vellore 1. Which among the following was one of the causes for the
sepoy Mutiny. Vellore Mutiny?
2. The grievances of the sepoys such as new rules and customs (a) Doctrine of lapse
implemented by the British in the army.

ia
(b) Collection of Tributes
3. The suppression of the revolt.
(c) Introduction of new army regulations
4. The nature of this anti-British rebellion.
(d) Economic exploitation of the British rule.

ed
II. Fill in the blanks.
1 The Commander-in-Chief of the Vellore Fort was ————
——-

M
2. ———— who was outside the fort dashed to Ranipet to seek
help
III. Match the following
1. Fettah Hyder a. Governor of Madras

e 2. Colonel Fancourt b. suppressed the mutiny

re
3. William Bentinck c. Tipu’s son
4. Col. Gillespie b. killed in the mutiny
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
S

right.
a) New army regulations were mainly responsible for the Vellore
Mutiny.
b) Tipu’s family were not kept in the Vellore fort.
c) French help was not sought by Tipu’s son.
d) After the mutiny Tipu’s sons were sent to Penang.

99 100
V. State whether the following statements are True or False
1. Mustapha Beg Indian sepoy forewarned about the Vellore
Mutiny.
2. No British army officer was killed during the Vellore Mutiny.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

ia
1. Sir John Cradock
2. Col. Gillespie
VII. Answer briefly ( 100 words)

ed
1. Explain the Course of the Vellore Mutiny.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Examine the causes for the outbreak of Vellore Mutiny of 1806.

M
e
re
S

101
 LESSON 11
THE GREAT REVOLT OF 1857
Learning Objectives
Students will come to understand
1. The nature of the Great Revolt of 1857.
2. The underlying causes of the Revolt.
3. The immediate cause of the outbreak of Revolt..
ed
4. The course of the Revolt.
5. Causes for the failure of the Revolt.
6. Effects of the Revolt.
M
The 1857 Revolt sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism, which
lay dormant in the subconscious of the Indian people. It started the
movement which was a continuous struggle against the British rule
e
till 1947. Hence, the nature, character and causes of this Great Revolt
of 1857 should be studied in order to understand the subsequent
events.
re
Nature of the Revolt
The historical writings of the British scholars underplayed the
character of the Revolt of 1857. Sir John Lawrence was of the
S
opinion that the Revolt was purely a military outbreak, and not a
conspiracy to overthrow British rule. On the other hand the Revolt
of 1857 is hailed by the Indian scholars, especially by Vir Savarkar
as the First War of Indian Independence.
Two distinguished Indian historians, R.C. Majumdar and S.N.
Sen, have analysed the Revolt of 1857 in depth. The two scholars
102
differ in their opinion. S.N. Sen believes that the 1857 Revolt was
part of the struggle for Indian independence. R.C. Majumdar
maintains that the outbreaks before 1857, whether civil or military,
were “a series of isolated incidents” ultimately culminated in the Great
Revolt of 1857.
Causes of the Revolt
ia
Political Causes
The discontent and disaffection manifested in the form of revolts
against the British Government were not confined to the ruling chiefs
and royal families alone. On the contrary, the British rule was disliked
by the people at large in any region when it was newly introduced.
Anti-British feelings were particularly strong in those regions like
Burma, Assam, Coorg, Sind, and the Punjab which were unjustly
annexed to the British Empire. The Doctrine of Lapse, particularly
its practical application by Lord Dalhousie, produced grave discontent
and alarm among the native princes, who were directly affected.
Economic Causes
The huge drain of wealth, the destruction of its industry and
increasing land revenue had become the common features of the
latter half of the eighteenth century. The East India Company, after
attaining political power, used it to fund the growth of British trade
and commerce at the cost of Indians. The British damaged the Indian
trade and manufacture by imposing a high tariff in Britain against
Indian goods, and by encouraging all means the import of British
goods to India. In England the ruin of the old handloom weavers was
accompanied by the growth of the machine industry. But in India the
ruin of the millions of artisans and craftsmen was not accompanied
by any alternative growth of new industrial forms.
A new plantation system introduced in the year 1833 resulted
in incalculable misery for the Indian peasants. This was the result of
103
permitting Englishmen to acquire land plantations in India. The hard
hit were the peasants on the indigo plantations in Bengal and Bihar.
Social Causes
The Englishmen showed an arrogant attitude towards the
Indians. Indiscriminate assaults on Indians by Englishmen became
quite common. Also, a general alarm was raised among the Hindus
and Muslims by the activities of the Christian missionaries. The
educational institutions established by the missionaries inculcated
western education and culture in the place of oriental learning. The
native population felt that were losing their social identity.
ed
Military causes
Discontent against the British Raj was widely prevalent among
the Indian soldiers in the British army. The Indian sepoys in the British
M
Indian army nursed a sense of strong resentment at their low salary
and poor prospects of promotion. The British military officers at times
showed least respect to the social values and religious sentiments of
Indian sepoys in the army. Thus, although generally faithful to their
masters, the sepoys were provoked to revolt. The Vellore mutiny of
tendencies on the part of the military authorities. e
1806, a precursor to the 1857 Great Revolt, was the outcome of such
re
Another important cause of the sepoys’ dissatisfaction was
the order that abolished the foreign allowance or batta when they
served in foreign territories. Thus the discontent was widespread
S
and there was an undercurrent before the volcanic situation of 1857.
All that needed was only a spark to set it a fire.
The Beginning of the Revolt
The 1857 Revolt was sparked off by the episode of the greased
cartridges. The new Enfield rifle had been introduced for the first
time in the Indian army. Its cartridges had a greased paper cover
104
whose end had to be bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into
the rifle. The grease was composed of fat taken from beef and pig.
The religious feelings of the Hindu and Muslim sepoys were terribly
wounded. The sepoys believed that the government was deliberately
trying to destroy their religious and cultural identity. Hence they
raised the banner of revolt.
The events that led to the Revolt began on 29 March 1857 at
ia
Barrackpore. Mangal Pandey (a sepoy) refused to use the greased
cartridges and single-handedly attacked and killed his officer. Mangal
Pandey was hanged. The regiment to which he belonged was
disbanded and sepoys guilty of rebellion punished.
The British instead of diffusing the explosive situation, paved
the way for a mighty crisis by the above act. A chain reaction was
set in motion. At Meerut in May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry
regiment were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for refusing
to use the greased catridges. Therefore, on 10 May the sepoys broke
out in open rebellion, shot their officers, released their fellow sepoys
and headed towards Delhi. General Hewitt, the officer commanding
at Meerut was helpless to prevent the army’s march.
Next morning the rebellious army reached Delhi. The city of
Delhi fell into the hands of the rebellious
soldiers on 12 May 1857. Lieutenant
Willtashby, the officer in charge of Delhi could
not prevent the mutineers. Soon, the
mutineers proclaimed the aged nominal king,
Bahadur Shah II of the Mughal dynasty as
the Emperor of India. Very soon the rebellion
spread throughout northern and central India
at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Banares, in
parts of Bihar, Jhansi and other places.
BAHADUR SHAH II
105
Delhi an all out attack on the British. Henry Lawrence, the chief
commissioner tried to defend the British. Lawrence was killed in a
The leadership at Delhi was nominally in the hands of Bahadur
bomb blast during the fight. The final relief for the British forces in
Shah, but the real control was exercised by General Bakht Khan.
Lucknow came in the form of Sir Colin Campbell, who suppressed
On the side of the British the combined effort of Nicholson, Wilson,
the revolt.
Baird Smith and Neville Chamberlain enabled the recapture Delhi by
September 1857. In Delhi, Emperor Bahadur Shah II was arrested Jhansi
and deported to Rangoon, where he remained in exile till he died in

ia
Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, the widowed queen of Gangadhar
1862.
Rao played a heroic role in this revolt. Rani
Kanpur Lakshmi Bai was affected by Dalhousie’s
Doctrine of Lapse, was joined by Tantia Tope.

ed
At Kanpur the revolt was led by Nana
The combined efforts of Rani and Tantia Tope
Saheb, the adopted son of Baji Rao II, the last
saw the capture of Gwalior. Meanwhile, Sir
Peshwa. Nana Saheb expelled the English from
Hugh Rose defeated Tantia Tope and stormed
Kanpur with the help of the
Jhansi on 3 April 1858. He then captured
sepoys and proclaimed

M
Gwalior. The Rani of Jhansi died a soldier’s
himself the Peshwa. Nana
death on 17 June 1858. Tantia Tope was
Saheb in his efforts against
captured and hanged on charges of rebellion and
the British was ably RANI LAKSHMI BAI
murder in the massacre of Kanpur.
supported by two of his

NANA SAHEB
lieutenants. One was Tantia
Tope, the other was e Tantia Tope Bihar
Kunwar Singh, a ruined and discontented zamindar of
re
Azimullah. Sir Hugh Wheeler the commander of
Jagdishpur near Oudh, was the chief organiser of the revolt in Bihar.
the British garrison at Kanpur surrendered on
He fought the British in Bihar. Kunwar Singh sustained a fatal wound
the 27 June 1857. But, soon Kanpur was
in the battle and died on 27 April 1858 at Jagdishpur.
recaptured by the British commander Sir Colin
S

Campbell. Ultimately the 1857 Revolt came to an end with the victory of
the British. Viceroy Canning proclaimed peace throughout India.
Lucknow
Causes for the Failure of the Revolt
The principal person responsible for the
revolt in Lucknow was the Begum of Oudh. The first and foremost cause was that the Revolt failed to
With the assistance of the sepoys, the embrace the whole of India. Different sections of society such as
zamindars and peasants, the Begum organised moneylenders, merchants and modern educated Indians were actually
BEGUM OF OUDH
against the Revolt. The lack of interest shown by the intellectuals in
106 107
the movement was a serious setback. The resources of the British
Empire were far superior to those of the rebels. Similarly, the
insurgents lacked a carefully concerted general plan or a strong
central organisation to plan the movements of the army and oversee
their strategy.
On the other hand, the British possessed better equipment. In
addition, the British were aided by new scientific inventions such as
Lord Canning proclaimed the new Government at Allahabad
on 1 November 1858 in accordance with the Queen’s Proclamation.
The latter has been called the Magna Carta of the Indian people; it
disclaimed any extension of territory, promised religious toleration,
guaranteed the rights of Indian princes and pledged equal treatment
to her subjects, Indians and Europeans.
The Revolt of 1857 ended an era and sowed the seeds of a

ia
the telegraph system and postal communications. This enabled the new one. The year 1857 is a great divide between the two landmarks
British to keep in touch with all parts of the country and to manoeuvre in Indian history. One was that of British paramountcy in the first
their troops according to their needs. half, and the other is that of the growth of Indian nationalism in the

ed
second half of the nineteenth century.
All the said factors combined to cause the defeat of the rebels
of the 1857 Revolt and ended in the victory for the British.
Significance and Effects of the Mutiny

M
The Revolt of 1857 though completely suppressed had shaken
the very foundations of British rule in India, for the simple reason
that the Revolt exhibited the popular character. It brought together
the disgruntled sections of society to rise against the British rule.
The common people rose up in arms often fighting with spears and

e
axes, bows and arrows, lathis and scythes, and crude mulkets.
However, this civilian revolt was not universal but sporadic and
re
inconsistent. Nevertheless, it added a new dimension to the character
of the 1857 Revolt. Another significant aspect of the 1857 Revolt
was the Hindu-Muslim unity.
S

As far as the effects of the Revolt are concerned, it brought

about fundamental changes in the character of Indian administration
which was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown
by the Queen’s Proclamation of 1 November, 1858. At the same
time the Governor-General received the new title of Viceroy. Lord
Canning had the unique opportunity to become the Governor-General
as well as the first Viceroy according to the Act of 1858.

108 109
 Learning Outcome

After studying this lesson the student has understood that

1. There are two views on the nature of the Great Revolt of

1857.

2. The fundamental causes are varied such as political,

economic, social and military.

ia
3. The immediate cause was the personal grievance of the
sepoys.

ed
4. The course of Revolt – not universal but sporadic with
scattered civilian participation.

5. The British with their superior strength suppressed the

Revolt.

M
6. The suppression of the Revolt has revealed the weaknesses
of the Indian sepoys and leaders of the Revolt.

7. The Results and the importance of the Revolt of 1857.

e
re
S

110 111
 MODEL QUESTIONS IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
correct.
I. Choose the correct answer.
a) Bahadhur Shah II was proclaimed as the emperor of India
1. Who among the following considered the Revolt of 1857 as the during the revolt of 1857.
First War of Indian Independence?
b) Kanpur was recaptured by the British commander Johnson.
(a) Sir John Lawrence (b) Vir Savarkar
c) Rani Lakshmi Bai was hanged on the charges of rebellion.

ia
(c) S.N. Sen (d) R.C. Majumdar
d) Tantia Tope was one of the lieutenants of the Begums of Oudh.
2. Which of the following incident sparked off the Revolt of 1857?
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
(a) Exploitation of the Indian economy by the British.

ed
1. Emperor Bahadhur Shah was arrested and deported to
(b) The Doctrine of Lapse followed by Dalhousie. Rangoon.
(c) Activities of the Christian Missionaries. 2. The Vellore Mutiny of 1806 is considered as the precursor of
(d) The episode of greased cartridges. the 1857 Revolt.

M
II. Fill in the blanks. 3. The Revolt of 1857 led to the division between the Hindus and
Muslims.
1. The sepoy who refused to use the greased cartridge at
Barrackpore was ……. VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
2.
III. e
The Queen’s Proclamation was read by Lord Canning at ………
Match the following.
1.
2.
Greased Cartridges.
Nana Sahib.
re
1. Bahdur Shah a. Kanpur 3. Rani Lakshmi Bai.
2. Nana Sahib b. Jhansi 4. Causes for the failure of the Revolt of 1857.
3. Begums of Oudh c. Bihar VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
S

4. Lakshmi Bai d. Delhi 1. Write a note on the nature of the Revolt of 1857.
5. Kanwar Singh e. Lucknow 2. Analyse the results of the Great Revolt of 1857.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1. Examine the causes for the Revolt of 1857.
2. Trace the course of the Revolt of 1857.

112 113
 LESSON 12
BRITISH INDIA AFTER 1858:
LORD LYTTON (1876-1880), LORD RIPON (1880-1884)
AND LORD CURZON (1899-1905)
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. Lord Lytton’s policies on famine, the Indian Press and trade.
2. Second Afghan War.
ed
3. Lord Ripon’s reforms in the field of education and Local-
Self Government.
4. The Ilbert Bill controversy and Ripon’s attitude towards
Indians.
5. Lord Curzon’s reforms and the Partition of Bengal.
M
After the 1857 Revolt, the responsibility of
ruling India was directly assumed by the British
Crown. Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of
e
India in 1858. The Government of India Act of 1858
and the Queen’s Proclamation in the same year
signify this change in the Indian administration. The
re
QUEEN VICTORIA
Queen’s Proclamation remained the basis of the
British policy in India for more than 60 years. The administrations of
Lord Lytton, Lord Ripon and Lord Curzon were important during this
S
period.
Lord Lytton (1876-1880)
Lord Lytton was an experienced diplomat and a
man of striking ability and brilliance. The British Prime
Minister, Disraeli appointed him as the Viceroy of India.
The prevailing famine and the political disturbances in
LORD LYTTON
114
the North West Frontier caused a great worry to the British at that
time.
Famine Policy
The famine of 1876-78 had resulted from the failure of two
monsoons. It covered an area of two lakh fifty thousand square miles
and affected fifty eight million people. The worst affected areas were
ia
Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, Bombay, Central India and the Punjab.
It took a toll of five million lives in a single year. The outbreak of
cholera and fever added to the misery of the suffering population.
Lytton’s Government failed miserably to tackle the situation. The
government’s relief measures seemed to be inadequate. The first
Famine Commission (1878-80) under Sir Richard Strachey was
appointed and it made many commendable recommendations. They
include provision of funds for famine relief and construction work in
the annual budget. The Famine Code came into existence in 1883.
The Vernacular Press Act and the Arms Act (1878)
In 1878, the Vernacular Press Act was passed. This Act
empowered a Magistrate to secure an undertaking from the editor,
publisher and printer of a vernacular newspaper that nothing would
be published against the English Government. The equipment of the
press could be seized if the offence was committed. This Act crushed
the freedom of the Indian press. This created adverse public opinion
against the British Government. In the same year, the Arms Act
was passed. This Act prevented the Indians to keep arms without
appropriate license. Its violation would be a criminal offence. The
Europeans and the Anglo- Indians were exempted from the operation
of these legislations.
Other Reforms
Lord Lytton introduced uniform salt tax throughout British India.
He also abolished many import duties and supported the Free Trade
115
Policy. This had seriously affected the Indian economic interest. The
system of decentralisation of finance that had begun in the time of
Lord Mayo was continued during the time of Lord Lytton. The
provincial governments were empowered with some control over the
expenditure of all provincial matters like land-revenue, excise, stamps,
law and justice. Lytton wanted to encourage the provinces in collecting
the revenue and thereby strengthen the financial power and position
of the provinces. In 1878, the Statutory Civil Service was established
exclusively for Indians but this was abolished later.
Lytton and the Second Afghan War (1878-80)
ed
The Afghan policy of the British was based on the assumed
threat of Russian invasion of India. The first Afghan War (1838-42)
proved to be a disastrous one for the British in India. When Lord
Lytton was appointed the Viceroy of India, he was instructed by the
M
home government to follow a forward policy. The Russian attempt to
send a mission to Afghanistan was the main cause of the Second
Afghan War.
Soon after the outbreak of the war in 1878, the British troops
e
captured the territory between Kabul and Kandahar. The ruler of
Afghanistan, Sher Ali fled from his country and died in 1879. His son
re
Yakub Khan became the ruler and the British concluded the Treaty
of Gandamak with him. A British Resident was sent to Kabul but
soon he was murdered along with other British officers by the Afghan
rebels. Although the British troops were able to recapture Kabul, the
S
difficulties in holding it increased due to the activities of the rebels.
Suddenly in 1780, Lytton was forced to resign by the new government
in England.
Lytton’s Afghan policy was severely crticised because he
was responsible for the murder of the British officers including the
Resident in Kabul. During his administration, millions died due to
famine. The Vernacular Press Act undermined his credit.
116
Lord Ripon (1880-84)
Lord Ripon was a staunch Liberal democrat with faith in self-
government. He was appointed as the Viceroy of India by Gladstone,
the Liberal Party Prime Minister of England. Ripon
was instructed to reverse the Afghan policy of Lytton.
Therefore, as soon as he came to India, peace was
made with Afghanistan without affecting the British
ia
prestige. The proposal of appointing a Resident in
Kabul was dropped. He was also responsible for the
LORD RIPON rendition of Mysore to its Hindu ruler. Moreover, he
repealed the Vernacular Press Act and earned much
popularity among Indians. Then, he devoted himself to task of
liberalising the Indian administration.
Introduction of Local Self-Government (1882)
Ripon believed that self-government is the highest and noblest
principles of politics. Therefore, Ripon helped the growth of local bodies
like the Municipal Committees in towns and the local boards in taluks
and villages. The powers of municipalities were increased. Their chairmen
were to be non-officials. They were entrusted the care of local amenities,
sanitation, drainage and water-supply and also primary education. District
and taluk boards were created. It was insisted that the majority of the
members of these boards should be elected non-officials. The local bodies
were given executive powers with financial resources of their own. It
was perhaps the desire of Ripon that power in India should be gradually
transferred to the educated Indians. He also insisted on the election of
local bodies as against selection by the government. In all these measures,
Ripon’s concern was not so much for efficiency in administration. Instead,
Ripon diffused the administration and brought the government closer to
the people. This was his most important achievement. It was Ripon who
laid the foundations of the system which functions today.
117
Educational Reforms
Like Lord William Bentinck, Lord Ripon was a champion of
education of the Indians. Ripon wanted to review the working of the
educational system on the basis of the recommendations of the Wood’s
Despatch. For further improvement of the system Ripon appointed a
Commission in 1882 under the chairmanship of Sir William Hunter.
The Commission came to be known as the Hunter Commission. The
Commission recommended for the expansion and improvement of
the elementary education of the masses. The Commission suggested
two channels for the secondary education-one was literary education
ed
leading up to the Entrance Examination of the university and the
other preparing the students for a vocational career. The Commission
noted the poor status of women education. It encouraged the local
bodies in the villages and towns to manage the elementary education.
This had resulted in the extraordinary rise in the number of educational
M
institutions in India.
First Factory Act (1881)
Lord Ripon introduced the Factory Act of 1881 to improve the
e
service condition of the factory workers in India. The Act banned
the appointment of children below the age of seven in factories. It
re
reduced the working hours for children. It made compulsory for all
dangerous machines in the factories to be properly fenced to ensure
security to the workers.
Ilbert Bill Agitation (1884)
S
Lord Ripon wanted to remove two kinds of law that had been
prevalent in India. According to the system of law, a European could
be tried only by a European Judge or a European Magistrate. The
disqualification was unjust and it was sought to cast a needless
discredit and dishonour upon the Indian-born members of the judiciary.
C.P. Ilbert, Law Member, introduced a bill in 1883 to abolish this
118
discrimination in judiciary. But Europeans opposed this Bill strongly.
They even raised a fund of one lakh fifty thousand rupees and
established an organisation called the Defence Association. They
also suggested that it was better to end the English rule in India than
to allow the English to be subjected to the Indian Judges and
Magistrates. The press in England joined the issue. Hence, Ripon
amended the bill to satisfy the English in India and England.
ia
The Ilbert Bill controversy helped the cause of Indian nationalism.
The Ilbert Bill Controversy is a high watermark in the history of Indian
National Movement. Ripon was totally disillusioned and heartbroken and
he tendered his resignation and left for England. The immediate result of
this awakening of India was the birth of the Indian National Congress in
1885, the very next year of Ripon’s departure.
Estimate of Lord Ripon
Lord Ripon was the most popular Viceroy that England ever sent
to India. The Indians by and large hailed him as “Ripon the Good”, because
he was the only Viceroy who handled the Indian problems with
compassion and sympathy. His attempt to remove racial distinction in
the judiciary, the repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, the rendition of
Mysore and the introduction of the Local-Self Government increased
his popularity among Indians. His resignation was deeply regretted by
Indians who cherished his memory with gratitude.
Lord Curzon (1899-1905)
Lord Curzon occupies a high place among the
rulers of British India like Lord Wellesley and Lord
Dalhousie. He was a thorough imperialist. In order
to make the administration efficient, Lord Curzon
overhauled the entire administrative machinery. His
internal administration may be studied under the
following heads. LORD CURZON
119
Educational Reforms law called the Ancient Monuments Act, 1904 which made it obligatory
on the part of the government and local authorities to preserve the
Curzon took a serious view of the fall in the standard of
monuments of archaeological importance and their destruction an
education and discipline in the educational institutions. In his view
offence.
the universities had degenerated into factories for producing political
revolutionaries. To set the educational system in order, he instituted Partition of Bengal, 1905
in 1902, a Universities Commission to go into the entire question
The Partition of Bengal into two provinces was effected on 4
of university education in the country. On the basis of the findings

ia
July 1905. The new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam included
and recommendations of the Commission, Curzon brought in the Indian
the whole of Assam and the Dacca, Rajshahi and Chittagong divisions
Universities Act of 1904, which brought all the universities in India
of Bengal with headquarters at Dacca. Though Curzon justified his
under the control of the government.
action on administrative lines, partition divided the Hindus and Muslims

ed
Police and Military Reforms in Bengal. This led to the anti-partition agitation all over the country.
This had also intensified the National Movement.
Curzon believed in efficiency and discipline. He instituted a
Police Commission in 1902 under the chairmanship of Sir Andrew Estimate of Lord Curzon
Frazer. Curzon accepted all the recommendations and implemented

M
Lord Curzon assumed his office, when he was forty years old.
them. He set up training schools for both the officers and the
All his reform measures were preceded by an expert Commission
constables and introduced provincial police service. As for the
and its recommendations. He made a serious study of the Indian
remodeling of the army, it was by and large done by Lord Kitchener,
problems in all their aspects. At the beginning Curzon earned the
the Commander-in-Chief in India in Curzon’s time.
popularity and admiration of the Indian people. He lost the popularity
Calcutta Corporation Act (1899)
e
The Viceroy brought in a new legislative measure namely the
by the act of Partition of Bengal.
re
Calcutta Corporation Act in 1899 by which the strength of the elected
members was reduced and that of the official members increased.
Curzon gave more representations to the English people as against
S

the Indians in the Calcutta Corporation. There was strong resentment

by the Indian members against Curzon’s anti-people measures.
Preservation of Archaeological objects
Curzon had a passion for preserving the ancient monuments of
historical importance in India. No Viceroy in India before or after
him took such a keen interest in archaeological objects. He passed a

120 121
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After studying this lesson students would acquire knowledge about I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Lytton’s unpopular measures such as the Vernacular Press 1. Name the first Viceroy of India.
Act and inadequate handling of the famine situation.
(a) Warren Hastings (b) Lord Dalhousie
2. His failure in Afghan policy which led to the murder of
(c) Lord Canning (d) Lord Ripon
English officers.

ia
2. In which year the Vernacular Press Act was passed?
3. Lord Ripon’s liberal reforms in the sphere of education,
local-self government and labour welfare. (a) 1878 (b) 1882

ed
4. His efforts to end the racial discrimination in the judiciary (c) 1898 (d) 1902
and that the Ilbert Bill issue was also responsible for the II. Fill in the blanks.
rise of national movement.
1. The first Famine Commission was appointed under the
5. Lord Curzon’s reforms and also his anti-Indian measure of chairmanship of …….

M
the Partition of Bengal and its impact.
2. The Indian Universities Act was passed in the year …….
III. Match the following.
1. Arms Act a. Andrew Fraser

e 2.
3.
Local Self-Government
Education Commission
b. Lord Curzon
c. Lord Ripon
re
4. Partition of Bengal d. William Hunter
5. Police Commission e. Lord Lytton
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
S

correct.
a) Lord Ripon was asked to follow the Afghan policy of Lord
Lytton.
b) Lord Ripon earned popularity among the Indians by repealing
the Vernacular Press Act.

122 123
c) Lord Ripon gave scant attention to educational reforms. LESSON 13
d) Lord Ripon introduced the Factory Act in 1882. SOCIO-RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
Learning Objectives
1. The British Prime Minister Disraeli appointed Lord Lytton as Students will come to know
the Viceroy of India. 1. The Brahmo Samaj and its services.
2. The Vernacular Press Act crushed the freedom of the Indian 2. The reforms of Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission and similar

ia
organizations.
Press.
3. The services rendered by social reformers like Raja
VI. Write short notes (Any three points). Rammohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswathi and
Vivekananda.

ed
1. The Vernacular Press Act. 4. Reform Movements among the Muslims in India.
5. Sikh and Parsi reform movements.
2. Hunter Commission.
6. Socio-religious reforms in Tamil Nadu led by Saint
3. Ilbert Bill Controversy. Ramalinga and Vaikunda swamigal.

VII. Answer briefly (100 words).

M
In the history of modern India, the socio-religious reforms
1. Write a note on the Famine Policy followed by Lord Lytton.
occupy a significant place. Social reformars like Raja Rammohan
2. Discuss the Importance of Local Self-Government. Roy, Swami Dayanand Sarawathi and Swami Vivekananda were
3. Point out the educational reforms of Lord Curzon. responsible for the social and cultural awakening in India. The spread

VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

e of liberal ideas of the west provided further stimulus for the emergence
of reform movements. These movements introduced important
re
1. Examine the Afghan policy of Lord Lytton. changes in social and religious life of the people
of India.
2. Estimate the reforms of Lord Ripon.
Raja Rammohan Roy and the Brahmo Samaj
3. Give an account of the administration of Lord Curzon.
S

Raja Rammohan Roy established the

Brahmo Samaj at Calcutta in 1828 in order to
purify Hinduism and to preach monotheism. He
is considered as the first ‘modern man of India’.
He was a pioneer of socio-religious reform
movements in modern India.
RAMMOHAN ROY

124 125
 Born in 1772 in the Hooghly district of Bengal, he inculcated a
brilliant freedom of thought and rationality. He studied the Bible as
well as Hindu and Muslim religious texts. He had excellent command
over many languages including English, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic,
French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew.
In 1815, he established the Atmiya Sabha. Later, it was
developed into the Brahmo Sabha in August 1828. Through this
Henry Vivian Derozio and the Young Bengal Movement
Henry Vivian Derozio was the founder of the Young Bengal
Movement. He was born in Calcutta in 1809 and
taught in the Hindu College, Calcutta. He died of
cholera in 1833. His followers were known as the
Derozians and their movement the Young Bengal
Movement. They attacked old traditions and

organisation, he preached that there is only one God. He combined
the teachings of the Upanishads, the Bible and the Koran in
developing unity among the people of different religions. The work
ia
decadent customs. They also advocated women’s
V IV IA N D E R O Z IO
rights and their education. They founded
associations and organized debates against idol worship, casteism

ed
of the Atmiya Sabha was carried on by Maharishi Debendranath and superstitions.
Tagore (father of Rabindranath Tagore), who renamed it as Brahmo
Swami Dayanand Saraswathi and the Arya Samaj
Samaj. He turned the Brahmo Samaj into a leading social organisation
of India. The Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand
Saraswathi at Bombay in 1875. Born in

M
Raj Rammohan Roy is most remembered for helping Lord
Kathiawar in Gujarat, Swami Dayanand
William Bentinck to declare the practice of Sati a punishable offence
(1824-83) was a scholar, a patriot, a social
in 1829. He also protested against the child marriage and female
reformer and a revivalist. He believed the
infanticide. He favored the remarriage of widows, female education
Vedas were the source of true knowledge.
and women’s right to property. He felt that the caste system was the

e
greatest hurdle to Indian unity. He believed in the equality of mankind.
He did not believe in the supremacy of the Brahmin priests. He
His motto was “Back to the Vedas”. He was
against idol worship, child marriage and caste
re
Swami Dayanand system based on birth. He encouraged inter-
favoured inter-caste marriages. He himself adopted a Muslim boy. Saraswathi
caste marriages and widow remarriage. He
In 1817, he founded the Hindu College (now Presidency College,
started the Suddhi movement to bring back those Hindus who had
Calcutta) along with David Hare, a missionary. He also set up schools
converted to other religions to its fold. He wrote the book Satyartha
for girls.
S

Prakash which contains his ideas.

Rammohan Roy started the first Bengali weekly Samvad
The Arya Samaj, though founded in Bombay, became very
Kaumudi and edited a Persian weekly Mirat-ul-akhbar. He stood
powerful in Punjab and spread its influence to other parts of India. It
for the freedom of the press. Rammohan died in Bristol in England in
has contributed very much to the spread of education. The first
1833.
Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (DAV) School was founded in 1886 at Lahore.
Many more schools came up in other parts of India in later years.
The Arya Samaj had also spread nationalism. Hundreds of Arya
126 127
Samaj patriots, including Lala Lajpat Rai, took part in the Indian
freedom struggle.
Prarthana Samaj
The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867
in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang. It was
an off-shoot of Brahmo Samaj. It was a reform
movement within Hinduism and concentrated on
social reforms like inter-dining, inter-marriage,
widow remarriage and uplift of women and
depressed classes. Justice M.G. Ranade and
ed
R.G. Bhandarkar joined it in 1870 and infused M.G. RANADE
new strength to it. Justice Ranade promoted the
Deccan Education Society.
Swami Vivekananda and Ramakrishna Mission
M
The original name of Swami Vivekananda was Narendranath
Dutta (1863-1902) and he became the most
famous disciple of Shri Ramkrishna
Paramahamsa. He was born in a prosperous
Bengali family of Calcutta and educated in
Scottish Church College. In 1886 Narendranath e Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
re
took the vow of Sanyasa and was given the name,
Vivekananda. He preached Vedantic Philosophy.
He condemned the caste system and the current
Hindu emphasis on rituals and ceremonies. SWAMI VIVEKANANDA
S
Swami Vivekananda participated at the
Parliament of Religions held in Chicago (USA) in September 1893
and raised the prestige of India and Hinduism very high.
Vivekananda preached the message of strength and self-
reliance. He asked the people to improve the lives of the poor and
depressed classes. He believed that service to mankind is service to
128
God. He founded the Ramkrishna Mission at Belur in Howrah in
1897. It is a social service and charitable society. The objectives of
this Mission are providing humanitarian relief and social work through
the establishment of schools, colleges, hospitals and orphanages.
Theosophical Society
The Theosophical Society was founded in New York (USA) in
ia
1875 by Madam H.P. Blavatsky, a Russian lady, and Henry Steel
Olcott, an American colonel. Their main objectives
were to form a universal brotherhood of man without
any distinction of race, colour or creed and to promote
the study of ancient religions and philosophies. They
arrived in India and established their headquarters at
Adyar in Madras in 1882. Later in 1893, Mrs. Annie
Besant arrived in India and took over the leadership
MADAM BLAVATSKY of the Society after the death of Olcott. Mrs. Annie
Besant founded the Central Hindu School along with
Madan Mohan Malaviya at Benaras which later developed into the
Banaras Hindu University.
Pandit Ishwar Chandra was a great
educator, humanist and social reformer.
He was born in 1820 in a village in
Midnapur, Bengal. He rose to be the Head
Pandit of the Bengali Department of Fort
William College. He firmly believed that
reform in Indian society could only come
about through education. Vidyasagar
founded many schools for girls. He
helped J.D. Bethune to establish the PANDIT VIDYASAGAR
Bethune School. He founded the Metropolitan Institution in Calcutta.
He protested against child marriage and favoured widow
129
remarriage which was legalised by the Widow Remarriage Act (1856).
It was due to his great support for the spread of education that he
was given the title of Vidyasagar.
Jyotiba Phule
Jyotiba Phule belonged to a low caste family in Maharashtra.
He waged a life-long struggle against upper caste domination and
The Deoband School
The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the
Deoband Moovement. It was a revivalist movement whose twin
objectives were : (i) to propagate among the Muslims the pure
teachings of the Koran and the Hadis and (ii) to keep alive the spirit
of jihad aganist the foreign rulers. The new Deoband leader
Mahmud-ul-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to impart a political and

ia
Brahmanical supremacy. In 1873 he founded the Satyashodak Samaj
intellectual content to the religious ideas of the school. The liberal
to fight against the caste system. He pioneered the widow remarriage
interpretation of Islam created a political awakening among its
movement in Maharashtra and worked for the education for women.
followers.
Jyotiba Phule and his wife established the first girls’ school at Poona

ed
in 1851. Sikh Reform Movement
Muslim Reform Movements Punjab also came under the spell of reforms. Baba Dayal Das
founded the Nirankari Movement. He insisted the worship of God
The Muslim reform movements started a little later because
as nirankar (formless). The Namdhari Movement was founded by

M
they had avoided western education in the beginning. The first effort
Baba Ram Singh. His followers wore white clothes and gave up meat
was in 1863 when the Muhammad Literary Society was set up in
eating. The Singh Sabhas started in Lahore and Amritsar in 1870
Calcutta. Its aim was to popularise the study of English and western
were aimed at reforming the Sikh society. They helped to set up the
sciences. It established a number of schools in Bengal.
Khalsa College at Amritsar in 1892.They also encouraged Gurmukhi
Aligarh Movement

e
The Aligarh Movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmad
and Punjabi literature. In 1920, the Akalis started a movement to
remove the corrupt Mahants (priests) from the Sikh gurudwaras.
re
Khan (1817-98) for the social and educational advancement of the The British government was forced to make laws on this matter.
Muslims in India. He fought against the medieval backwardness and Later, the Akalis organised themselves into a political party.
advocated a rational approach towards religion. Parsi Reform Movement
In 1866, he started the Mohammadan Educational
S

The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at

Conference as a general forum for spreading liberal
Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S. Bengalee in 1851. They
ideas among the Muslims. In 1875, he founded a
advocated the spread of women’s education. They also wanted to
modern school at Aligarh to promote English
reform their marriage customs. Naoroji published a monthly journal,
education among the Muslims. This had later
Jagat Mithra. The momentum gathered through these reform
grown into the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental
movements and went a long way in uplifting the entire community.
SYED AHMAD KHAN
College and then into the Aligarh Muslim
By the middle of the twentieth century most of them were highly
University.

130 131

(Shiromani Gurudwara
Prabandhak Committee)
placed in various capacities and have made a significant contribution
to India’s development.
Centres of Religious and
Social Movements Saint Ramalinga
Saint Ramalinga was one of the foremost saints
Amritsar of Tamil Nadu in the nineteenth century. He was
born on October 5, 1823 at Marudhur, near

ia
Deoband School Chidambaram. He was the last son of his father,
(Ahmediya Movement)
Ramayya Pillai and mother, Chinnammayar.
Developing a deep interest in spiritual

ed
life, Ramalinga moved to Karunguli in 1858, a place
SAINT RAMALINGA
near Vadalur where the Saint later settled down. His
Belur divine powers came to be recognised at the early age of eleven. In
Rajkot (Ramakrishna Mission)
(Arya Samaj) Calcutta 1865 he founded the Samarasa Suddha Sanmargha Sangha for the
(Brahma Samaj), Young Bengal Movement)
promotion of his ideals of establishing a casteless society. He preached

M
I N D I A love and compassion to the people. He composed Tiru Arutpa. His
other literay works include Manu Murai Kanda Vasagam and Jeeva
Bombay Karunyam. His language was so simple as to enable the illiterate
(Prarthana Samaji,
Satyashodhak Samaj) Pune people to understand his teachings. In 1870 he moved to Mettukuppam,
(Sarvajanik Sabha)
Rajahmundry Association
e Andaman and Nicobar Islands
a place three miles away from Vadalur. There he started constructing
the Satya Gnana Sabai in 1872. He introduced the principle that
re
God could be worshipped in the form of Light.
Lakshadweep

Madras Sri Vaikunda Swamigal

(INDIA)

(Theosophical Society,
(INDIAN)

Veda Samaj)
Sri Vaikunda Swamigal was born in 1809 at Swamithoppu in
S

the Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu. His original name was

Mudichoodum Perumal but he was called Muthukkutty. He preached
Sivagiri Varkaka against the caste system and untouchability. He also condemned
(Sri Narayana Dharma Paripalan Yogam)
religious ceremonies. Many came to his place to worship him and
INDIAN OCEAN
slowly his teachings came to be known as Ayyavazhi. By the mid-
nineteenth century, Ayyavazhi came to be recognized as a separate
religion and spread in the regions of South Travancore and South

132 133
 Self-Respect Movement and Periyar E.V.R.
Periyar E.V. Ramaswamy was a great social reformer. In 1921,
Ramakrishna Mission
during the anti-liquor campaign he cut down 1000 coconut trees in
Swami Vivekananda
his own farm. In 1924, he took an active part in the
Vaikam Satyagraha. The objective of the Satyagraha
was to secure for untouchables the right to use a

ia
Prarthana Samaj road near a temple at Vaikom in Kerala. E.V.R.
Dr. Atmaram
Pandurang
opposed the Varnashrama policy followed in the
Thesophical Society V.V.S. Iyer’s Seranmadevi Gurugulam. During 1920-
Madam H.P. Blavatsky

ed
1925 being in the Congrees Party he stressed that
Col. H.S.Olcott PERIYAR E.V.R.
Congress should accept communal representation.
Arya Samaj Subsequently in 1925, he started the “Self-Respect Movement”. The
Swami Dayanand aims of the ‘Self -Respect Movement’ were to uplift the
Saraswathi
Dravidians and to expose the Brahminical tyrany and deceptive

M
Brahmo Samaj
Raja Ram Mohan Roy methods by which they controlled all spheres of Hindu life. He
denounced the caste system, child marriage and enforced widowhood.
He encouraged inter-caste marriages. He himself conducted many
marriages without any rituals. Such a marriage was known as “Self-

e Respect Marriage.” He gave secular names to new born babies.

He attacked the laws of Manu, which he called the basis
re
of the entire Hindu social fabric of caste. He founded the Tamil
journals Kudiarasu, Puratchi and Viduthalai to propagate his ideals.
In 1938 at Tamil Nadu Women’s Conference appreciatin the
S

noble service rendered by E.V.R. he was given the title “Periyar”.

On 27th June 1970 by the UNESCO organisation praised and adorned
Tirunelveli. After his death, the religion was spread on the basis of
with the title “Socrates of South Asia”.
his teachings and the religious books Akilattirattu Ammanai and Arul
Nool. Hundreds of Nizhal Thangals (places of worship) were built
across the country.

134 135
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After studying this lesson students would acquire knowledge about I. Choose the correct answer.
1. Raja Rammohan Roy and the Brahmo Samaj. 1. The Brahmo Samaj was established in the year
2. Swami Dayanand and the services of Arya Samaj. (a) 1827 (b) 1828
3. Swami Vivekananda’s life and ideals and also the social (c) 1829 (d) 1838

ia
services rendered by the Ramakrishna Mission
2. Who among the following started the Aligarh Movement?
4. The Muslim Reform movements such as the Deoband School,
(a) Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (b) Salimullah Khan
the Aligarh Movement.

ed
(c) Muhammad Ali Jinnah (d) Muhammad al Hasan
5. The Nirankari and Namdari movements among the Sikhs
and the Parsi reform movement. 3. Satya Gnana Sabai was started at

6. St. Ramalinga’s Samarasa Suddha Sanmarga, (a) Madurai (b) Rameswaram

Vaikuntaswami’s Ayyavazhi. (c) Vadalur (d) Chidambaram

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II. Fill in the blanks.
1. …… was the Bengali Weekly started by Raj Rammohan Roy.
2. Swami Dayanadha Saraswathi was the author of ……..

e 3.
III.
The Satya Shodak Samaj was founded by ……
Match the following.
re
1. Atmiya Sabha a. Olcott
2. Young Bengal Movement b. Raja Rammohan Roy
S

3. Prarthana Samaj c. Baba Dayal

4. Nirankari Movement d. Henry Vivian Derozio
5. Thesopical Society e. Atmaram Pandurang
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) In 1815 Dayanand Saraswathi established the Atmiya Sabha.
136 137
b) Rammohan Roy started the first Bengali weekly Samvad LESSON 14
Kaumudi.
INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1885-1905)
c) Rabindranath Tagore was the founder of the Young Bengal
Movement. Learning Objectives
d) The Prarthana Samaj was founded in 1867 in Bombay Students will acquire knowledge about

V. State whether the following statements are True or False. 1. The growth of East India Company’s Rule in India.

ia
1. The motto of Swami Dayanand Saraswathi was ‘Back to the 1. Origin and growth of nationalism in India..
Vedas’. 2. Birth of Indian National Congress.
2. The original name of Shri Ramakrishna was Narendranath

ed
3. The objectives and methods of Early Nationalist Movement.
Dutta.
4. Leaders of this period.
3. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagara opposed the widow remarriage.
5. Achievements of moderates.
4. Saint Ramalinga composed Thiru Arutpa.

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VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
Factors Promoting the Growth of Nationalism in India
1. Arya Samaj
The following causes are responsible for the origin and growth of
2. Swami Vivekananda
nationalism in India.
3.
4.
Jyotiba Phule
Sri Vaikunta Swamigal e 1. Political Unity
re
For the first time, most of the regions in India were united politically
VII. Answer briefly (100 words). and administratively under a single power (the British rule). It introduced
1. Discuss the principles of Saint Ramalinga. a uniform system of law and government.

2. Examine the Islamic Reform movements. 2. Development of Communication and Transport

S

VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). The introduction of railways, telegraphs and postal services and
the construction of roads and canals facilitated communication among
1. “Raja Rammohan Roy was the father of Indian Renaissance”
the people. All these brought Indians nearer to each other and provided
– Discuss.
the facility to organise the national movement on an all India basis.
2. Examine the importance of the socio-religious reform
movements of 19 th century India.

138 139
3. English Language and Western Education
The English language played an important role in the growth of
nationalism in the country. The English educated Indians, who led the
national movement, developed Indian nationalism and organised it.
Western education facilitated the spread of the concepts of liberty, equality,
freedom and nationalism and sowed the seeds of nationalism.
4. The Role of the Press
The Indian Press, both English and vernacular, had also aroused
the national consciousness.
ed
5. Social and Religious Movements of the Nineteenth Century
The leaders of various organisations like the Brahmo Samaj,
Ramakrishna Mission, Arya Samaj, and Theosophical Society generated
a feeling of regard for and pride in the motherland.
M
6. Economic Exploitation by the British
A good deal of anti-British feeling was created by the economic
policy pursued by the British government in India. The English
systematically ruined the Indian trade and native industries. Therefore,
for the rise of Indian nationalism. e
economic exploitation by the British was one of the most important causes
re
7. Racial Discrimination
The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent bitterness and
suspicion between the British and the Indians. The English feeling of
S
racial superiority grew. India as a nation and Indians as individuals were
subjected to insults, humiliation and contemptuous treatment.
8. Administration of Lytton
Lord Lytton arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time when the larger
part of India was in the grip of famine. He passed the Vernacular Press
Act which curbed the liberty of the Indian Press. His Arms Act was a
140
means to prevent the Indians from keeping arms. All these measures
created widespread discontent among the Indians.
9. The Ilbert Bill controversy
The Ilbert Bill was presented in the Central Legislature during the
Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon. The Bill tried to remove racial inequality
between Indian and European judges in courts. This Bill was opposed
ia
by the British residents in India. Ultimately the Bill was modified.
Thus various factors contributed to the rise of nationalism and the
formation of the Indian National Congress.
Early Political Associations
The British Indian Association – 1851 Bengal
The Bombay Association — 1852 Dadabhai Naoroji
East India Association 1856 London
Madras Native Association 1852
Poona Sarvojanik Sabha—1870
The Madras Mahajana Sabha—1884
The Indian National Congress (1885)
Allan Octavian Hume, a retired civil servant
in the British Government took the initiative to form
an all-India organization. Thus, the Indian National
Congress was founded and its first session was held
at Bombay in 1885. W.C. Banerjee was its first
president. It was attended by 72 delegates from all
over India. Persons attending the session belonged
to different religious faiths. They discussed the A. O. HUME
problems of all the Indians irrespective of their
religion, caste, language and regions. Thus Indian
National Congress from the start was an all-India secular movement
141
embracing every section of Indian society. The second session was held
in Calcutta in 1886 and the third in Madras in 1887.
The history of the Indian National Movement can be studied in
three important phases:
(i) The phase of moderate nationalism (1885-1905) when the
Congress continued to be loyal to the British crown.
For a few years the Congress enjoyed the patronage of the British
administrators. Between 1885 and 1905, the Congress leaders were
moderates. The Moderates had faith in the British justice and goodwill.
They were called moderates because they adopted peaceful and
constitutional means to achieve their demands.
Main Demands of Moderates
§

ia
Expansion and reform of legislative councils.
(ii) The years 1906-1916 witnessed- Swadeshi Movement, rise
of militant nationalism and the Home Rule Movement. § Greater opportunities for Indians in higher posts by holding
the ICS examination simultaneously in England and in India.
(iii) The period from 1917 to1947 is known as the Gandhian

ed
era. § Separation of the judiciary from the executive.
Moderate Nationalism § More powers for the local bodies.
The leading figures during the first phase of the National Movement § Reduction of land revenue and protection of peasants from
were A.O. Hume, W.C. Banerjee, Surendra Nath Banerjee, Dadabhai unjust landlords.

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Naoroji, Feroze Shah Mehta, Gopalakrishna Gokhale,
§ Abolition of salt tax and sugar duty.
Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Badruddin Tyabji,
Justice Ranade and G.Subramanya Aiyar. § Reduction of spending on army.

Surendranath Banerjee was called the Indian § Freedom of speech and expression and freedom to form

e
Burke. He firmly opposed the Partition of Bengal.
He founded the Indian Association (1876) to
associations
Methods of Moderates
re
agitate for political reforms. He had convened the
The Moderates had total faith in the British sense of justice and
Indian National Conference (1883) which merged
GOKHALE fair play. They were loyal to the British. They looked to England for
with the Indian National Congress in l886. G.
inspiration and guidance. The Moderates used petitions, resolutions,
Subramanya Aiyar preached nationalism through the
S

meetings, leaflets and pamphlets, memorandum and delegations to present

Madras Mahajana Sabha. He also founded the The Hindu and
Swadesamitran. Dadabhai Naoroji was known as the Grand Old Man
of India. He is regarded as India’s unofficial Ambassador in England.
He was the first Indian to become a Member of the British House of
Commons. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was regarded as the political guru of
Gandhi. In 1905, he founded the Servants of India Society to train
Indians to dedicate their lives to the cause of the country
142
their demands. They confined their political activities to the educated
classes only. Their aim was to attain political rights and self-government
stage by stage.
In the beginning, the British Government welcomed the birth of
the Indian National Congress. In 1886, Governor General Lord Dufferin
gave a tea garden party for the Congress members in Calcutta. The
143
government officials had also attended Congress sessions. With the Learning Outcome
increase in Congress demands, the government became unfriendly. It
After studying this lesson students would be able to explain
encouraged the Muslims to stay away from the Congress. The only
demand of the Congress granted by the British was the expansion of the 1. The factors led to the growth of Indian nationalism.
legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act of 1892. 2. The birth and growth of the Indian National Congress.
Achievements of Moderates 3. A brief sketch of the leaders of the moderate nationalism.

ia
1. The Moderates were able to create a wide national awakening 4. The aims and methods of the moderates in claiming their
among the people. demands.
2. They popularized the ideas of democracy, civil liberties and 5. The British exploitation of the Indian economy and the Drain

ed
representative institutions. Theory.
3. They explained how the British were exploiting Indians.
Particularly, Dadabhai Naoroji in his famous book Poverty and
UnBritish Rule in India wrote his Drain Theory. He showed

M
how India’s wealth was going away to England in the form of: (a)
salaries,(b)savings, (c) pensions, (d) payments to British troops in
India and (e) profits of the British companies. In fact, the British
Government was forced to appoint the Welby Commission, with
Dadabhai as the first Indian as its member, to enquire into the

4.
matter.
e
Some Moderates like Ranade and Gokhale favoured social
re
reforms. They protested against child marriage and widowhood.
5. The Moderates had succeeded in getting the expansion of the
legislative councils by the Indian Councils Act of 1892.
S

144 145
 MODEL QUESTIONS IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
I. Choose the correct answer.
a) The Revolt of 1857 created a kind of permanent bitterness and
1. The Indian National Congress was founded by suspicion between the British and the Indians.
(a) W.C. Banerjee b) Lord Ripon arranged the Delhi Durbar at a time when the larger
part of India was in the grip of famine.
(b) A.O. Hume

ia
c) A.O. Hume was the first president of the INC in 1885.
(c) Mahatma Gandhi
d) Gokhale was called the Indian Burke.
(d) Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

ed
2. Who among the following was the political Guru of Gandhiji ?
1. W.C. Banerjee was the first President of the Indian National
(a) Surendra Nath Banerjee Congress.
(b) Gopala Krishna Gokhale 2. The book Poverty and UnBritish Rule in India was written by
(c) Bala Gangadhara Tilak S.N. Banerjee.

M
3. The administration of Lord Lytton contributed to the growth of
(d) Bipin Chandra Pal
nationalism in India.
II. Fill in the blanks. 4. The period from 1906 to 1916 is known as the era of moderate
1. The first session of the Indian National Congress was held at nationalism.

2.
……...............
e
……… was the first Indian to become a member of the British
VI.
1.
Write short notes (Any three points).
Indian National Congress.
re
House of Commons.
2. Dadhabai Naoroji.
III. Match the following.
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Delhi Durbar a. S.N. Banerjee
S

1. Write a note on the main demands of the moderates.

2. Ilbert Bill Controversy b. Gokhale 2. Discuss the methods adopted by the moderates in the first phase
3. Indian Association c. Lord Lytton of the Indian National Movement.
4. Servants of India Society d. Dadhabai Naaoroji VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
5. Drain Theory e. Lord Ripon 1. Examine the causes for the rise of nationalism in India.
2. Evaluate the achievements of the moderates.

146 147
 LESSON 15 3. The economic conditions of the people became worse.

INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1905-1916) 4. The ill-treatment of Indians in South Africa on the basis of
colour of skin.
Learning Objectives 5. The Russo-Japanese war of 1904-5 in which Japan defeated
Students will come to know the European power Russia. This encouraged Indians to fight
1. The causes for the rise of extremism in the Indian National against the European nation, Britain.

ia
Movement. 6. The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the
2. Main objective and methods of extremists. reactionary rule of Lord Curzon:

3. Leaders of extremists such as Tilak, Bipan Chandra Pal and Ø He passed the Calcutta Corporation Act, (1899) reducing

ed
Lala Lajpat Rai. the Indian control of this local body.

4. The impact of the Partition of Bengal on national movement. Ø The Universities Act (1904) reduced the elected
members in the University bodies. It also reduced the
5. Swadeshi Movement and the achievements of extremists. autonomy of the universities and made them government

M
6. The birth of Muslim League. departments.
7. The Home Rule Movement. Ø The Sedition Act and the Official Secrets Act reduced
the freedoms of all people.
Ø His worst measure was the Partition of Bengal (1905).

e
The period from 1905 was known as the era of extremism in
the Indian National Movement. The extremists or the aggressive Main Objective of Extremists
re
nationalists believed that success could be achieved through bold Their main objective was to attain Swaraj or complete
means. The important extremist leaders were Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal independence and not just self-government.
Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh.
Methods of the Extremists
Causes for the Rise of Extremism
S

The Extremists had no faith in the British sense of justice and

1. The failure of the Moderates to win any notable success other
than the expansion of the legislative councils by the Indian
Councils Act (1892).
2. The famine and plague of 1896-97 which affected the whole
country and the suffering of the masses.
fair play. They pointed out the forceful means by which the British
had taken control of India. They believed that political rights will
have to be fought for. They had the spirit of self-reliance and self-
determination.

148 149
The methods used by the extremists were: Aurobinda Ghosh was another extremist leader and he actively
participated in the Swadeshi Movement. He was also imprisoned.
1. Not cooperating with the British Government by boycotting
After his release he settled in the French territory of Pondicherry
government courts, schools and colleges.
and concentrated on spiritual activities.
2. Promotion of Swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods.
Partition of Bengal and the Rise of Extremism
3. Introduction and promotion of national education.
The partition of Bengal in 1905 provided a spark for the rise of
Leaders of the Extremists

ia
extremism in the Indian National Movement.
The extremists were led by Bala Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Curzon’s real motives were:
Rai, Bipinchandra Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh. · To break the growing strength of

ed
Bal Gangadhar Tilak is regarded as the real Bengali nationalism since Bengal was
founder of the popular anti-British movement in India. the base of Indian nationalism.
He was known as ‘Lokamanya’. He attacked the · To divide the Hindus and Muslims in
British through his weeklies The Mahratta and the Bengal. AUROBINDA GHOSH
Kesari. He was jailed twice by the British for his

M
nationalist activities and in 1908 deported to Mandalay
· To show the enormous power of the
British Government in doing whatever it liked.
for six years. He set up the Home Rule League in
TILAK
1916 at Poona and declared “Swaraj is my birth-right On the same day when the partition came into effect, 16
and I will have it.” October 1905, the people of Bengal orgainsed protest meetings and
Lala Lajpat Rai is popularly known as the
‘Lion of Punjab’. He played an important role e observed a day of mourning. The whole political life of Bengal
underwent a change. Gandhi wrote that the real awakening in India
re
took place only after the Partition of Bengal.
in the Swadeshi Movement. He founded the Indian
The anti-partition movement culminated into
Home Rule League in the US in 1916. He was
the Swadeshi Movement and spread to other
deported to Mandalay on the ground of sedition.
parts of India.
He received fatal injuries while leading a
S

procession against the Simon Commission and died
on November 17, 1928.
LALA LAJPAT RAI
Bipan Chandra Pal began his career as a
moderate and turned an extremist. He played an important role in
the Swadeshi Movement. He preached nationalism through the nook
and corner of Indian by his powerful speeches and writings.
The aggressive nationalists forced
Dadabhai Naoroji to speak of Swaraj (which
was not a Moderate demand) in the Calcutta
Session of Congress in 1906. They adopted
the resolutions of Boycott and Swadeshi. The
DADABHAI NAOROJI
Moderate Congressmen were unhappy. They

150 151
wanted Swaraj to be achieved through constitutional methods. The
differences led to a split in the Congress at the Surat session in 1907.
This is popularly known as the famous Surat Split. The extremists
came out of the Congress led by Tilak and others.
Swadeshi Movement
The Swadeshi Movement involved programmes like the boycott
Formation of the Muslim League (1906)
In December 1906, Muslim delegates from all over India met
at Dacca for the Muslim Educational Conference. Taking advantage
of this occasion, Nawab Salimullah of Dacca proposed the setting
up of an organisation to look after the Muslim interests. The proposal
was accepted. The All-India Muslim League was finally set up on
December 30, 1906. Like the Indian National Congress, they conducted

ia
of government service, courts, schools and colleges and of foreign
annual sessions and put their demands to the British government.
goods, promotion of Swadeshi goods, Promotion of National Education
Initially, they enjoyed the support of the British. Their first
through the establishment of national schools and colleges. It was
achievement was the separate electorates for the Muslims in the
both a political and economic movement.

ed
Minto-Morley reforms.
The Swadeshi Movement was a great success. In Bengal, even
The Lucknow Pact (1916)
the landlords joined the movement. The women and students took to
picketing. Students refused using books made of foreign paper. During the 1916 Congress session at Lucknow two major events
occurred. The divided Congress became united. An understanding

M
The government adopted several tough measures. It passed
for joint action against the British was reached between the Congress
several Acts to crush the movement. The Swadeshi volunteers were
and the Muslim League and it was called the Lucknow Pact. The
beaten badly. The cry of Bande Mataram was forbidden. Schools
signing of the Lucknow Pact by the Congress and the Muslim League
and colleges were warned not to allow their students to take part in
in 1916 marked an important step in the Hindu-Muslim unity.
the movement or else their, aid would be stopped. Some Indian

e
government employees lost their jobs. Extremist leaders Bala
Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and Aurobindo
The Home Rule Movement (1916)
Two Home Rule Leagues were established, one by B.G. Tilak
re
Ghosh were imprisoned and deported.
at Poona in April 1916 and the other by Mrs. Annie Besant at Madras
Achievements of Extremists in September 1916. The aim of the Movement was to get self-
government for India within the British Empire. It believed freedom
The achievements of extremists can be summed up as follows:
S

was the natural right of all nations. Moreover, the leaders of the
1. They were the first to demand Swaraj as a matter of birth Home Movement thought that India’s resources were not being used
right. for her needs.
2. They involved the masses in the freedom struggle and The two Leagues cooperated with each other as well with the
broadened the social base of the National Movement. Congress and the Muslim League in putting their demand for home
3. They were the first to organize an all-India political movement, rule. While Tilak’s Movement concentrated on Maharashtra, Annie
viz. the Swadeshi Movement.

152 153
Besant’s Movement covered the rest of the country. The Home Learning Outcome
Rule Movement had brought a new life in the national movement.
After studying this lesson, the student will understand that
There was a revival of Swadeshi. Women joined in larger numbers.
1. The policies of the British government such as the Partition
On 20 August 1917, Montague, the Secretary of State in
of Bengal contributed to the rise of extremists.
England, made a declaration in the Parliament of England on British
Government’s policy towards future political reforms in India. He 2. The aims and methods of extremists were different from the
promised the gradual development of self-governing institutions in moderates.

ia
India. This August Declaration led to the end of the Home Rule 3. The Swadeshi Movement became a popular movement with
Movement. its boycott of government schools and colleges.
Revolutionary Movements

ed
In the first half of the 20th century, revolutionary groups sprang
up mainly in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab and Madras. The
revolutionaries were not satisfied with the methods of both the
moderates and extremists. Hence, they started many revolutionary
4. The Muslims were initially supported by the British.
5. The importance of the Home Rule Movement.
6. The activities of the revolutionaries in the cause of Indian
nationalism.

M
secret organizations. In Bengal Anusilan Samiti and Jugantar were
established. In Maharashtra Savarkar brothers had set up Abhinava
Bharat. In the Madras Presidency, Bharathmatha Association was
started by Nilakanta Bramachari.

e
In Punjab Ajit Singh set up a secret society to spread
revolutionary ideas among the youth. In London, at India House,
re
Shyamji Krishna Verma gathered young Indian nationalists like Madan
Lal Dhingra, Savarkar, V.V.S. Iyer and T.S.S.Rajan. Lala Hardyal
set up the ‘Ghadar Party’ in USA to organise revolutionary activities
from outside India.
S

154 155
 MODEL QUESTIONS d) The extremists wanted to achieve Swaraj through the
constitutional means.
I. Choose the correct answer.
e) The differences between the moderates and extremists led to
1. Which among the following is not a cause for the rise of the split in the Congress at Lucknow.
extremism?
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
(a) Ilbert Bill (b) Calcutta Corporation Act
1. The immediate cause for the rise of extremism was the

ia
(c) The Universities Act (d) Partition of Bengal reactionary rule of Lord Curzon.
2. The Muslim League was founded in 2. The extremists were the first to demand Swaraj as a matter
(a) 1906 (b) 1909 of birth right.

ed
(c) 1916 (d) 1926 3. The All India Muslim League was set up in 1905.
II. Fill in the blanks. VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. The “Surat Split” in the Indian National Congress took place in 1. Partition of Bengal.

M
the year ….. 2. Surat Split.
2. Mrs. Annie Besant established the Home Rule League at ….. 3. Muslim League.
3. Barathamatha Association was started by …… 4. Lucknow Pact.
III.
1.
Match the following.
Kesari e
a. Maharashtra
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Write a note on the rise of extremism in the Indian National
re
2. Lion of Punjab b. Muslim League Movement.
3. Salimulla Khan c. Lala Har Dayal 2. Bring out the importance of the Swadeshi Movement.
4. Ghadar Party d. B.G. Tilak 3. Explain the role of the Home Rule Movement in the Freedom
S

Struggle.
5. Abhinav Bharat e. Lala Lajpat Rai
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is correct.
1. Discuss the important events in the Indian National Movement
a) The extremists were led by Gokhale.
from 1905 to 1916.
b) The extremists had no faith in the British sense of justice.
c) The extremists believed in the principle of ahimsa.

156 157
 LESSON 16
THE INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT (1917-1947)
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The life of Mahatma Gandhi and his involvement in Indian
freedom struggle.
2. The impact of Jallianwala Bagh massacre on the national
movement.
ed
3. The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement.
4. The Civil-Disobedience Movement and Salt Satyagraha.
5. The Quit India Movement and its impact on the Freedom
M
Struggle.
6. The Cabinet Mission Plan.
Advent of Gandhi
e
The third and final phase of the
re
Nationalist Movement [1917-1947] is known as
the Gandhian era. During this period Mahatma
Gandhi became the undisputed leader of the
National Movement. His principles of non-
S
violence and Satyagraha were employed
against the British Government. Gandhi made
the nationalist movement a mass movement.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born
at Porbandar in Gujarat on 2 October 1869. He
MAHATMA GANDHI
studied law in England. He returned to India in
158
1891. In April 1893 he went to South Africa and involved himself in
the struggle against apartheid (Racial discrimination against the
Blacks) for twenty years. Finally, he came to India in 1915.
Thereafter, he fully involved himself in the Indian National Movement.
Mahatma Gandhi began his experiments with Satyagraha
against the oppressive European indigo planters at Champaran in
Bihar in 1917. In the next year he launched another Satyagraha at
ia
Kheda in Gujarat in support of the peasants who were not able to
pay the land tax due to failure of crops. During this struggle, Sardar
Vallabhai Patel emerged as one of the trusted followers of Gandhi.
In 1918, Gandhi undertook a fast unto death for the cause of
Ahmedabad Mill Workers and finally the mill owners conceded
the just demands of the workers.
On the whole, the local movements at Champaran, Kheda and
Ahmedabad brought Mahatma Gandhi closer to the life of the people
and their problems at the grass roots level. Consequently, he became
the leader of the masses.
Rowlatt Act (1919)
In 1917, a committee was set up under the presidentship of Sir
Sydney Rowlatt to look into the militant Nationalist activities. On the
basis of its report the Rowlatt Act was passed in March 1919 by the
Central Legislative Council. As per this Act, any person could be
arrested on the basis of suspicion. No appeal or petition could be
filed against such arrests. This Act was called the Black Act and it
was widely opposed. An all-India hartal was organized on 6 April
1919. Meetings were held all over the country. Mahatma Gandhi
was arrested near Delhi. Two prominent leaders of Punjab, Dr Satya
Pal and Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew, were arrested in Amritsar.
159
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April, 1919) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saifuddin Kitchlew
and the Ali brothers were the prominent leaders of this movement.
The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre took place on 13 April 1919
A Khilafat Committee had been formed and on 19th October 1919,
and it remained a turning point in the history of India’s freedom
the whole country had observed the Khilafat day. On 23 November,
movement. In Punjab, there was an unprecedented support to the
a joint conference of the Hindus and the Muslims had also been held
Rowlatt Satyagraha. Facing a
under the chairmanship of Mahatma Gandhi. Mahatma Gandhi was
violent situation, the Government
particularly interested in bringing the Hindus and the Muslims together
of Punjab handed over the

ia
to achieve the country’s independence. Subsequently, the Khilafat
administration to the military
Movement merged with the Non-Cooperation Movement launched
authorities under General Dyer.
by Mahatma Gandhi in 1920.
He banned all public meetings and

ed
detained the political leaders. On Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre 13 th April, the Baisakhi day
Mahatma Gandhi announced his plan to begin Non-Cooperation
(harvest festival), a public
with the government as a sequel to the Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala Bagh
meeting was organized at the Jallianwala Bagh (garden). Dyer
massacre and the Khilafat Movement. It was approved by the Indian
marched in and without any warning opened fire on the crowd. The

M
National Congress at the Nagpur session in December, 1920.
firing continued for about 10 to 15 minutes and it stopped only after
the ammunition exhausted. According to official report 379 people Programmes
were killed and 1137 wounded in the incident. There was a nation- The programmes of the Non-Cooperation Movement were:
wide protest against this massacre and Rabindranath Tagore
Ø
gave a tremendous impetus to the freedom struggle. e
renounced his knighthood as a protest. The Jallianwala Bagh massacre
Ø
Surrender of titles and honorary positions.
Resignation of membership from the local bodies.
re
Khilafat Movement Ø Boycott of elections held under the provisions of the 1919
Act.
The chief cause of the Khilafat Movement was the defeat of
Turkey in the First World War. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Ø Boycott of government functions.
S

Sevres (1920) was felt by the Muslims as a great insult to them.
The whole movement was based on the Muslim belief that the Caliph
(the Sultan of Turkey) was the religious head of the Muslims all over
the world. The Muslims in India were upset over the British attitude
against Turkey and launched the Khilafat Movement.
Ø Boycott of courts, government schools and colleges.
Ø Boycott of foreign goods.
Ø Establishment of national schools, colleges and private
panchayat courts.
Ø Popularizing swadeshi goods and khadi.

160 161
 The movement began with Mahatma Gandhi renouncing the 3. It also marked the height of Hindu-Muslim unity as a result of
titles, which were given by the British. Other leaders and influential the merger of Khilafat movement.
persons also followed him by surrendering their honorary posts and
4. It demonstrated the willingness and ability of the masses to
titles. Students came out of the government educational institutions.
endure hardships and make sacrifices.
National schools such as the Kashi Vidyapeeth, the Bihar Vidyapeeth
and the Jamia Millia Islamia were set up. All the prominent leaders Swaraj Party
of the country gave up their lucrative legal practice. Legislatures The suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement led to a

ia
were boycotted. No leader of the Congress came forward to contest split within Congress in the Gaya session of the Congress in
the elections for the Legislatures. December 1922. Leaders like Motilal Nehru and Chittranjan Das
In 1921, mass demonstrations were held against the Prince of formed a separate group within the Congress

ed
Wales during his tour of India. The government resorted to strong known as the Swaraj Party on 1 January 1923.
measures of repression. Many leaders were arrested. The Congress The Swarajists wanted to contest the council
and the Khilafat Committees were proclaimed as illegal. At several elections and wreck the government from within.
places, bonfires of foreign clothes were organised. The message of Elections to Legislative Councils were held in
Swadeshi spread everywhere. Most of the households took to November 1923. In this, the Swaraj Party gained

M
weaving cloths with the help of charkhas. M O T IL A L N E H R U impressive successes. In the Central Legislative
Council Motilal Nehru became the leader of the
But the whole movement was abruptly called off on 11 th
party whereas in Bengal the party was headed by C.R. Das.
February 1922 by Gandhi following the Churi Chaura incident in
the Gorakpur district of U.P. Earlier on 5th February an angry mob The Swaraj Party did several significant things in the Legislative

e
set fire to the police station at Churi Chaura and twenty two police
men were burnt to death. Many top leaders of the country were
Council. It demanded the setting up of responsible government in
India with the necessary changes in the Government of India Act of
re
stunned at this sudden suspension of the Non-Cooperation Movement. 1919. The party could pass important resolutions against the repressive
Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922. laws of the government. When a Committee chaired by the Home
Member, Alexander Muddiman considered the system of Dyarchy
Significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement
as proper, a resolution was passed against it in the Central Legislative
S

1. It was the real mass movement with the participation of Council. After the passing away of C.R. Das in June 1925, the Swarj
different sections of Indian society such as peasants, workers, Party started weakening.
students, teachers and women.
Simon Commission (1927)
2. It witnessed the spread of nationalism to the remote corners of
The Act of 1919 included a provision for its review after a
India.
lapse of ten years. However, the review commission was appointed

162 163
by the British Government two years earlier of its schedule in 1927.
It came to be known as Simon Commission after the name of its
chairman, Sir John Simon. All its seven members were Englishmen.
As there was no Indian member in it, the Commission faced a lot of
criticism even before its landing in India. Almost all the political parties
including the Congress decided to oppose the Commission.
On the fateful day of 3 February 1928 when the Commission
· Full responsible government at the centre.
· Autonomy to the provinces.
· Clear cut division of power between the centre and the
provinces.
· A bicameral legislature at the centre.
However, the leader of the Muslim League, Mohammad Ali

ia
reached Bombay, a general hartal was observed all over the country. Jinnah regarded it as detrimental to the interests of the Muslims.
Everywhere it was greeted with black flags and the cries of ‘Simon Jinnah convened an All India Conference of the Muslims where he
go back’. At Lahore, the students took out a large anti-Simon drew up a list of Fourteen Points as Muslim League demand.

ed
Commission demonstration on 30 October 1928 under the leadership
Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)
of Lala Lajpat Rai. In this demonstration, Lala Lajpat Rai was
seriously injured in the police lathi charge and he passed away after In the prevailing atmosphere of restlessness, the annual session of the
one month. Congress was held at Lahore in December 1929. During this session presided
over by Jawaharlal Nehru the Congress passed the Poorna Swaraj resolution.

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The report of the Simon Commission was published in May
Moreover, as the government failed to accept the Nehru Report, the Congress
1930. It was stated that the constitutional experiment with Dyarchy
gave a call to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement. The Congress had
was unsuccessful and in its place the report recommended the
also observed January 26, 1930 as the Day of Independence. Since then
establishment of autonomous government. There is no doubt that the
January 26th had been observed as a day of independence every year. The
Simon Commission’s Report became the basis for enacting the
Government of India Act of 1935.
e same date later became the Republic Day when the Indian Constitution was
enforced in 1950.
re
Nehru Report (1928)
The Dandi March
In the meanwhile, the Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead,
Thus, the stage was set for the
challenged the Indians to produce a Constitution that would be
second major struggle led by the
acceptable to all. The challenge was accepted by the Congress, which
S

Congress. On 12 th March 1930,

convened an all party meeting on 28 February 1928. A committee
Gandhi began his famous March to
consisting of eight was constituted to draw up a blueprint for the
Dandi with his chosen 79 followers to
future Constitution of India. It was headed by Motilal Nehru. The
break the salt laws. He reached the
Report published by this Committee came to be known as the Nehru Dandi March
coast of Dandi on 5 April 1930 after
Report. The Report favoured:
marching a distance of 200 miles and on 6 April formally launched
· Dominion Status as the next immediate step. the Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking the salt laws.

164 165
 On 9 April, Mahatma Gandhi laid out the programme of the
movement which included making of salt in every village in violation
of the existing salt laws; picketing by women before the shops selling
liquor, opium and foreign clothes; organising the bonfires of foreign
clothes; spinning clothes by using charkha fighting untouchability;
boycotting of schools and colleges by students and resigning from
government jobs by the people. Over and above all these, the
programme also called upon the people not to pay taxes to the
government.
Soon, the movement spread to all parts of the country. Students,
ed
workers, farmers and women, all participated in this movement with
great enthusiasm. As a reaction, the British Government arrested
important leaders of the Congress and imprisoned them.
Round Table Conference
M
The British government adopted the strategy of talking to
different political parties by convening the Round Table Conferences.
The first Round Table Conference was held in November 1930 at
London and it was boycotted it by the Congress.
e
In January 1931 in order to create a conducive atmosphere for
talks, the government lifted the ban on the Congress Party and
re
released its leaders from prison. On 8 March 1931 the Gandhi-Irwin
Pact was signed. As per this pact, Mahatma Gandhi agreed to suspend
the Civil-Disobedience Movement and participate in the Second-
Round Table Conference. In September 1931, the Second Round
S
Table Conference was held at London. Mahatma Gandhi participated
in the Conference but returned to India disappointed as no agreement
could be reached on the demand of complete independence and on
the communal question.
In January 1932, the Civil-Disobedience Movement was
resumed. The government responded to it by arresting Mahatma
166
Gandhi and Sardar Patel and by reimposing the ban on the Congress
party.
Poona Pact (1932)
By 1930, Dr Ambedkar had become a leader of national stature
championing the cause of the depressed people of the country. While
presenting a real picture of the condition of these people in the First
ia
Round Table Conference, he had demanded separate electorates for
them. On 16 August 1932 the British Prime Minister Ramsay
MacDonald made an announcement, which came to be as the
Communal Award. According to this award, the depressed classes
were considered as a separate community and as such provisions
were made for separate electorates for them. Mahatma Gandhi
protested against the Communal Award and went on a fast unto death
in the Yeravada jail on 20 September 1932.
Finally, an agreement was reached between Dr Ambedkar and
Gandhi. This agreement came to be called as the Poona Pact. The
British Government also approved of it. Accordingly, 148 seats in
different Provincial Legislatures were reserved for the Depressed
Classes in place of 71 as provided in the Communal Award.
The third Round Table Conference came to an end in 1932.
The Congress once more did not take part in it. Nonetheless, in March
1933, the British Government issued a White Paper, which became
the basis for the enactment of the Government of India Act, 1935.
The Second World War and National Movement
In 1937 elections were held under the provisions of the
Government of India Act of 1935. Congress Ministries were formed
in seven states of India. On 1 September 1939 the Second World
War broke out. The British Government without consulting the people
of India involved the country in the war. The Congress vehemently
167
opposed it and as a mark of protest the Congress Ministries in the
Provinces resigned on 12 December 1939. The Muslim League
celebrated that day as the Deliverance Day. In March 1940 the
Muslim League demanded the creation of Pakistan.
Individual Satyagraha
During the course of the Second World War
in order to secure the cooperation of the Indians,
the British Government made an announcement on
8 August 1940, which came to be known as the
VINOBA BHAVE
‘August Offer’. The August Offer envisaged that
ed
after the War a representative body of Indians
would be set up to frame the new Constitution. Gandhi was not
satisfied with is offer and decided to launch Individual Satyagraha.
Individual Satyagraha was limited, symbolic and non-violent in
M
nature and it was left to Mahatma Gandhi to choose the Satyagrahis.
Acharya Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer Satyagraha and he was
sentenced to three months imprisonment. Jawaharlal Nehru was the
second Satyagrahi and imprisoned for four months. The individual
Satyagraha continued for nearly 15 months.
Cripps Mission (1942) e The failure of the Cripps Mission and the fear of an impending
re
In the meantime, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow
expanded his Executive Council by including five
more Indians into it in July 1941. However, in the
S
midst of worsening wartime international situation,
the British Government in its continued effort to
secure Indian cooperation sent Sir Stafford Cripps SIR STAFFORD CRIPPS
to India on 23 March 1942. This is known as Cripps
Mission.
168
The main recommendations of Cripps were:
o The promise of Dominion Status to India,
o Protection of minorities
o setting up of a Constituent Assembly in which there
would be representatives from the Princely States along
with those of the British Provinces,
ia
o There would be provision for any Province of British
India not prepared to accept this Constitution, either to
retain its present constitutional position or frame a
constitution of its own.
The major political parties of the country rejected the Cripps
proposals. Gandhi called Cripp’s proposals as a “Post-dated
Cheque”. They did not like the rights of the Princely States either to
send their representatives to the Constituent Assembly or to stay out
of the Indian Union. The Muslim League was also dissatisfied as its
demand for Pakistan had not been conceded in the proposal.
Quit India Movement (1942-1944)
Japanese invasion of India led Mahatma Gandhi to begin his campaign
for the British to quit India. Mahatma Gandhi believed that an interim
government could be formed only after the British left India and the
Hindu-Muslim problem sorted out. The All India Congress Committee
met at Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous Quit India
Resolution. On the same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’.
On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government arrested all the promin-
ent leaders of the Congress. For once, this pre-planned action of the
government left the Indian people without leadership. Mahatma Gandhi
was kept in prison at Poona. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam
Azad, and other leaders were imprisoned in the Ahmednagar Fort.
169
 At this time, leadership was provided by Ram Manohar Lohia,
Achyuta and S.M. Joshi. The role of Jayaprakash Narain in this
movement was important. Large number of students also left their
schools and colleges to join the movement. The youth of the nation
also participated in this movement with patriotism. Strikes,
demonstrations and public meetings were organised in various towns
and cities. Slowly the movement reached the rural areas. In 1943, as
the movement gained further momentum, there were armed attacks
on government buildings in Madras and Bengal. In 1944 Mahatma
Gandhi was released from jail. Quit India Movement was the final
ed
attempt for country’s freedom. The British Government ordered for
538 rounds of firing. Nearly 60,229 persons were jailed. At least
7,000 people were killed. This movement paved the way for India’s
freedom. It aroused among Indians the feelings of bravery, enthusiasm
and total sacrifice.
M
Indian National Army
During the course of the Second World
War, armed revolutionary activities continued to
take place. The role of Subhas Chandra Bose
e
towards such activities is incomparable. On 2
July 1943, Subhas Chandra Bose reached
re
Singapore and gave the rousing war cry of ‘Dilli
Chalo’. He was made the President of Indian
Independence League and soon became the
supreme commander of the Indian National
S
SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE
Army. He gave the country the slogan of Jai
Hind. The names of the INA’s three Brigades were the Subhas
Brigade, Gandhi Brigade and Nehru Brigade. The women’s wing of
the army was named after Rani Laxmibai.
The Indian National Army marched towards Imphal after
registering its victory over Kohima. After Japan’s surrender in 1945,
170
the INA failed in its efforts. Under such circumstances, Subhas went
to Taiwan. Then on his way to Tokyo he died on 18 August 1945 in a
plane crash.
The trial of the soldiers of INA was held at Red Fort in Delhi.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai and Tej Bahadur Sapru
fought the case on behalf of the soldiers.
ia
Cabinet Mission (1946)
After the Second World War, Lord Atlee became the Prime
Minister of England. On 15 March, 1946 Lord Atlee made a historic
announcement in which the right to self-determination and the framing
of a Constitution for India were conceded. Consequently, three
members of the British Cabinet - Pathick Lawrence, Sir Stafford
Cripps and A. V. Alexander - were sent to India. This is known as
the Cabinet Mission.
The Cabinet Mission put forward a plan for solution of the
constitutional problem. Provision was made for three groups of
provinces to possess their separate constitutions. The Cabinet Mission
also proposed the formation of a Union of India, comprising both the
British India and the Princely States. The Union would remain in
charge of only foreign affairs, defence and communications leaving
the residuary powers to be vested in the provinces. A proposal was
envisaged for setting up an Interim Government, which would remain
in office till a new government was elected on the basis of the new
Constitution framed by the Constituent Assembly. Both the Muslim
League and the Congress accepted the plan.
Consequently, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation
of a Constituent Assembly. The Congress secured 205 out of 214
General seats. The Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats.
An Interim Government was formed under the leadership of
Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September 1946.
171
Mountbatten Plan (1947)
On 20 February l947, Prime Minister Atlee
announced in the House of Commons the definite
intention of the British Government to transfer power
to responsible Indian hands by a date not later than
June 1948. Thus, to effect the transference of that
power Atlee decided to send Lord Mountbatten as
LORD MOUNTBATTEN
Viceroy to India.
Lord Mountbatten armed with vast powers became India’s
Viceroy on 24 March 1947. The partition of India and the creation of
ed
Pakistan appeared inevitable to him. After extensive consultation
Lord Mountbatten put forth the plan of partition of India on 3 June
1947. The Congress and the Muslim League ultimately approved
the Mountbatten Plan.
M
Indian Independence Act 1947
The British Government accorded formal approval to the
Mountbatten Plan by enacting the Indian Independence Act on 18
July 1947. The salient features of this Act were:
e Learning Outcome
re
S
Indian Independence
172
§ The partition of the country into India and Pakistan would
come into effect from 15 August 1947.
§ The British Government would transfer all powers to
these two Dominions.
§ A Boundary Commission would demarcate the
boundaries of the provinces of the Punjab and Bengal.
ia
§ The Act provided for the transfer of power to the
Constituent Assemblies of the two Dominions, which
will have full authority to frame their respective
Constitutions.
The Radcliff Boundary Commission drew the boundary line
separating India and Pakistan. On 15th August 1947 India, and on
the 14th August Pakistan came into existence as two independent
states. Lord Mountbatten was made the first Governor General of
Independent India, whereas Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the first
Governor General of Pakistan. The most tragic incident occurred on
30 January 1948, when Mahatma Gandhi - the father of the nation-
on his way to a prayer meeting was assassinated by Nathuram Godse.
After studying this lesson students would acquire knowledge about
1. Gandhi’s early experiments of Satyagraha made him a mass
leader.
2. The Non-Cooperation movement and its success.
3. The political activities between 1922 and 1930 such as
Swaraj politics and anti-Simon struggle.
4. The Civil Disobedience Movement, Round Table Conference
and the Poona Pact.
5. The Quit India Movement and its impact.
6. The role of INA in the freedom struggle.
7. The Cabinet Mission to the Independence of India.
173
 MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The Kheda Satyagraha was launched by Gandhi in support of
(a) Indigo planters (b) Industrial labour
(c) Peasants (d) Mill workers

ia
2. The Chauri Chaura incident took place in the year
(a) 1920 (b)1921
(c)1922 (d)1923

ed
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The Rowlat Act was passed in the year ….
2. The Poorna Swaraj Resolution was passed at ….

M
3. The Communal Award was announced by the British Prime
Minister …….
III. Match the following.
1. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre a. 1923

e 2.
3.
Swaraj Party
Dandi March
b. 1931
c. 1930
re
4. Poona Pact d. 1919
5. Gandhi-Irwin Pact e. 1932
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
S

correct.
a) According to the Rowlat Act, any person could be arrested on
the basis of suspicion.
b) The Khilafat Day was observed on 19th October 1919.
c) The plan of Non Cooperation was approved by the Indian
National Congress at the Lahore session.

174 175
d) The Fourteen Points of the Muslim League was submitted by LESSON 17
Muhammad Ansari.
ROLE OF TAMIL NADU IN THE INDIAN
V. State whether the following statements are True or False. NATIONAL MOVEMENT
1. The chief cause of the Khilafat Movement was the defeat of
Turkey in the First World War. Learning Objectives
2. The agreement between Dr. Ambedkar and the British After studying this lesson students will come to understand

ia
government was called as the ‘Poona Pact’.
1. The early nationalist uprisings in Tamil Nadu.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
2. Swadeshi Movement.
1. Khilafat Movement

ed
3. Home Rule Movement in Tamil Nadu.
2. Swaraj Party
4. Salt Satyagraha in Tamil Nadu.
3. Dandi March
5. Quit India Movement.
4. Indian National Army

M
5. Cabinet Mission
6. Mountbatten Plan Tamil Nadu played an important role in the Indian National
Movement. Even prior to the Great Revolt of 1857, the rebellion in
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
Panchalam Kuruchi, the 1801 “South Indian Rebellion” of the Marudu
1. Write a note on the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. brothers and the Vellore Mutiny of 1806 were the early anti-colonial
2.
3. e
Bring out the significance of the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Discuss the salient features of the Nehru Report.
struggles in Tamil Nadu. During the nationalist era Tamil Nadu
provided the leaders like G. Subramania Iyer, V.O.C. Chidambaram
re
Pillai, Subramania Bharathi, C. Rajagopalachari and K. Kamaraj to
4. Write a note on the Poona Pact.
the National Movement. Besides, the nationalist movement in Tamil
5. Examine the provisions of the Indian Independence Act. Nadu was as active as elsewhere.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). Beginning of the National Movement in Tamil Nadu
S

1. Give an account of the Civil-Disobedience Movement. The earliest political organisation, the Madras Native
2. Estimate role of Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian Freedom Association was started in July 1852. Lakshminarasu Chetty and
Struggle. Srinivasa Pillai were the founders of this organization. The Madras
3. Discuss the important events of the Freedom Movement from Native Association was sharply critical of the policies of the East
1919 to 1935. India Company’s rule. Subsequently in 1884, the Madras Mahajana
Sabha was established by P. Anandacharlu and P. Rangaiya Naidu.

176 177
The Madras Native Association was ultimately merged with this
organization.
The Madras Mahajana Sabha strongly supported the activities
of the Indian National Congress. It had also initiated social reform.
G. Subramania Iyer performed the remarriage of his widowed
daughter in December 1889. He moved the first resolution in the
first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. He started the
nationalist papers like The Hindu in English and Swadeshamitran
in Tamil. In 1892, the Madras Provincial Conference was started to
mobilize people in the rural areas of Tamil Nadu. The third session of
ed
the Indian National Congress was held in Madras in 1887 under the
presidentship of Fakruddin Thyabji. Later a number of such annual
sessions were also held in the city of Madras.
Swadeshi Movement in Tamil Nadu
M
The Partition of Bengal in 1905 led to
the beginning of Swadeshi Movement in
Tamil Nadu. During this period the important
leaders of the National Movement were –
V.O. Chidambaram Pillai, Subramania Siva
and Subramania Bharathi. In May 1907 e V.O. CHIDAMBARAM
re
Bharathi brought Bipin Chandra Pal one of
the leaders of extremists in the Congress to
Madras city. After the Surat split in 1907,
SUBRAMANIA BHARATHI
V.O.C. and fellow nationalists started the
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Chennai Jana Sangam. Subramania Bharathi was a non-conformist,
unorthodox and a revolutionary in social and political ideas. He edited
the Tamil Weekly India .He wrote nationalist songs called the
Swadesa Geethangal.
V.O. Chidambaram Pillai was a lawyer by profession and he
joined the nationalist movement in 1905. He was a follower of Bal
Ganghadar Tilak. He led the Coral Mill Strike in February 1908 in
178
Tuticorin. In 1906 he launched the Swadeshi
Steam Navigation Company in Tuticorin. Hence
he was called Kappalottiya Tamilan. There was
competition between Swadeshi Steam Navigation
Company and British India Steam Navigation
Company. V.O.C. advocated the boycott of the
British India Steam Navigation Company and this
ia
had resulted in the Tirunelveli uprising in March
SUBRAMANIA SIVA
1908. He was ably assisted by Subramania Siva.
Both were arrested and imprisoned. They served six years rigorous
imprisonment. They were given harsh punishment inside the prison.
V.O.C. was asked to draw an oil press and hence he is known as
Chekkilutta Chemmal.
The arrest of the nationalist leaders,
harsh punishment for the nationalist leaders
inside the prison and the collapse of the
Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company led to
the formation of a revolutionary organization
in Tamil Nadu called the Bharathamatha
Association. Nilakanta Bramachari played a
vital role in it. One of the followers of this
association Vanchi Nathan shot dead the
notorious British official Robert William Ashe at Maniyatchi junction
in June 1911.
Home Rule Movement in Tamil Nadu
The Home rule Movement in Madras was
organized by Mrs. Annie Besant between 1916
and 1918.The first indication of Annie Besant’s
decision to launch a Home Rule Movement
appeared in New India in September 1915.
ANNIE BESANT
179
Besant sought the support of the Indian National Congress at its
annual meeting at Bombay in December, 1915. She was supported
in her movement by Tilak. Home Rule Movement was vigorous during
the First World War.
Non-co-operation Movement
In Tamil Nadu the Non-co-operation Movement was strong
during the years 1921—23. Beginning in March 1921 there were
campaigns of Non-Cooperation against the foreign regulations. In
1921 and 1922 there were campaigns against the consumption of
liquor in many parts of the province. Temperance campaign was
ed
particularly prominent in Madurai. Non- Cooperation had been a
success in Tamil Nadu. C. Rajagopalachari, S. Satyamurthi and E.
V. Ramaswami Naicker were the important leaders of the Non-
Cooperation Movement in Tamil Nadu. At that time E. V. Ramaswami
M
Naicker was the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee.
C. Rajagopalachari stressed that the council boycott was a central
part of the Gandhian Programme. However, this view was not shared
by Kasturi Ranga Iyengar, Srinivasa Iyengar, Varadarajulu Naidu
and Vijayaraghavachari.
e
In the meantime, Periyar E.V.R. launched the Vaikom
re
Satyagraha in Kerala against the practice of social segregation. Later
he resigned from the Congress and came out on the social segregation
issue at Seramandevi Guru Kulam of V.V.S. Iyer. S. Satyamurthi of
Pudukkottai was one of the important freedom
S
fighters. He led the anti-Simon Campaign in 1929
when the Simon Commission visited Tamil Nadu.
The other important nationalist leader was
K. Kamaraj from Virudhunagar. He participated in
the Vaikom Satyagraha in 1924 and thus entered
nationalist movement. He was the vice-president
K. KAMARAJ
and treasurer of the Ramnad District Congress
180
Committee in 1929. From the beginning, Kamaraj was the man of
the masses. He spoke in simple and direct language. He had a
sound common sense and practical wisdom. He was fully
aware of the rural Tamil Nadu. He visited each and every
village and understood the different problems of the masses. He
always identified himself with the common man of Tamil Nadu.
Thus, he really brought the Congress movement to the villages in
ia
Tamil Nadu,
Salt Satyagraha
As part of the Civil Disobedience Movement, Gandhi launched
the Salt Satyagraha. He undertook the Dandi March in 1930.
C. Rajagopalachari became the TNCC
president in April 1930. Authorized by TNCC
and AICC to direct the Salt Satyagraha in Tamil
Nadu Rajaji undertook the famous
Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha March. He
selected the route from Tiruchirappalli to
Vedaranyam in Thanjauvr district. The March
began on Tamil New Year’s Day (13th April).
The March reached Vedaranyam on 28 April C. Rajagopalachari
1930. Two days later Rajagopalachari was
arrested for breaking the salt laws. Some of the other important
leaders who participated in the Vedaranyam Salt
Satyagraha were T.S.S. Rajan, Mrs. Lakshmipathi
Sardar Vedaratnam Pillai, C. Swaminatha Chetty and
K. Santhanam.
Tiruppur Kumaran who led the flag march was
fatally beaten. Since he guarded the national flag in
his hands he was called Kodi Kaththa Kumaran.
Commemorating his sacrifice the Goverment of India
Tiruppur
issued a postal stamp in his honour.
Kumaran
181
 Similarly, the National Movement was encouraged by songs Learning Outcome
composed by Namakkal Kavinjar Ramalingam Pillai. In his songs he
After studying this lesson the student has understood that
praised the Gandhian methods in the struggle for freedom. He sang
that “a war is coming without knife and blood”. This highlighted the 1. Tamil Nadu played a significant role in the Indian Freedom
Gandhian principle of non-violent struggle against the British. Struggle.

Quit India Movement 2. Those leaders who led the masses from Tamil Nadu in the
Swadeshi Movement.

ia
Later, in 1937 when elections were held in accordance with
the 1935 Act, Congress won the elections and formed the ministry in 3. The role of C. Rajagopalachari and others in the Salt
Madras headed by C. Rajagopalachari. There were nine other Satyagraha.
ministers in his cabinet. The ministry was in power from July 1937 to

ed
October 1939. The ministry had resigned along with other Congress
ministries in the different provinces over the issue of the Indian
involvement in the Second World War.
4. The nature of the Quit India Movement in Tamil Nadu.
5. Important places where people in large numbers
participated in this historic movement.

During Second War, after the failure of the Cripps’s Proposals

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Gandhi had launched the Quit India Movement. In Tamil Nadu Quit
India Movement drew the factory workers, students and common
people. It was a wide spread movement. The Buckingham & Carnatic
Mills, Port Trust and the Tramway workers joined the movement in

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large numbers. Quit India Movement was launched in places like
North Arcot, Madurai and Coimbatore. There was police firing at
re
Rajapalayam, Karaikudi and Devakottai. Besides, Subhash Bose’s
INA had many men and women soldiers from Tamil Nadu.
Finally, when India attained independence on 15th August, 1947
the Madras Government under O.P. Ramaswami Reddiar passed a
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resolution appreciating the Indian Independence Act.

182 183
 MODEL QUESTIONS c. Periyar E.V.R. had never been the President of Tamil Nadu
Congress Committee.
I. Choose the correct answer.
d. Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha March begun on 1 January 1930
1 Who among the following moved the first resolution in the first from Tiruchirappalli.
session of the Indian National Congress?
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
(a) Srinivasa Pillai (b) Lakshminarasu Chetty
1. The Madras Mahajana Sabha severely opposed the Indian

ia
(c) Rangaiya Naidu (d) G. Subramanya Iyer National Congress.
2. The Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha was led by 2. The Bharathamatha Association was a revolutionary
(a) Gandhi (b) Rajaji organization in Tamil Nadu.

ed
(c) V.O.C (d) Kamaraj 3. The Vaikom Satyagraha was launched by Periyar E.V.R.
II. Fill in the blanks. 4. In 1937, the Congress Ministry was formed in Madras under
Kamaraj.
1. The Madras Native Association was started in ……

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VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
2. The Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company was launched by
…… 1. G. Subramanya Iyer
III. Match the following. 2. Vedaranyam March
1.
2.
Subramaniya Bharathi
Mrs. Annie Besant e
a. Swadesamithran
b. Madras Mahajana Sabha
3. Subramaniya Bharathi
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
re
3. G. Subramanya Iyer c. India 1. Write a note on Madras Mahajana Sabha.
4. P. Anandacharlu d. New India 2. Discuss the role of V.O.C in the Indian National Movement.
IV. Find out the correct statement one statement alone is VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
S

correct. 1. Examine the role of Tamil Nadu in the Indian Freedom Struggle.
a. Madras Native Association was started by G. Subramania Iyer.
b. The Third Session of the Indian National Congress was held in
Madras.

184 185
 Lesson 18
THE JUSTICE PARTY RULE
Learning Objectives
Students will come to understand
1. The factors that led to the rise of Non-Brahmin Movement
in Madras Presidency.
2. The genesis of the Justice Party.
ed
3. The Justice Party in power.
4. Achievements of the Justice Party.
5. The end of the Justice rule in Madras Presidency.
M
The Justice Party rule in the Madras Presidency constitutes
an important chapter in the history of South India. The ideology and
objectives of the Justice Party had been unique and somewhat
e
different from those of the Congress Party. The Justice Party
represented the Non-Brahmin Movement and engineered a social
revolution against the domination of Brahmins in the sphere of public
re
services and education.
Birth of the Justice Party
Various factors had contributed to the formation of the Justice
S
Party, which represented the Non-Brahmin Movement. The social
dominance of the Brahmins was the main cause for the emergence
of the Non-Brahmin Movement. Their high proportion in the Civil
Service, educational institutions and also their predominance in the
Madras Legislative Council caused a great worry among the non-
Brahmins. The Brahmins had also monopolized the Press. The
186
rediscovery of the greatness of the Tamil language and literature
also provided a stimulus to the non-Brahmins. Particularly, the
publication of the book entitled A Comparative Grammar of the
Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages by Rev. Robert
Caldwell in 1856 gave birth to the Dravidian concept. Later the ancient
Tamil literature had been rediscovered and printed by various Tamil
scholars including Arumuga Navalar, C.V. Damodaram Pillai and U.V.
ia
Swaminatha Iyer. V. Kanakasabhai Pillai in his famous historical work,
The Tamils 1800 Years Ago pointed out that Tamils had attained a
high degree of civilization before the Advent of the Aryans. This led
to the growth of Dravidian feelings among the non-Brahmins. These
factors collectively contributed to the birth of the Non-Brahmin
Movement and the Justice Party.
The precursor of the Justice Party was the Madras United
League which was renamed as the Madras Dravidian Association
in November 1912. Dr. C. Natesa Mudaliar played a significant role
in nurturing this organization. In 1916 the South Indian Liberal
Federation was formed for the purpose of ‘promoting the political
interests of non-Brahmin caste Hindus’. The leaders who stood behind
the formation of this organization were Pitti Theagaraya Chetti, Dr.
T.M. Nair, P. Ramarayaninger (Raja of Panagal) and Dr. C. Natesa
Mudaliar. The South Indian Liberal Federation published an English
newspaper called Justice and hence this organization came to be
called the Justice Party. The other news paper which supported the
Justice Party was Dravidan (in Tamil). Besides, the Justice Party
organized a series of public meetings, conferences, lectures to
popularise Non-Brahmin movement. Similarly, the Justice Party
formed District Associations, the Non-Brahmin Youth League.
Justice Party Rule
The Justice Party came to power following the election of 1920
held according to the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. The Justice
187
Party captured sixty three out of ninety eight elected seats in the 5. The Education of girls received encouragement during the
Madras Legislative Council. As Pitti Theagaraya Chetti declined to Justice rule in Madras.
lead the ministry, A. Subbarayalu Reddiar formed the ministry. In
6. Education of the Depressed Classes was entrusted with Labour
the election of 1923 it fought against the Swarajya Party. The Justice
Department.
Party again won the majority and the ministry was formed by Raja
of Panagal. In the election of 1926 a divided Justice Party faced the 7. Encouragement was given to Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani
opposition of a united Congress. Therefore, an independent, medical education.

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A. Subbarayan with the help of the Swarajya Party formed the The government took over the power of appointing district
ministry. In 1930 when the next election was held the Justice Party munsiffs out of the control of the High Court. The Communal
won the majority and formed a ministry with B. Muniswami Naidu G. O.s (Government Orders) of 1921 and 1922 provided for the

ed
as the leader. In 1932 Raja of Bobbili replaced him as Prime Minister reservation of appointments in local bodies and educational institutions
of the Presidency. In 1934 Raja of Bobbili formed his second ministry, for non-Brahmin communities in increased proportion.
which continued in power until the election of 1937.
The Staff Selection Board, created by the Panagal Ministry in
Achievements of the Justice Party 1924, was made the Pubic Service Commission in 1929. It was the

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The Justice Party remained in power for a period of thirteen first of its kind in India. The women were granted the right to vote on
years. Its administration was noted for social justice and social reform. the same basis as was given to men. The Hindu Religious Endowment
Justice rule gave adequate representation to non-Brahman Act of 1921, enacted by the Panagal Ministry, tried to eliminate
communities in the public services. It improved the status of depressed corruption in the management of temples. Justice Party Government
classes through education reforms. Justice Party introduced following introduced economic reforms.
reforms in the field of Education :
e To assist the growth of industries State Aid to Industries Act,
1922 was passed. This led to the establishment of new industries
re
1. Free and compulsory education was introduced for the first
time in Madras. such as : sugar factories, engineering works, tanneries, aluminum
factories, cement factories and oil milling so on. This act provided
2. Nearly 3000 fisher boys and fisher girls were offered free
credits to industries, allotted land and water. This proved favourable
special instruction by the Department of Fisheries.
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for industrial progress.)

3. Midday Meals was given at selected corporation schools in
Similarly, Justice Party Government introduced schemes for
Madras.
rural development to help agrarian population, public health schemes
4. The Madras Elementary Education Act was amended in 1934 to prevent diseases. To improve village economy village road scheme
and in 1935 to improve elementary education. was introduced. In the city of Madras the Town Improvement
Committee of the Madras Corporation introduced Slum Clearance

188 189
and Housing Schemes. As a social welfare measures the Justice Learning Outcome
Party Government gave waste lands in village to Depressed Classes.
After studying this lesson the student has understood that
The devadasi system, a disgrace to women, was abolished.
1. The domination of Brahmin community in the sphere of civil
The Justice administration reorganized the working of the University
service and education led to the emergence of the Non-
of Madras. During the administration of Justice Party, the Andhra
Brahmin Movement.
University was established in 1926 and Annamalai University in 1929.
2. The leaders of the Justice Movement.

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End of Justice Party Rule
3. The Justice ministries between 1920 and 1937.
The Government of India Act of 1935 provided for provincial
autonomy and the electoral victory meant the assumption of a major 4. The achievements of the Justice party administration such

ed
responsibility in the administration of the province. K. V. Reddi Naidu as Communal G.O, Hindu Religious Endowment Act and
led the Justice Party, while C. Rajagopalachari led the Congress in abolition of devadasi system.
the South. In the election of 1937, the Congress captured 152 out of 5. The decline of the Justice Party.
215 seats in the Legislative Assembly and 26 out of 46 in the
Legislative Council. In July 1937 the Congress formed its ministry

M
under C. Rajagopalachari. Thus, the rule of Justice Party which
introduced important social legislations came to an end. In 1944 the
Justice party conference was held in Salem. There Peraringar Anna
passed a resolution thereby the name of justice party was changed
as Dravidiar Kalagam.
e
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190 191
 MODEL QUESTIONS V. State whether the following statements are True or False

I. Choose the correct answer. 1 The Justice Party remained in power for a period of thirteen
years.
1. The South Indian Liberal Foundation was formed in the year
2 Justice Party introduced Free and compulsory education.
(a) 1912 (b) 1914
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
(c) 1916 (d) 1917
1. Non Brahmin Movement

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2. Which of the following journal was not founded by Periyar
E.V.R? 2. Communal G.O

(a) Kudi Arasu (b) Puratchi VII. Answer briefly (100 words).

ed
(c) Viduthalai (d) Swarajya 1. Describe the educational reforms of the Justice Party.

II. Fill in the blanks. 2. Write a note on the end of Justice Party.

1. The Hindu Religious Act was passed in the year …. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

M
III. Match the following. 1. Examine the achievements of the Justice Party rule in Tamil
Nadu.
1. Communal G.O. a. 1929
2. Estimate the role of Periyar E.V.R. in the promotion of social
2. Staff Selection Board b. 1922 justice.
3.
4.
Madras State Aid to Industries Act
Annamalai University e
c. 1924
d. 1921
re
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) C.V. Damodaram Pillai was the author of The Tamils 1800
S

Years Ago.
b) Madras Dravidian Association was started in November 1912.
c) In 1917 the South Indian Liberal Federation was formed.
d) Tamil newspaper called Justice supported the Justice Party.

192 193
 LESSON 19 § East India Company’s rule came to an end and the
Indian administration came under the direct control of
CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT (1858 – 1947)
the Crown.
§ In England, the Court of Directors and Board of
Learning Objectives Control were abolished. In their place came the
Students will come to understand Secretary of State for India and India Council were
established. The Secretary of State would be a member

ia
1. The history of constitutional development from 1858 to
1935. of the British cabinet. Sir Charles Wood was made the
first Secretary of State for India. India Council consisting
2. The imporance of the Councils Act of 1861 and 1892.
of 15 members would assist him.

ed
3. Main provisions of the Minto-Morley Reforms, 1919.
§ The Governor General of India was also made the
4. The Salient features of the Act of 1919. Viceroy of India. The first Viceroy of India was Lord
Canning.
5. The Significance of the Government of India Act of 1935.
§ All the previous treaties were accepted and honoured

M
by the Act.
The history of constitutional development in India begins from
the passing of the Regulating Act in 1773. The Pitt’s India Act of Queen Victoria’s Proclamation
1784 and the successive Charter Acts from 1793 to 1853 form part
On 1 November 1858 the Proclamation of Queen Victoria was
of the constitutional changes under the East India Company’s rule.

e
The Revolt of 1857 brought about important changes in the British
administration in India. The rule of the East India Company came to
announced by Lord Canning at Allahabad. This royal Proclamation
was translated into Indian languages and publicly read in many
important places. It annonced the end of Company’s rule in India
re
an end. The administration of India came under the direct control of
and the Queen’s assumption of the Government of India. It endorsed
the British Crown. These changes were announced in the Government
the treaty made by the Company with Indian princes and promised to
of India Act of 1858. The ‘Proclamation of Queen Victoria’ assured
respect their rights, dignity and honour. It assured the Indian people
the Indians a benvelont administration. Thereafter, important
S

equal and impartial protection of law and freedom of religion and

development had taken place in constitutional history of India as a
social practices. The Proclamation of Queen Victoria gave a practical
result of the Indian National Movement.
shape to the Act of 1858.
Government of India Act of 1858
Indian Councils Act of 1861
The Governemnt of India Act of 1858 was passed by the
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 increased the number of
Parliament of England and received royal assent on 2nd August 1858.
members in the Governor-General’s executive Council from 4 to 5.
Following are the main provisions of the Act:
Further the Governor-General’s Executive Council was enlarged into
194 195
a Central Legislative Council. Six to tweleve “additional members” 1.
were to be nominated by the Governor-General. Not less than half
of these members were to be non-officials. Thus a provision was
made for the inclusion of Indians in the Legislative Council. The
functions of these members were strictly limited to making legislation
2.
and they were forbidden from interfering in the matters of the
Executive Council. They did not possess powers of administration
The number of “additional members” of the Central Legislative
Council was increased to a maximum of 60. Elected members
were to be 27 and among the remaining 33 nominated members
not more than 28 were to be officials.
The principle of election to the councils was legally recognized.
But communal representation was for the first time
introduced in the interests of Muslims. Separate electorates

ia
and finance.
were provided for the Muslims.
Legilative Councils were also established in the provinces. The
3. The number of members in provincial legislative councils of
number of additional members in the provinces was fixed between
major provinces was raised to 50.

ed
four to eight. So, this Act was an important constitutional development
and the people of India came to be involved in the law malking process. 4.
The mechanism of Indian legislation developed slowly and reinforced
further by the Acts of 1892 and 1909.
The Councils were given right to discuss and pass resolutions
on the Budget and on all matters of public interest. However,
the Governor-General had the power to disallow discussion on
the budget.

M
Indian Councils Act of 1892
5. An Indian member was appointed for the first time to the
The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was the first achievement of
Governor-General’s Executive Council. Sir S. P. Sinha was-
the Indian National Congress. It had increased the number of
the first Indian to be appointed thus.
“additional members” in the Central Legislative Council. They were

e
to be not less than 10 and not more than 16. It had also increased the
proportion of non-officials – 6 officials and 10 non-officials. The
6. In Bombay and Madras, the number of members of the
Executive Councils was raised from 2 to 4. The practice of
appointing Indians to these Councils began.
re
members were allowed to discuss the budget and criticize the financial
policy of the government. In the provinces also the number of 7. Two Indians were also appointed to the India Council [in
additional members was increased with additional powers. England].
Minto- Morley Reforms of 1909 The Minto- Morley reforms never desired to set up a
S

The Indian Councils Act of 1909 was also known as Minto-
Morley Reforms in the names of Lord Morley, the Secretary of State
for India and Lord Minto, the Governor-General of India. Both were
responsible for the passing of this Act. It was passed to win the
support of the Moderates in the Congress. The important provisions
of this Act were:
parliamentary form of government in India. However, the Moderates
welcomed the reforms as fairly liberal measures. The principle of
separate electorates had ultimately led to the partition of India in
1947.

196 197
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919
The political developments in India during the First World War
such as the Home Rule Movement led to the August Declaration.
On 20 th August, 1917 Montague, the Secretary of State for India
made a momentous declaration in the House of Commons. His
declaration assured the introduction of responsible government in India
in different stages. As a first measure the Government of India Act
of 1919 was passed by the Parliament of England. This Act is
popularly known as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms. At that time
Lord Chelmsford was the Viceroy of India.
ed
The main features of the Act were:
1. Dyarchy was introduced in the provinces. Provincial subjects
were divided into “Reserved Subjects” such as police, jails,
land revenue, irrigation and forests and “Transferred
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Subjects” such as education, local self-government, public
health, sanitation, agriculture and industries. The Reserved
subjects were to be administered by the Governor and his
Executive Council. The Transferred subjects by the Governor
2.
and his ministers.
e
A bicameral (Two Chambers) legislature was set up at the
re
centre. It consisted of the Council of States and the
Legislative Assembly. The total member in the Legislative
Assembly was to be a maximum of 145, out of which 105 were
to be elected and the remaining nominated. In the Council of
S
States there would be a maximum of 60 members out of which
34 were elected and the remaining nominated.
3. The salaries of the Secretary of State for India and his
assistants were to be paid out of the British revenues. So far,
they were paid out of the Indian revenues.
198
4. A High Commissioner for India at London was appointed.
The most important defect in this Act was the division of
powers under the system of Dyarchy in the provinces.
The Government of India Act of 1935
The Government of India Act of 1935 was passed on the basis
of the report of the Simon Commission, the outcome of the Round
ia
Table Conferences and the White Paper issued by the British
Government in 1933. This Act contained many important changes
over the previous Act of 1919.
Following were the salient features of this Act.
1. Provision for the establishment of an All India Federation at
the Centre, consisting of the Provinces of British India and the
Princely States. (It did not come into existence since the Princely
States refused to give their consent for the union.)
2. Division of powers into three lists: Federal, Provincial and
Concurrent.
3. Introduction of Dyarchy at the Centre. The Governor-General
and his councillors administered the “Reserved subjects”. The
Council of Ministers were responsible for the “Transferred”
subjects.
4. Abolition of Dyarchy and the introduction of Provincial
Autonomy in the provinces. The Governor was made the head
of the Provincial Executive but he was expected to run the
administration on the advice of the Council of Ministers. Thus
provincial government was entursted to the elected Ministers.
They were responsible to the popularly elected Legislative
Assemblies.
5. Provincial Legilatures of Bengal, Madras, Bombay, United
Provinces, Bihar and Assam were made bicameral.
199
6. Extension of the principle of Separate Electorates to Sikhs,

1909 The Indian Councils Act (Minto-Morley Reforms)

Europeans, Indian Christians and Anglo Indians.

1919 The Government of India Act (Montford Reforms)

7. Esatblishment of a Federal Court at Delhi with a Chief Justice
and 6 judges.
The working of the provincial autonomy was not successful.
The Governors were not bound to accept the advice of the ministers.

ia
1858 The Government of India Act
In reality, the real power in the Provincial Government was with the
Governor. But, despite these drawbacks in the scheme, the Congress

1892 The Indian Councils Act

1935 Government of India Act

1861 The Indian Councils Act
decided to take part in the elections to the Provincial Legislatures

1773 The Regulating Act

1784 The Pitts India Act
with the consideration that it was an improvement over the previous

1793 The Charter Act

ed

1853 The Charter Act

1813 The Charter Act

1833 The Charter Act

Acts.
In accordance with the provisions of the Government of India
Act of 1935 elections to the Provincial Legislatures were held in
February 1937. The Congress had virtually swept the polls. On 7

M
July 1937, after the Viceroy Lord Linlithgow, assured the Congress
of his cooperation, the party formed its ministries in seven provinces.

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1900 -
1850 -
1750 -

1800 -

1950
1900
1800

1850

Constitutional
Developments
S

200 201
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After studying this lesson the student has understood that I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The changes effected under the Act of 1858 and the 1. Which among the folowing was the provision of the Government
importance of Queen’s Proclamation. of India Act of 1858?
2. The expansion of central and provincial legislatures by the (a) Creation of Court of Directors and Board of Control
Acts of 1861 and 1892.

ia
(b) Extension of Company’s rule for twenty years
3. The intrduction of the priciple of election and also Separate
(c) Establishment of India Council with fifteen members
Electorates to the Muslims by the Act of 1909.
(d) Cancellation of all previous treaties.

ed
4. The introduction of Dyarchy in the provinces and the
division of subjects into “Reserved” and “Transferred’ by 2. Which Act legally recognized the principle of election to the
the Act of 1919. legislative councils?

5. The Provincial Autonomy was intrduced by the Act of 1935 (a) Act of 1861 (b) Act of 1892

M
but with limited powere to Indian ministers. (c) Act of 1909 (d) Act of 1919
II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The Government of India Act of 1919 was passed during the
Viceroyalty of ……

e 2. The Government of India Act of 1935 introduced …… in the

provinces.
re
3. The first Indian law member to the Governor General’s Council
was …..
III. Match the following.
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1. Secretary of State for India a. 1935

2. Dyarchy in the provinces b. 1909
3. All India Federation c. 1919
4. Introduction of Sperate Electorate d. 1858

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IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
right.
1. Point out the importance of the Government of India Act of
a) Proclamation of Queen Victoria was announced by Lord 1858.
Canning at Allahabad.
2. Discuss the provisions of the Indian Councils Act of 1861.
b) Minto- Morley Reforms refers to Lord Morley, the Governor
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
and Lord Minto, the Secretary of State for India.
1. Critically examine the provisions of the Minto-Morley Reforms.

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c) 1919 Act introduced Dyarchy at the Centre.
2. Analyse the salient features of the Government of India Act
d) A Unicameral (one Chamber) legislature was set up at the
of 1919.
centre.

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3. “The Government of India Act of 1935 introduced significant
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
changes in the constitutional system of India” – Comment.
1. The Act of 1858 made the Governor-General of India as the
Viceroy of India.

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2. The Act of 1861 increased the number of members in the
Governor-General in Council from five to six.
3. The Act of 1919 appointed a High Commissioner for India at
London.
VI.
1.
Write short notes (Any three points).
Queen’s Proclamation e
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2. Indian Councils Act of 1892
3. Bicameral Legislature
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4. Dyarchy
5. Provincial Autonomy

204 205
 LESSON 20
INDIA AFTER INDEPENDENCE
Learning Objectives
Students will understand
1. The salient features of the Indian Constitution.
2. The integration of Indian States.
3. The Linguistic Reorganization of States.
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4. Economic Development of India since Independence.
5. Growth of Science and Technology
6. The foreign policy of Independent India.
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After the Independence in 1947, the most immediate and
important tasks before the Indian leaders were the drafting of the
constitution and the integration of Indian states into the Indian union.
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They had also been vested with the responsibility of making India
economically sound and scientifically modern. In the long term
perspective, the most challenging tasks ahead have been the removal
re
poverty and the progress of education among the masses for which
the successive governments continue to take necessary steps.
Constitution of India
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The Constituent Assembly began its work on
th
9 December 1946 and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was
elected as its Chairman. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was
appointed as the Chairman of the Drafting
Committee. After a detailed discussion, the
Dr. RAJENDRA PRASAD Constitution of India was finally adopted on 26th
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November 1949. The Constitution came into effect on 26th January
1950. Since then the day is celebrated as Republic Day.
The salient features of the Indian Constitution are the adult
suffrage, Parliamentary system, Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principles. It provides a combination of federal and unitary forms of
governance at the centre and the powers of the government have
been clearly stated in the three lists: Central, State and Concurrent.
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The President is the constitutional head of the state while the
Prime Minister is the head of the Executive. The Prime Minister is the
leader of the party that has a majority in the Lok Sabha. The Indian
Parliament has two houses – the Rajya Sabha or upper house and the
Lok Sabha or lower house. Each state has its own government headed
by the Chief Minister who remains the leader of the majority party in the
respective Legislative Aassembly. Thus, democratically elected
governments rule the nation and provision is made for periodical elections.
The judiciary remains the upholder of the constitution. The
Indian judiciary system consists of the Supreme Court at the centre
and High Courts in the states. The subordinate courts in each state
are under the control of the High Court.
Integration of Princely States
At the time of Independence there were 11
British provinces and nearly 566 princely states.
After the departure of the British from India the
princes of Indian states began to dream of
independence. With great skill and masterful
diplomacy Sardar Vallabhai Patel succeeded in
integrating the princely states with the Indian
union by 15 August 1947. Only three of them –
Junagadh, Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad –
VALLABAI PATEL refused to join.
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 The ruler of Junagadh expressed his willingness to join Pakistan
against the wishes of the people of that state. Patel sent Indian troops
and after a plebiscite Junagadh joined Indian Union.
The state of Jammu and Kashmir bordered India and Pakistan.
Its ruler was Raja Hari Singh. In the beginning he also claimed
independent status. When the Pathan tribes led by Pakistan army
officers invaded Kashmir, Hari Singh sought the help of India. Nehru
pointed out that under international law India could send its troops
only after the state’s accession to India. Therefore, on 26th October
1947, Raja Hari Singh signed the ‘instrument of accession’ and Jammu
ed
and Kashmir has become an integral part of India.
In the case of Hyderabad the Nizam refused to join the Indian
union. After repeated appeals, in 1948 Indian troops moved into
Hyderabad and the Nizam surrendered. Finally, Hyderabad acceded
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to the Indian Union.
Thus the Union of India was established with the integration
and accession of the princely states with the Indian Union. This
formidable task was fulfilled by the “Iron Man of India” Sardar
Vallabhai Patel.
The Linguistic Reorganization of the States e by forging national unity, nurturing democratic
re
In 1948, the first Linguistic Provinces Commission headed by
S.K. Dar was appointed by the Constituent Assembly to enquire into
the possibility of linguistic provinces. This commission advised against
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such a step. In the same year another committee known as JVP
committee consisting of Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhai Patel and
Pattabhi Sitaramaih was appointed by the Congress Party. This
committee also did not favour for linguistic provinces. But there were
popular movements for states reorganization all over the country and
it was intensive in Andhra. Therefore, in 1953 Andhra was created
as a separate state. Simultaneously, Madras was created as a Tamil-
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speaking state. The struggle led by M.P. Sivagnanam to retain Tiruttani
with Madras was a memorable event in the history of Tamil Nadu.
The success of Andhra struggle encouraged other linguistic
groups to agitate for their own state. In 1953, Prime Minister
Jawaharlal Nehru appointed the States Reorganization Commission
with Justice Fazal Ali as its chairman and Pandit Hridayanath Kunzru
and Sardar K.M. Panikkar as its members. The commission submitted
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its report on 30 September 1955. Based on this report, the States
Reorganization Act was passed by the Parliament in 1956. It provided
for 16 states and six union territories. The Telengana region was
transferred to Andhra. Kerala was created by merging the Malabar
district with Travancore-Cochin. There was a strong movement of
the Tamil linguistic people in Travancore (Kaniyakumari) who
struggled to be part of the state of Tamil Nadu.
Indian Polity (1947 – 2000)
India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal
Nehru was considered the architect of modern
India. He consolidated the Indian Independence
institutions, promoting science and technology,
planning for economic development and by
following independent foreign policy. He was
truly a nation builder. He died in 1964.
Lal Bahadur Sastri succeeded Nehru as JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
the next Prime Minister of India. He remained
a role model for honesty in public life. He ended the Indo-Pak war of
1965 by concluding the Tashkent Agreement in January 1966. His
untimely death was a great loss to the nation.
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 Indira Gandhi, daughter of Nehru became
Prime Minister in 1966 and bravely faced the
domestic challenges such as scarcity of food and
foreign pressures during the 1971 Bangladesh
crisis. When opposition to her
rule gathered momentum in 1975,
INDIRA GANDHI
she brought emergency rule, a
black mark in the democratic
tradition of India. However, she restored democratic
rule by announcing general elections in 1977 in which
ed
she was defeated. Later in 1980 she was able to
regain power by democratic means. In 1983 she
undertook “Blue Star Operation” in the Golden MORARJI DESAI
Temple at Amritsar - Punjab. As a result, unfortunately, she was
shot dead by her own bodyguards in 1984 as a vengeance to her
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policy towards Punjab militancy.
The Janata Party rule for brief period between 1977 and 1980
brought Morarji Desai as Prime Minister of India. For the first time
a non-Congress ministry was formed after independence. The lack
Government. e
of unity among the Janata leaders had resulted in the fall of the Janata
re
Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime Minister of India in 1984
after her mother Indira Gandhi’s assassination.
He introduced New Education Policy and
encouraged foreign investment. In 1987 he sent
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the Indian Peace Keeping Force to Sri Lanka with
a view to put an end to the ethnic violence. He
continued as Prime Minister till the next elections
held in 1989. Later in May 1991, he was
assassinated (by the Sri Lankan Tamil
RAJIV GANDHI extremists).
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V.P. Singh was the Prime Minister between
1989 and 1991. He was leading an anti-Congress
coalition called the Janata Dal. During his tenure he
decided to implement the Mandal Commission
Report which provided reservation for other
backward classes. His government was marked by
factionalism, and he was forced to resign in 1990. V.P. SINGH
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The next Prime Minister Chandrasekhar held the
office from November 1990 to March 1991.
In June 1991 P. V. Narasimha Rao became Prime Minister.
He moved decisively toward new economic reforms, reducing the
government’s economic role, instituting austerity measures, and
encouraging foreign investment. The finance minister Dr. Manmohan
Singh’s role in this sphere is worth noting. As a result, India started
moving towards liberalization, privatization and globalization.
After the elections of 1996, Atal Bihari Vajpayee became
Prime Minister from the BJP party but he was not able to prove
majority in the Parliament. Deve Gowda formed a coalition
government. He was the eleventh Prime Minister of India (1996–
1997). He was from the state of Karnataka. His government also
fell due to the no confidence motion voted jointly by the Congress
and the BJP. He was succeeded by I.K. Gujral for a brief period in
1997. Atal Bihari Vajpayee became the Prime Minister of India in
1998. In the 1999 elections the National Democratic Alliance under
the leadership of Vajpayee formed the government. His period
witnessed two important events. One was the Kargil War with
Pakistan and another was the nuclear tests at Pokhran.
Economic Development
When India became independent in 1947, it was gripped by
mass poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, static agriculture, poorly
developed industries and inadequate infrastructure. There was an
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urgent need immediate efforts on national scale to achieve the path
of progress in the socio-economic front. Jawaharlal Nehru, was
greatly influenced by the achievements of Soviet Planning. But he
also realized the importance of the democratic values. He encouraged
planning for rapid industrial and agricultural growth. He encouraged
Mixed Economy as a result both public sector (Government owned)
and Private Sector companies come in to existence. His fundamental
reliance”. The original draft outline of the plan was prepared in
1966 under the stewardship of Ashok Mehta. Popular economic
slogan during this time was Garibi Hatao (Removal of poverty).
The Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-79) was introduced at a time when
the country was under severe economic crisis arising out of inflation.
There was increase in oil price. But the plan was dropped at the end
of the fourth year of the plan in March 1978 by the Janata Government.

objective was to build an independent self-reliant economy.
Economic Planning
The National Planning Commission was established on 15
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The Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) aimed at strengthening the
infrastructure for both agriculture and industry and meet the minimum
basic needs of the people. The Seventh Five Year Plan (1985 – 90)

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emphasized on accelerating the growth of food grains production,
March 1950 with the Prime Minister Nehru as its chairperson. The
increasing employment opportunities and raising productivity. The
main objectives of the Planning Commission were:
Eighth Five Year Plan (1992 – 97) aimed to achieve the goals, namely,
(i) To achieve higher level of national and per capita income. improvement in the levels of living, health and education of the people,
full employment, and elimination of poverty and planned growth of

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(ii) To achieve full employment.
population. The main objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997 –
(iii) To reduce inequalities of income and wealth.
2002) were to give priority to agricultural sector, to remove poverty,
(iv) To setup a society based on equality and justice and to control prices, to provide food to the weaker sections, population
absence of exploitation. control, to develop panchayat administration and to uplift the depressed

e
The First Five Year Plan (1951-1956) tried to complete the
projects at hand including the rehabilitation of refugees. It was only
classes as well as tribal people.
The Green Revolution
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during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61) Prof. P.C. Mahalanobis,
Despite creditable growth of agricultural output in the 1950s
the noted economist played a leading role. This plan aimed at
India faced food shortage in the mid sixties. The increase in population
developing the industrial sector in the country. Rapid industrialization
and the huge outlay to the plan of industrialization put pressures on
with particular emphasis in the development of basic and heavy
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agricultural growth. India was forced to import millions of tons of

industries continued during the Third Five Year Plan (1961-66).
food grains. The two wars with China (1962) and Pakistan (1965)
During this period many iron and steel, chemical, fertilizers, heavy
and two successive drought years (1965-66) brought enormous
engineering and machine building industries were set up in different
pressures to food production. In this background the Green Revolution
parts of India.
was launched in India with the aim of achieving self-sufficiency in
The objective of the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) was food production.
“growth with stability” and “progressive achievement of self

212 213
 The then Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Sastri, Food Minister,
C. Subramanian, and Indira Gandhi, who succeeded Sastri in 1966
after his brief tenure, put their efforts to the development of
agriculture. The term Green Revolution was coined by Dr William
Gadd of USA in 1968, when Indian farmers brought about a great
advancement in wheat production. The introduction of modern
methods of agriculture such as high-yield variety seeds, chemical
fertilizers and pesticides agricultural machineries such as tractors,
pump-sets and agricultural education considerably increased the food
grain production in India. India attained food self-sufficiency by the
ed
1980s. The effects of Green Revolution were notable in the north-
western region of Punjab, Haryana and western U.P., Andhra
Pradesh, parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Growth of Science and Technology
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Independent India has also witnessed a tremendous growth in
the sphere of science and technology. After 1947, Nehru became
aware of the significant role of scientific research and technology
for the progress of India. India’s first national laboratory, the National
Physical Laboratory was established in 1947. It was followed by
e
seventeen such national laboratories for specializing in different areas
of research. Nehru himself assumed the chairmanship of the Council
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of Scientific and Industrial Research.
In 1952, the first Indian Institute of Technology, on the model
of Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was set up at Kharagpur.
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Subsequently, IITs were set up at Madras, Bombay, Kanpur and Delhi.
The expenditure on scientific research and science-based activities
has increased year by year.
There are about 200 research laboratories in India carrying
out research in different areas. The Department of Science and
214
Technology (DST) which was set up in 1971 has
been assigned the responsibility of formulating
science policy.
Atomic Energy
India was one of the first countries in the world
to recognize the importance of nuclear energy. The
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Atomic Energy Commission was set up in August HOMI J. BABA
1948 under the chairmanship of Homi J. Baba to formulate a policy
for all atomic energy activities in the country. The Department of
Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up 1954 as executive agency for
implementing the atomic energy programmes. In 1956, India’s first
nuclear reactor in Trombay near Bombay (first in Asia also) began
to function. Research and development work in the field of atomic
energy and allied fields are carried out at three research centres,
namely the Bhabha Atomic Research Center at Trombay, the Indira
Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu and
the Center for Advanced Technology, Chennai.
Space Research
India has also evinced interest in space research. The Indian
National Committee for Space Research was set up in 1962. Side by
side, a Rocket Launching Facility at Thumba came up. The first
generation Indian National Satellite System (INSAT-1) represents
India’s first step towards implementing national requirements. The
INSAT – 1A and the INSAT – 1B served country’s need in the field
of telecommunications and meteorological earth observations.
The ISRO [Indian Space Research Organization] looks after
the activities in space science, technology and applications. T h e
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre at Trivandrum, the largest of the ISRO
centres, is primarily responsible for indigenous launch vehicle
215
technology. The ISRO Satellite Centre, Bangalore is the satellite
technology base of the Indian space programme.
The SHAR Centre, encompassing the Sriharikota Island in
Andhra Pradesh on the east coast of India is the main operational
base of ISRO which is the satellite launching range.
India’s Foreign Policy
India maintained friendly relations with both USA and USSR
during the Cold War era. In 1971 India and USSR signed the Indo-
Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance during the Bangladesh crisis.
India and China are the two most important powers of Asia.
These two are the most populous countries of the World. Also, they
possess the significance of proud, history and civilization dating back
to ancient times. When the communist regime under the leadership

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After 1947, India began to follow an independent foreign policy. of Mao Tse Tung was established in 1949, India was one among the
It was designed by the first Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. first countries to recognize the People’s Republic of China. In spite
He developed the basic principles of India’s foreign policy. He was of India’s friendly relations with China India had to defend herself

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the architect of the Non-aligned Movement during the Cold War era. when China attacked India in 1962. The emergence of Bangladesh
Also, he extended support to colonial countries in their struggle for as an independent state with the active help of India was an important
independence. Nehru outlined the five principles of coexistence or event. During the liberation struggle between East Pakistan and West
Panch Sheel for conducting relations among countries. They are: Pakistan India supported East Pakistan. The coordinated approach
of the Indian forces along with Mukti Bahini ultimately led to the

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- mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and
sovereignty liberation of Bangladesh (East Pakistan) in December 1971 India is
maintaining friendly relations right from the birth of Bangladesh in
- non-aggression
1971.
- non-interference in each other’s internal affairs
India has also been maintaining friendly relations with its
-
-
equality and mutual benefit and
peaceful coexistence.
e neighbours for which purpose the South Asian Association of Regional
Cooperation (SAARC) was established. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh,
re
Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives are its members. The aim of
India plays an active role in international bodies such as the SAARC is to increase economic, social and cultural cooperation
Common Wealth and the United Nations Organization. After the among its members. Periodic meetings are being held to achieve this
Independence, Nehru decided to stay within Common Wealth, an goal.
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organization consisting of former British colonies. India had also

played an active role in the UN peacekeeping forces in various parts
of the world. It had sent its troops as part of UN peace-keeping
Mission to Korea, Indo-China, Suez Canal and The Congo.
India had to fight three major wars [1965, 1971 and 2000] with
Pakistan over the issue of Kashmir.

216 217
 Learning Outcome

The students have learnt

1. The democratic principles laid in the Indian Constitution.

2. Vallabhai Patel’s Contribution to the integration of Princely

States.

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3. The reorganization of states on linguistic basis.

4. Nehru’s economic planning and the objectives of various

Five Year Plans.

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5. Development of science and Technology in various spheres
including atomic research and space programmes.

6. Basic principles of India’s foreign policy and India’s

relations with world countries and neighbours.

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S

218 219
 MODEL QUESTIONS 6. The Bhaba Atomic Research Centre is situated at ……

I. Choose the correct answer. 7. The nation Bangladesh emerged in ……

1. Who among the following was the chairman of the Constituent III. Match the following.
Assembly? 1. Raja Hari Singh a. Emergency Rule
(a)Dr. Ambedkar (b) Dr. Rajendra Prasad 2. Indira Gandhi b. Atomic Energy Commission

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(c) K.M. Panikkar (d) Jawaharlal Nehru 3. V.P. Singh c. ISRO
2. Which of the following Princely states refused to join the Indian 4. Homi J. Bhaba d. Kashmir
Union?
5. Vikram Sarabai e. Mandal Commission

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(a) Hyderabad (b) Mysore
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
(c) Jaipur (d) Travancore correct.
3. For the first time in independent India, a non-Congress ministry a) The President is the constitutional head of the state.
was formed under the leadership of

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b) The Planning Commission was established with the Vice-
(a) V.P. Singh (b) Narasimha Rao President as its chairman.
(c) Morarji Desai (d) A.B. Vajpayee c) The Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research is situated in
4. The first Indian Institute of Technology was set up at Neyveli.

(a) Kanpur (b) Bombay

e d)
V.
ISRO satellite centre is at Mangalore.
State whether the following statements are True or False.
re
(c) Madras (d) Kharagpur
II. Fill in the blanks. 1. The States Reorganization Commission was appointed under
the chairmanship of Fazal Ali.
1. The Iron Man of India was …..
2. Dr. Manmohan Singh served as Finance Minister under P.V.
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2. Andhra State was created in the year ….. Narasimha Rao.

3. ….. was considered as the architect of modern India. VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
4. The New Education Policy was introduced by …. 1. Green Revolution
5. With the aim of achieving self sufficiency in food production 2. Panch Sheel
…. was launched.
3. ISRO

220 221
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Discuss the salient features of the Indian Constitution.
2. Write a note on the Linguistic Reorganization of States.
3. Mention the important features of India’s foreign policy.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

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1. Analyse the role of Sardar Vallabhai Patel in the integration of
Indian states.
2. Give an account of the economic progress through five year

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plans.
3. Describe the development of science and technology in
independent India.
4. “Jawaharlal Nehru is the architect of modern India” – Discuss.

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 LESSON 21
RENAISSANCE

Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about

1. The meaning of Renaissance.

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2. The causes for the birth of Renaissance in Italy.

3. Revival of classical Literature.

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4. Renaissance Literature.

5. Renaissance Art.

6. Development of Science.

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7. Results of the Renaissance.

The term Renaissance literally means “rebirth” or “revival”.

But it refers to the significant changes that took place in Europe
during the transition period between the medieval and modern. There

e was a revival of literature and art on the intellectual side. The spirit
of enquiry led to scientific inventions. Politically, this period witnessed
re
the end of feudalism and the emergence of nation-states. The spirit
of individualism and humanism began to dominate in the social sphere.
The religious transformation was symbolized by the Reformation.
All these changes in Europe were collectively referred to as
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Renaissance.
The Roman Empire declined by the end of the 5th century A.D.
It had resulted in the neglect of classical literature and arts. But
these treasures of culture were preserved in the Eastern Roman
Empire with its capital at Constantinople. The Ottoman Turks captured
Constantinople in 1453. As a result, the Byzantine-Greek scholars

223
fled from Constantinople to Rome. They brought with them the Greek
and Roman heritage. With this revival of classical learning in Italy, a
spirit of enquiry developed. This spirit of enquiry stimulated the
progress of science, art, architecture, sculpture, painting, literature,
geography and religion.
Renaissance in Italy
BOCCACCIO
Another scholar, Bracciolini traced the works of
Tacitus, Livy and Sophocles. In the 15th century Pope
Nicholas V founded the Vatican Library and the
ancient manuscripts were preserved in that library.
They were studied and analysed by scholars. The
contribution of Erasmus (1463-1536) in correcting
and editing the Latin works was also notable. He

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Italy is considered the birth place of the Renaissance for several edited the New Testament in the Greek language.
reasons. Some of them were:
The invention of printing
- Italy was the seat of ancient civilization and the Latin press by John Gutenberg (1398-

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language. 1468) in Germany had influenced
- The rich city states in Italy like Florence and Venice patronized the Renaissance literature. The
art and literature. For example, the Medici family of Florence had first book published by him was
patronized many scholars. The Bible. William Caxton set up
a printing press in England.

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LIVY
- The publication of the Divine Comedy by the greatest Italian ERASMUS
Shortly, many printing presses
poet Dante (1265-1321) triggered the Renaissance movement in the
came up throughout Europe and it provided a
city of Florence. It was written in the Italian language. Thereafter,
stimulus to the Renaissance movement. The availability of books at
the Renaissance spread to other parts of Europe and reached its
cheaper rates made the masses to improve their awareness.
peak in the sixteenth century.
Revival of Classical Literature e Renaissance Literature
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Apart from the revival of classical literature, many works in
The most important contribution of the
classical languages as well as in the native
Renaissance was the revival and learning of ancient
languages came up during this period. We have
Greek and Latin literature. The pioneer in this effort
already referred to Dante’s
was Petrarch (1304–1374) with his profound
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Divine Comedy written in the

knowledge in these languages, he collected and
Italian language. Similarly,
compiled many ancient manuscripts containing the
PE T RA RC H Chaucer wrote the Canterbury
works of Plato and Aristotle. His disciple Boccaccio
Tales in English. Boccaccio was
had also encouraged the classical learning. Many Greek scholars
the author of the Deccameron,
who came from Constantinople spread the ancient Greek literature
a collection of fables.
in Florence. The most notable among them was Manuel Chrysolores. DANTE
Machiavelli, who lived in MACHIAVELLI

224 225
Florence, wrote his eight- volume History of Florence. His most
famous work was The Prince, a book on political science.
While Italy was the home of the most famous
literary figures of the Renaissance, a Renaissance
literature typical of that period can also be found in
France, England, Germany, and Spain.
prevailed, the subject matter of the most of the Renaissance art was
Christian. Renaissance painting bloomed most profusely in Italy.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo (1475-1564) and
Raphael (1483-1520) were the dominant figures among the
Renaissance painters.
Leonardo da Vinci, one of the most versatile
men of his time, was an artist, poet, musician, and

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In England, Sir Thomas Moore
engineer. Hence, he is known as the “Renaissance
THOMAS MORE
wrote his famous book Utopia in
Man”. Born in Florence, he visited several countries.
Latin. However, the Elizabethan era
He was patronized by the Duke of Milan. His
marked the beginning of the English Renaissance. It

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famous paintings were the Mona Lisa and the Last
saw dramatists like William Shakespeare, Christopher LEONARDO DA VINCI
Supper.
Marlowe and Charles Webster; poets like Edmund
Spenser, Sydney and Ben Johnson. Hakluyt wrote SHAKESPEARE Michelangelo was both a painter and
excellent travel accounts during this sculptor. He lived in Florence and patronized by

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period. the Medici family. Later, he went to Rome. The
magnificent frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine
Montaigne (1533-1592), the French essayist,
Chapel in the Vatican represent his most brilliant
was the most typical writer of the Renaissance
achievement in painting. This work contains 145
literature. His works reflect an intense interest in
pictures with 394 figures, some of which are as
MARTIN LUTHER
e
himself and in things connected with the life of man.
His essays on education were regarded as important
much as ten feet high. His painting, The Last
Judgement is considered the best in the world.
MICHELANGELO
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for centuries. A forerunner of Voltaire in his method
of writing and thinking, Montaigne revolted against the authority and Raphael achieved a rare blending of devotional feeling with a
the tyranny of the past and earned the title “the first modern man”. sense of beauty. Although Raphael died at the age of thirty-seven,
he produced a great number of paintings, of which
In Germany, Martin Luther translated the Bible in the German
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the most familiar is the Madonna.

language. Sebastian Brant wrote The Ship of Fools. In Spain,
Cervantes authored the famous Don Quixote.
Renaissance Art
Art in the Middle Ages was dominated by the Christian religion
and Church. During the Renaissance importance was given to the
love of nature and human body. Although the spirit of humanism
The Venetian School is an excellent example
of the secularization of the Renaissance art. Artistic
expression in Venice was worldly and materialistic.
Titian (1477-1576) and Tintoretto (1518-1592) were
the greatest painters of Venice.
RAPHAEL

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Renaissance Sculpture Copernicus (1473-1543)
established the heliocentric
The art of sculpture had also witnessed
theory. According to this theory
progress during the Renaissance period. It was
the heavenly bodies do not
more original and beautiful. The pioneer of the
revolve about the earth as
Renaissance sculpture was Lorenzo Ghiberti
believed during that period but
(1378-1455). The magnificent doors at the
KEPLER around the sun. Kepler (1571- GALILEO
Baptistery of Florence were his master piece. LORENZO GHIBERTI

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1630) formulated mathematical
Michael Angelo appreciated the beauty of these
laws to support the conclusions of Copernicus. He also stated that
doors as worthy to the gates of the Paradise. Donatello (1386-1466)
the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits. Galileo (1564-
produced the statue of St. George in Florence and that of St. Mark at

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1642) through the invention of the telescope brought new evidence
Venice. Michelangelo besides being a painter was a celebrated
to support the Copernican theory.
sculptor. He produced some of his best sculptures for the Medici
family in Florence. He was also the creator of the statue of David in Newton (1642-1727) concluded that the
Florence. Brunelleschi and Robbia were the other famous sculptors movements of all celestial bodies were controlled
of this period. One of the most familiar examples of the Renaissance by gravitation. With the new astronomical

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architecture is St. Peter’s Church of Rome. knowledge that was available, the old Julian
calendar was reformed in 1582 by Pope Gregory
Development of Science
XIII.
The spirit of modem science was born with the Renaissance.
The humanistic spirit of the Renaissance

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Science in the Middle Ages struggled against
superstitions. The Renaissance brought about a
NEWTON
had also awakened increased interest in the study
of medicine and anatomy. Vesalius (1514-1564), a Netherlander wrote
re
critical observation of natural phenomena. This
a treatise on human anatomy. William Harvey (1578-1657) discovered
spirit of learning took root in science.
the blood circulation, a prime contribution to medical science. In this
Francis Bacon (1561-1626) is considered period, chemistry became something more than alchemy. Paracelsus
the father of modern science. (1493-1541) showed that reactions in the human body involve
S

FRANCIS BACON He denounced the deductive chemical changes. He had employed chemicals for medicinal
method and advocated the purposes. Cordus (1515-1544) made ether from sulphuric acid and
inductive method in scientific research. Descartes alcohol. Helmont (1577-1644) discovered the carbon dioxide.
(1596-1650) brought out convincingly the necessity
Results of the Renaissance
of questioning everything. Descartes contributed the
idea of doubt, and doubt was the forerunner of a COPERNICUS The Renaissance remained the symbol of the beginning of the
new age in science. modern age. The spirit of enquiry and the consequent scientific
228 229
inventions produced important changes in the life
of humanity. The invention of the Mariner ’s
Compass and other astronomical faiths led to the
Geographical discoveries. The impact of these
discoveries was profound in the political and
economic life of the people. The reasoning spirit
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
1. The wider meaning of the Renaissance.
2. The reasons for the birth of Renaissance in Italy.
WILLIAM HARVEY

had resulted in the Reformation and changed the 3. The role of intellectuals like Dante and Petrarch in the

ia
outlook of the people towards religion. revival of Classical Literature.

4. The role of Leonardo da Vinci and others in the Renaissance

Important Historical Events of Renaissance art.

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1300 Humanism taught at Padua University in Italy 5. The scientific development during the Renaissance.

1341 Petrarch given title of ‘Poet Laureate’ in Rome 6. The results of the Renaissance.

1349 University established in Florence

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1390 Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales published
1436 Brunelleschi designs the Duomo in Florence
1454 Gutenberg prints the Bible with movable type
1495 Leonardo da Vinci paints The Last Supper
1512 e
Michelangelo paints the Sistine Chapel ceiling
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1516 Thomas More’s Utopia published
1543 Andreas Vesalius writes On Anatomy
1582 Gregorian calendar introduced by Pope Gregory XIII
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1628 William Harvey links the heart with blood circulation

1687 Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica published

230 231
 MODEL QUESTIONS c) Newton established the Heliocentric Theory.

I. Choose the correct answer. d. Blood circulation was discovered by Thomas More.

1. The Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople in V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

(a) 1453 (b) 1533 1. Dante’s Divine Comedy was written in the Latin language.

(c) 1543 (d) 1443 2. The printing press was first invented by William Caxton.

ia
2. Who among the following is considered as the father of modern VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
science? 1. Meaning of Renaissance.
(a) Copernicus (b) Francis Bacon 2. Leonardo da Vinci.

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(c) Kepler (d) Newton 3. Copernicus.
II. Fill in the blanks. VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Boccaccio was the disciple of ……. 1. Discuss the causes for the birth of Renaissance in Italy.

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2. The Prince, a book on political science was written by …… 2. Write a note on the Renaissance sculpture.
3. Telescope was invented by ……. 3. Estimate the results of the Renaissance.
III. Match the following. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1.
2.
Last Supper
Last Judgement e
a. Michael Angelo
b. Sebastian Brant
1. Evaluate the role of intellectuals in the development of
Renaissance literature.
re
3. Madonna c. Sir Thomas Moore 2. Assess the scientific development during the period of the
Renaissance.
4. Utopia d. Leonardo da Vinci
5. The Ship of Fools e. Raphael
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IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is

correct.
a) The first book published by John Gutenberg was The Bible.
b) Descartes is considered the father of modern science

232 233
 LESSON 22
GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The causes leading to the geographical discoveries.
2. The role of Portugal in exploring the new sea routes.
3. The role of Spain in the discovery of new continents.
ed
4. Other geographical discoveries.
5. The impact of geographical discoveries.
The Geographical Discoveries of the 15 th and 16th centuries
M
constitute an important chapter in the history of the modern world. It
is also known as the Age of Discovery. The new sea routes to the
East as well as the discovery of new continents like the America
radically transformed the course of history. The adventurous spirit
e
of the sailors like Bartholomew Diaz, Christopher Columbus and
Ferdinand Magellan ultimately led to these historic discoveries. There
re
are several causes that led to these discoveries.
Causes for the Geographical Discoveries
1. In 1453, the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople, the
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important trade route to the East. Thus, the Turks began to
control the European trade with the East. They imposed heavy
duties on the goods. On the other hand, the Arab traders
continued their trade through the Coasts of India and got huge
profits in spice trade. Therefore, the Europeans were forced
to find an alternative route to the East.
234
2. The Renaissance spirit and the consequent scientific discoveries
were also responsible for geographical discoveries. The art of
ship-building developed along with the invention of Mariner’s
Compass. The astronomical and other scientific discoveries
raised the hope of the adventurers to explore new sea routes.
3. The travel accounts of Marco Polo and Nicolo Polo about China
and India kindled great enthusiasm among the Europeans about
ia
the fabulous wealth of the Eastern countries. Other accounts
of the voyages also encouraged explorations. A Merchants
Handbook described all known trade routes between Europe
and the Far East. Similarly, the Secrets of the Faithful
Crusader told about Asiatic cities.
4. Other factors such as the spirit of adventure, desire for new
lands and competition for exploration between European nations
had also stimulated the explorers venturing into the seas.
Portugal
The first great wave of expeditions was launched by Portugal.
Its ruler was Henry (1394-1460) generally known
as “the Navigator”. As a result of
his efforts, the Madeira and
Azores Islands were discovered.
The main project of Henry the
Navigator was the exploration of
the West Coast of Africa. His
HENRY THE NAVIGATOR
sailors discovered the Cape Verde BARTHOLOMEW
DIAZ
Islands. Although Henry died in 1460, his zeal
provided stimulus to the Portuguese for further explorations. In 1487
Bartholomew Diaz reached the southern tip of Africa and called it
“the Cape of Storms” due to a terrible storm he experienced there.
Later it was renamed as “the Cape of Good Hope” because it provided
hope that access to the Indian Ocean was possible. Vasco da Gama
235
successfully used this route and reached India in 1498. Vasco da
Gama’s discovery of a new sea-route to India was a most significant
event in the history of Europe and Asia.
Spain
Next to Portugal, Spain began to explore the
sea route to the east. Christopher Columbus, a
It is popularly called the Papal Bull (order of Pope). According to it
an imaginary line was drawn dividing the globe into east and west.
Spain was given the right to possess the lands on the west and Portugal
on the east of the Pope’s line. Thus, Spain could not use sea route
through the Cape of Good Hope to reach the East Indies.
Therefore, Spain planned to reach the east by sailing westwards.
On August 10, 1519, Ferdinand Magellan had sailed with five Spanish

ia
Genoese sailor, planned to discover a new sea route
ships – namely, Trinidad, San Antonio, Concepcion, Victoria, and Santiago
to the East by traveling westwards.
- from the port of Sevilla. The fleet of Magellan crossed an arduous
After securing monetary assistance
VASCO DA GAMA 373-mile long passage on the southern end of South America. This strait
from King Ferdinand and Queen

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is now named the Strait of Magellan. Then he entered an ocean which
Isabella of Spain, he set sail on
was calmer than the Atlantic. Therefore, he named it the Pacific Ocean.
August 3, 1492 across the Atlantic. After a long
While crossing the Pacific, the sailors suffered for want of food and
and difficult voyage he reached an island of the
drinking-water. At last, on March 6, 1521, they reached the Philippines,
Bahamas on Oct 12, 1492. He thought that he had
COLOUMBUS where Magellan was killed by the natives. The survivors with the only

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reached the shores of India. Therefore, he called
remaining ship, the Victoria arrived at Sevilla through the Cape of Good
the natives of that island Indians. He made three more voyages and
Hope on September 9, 1522. It was the first voyage undertaken round
explored the islands in the Caribbean Sea and Central America. These
the world.
islands are even today called as the West Indies.
Other Geographical Discoveries

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Later in 1501, Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian
navigator, with the support of the king of Spain In 1497, John Cabot was sent by Henry VII
re
explored the areas of South America. He came of England to explore the seas. He discovered the
to the conclusion that what Columbus discovered Newfoundland. In his next expedition, he reached
was not India but a “New World”. Therefore the North America and explored it. But he was not able
new continent was named as to find any people there and returned to England
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AMERIGO VESPUCCI America. However, Columbus disappointed. However, this voyage

is considered as the discoverer resulted in the claim of England to
JOHN CABOT
of America. the mainland of North America. In
1534, Jacques Cartier from France went to the North
In 1493, Pope Alexander VI issued a Bull in
America and explored the region. He found the Red
order to prevent any dispute between Spain and
Indian settlements and named that region as Canada.
Portugal in exploring new sea routes and new lands.
MAGELLAN JACUS CARTIER

236 237
 Voyages by Europeans 4. The trading companies slowly captured political power and
established their rule in their respective regions. This led to
1492 Columbus claims Bahama Islands and Cuba for Spain
Colonialism and Imperialism.
1494 The ‘undiscovered world’ divided between Portugal
5. Capitalism had grown in Europe along with the policy of
and
Mercantilism. As a result, the colonies were exploited.
1497 John Cabot, Englishman, explores North American
6. The mad rush for new colonies led to mutual rivalry among the
coast

ia
European powers and ultimately resulted in wars.
1498 Vasco da Gama reaches Calicut/Kozhikode
7. The system of slavery was followed. The European planters in
1499 Amerigo Vespucci sights South American coast America imported Negro slaves from Africa to work in their

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1522 Magellan circumnavigates the globe plantations.

1571 Spanish conquer the Philippines 8. The geographical discoveries solved the problem of over
population in Europe and many Europeans began to settle in
1600 British East India Company formed the American continents.

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1602 Dutch East India Company formed 9. The culture of Europe had spread to Asia, Africa and other
parts of the world very rapidly.
Impact of the Geographical Discoveries
The geographical discoveries had a profound impact on the Learning Outcome

The most important among them are: e

economic, political and social conditions in most parts of the world. After learning this lesson the students will be to explain

1. The causes like the fall of Constantinople and scientific

re
1. There was a tremendous improvement in the trade and industry discoveries led to geographical discoveries.
in Europe. It began to reach beyond the Oceans. 2. Henry the Navigator and his contributions to geographical
2. The expansion of trade provided a stimulus to the development explorations.
S

of ship-building industry. Larger quantities of goods had to be
carried in bigger ships.
3. As the trade developed in large scale, joint-stock companies
and banking enterprises emerged. European companies
established their trade centres in Asia, Africa and Latin
America.
3. Early efforts of the Portuguese navigators like Bartholomew
Diaz.
4. The explorations of Christopher Columbus and Amerigo
Vespucci.
5. Magellan’s circumnavigation of the Globe.
6. Impact of the geographical discoveries.

238 239
 MODEL QUESTIONS V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

I. Choose the correct answer. 1. Vasco da Gama reached India in 1598.

1. Madeira and Azores islands were discovered by 2. Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian navigator, with the support of the
king of Spain explored the areas of South America.
(a) Henry (b) Bartholomew Diaz
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
(c) Columbus (d) Magellan
1. Henry the Navigator.

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II. Fill in the blanks.
2. Ferdinand Magellan
1. Vascodagama reached India in …..
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).

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2. Canada was discovered by …….
1. Discuss the role of Portugal in exploring the new sea routes.
III. Match the following.
2. Analyse the causes for the geographical discoveries.
1. Bartholomew Diaz a. Bahamas Island
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
2. Columbus b. Newfoundland

M
1. Give an account of the contribution of Spain towards the
3. Amerigo Vespucci c. Cape of Storm discovery of new countries.
4. John Cabot d. America 2. Examine the impact of the geographical discoveries.
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is

a.
correct.
King Ferdinand of Spain is e
generally known as “the
re
Navigator”.
b. In 1487 Vasco da Gama reached the southern tip of Africa
and called it “the Cape of Storms”.
S

c. Ferdinand Magellan while crossing the clam part of the ocean

named it the Pacific Ocean.
d. John Cabot of England went to the North America and explored
the region.

240 241
 LESSON 23
THE REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The causes for the Reformation.
2. Martin Luther’s Contribution to the Reformation.
3. Ulrich Zwingli and the Reformation in Switzerland.
ed
4. John Calvin and his contribution to the Reformation.
5. Counter Reformation.
6. The results of the Reformation.
M
The term Reformation refers to a great religious reform
movement in Europe during 16th century. There was a big protest
against the Christian Church in different parts of Europe and it
ultimately resulted in the emergence of Protestant Christian religion.
e
This great religious movement was not only the evidence of a great
religious change, but also proclaimed the dawn of a new era. The
re
Reformation started in Germany and later it spread to other countries.
Causes for the Reformation
There are several causes for the Reformation.
S
1. The Christian Church under the Pope was originally commanded
respect among the people. But in the Middle ages, it had become
a big feudal institution and possessed so much of lands and
wealth. The Popes enjoyed great political influence and
interfered into the political affairs. As a result they began to
neglect their spiritual duties. The Pope and the clergy began to
lead luxurious lives. The Popes like Alexander VI, Julius II
242
and Leo X who lived in 15 th and 16 th centuries with their
activities undermined the respect and prestige of the Church.
2. The Renaissance movement created a spirit of inquiry among
the masses. They began to read the Bible and realized that the
activities of the Church and the clergy were not according to
the precepts of the holy book. In the years preceding the
Reformation, many writers condemned luxurious and
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superstitious practices prevalent in the Church. John Wycliffe
(1330-1384) from England criticized the Pope for his authority
and misdeeds. He translated the Bible into English. He is
considered “the Morning Star of the Reformation. Erasmus
(1466-1536) attacked the superstitions followed by the clergy
in his book In Praise of Folly. It was published in 1509. John
Huss (1369-1415), a Bohemian, struggled for reforming the
Church. But he was condemned for his writings against the
Church and burnt to death. These early efforts to reform the
Church sowed the seeds for the Reformation of the 16 th
century.
3. The emergence of nation-states in Europe eroded the political
influence enjoyed by the Church during the Middle Ages. The
Pope and the Emperor lost their influence and power. The
people began to respect their king and the nation. Therefore,
the concept of Universal Church slowly gave way to national
churches.
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
The Reformation started in Germany and it
was led by Martin Luther. Martin Luther was born
in Eisleben on November 10, 1483. Luther was
educated at the University of Erfurt. He became a
monk in 1508. In November 1510 he visited Rome.
MARTIN LUTHER
He was shocked to see the worldly life led by the
243
Roman clergy. In 1512 he received his doctorate in theology from
Wittenberg University. He began his career as a professor of theology
in the same university. Thereafter, Luther began a systematic
campaign for the removal of evils of the Church.
In 1517, Pope Leo X sent John Tetzel to
Germany to sell indulgences for the purpose of
raising money to renovate the Saint
Peter ’s Church at Rome. An
indulgence was originally meant a
promise given to a sinner for the
ed
remission of punishment if he JOHN TETZEL
repented and confessed his sins. But Pope Leo X
used the sale of indulgences to raise money.
POPE LEO X Therefore, Luther opposed the practice of the sale
of indulgences. When John Tetzel visited
M
Wittenberg, Luther listed the abuse of indulgence in his 95 theses
and nailed it to the doors of the church. Pope Leo X got alarmed and
excommunicated Luther in January 1521. Luther burnt this order in
public.
e
Then the Pope appealed to Charles V, the
Holy Roman Emperor, to punish Luther for his
re
writings against the Church. But Luther had the
support of the German princes. However, he
appeared before Emperor Charles V at the Diet
of Worms in April 1521. Luther was proclaimed
S
guilty. But before his imprisonment, he was
CHARLES V escorted by his friends and kept at Wartburg
Castle. There he translated New Testament from
original Greek into German language. He published his most popular
book, the Small Catechism, in 1529. Luther led a life of seclusion till
his death in 1546.
244
When the rural people of Germany joined this religious protest it
became the Peasants’ War of 1524-1525. The revolt of peasants was
suppressed with an iron hand. Many peasants were massacred. In the
Diet of Spires which met in 1526, the religious question was raised again
by the German princes. The Diet gave permission to the princes to choose
their own religion. But, Emperor Charles V revoked this decision in 1529.
Therefore, the German princes drew up a protest and they came to be
ia
known as “Protestants”. It was only in the Peace of Augsburg in 1555,
formal approval was given by the Emperor to the princes either to remain
Catholic or Lutheran. It gave recognition only to Lutheran sect and not
to Zwinglianism or Calvinism.
Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)
Ulrich Zwingli paved the way for the Reformation in
Switzerland. He was contemporary of Martin Luther. Born in a rich
family in Switzerland, he became a priest in the Zurich Canton in
1502. He attacked abuses of the Church such as
the sale of indulgences. He spoke openly that the
clergy should strictly follow the principles of the
Bible. Samson was sent to Zurich by the Pope to
sell the indulgences. It was opposed by Zwingli.
Thereafter, his preaching was directed against the
leadership of the Pope, the excessive veneration
ULRICHZWINGLI of saints, the celibacy of the priesthood, and fasting.
His stand against the celibacy was opposed by the
bishop of Constance. The city council voted in favour of Zwingli and
against the bishop. Thus Zurich adopted the Reformation. In 1523,
Pope sent an order excommunicating Zwingli but, the Zurich Canton
announced its separation from the Church. Five other Cantons
declared a war against Zurich in which Zwingli was killed in 1531.
Finally an agreement was reached between the Cantons by which
each Canton was given freedom to choose their religious sect.
245
John Calvin (1509-1564)
The French protest reformer John Calvin was
born in France. He studied humanities and Law at
the University of Paris. He obtained in 1532, Doctor
of Law. His first published work was a commentary
on Roman philosopher Seneca’s De Clementia. In
1536, he settled in Geneva. His main teachings are
that the Bible alone is the final authority for matters
JOHN CALVIN
of faith and that salvation is attained purely through
grace. He subscribed to the doctrine of the absolute
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fore-knowledge and the determining power of God. Calvin published
his religious doctrines as a book called The
Institutes of Christian Religion. His religious
sect was own as Calvinism. He became the head
of the church in Geneva. He established several
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schools for the spread of education. He was also
the founder of the University of Geneva.
Calvinism had spread to many parts of Europe.
Reformation in England
King Henry VIII of England initially e HENTRY VIII
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opposed Martin Luther and supported the Pope. He was called “the
Defender of Faith” by Pope Leo X. This relationship
with the Pope broke down when the Pope refused
to permit King Henry VIII to marry Anne Boleyn
S
after divorcing his queen. He asked the Parliament
to pass an Act of Supremacy in 1534 by which the
king was made the head of the Church of England.
This new Church independent of the authority of
Pope was called the Anglican Church. Henry VIII
did not introduce any changes in the Catholic
EDWARD VI doctrines. But the Anglican Church became really
246
Protestant in the reign of Edward VI (1547-1553). The service books
were translated into English.
Counter-Reformation
The success of the Reformation movement created a great
awe and fear in the Roman Catholic Church. Before things went out
of control, it took drastic measures to check the spread of the
ia
Protestant religion and also to carry out reforms within itself. This
process was known as Counter-Reformation.
Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) was a Spanish soldier and lost his
legs in a war. Thereafter, he decided to contribute his might to the
cause of the Roman Catholic Church. Loyola
founded the Society of Jesus in 1534 and it was
recognized by the Pope. The aim of this Society
was to reform and restore the glory of the Catholic
Church. Members of the society were known as
Jesuits. They worked hard to earn good name for
the Catholic Church through their dedicated service.
IGNATIUS LOYOLA They established schools and colleges in several
parts of the world. They achieved a remarkable
success in their missionary activities. They remained faithful to the
Pope and the Catholic religion.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563) introduced several reforms in
the Catholic Church. The most glaring abuses of the clergy were
removed. Celibacy was strictly enforced for them. The sale of offices
was stopped. The practice of the sale of indulgences was abolished. It
also stressed that clergy adhere more strictly to their duties. The Pope
was recognized as the supreme authority in the matters of religion.
An Index consisting of the list of dangerous and heretical books
was issued by the Church. The Catholics were prohibited from reading
these books.
247
 Similarly the medieval practice of Ecclesiastical Court of
Inquisition was revived. Torture was used to extract confession.
Severe punishments such as burning to death were employed against
the enemies of the Church.
The success of the Counter Reformation can be understood
from the fact that the rapid spread of Protestantism was halted.
Southern Germany, France, Poland, some of the Swiss cantons, and
3. The democratic church system paved the way for the growth
of democracy and nationalism. The nations began to evolve
their own churches. The place of Pope was taken by the
nationalistic churches.
4. The rapid progress of the Protestant religion and the counter-
Reformation ultimately resulted in the purification of the Church.
Both Catholics and Protestants began to adopt high moral

ia
Savoy were brought back to the Catholic faith. At the same time standards after the Reformation. The Catholics purified their
Protestantism was driven out of Italy and Spain. The Roman Catholic Church establishments and this in turn improved the values in
Church is still one of the greatest religious organizations in the world. the society.

ed
Important Historical Events of Reformation Learning Outcome

1492 Columbus claims Bahama Islands and Cuba for Spain After learning this lesson the students will be to explain

1517 Martin Luther writes the Ninety-Five Theses 1. The abuses in the Church and other factors led to the

M
Reformation.
1522 Luther translates the Bible into German
2. The life and work of Martin Luther in bringing the
1525 Peasant uprising in Germany
Reformation in Germany.
1559 Anglican Church established in England, with the
3. The role of John Calvin and Ulrich Zwingli in the
king/queen as its head

Effects of Reformation
e Reformation.

4. The process of Counter Reformation and the role of Ignatius

re
Loyola.
The important results of the Reformation were:
5. The results of the Reformation.
1. The Reformation led to two major divisions in Christianity –
Catholics and Protestants. This division had resulted in religious
S

persecution and religious wars Germany and in other parts of

Europe.
2. People were encouraged to read the Bible and ponder on
religion. The freedom given by the Protestants to interpret the
Bible led to free thinking. It encouraged the development of
art, literature and science.

248 249
 MODEL QUESTIONS IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
I. Choose the correct answer.
a) The Counter Reformation was launched by the Protestants.
1. Which among the following was not a reason for the
Reformation? b) The followers of Ignatius Loyola contributed for the spread of
education.
(a) The Spirit of enquiry created by the Renaissance
c) The Trent Council was convened by Henry VIII.

ia
(b) Emergence of nation-states in Europe
d) During the Counter Reformation an Index consisting of the list
(c) The Geographical discoveries of good books was issued by the Church.
(d) The luxurious life led by the Pope and the Clergy. V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

ed
2. Who is considered as the ‘morning star of the Reformation’? 1. King Henry VIII of England initially supported Martin Luther
(a) Erasmus (b) Martin Luther and opposed the Pope.
(c) John Huss (d) John Wycliffe 2. The Anglican Church became really Protestant in the reign of

M
Edward.
II. Fill in the blanks.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. The Society of Jesus was founded by …….
1. Ulrich Zwingli
2. The founder of the University of Geneva was ……
III.
1.
Match the following.
Martin Luther a. France e 2.
3.
Counter Reformation
Society of Jesus
re
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
2. Ulrich Zwingli b. Spain
1. Discuss the role of John Calvin in the Reformation.
3. John Calvin c. Germany
2. Evaluate the effects of the Reformation.
4. Ignatius Loyola d. England
S

VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

5. John Wycliffe e. Switzerland
1. Examine the causes for the Reformation.
2. Analyse the contribution of Martin Luther for the Reformation
in Germany.
3. Discuss the course of the Counter Reformation.

250 251
 LESSON 24
THE AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
(1776-1783)
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The fundamental causes of the American War of
Independence.
2. The circumstances leading the war.
ed
3. The Declaration of Independence.
4. Important events of the war.
5. Importance of the war.
M
The English Colonies in America
After the discovery of the American continent, there was a
continuous migration of people from Europe to the New World. South
e
America was colonized by Spain. The English and the French
established their colonies in the North America. By the mid eighteenth
re
century, the English had established their thirteen colonies along the
Atlantic coast. Landless peasants, people seeking religious freedom
and traders had settled there. Initially the relationship between the
colonies and British Government was cordial. Although these colonies
S
were controlled through the governors, they enjoyed political freedom.
Each colony had its own assembly elected by the people. It enacted
laws concerning local matters. However, the policies followed by
the home government (Britain) had resulted in the confrontation. This
ultimately led to the American War of Independence at the end of
which the colonies became independent. There were several causes
for this war.
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Fundamental Causes
The British Government followed the policy of mercantilism.
According to this policy the colonies existed for the benefit of the
mother country. The colonies were expected to furnish raw materials.
They had to serve as markets for produced goods. Moreover, the
colonies had to ship their goods only in British ships. In these ways
the colonies were expected to add more wealth to the home country.
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The British Government enacted laws to implement this policy of
mercantilism.
A series of Navigation Acts were passed by the British
Parliament to control the trade of the American colonies. These Acts
insisted that all the goods of both exports and imports should be carried
in ships owned by England. Custom collectors were appointed in the
colonies to implement the Navigation Acts. But, the American colonies
considered these Acts as infringement of their rights.
The Molasses Act levied heavy duties on sugar and molasses
imported into the American colonies. In addition to this, a series of
Trade Acts were also passed to control the trade in the colonies. For
example, the Hat Act of 1732 prohibited the import of hats from one
colony to the other. The Iron Act 1750 stopped the large-scale
production of iron in the colonies. These Acts were opposed by the
colonies.
Due to these restrictions, bitterness developed between the
home government and the American colonies. They were looking
for an opportunity to free themselves from the control of Britain.
Circumstances leading to the War of Independence
Seven Year’s War
The end of the Seven Years War in 1763 and the transfer of
Canada from France to England removed the French fear from the
253
minds of the Americans. There was no need to depend on their mother
country against any possible attack by the French. Therefore, the
American colonies decided to face the colonial attitude of the British.
Granville Measures
When Granville was the Prime Minister of England a series of
Acts were passed affecting the interests of the American colonies. The
Proclamation of 1763 prohibited the colonists from purchasing lands
beyond Appalachian Mountains. The Sugar Act of 1764 increased the
duties on the sugar which affected the interests of the colonies. The
Stamp Act of 1765 insisted on the use of British stamps in commercial
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and legal documents of the colonies. The Quartering Act made it
compulsory that colonists should provide food and shelter to English
troops. These measures were severely opposed by the colonists. They
raised the slogan “No Taxation without Representation” thus insisting
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American representation in the English Parliament. As violence broke
out in the streets, the Stamp Act was repealed.
Townshend Laws
Charles Townshend, the Finance Minister of England imposed
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fresh taxes on glass, paper, tea, paints, etc in 1767. It was known as
Townshend laws. The Americans protested it and boycotted the British
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goods. On 5th March 1770, five Americans were killed by the British
soldiers at Boston during the protest. It was known as the Boston
Massacre. After this event, the Townshend laws were repealed.
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Boston Tea Party
In 1773, a new Tea Act was passed
imposing a tax on import of tea. It was a
symbol to show that the British Parliament
had the right to tax the colonies. But
Americans showed their protest. A group
BOSTON TEA PARTY of Americans dressed as Red Indians,
254
climbed on the ships and threw away the tea bundles into the sea at
the Boston harbour. This event took place on 16th December 1773
and it was known as the Boston Tea Party. The offenders were
punished. In 1774, the British Parliament passed the Intolerable Acts
against the Americans in order to prevent such protests.
Philadelphia Congress
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The American colonists decided to unite in
their fight against the British. In September 1774,
the first Continental Congress was held at
Philadelphia. It was attended by the representatives
of the twelve colonies except Georgia. This
congress appealed to the British King to remove
restrictions on industries and trade and not to impose
any taxes without their consent. The second
JEFFERSON
Continental Congress met in May 1775 at
Philadelphia. Delegates from all the thirteen colonies attended this
Congress. Prominent leaders like Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin
Franklin participated in it. George Washington was made the
Commander-in-Chief of the American army. As a last attempt, an
Olive Branch Petition was sent to the British king George III, who
rejected it. The king proclaimed that the American colonies were in
a state of rebellion.
Declaration of Independence
In January 1776, Thomas Paine came to America from England
and issued a pamphlet “Common Sense”. It attacked
the idea of hereditary monarchy and advocated
democratic government. More than one lakh copies
of this 50 page booklet were distributed throughout
the thirteen colonies. It inculcated the fighting spirit
among the Americans. On 4th July 1776, the American
THOMAS PAINE Declaration of Independence was adopted by the
255
Continental Congress. It was prepared by a committee of five led by Revolution. It was not only a war against England but
Thomas Jefferson who included the ideals of human freedom in it. against aristocracy and reactionary elements. It was also
The Declaration of independence laid emphasis on the unalienable a fight against colonial domination.
rights of men namely, “Life, Liberty and Pursuit of happiness”.
· It introduced new political, social and economic set up in
Important Battles the United States of America. Democracy with separation
of powers on the model suggested by French thinker
The war started in 1775, when the first battle was fought
Montesquieu was founded. Capitalism also took strong

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between the British soldiers and the colonial militia at Lexington in
roots.
Massachusetts. Soon, George Washington assume the command of
the army of the American colonies. The British · However, the rights of the sons of the soil, the Red Indians
General, Gage won a victory at Bunker Hill. and the Negroes were not considered at that time.

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In 1776 the British forces led by Sir William
Howe defeated Washington in the battle of
Long Island. However, the army of American Learning Outcome
colonies commanded by General Gates After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain

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defeated British troops at Saratoga in October,
1. The fundamental causes for the war of American
1777. The victory at Saratoga marked a
Independence.
turning point in the war. The French troops
GEORGE
WASHINGTON under Lafayette came to the help of the 2. The circumstances leading the war such as Granville
American colonies. Finally, the British troops measures, Townshend laws and the Boston Tea Party.

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under the command of General Cornwallis surrendered to Washington
at Yorktown in 1781. The war came to an end by the Treaty of
3. The Declaration of Independence and its importance.
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4. The important events of the war.
Paris in 1783.
5. The importance of the American War of Independence.
Importance of the American War of Independence
· The American colonies became free and the Republic of
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the United States of America was established. The first

democratic government with a written constitution in the
world became a reality. The Bill of Rights ensured
fundamental rights to the citizens of the U.S.A.
· The American War of Independence was also called the
American Revolution because it inspired the French

256 257
 MODEL QUESTIONS
I. Choose the correct answer.
1. “No Taxation without representation” was the slogan of
revolution in
(a) France (b) China

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(c) America (d) Russia
2. The author of “Common Sense”
New
Hampspire (a) Voltaire (b) Benjamin Franklin

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Newyork Massachusettes (c) Thomas Paine (d) Thomas Jefferson
Conneticut II. Fill in the blanks.
Rhode Island
Pennsylvania 1. The First Continental Congress in 1774 was held at …..

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2. The Seven Years War came to an end in …..
Delaware 3. The American War of Independence came to an end by the
Virginia Maryland
treaty of …..
THIRTEEN
AMERCIAN

North eCOLONIES III.

1.
Match the following.
Stamp Act a. 1764
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Carolina
2. Sugar Act b. 1765
South 3. Boston Tea Party c. 1767
Carolina

Georgia 4. Townshend laws d. 1773

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Charleston
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
a) The Navigation Acts were passed by the British Parliament
for the benefit of the American colonies.
b) The Quartering Act made it compulsory that the colonists should
provide food and shelter to the English troops.

258 259
c) The Second Continental Congress was attended by the LESSON 25
representatives of the 12 colonies except Georgia.
FRENCH REVOLUTION
d) On 4th July 1774, the American Declaration of Independence
was adopted by the Continental Congress. Learning Objectives
V. State whether the following statements are True or False. Students will acquire knowledge about
1 The victory at Saratoga marked a turning point in American 1. The causes of the French Revolution.

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War of Independence.
2. The role of French philosophers.
2. The British troops under the command of General Cornwallis
3. The Fall of Bastille and the beginning of the revolution.
surrendered to Washington at Lexington in 1781.

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4. The Constituent Assembly and the National Convention.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
5. The Reign of Terror.
1. Townshend Laws
6. The end of the revolution.
2. Boston Tea Party

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3. Stamp Act The French Revolution opened a new chapter in the history of
VII. Answer briefly (100 words). Europe. It marked a turning point in the history of humankind. The
French Revolution put an end to the age old absolute monarchy, feudal
1. Analyse the fundamental causes for the American War of
laws and social inequality. It introduced for the first time the idea of

2.
Independence.
Write a note on the Philadelphia Congress. e republicanism based on “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”. These ideas
had influenced the entire continent of Europe and also the world.
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3. Bring out the importance of the American Declaration of Causes of the French Revolution
Independence.
The causes of the French revolution include the political, social
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). and economic aspects that were prevalent in France before the
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1. Examine the circumstances leading to the American War of outbreak of the revolution.
Independence. Political Causes
France was ruled by the Bourbon dynasty. They
firmly believed in the Divine Right theory – as they
were representatives of God, they were answerable
only to God. Louis XIV was a strong and powerful
Louis XVI

260 261
ruler of the Bourbon dynasty. His wars ruined the economy of France.
His successors Louis XV and Louis XVI were weak administrators.
Louis XV foretold at the end of his rule: “After me the deluge”. His
words came to be true. Louis XVI was the most incompetent ruler.
His wife and queen, Marie Antoinette interfered too much into the
administration. She was thoroughly ignorant of the sufferings of the
French people. But she always favoured and protected the interests
of the French nobles. She did not allow the financial reforms to take
place. Because it affected the interests of the nobles and the clergy.
Social Causes
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The French society was based on inequality. The society
consisted of three major divisions, the nobles, clergy and the common
people. The nobles had no political power but remained loyal to the
king. They enjoyed many privileges and led a life of luxury. They
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were exempted from taxation. The higher clergy owned one fifth of
the lands in France and enjoyed several privileges. Their number in
France was around only five thousand. They lived in palatial houses
and they were exempted from taxes. But the lower clergy were
denied all these privileges. Therefore, they turned against the higher
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clergy during the revolution. Both the noble and the higher clergy led
a life of ease and pleasure without bothering about the wretched
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condition of the masses.
The majority of the population in France belonged to the third
category. Traders, lawyers, owners of industries, government
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servants, peasants and workers were in this category. While the nobles
and the clergy were exempted from paying taxes, the masses paid
all the taxes. Hence it was said : “the nobles fight, the clergy pray
and the people pay”. The taille or land tax was entirely paid by the
peasants. The gabelle or salt tax was a burden on the common man.
The head of each family had to pay the capitation tax. Besides paying
these taxes to the king, they have to pay tithe (tax) to the Church.
262
The burden on the peasants was higher than the others because he
had certain other obligations to the nobles. They were forced to use
the mill, wine-press, slaughterhouse and oven of their lords after paying
the usual dues. They were also compelled to render feudal services
to the lords.
Economic Causes
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The financial condition of France was very critical during the reign
of Louis XVI. The national debt had increased beyond the limit. The
national income was less than national
expenditure. Hence, the king tried to mobilize
national income by selling important offices of
the government. At last, the king appointed
financial experts Turgot and Jacques Necker as
Director-General of Finances. They tried to
curtail royal expenditure and improve the income
to the government. But their measures did not
receive the support of the nobles. On their advice JACQUES NECKER
the queen Marie Antoinette removed them. Later, Calonne was appointed
to look into the financial crisis. But he was not able to do anything but to
levy fresh taxes. Therefore, Louis XVI was forced to convene the States
General after a gap of 175 years, on May 5th, 1789.
The French Philosophers
The writings and the preaching of the French philosophers
prepared the common people for the revolution.
The most prominent among them were
Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau.
Montesquieu in his book, The Spirit
of Laws advocated the constitutional
form government. He introduced
the idea of separation of
MONTESQUIEU VOLTAIRE
263
powers into executive, legislative and judiciary to ensure the effective
functioning of democracy. Voltaire launched a crusade against
superstition and attacked traditional beliefs. He wrote many essays,
poems and dramas creating awareness among the
masses. He advocated the supremacy of reason.
He stood for religious toleration. He strongly
condemned the corruptions in the church. He stood
for a benevolent despotism. Rousseau was the
author of the famous book, Social Contract, which
was considered the Bible of the French Revolution.
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ROUSSEAU
He said that the real sovereignty rests with the
people. His famous statement, “Man is born free
and is everywhere in chains” kindled the revolutionary spirit of the
masses. Diderot and D’ Alembert published the Encyclopedia. It
contained several essays and articles written by revolutionary
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thinkers. The revolutionary ideas of these philosophers spread
throughout France and created awareness among the masses. The
French intellectuals gave the motto “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”
which became the watchwords of the revolution of 1789.
Impact of the American War of Independence
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The independence of the thirteen American colonies from
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England provided a boost to the French people. The French captain
Lafayette with his soldiers returned from America after helping the
colonies to secure their independence. His experience in America
along with the fighting spirit for the cause of democracy reached the
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ears of the French and inspired them. Therefore, they decided to put
an end to the despotic rule of the Bourbons.
Convening of the States-General
The bankruptcy of French treasury was the starting point of
the French Revolution. Louis XVI was faced with a serious financial
situation. There was also no alternative but to propose new taxes.
264
So, Louis XVI summoned the States General on 5th May 1789. The
main purpose for summoning the States General was to get its consent
for the fresh taxes to be levied upon the people. The king also recalled
Necker to head the finance ministry.
National Assembly
The States General consisted of three Estates Chambers. The
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first Estate was represented by the nobles, the second the clergy and
the third by the common people. When
the king called for its meeting, each
Estate sat separately. However, the
members of the third estate demanded
a joint sitting and one vote for each
member. As the first and second
Estates did not concede to this
TENNIS COURT OATH
demand, there was a deadlock. On
th
17 June 1789, the third Estate declared itself as the National
Assembly. The king got alarmed and prevented them from entering
the hall. But, the members of the National Assembly went to a nearby
Tennis Court and took an oath to frame a new constitution. This is
known as Tennis Court Oath.
On 23 rd June 1789, a special session of States General was
held. The king declared the acts of the Third Estate as illegal. He
also ordered that the three Estates should meet separately. But the
third Estate refused to accept the king’s orders. Hence, Louis XVI
submitted to the will of the third Estate, which represented the
common people. He ordered the three Estates to sit together. Thus
the formation of National Assembly was completed.
Fall of the Bastille
Although the king recognised the National Assembly, he decided
to suppress it. A large number of soldiers were brought to Versailles
265
and Paris. Necker, the popular minister
was also dismissed. On hearing this, the
mob of Paris became violent. They
attacked the State prison called the
Bastille, murdered the guards and freed
the prisoners. The fall of the Bastille
was regarded in France as a triumph
FALL OF THE BASTILLE
of liberty. After the fall of the Bastille
the peasants rose against the nobles. Riots began against the
aristocrats all over France. Nobles were attacked and their castles
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stormed. They also destroyed the records of their feudal services.
The nobles voluntarily surrendered their feudal rights and the
privileges on 4th August 1789. Feudalism and serfdom were abolished.
The principle of equality was established. Class distinctions were
abolished. There was a shortage for bread in Paris. On 5th October,
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a large number of women went to the King’s palace at Versailles to
make a petition. They were not satisfied with the reply of the queen
and hence they brought with them the king, the queen and their son
to Paris.
Work of the National Assembly (1789 - 1791)
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The National Assembly styled itself the Constituent
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Assembly. It drew up the Declaration of the Rights of Man. The
new constitution drafted by the Constituent Assembly provided for a
limited monarchy to France. The titles of the nobles were abolished.
Judiciary was remodeled. The method of torture was abolished. New
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central and local courts were established. Judges were to be elected.
Drastic action was also taken against the church. The monasteries
were suppressed. Absolute religious toleration was proclaimed. The
collection of tithes by the church was abolished. Then, measures
were taken for the nationalization of church properties. After drafting
the new constitution, the National Assembly dissolved itself in 1791.
266
Political Clubs
The political clubs sprang up in different
quarters. Of these, the most
conspicuous were the Jacobian Club
and Cordelier Club. The Jacobian
Club was led by Robespierre, a radical
democrat. The Cordelier Club was led
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DANTON
by Danton. The Girondists were a
group of eloquent young men and stood for establishing
ROBESPIERRE
a republican form of government. Madame Roland was
a prominent member of the Girondists.
The Legislative Assembly
According to the new constitution, the new Legislative
Assembly met in 1791. When the revolution broke out many of the
nobles managed to escape from France. They carried out propaganda
against the revolution in France and tried to mobilize support from
other countries. Austria and Prussia came forward to help them. To
curtail their activities the Legislative Assembly passed laws. The
king did not approve of these laws and used his veto against them.
King Leopold of Austria issued the famous Declaration of Pilnitz
against the revolutionaries on 27 th August 1791. War broke out
between the revolutionary government and Austria in 1792. The
revolutionary army was defeated. The wrath of the revolutionaries
turned against the French king. On 10th August 1792 the mob attacked
the King’s palace at Tuileries. The king was suspended and elections
were ordered for a National Convention to prepare another new
constitution for the country. This was followed by the “September
Massacres”. The Revolutionary government at Paris led by Danton
massacred 1500 suspected supporters of the French king. Then the
French army defeated the Austrian army at Valmy.
267
The National Convention (1792 - 1795) functions of Committee of Public Safety were restricted. The
Jacobian Club was closed. The National Convention at last took up
After the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly, the National
its long neglected task of framing of a constitution for the French
Convention met in 1792. It abolished monarchy and declared France
Republic. The executive was entrusted to a Directory, consisting of
as a republic. The king Louis XVI after a summary trail was found
five members. The legislative power was entrusted to two houses
guilty of treason was guillotined (head cut off) on Sunday, 21st January
called the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of the
1793. Three days later the queen Maire Antoinette was also
Ancients. Napolean Bonapartee was then at Paris and he was
guillotined.

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entrusted with the task of defending the Convention against the
Reign of Terror Parisian mob. He dispersed the mob and saved the Convention and
The National convention divided on the issue of the execution began his brilliant career. On October 26, 1795 the convention

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of the king. The moderates did not agree with the Jacobians, who declared itself dissolved and the Directory took charge of the French
formed the majority in the Convention. The Jacobians had set up the government.
Revolutionary Tribunal to deal with the moderates. It was the Results of the Revolution
beginning of the Reign of Terror. It was the final phase of the
The French Revolution of 1789 inaugurated a new era in the
Revolution. It was also the darkest period of the Revolution. Riots

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history of the mankind. The ideas of “liberty, equality and fraternity”
broke out in many places like Lyons, Marseilles and other cities. In
spread to other parts of the world. The Bourbon monarchy was
1793, the first coalition was formed by the European nations against
abolished. The Revolution rejected tyranny, divine right, conservatism,
the revolutionary government.
and feudal vestiges associated with bourbon rule in France. At the
The Jacobians suspended the constitution and created the same time it failed to establish a permanent Republic in France. The

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Committee of Public Safety with full powers to deal with the
situation. Robespierre was the leader of this committee. It put down
French Revolution, after a violent turn led to the emergence of a
great dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.
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all the riots staged by the royalists within the country. Many people
were killed on suspicion of being royalists. Soon, Robespierre became
a virtual dictator of France. But, his opponents
turned against him and sent him to the guillotine in
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1794.
End of Revolution
With the fall of Robespeirre the Reign of
Terror gradually came to an end. Moreover the
public opinion was strongly against it. The
NAPOLEAN Revolutionary Tribunal was suspended. The

268 269
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The political, social and economic causes of the French 1. The King of France at the time of 1789 Revolution was
Revolution
(a) Louis XII (b) Louis XIV
2. The role French thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau and
(c) Louis XVIII (d) Louis XVI
Montesquieu.

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II. Fill in the blanks.
3. The fall of Bastille and the beginning of the revolution.
1. …… was the author of the book “Social Contract”.
4. The Constituent Assembly and its role in framing the
2. In the States General, the first Estate was represented by ……

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constitution.

5. The National Convention and its activities. III. Match the following.
6. The Reign of Terror under Robespierre. 1. Encyclopedia a. Danton
7. The end of the revolution and the results 2. September Massacres b. D’ Alembert

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3. Reign of Terror c. Montesquieu
4. The Spirit of Laws d. Robespierre
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is

e a.
correct.
King Louis XVI issued the Declaration of the Rights of
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Man.
b. Madame Roland was a prominent member of the Cordelier
Club .
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c. King Leopold of Prussia issued the famous Declaration of

Pilnitz.
d. The Jacobians suspended the constitution and created the
Committee of Public Safety.

270 271
V. State whether the following statements are True or LESSON 26
False.
AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS
1. Marie Antoinette was the wife and queen of Louis XVI.
2. The idea of Separation of Powers was proposed by Learning Objectives
Montesquieu. Students will acquire knowledge about
VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. The process of agricultural revolution.

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1. National Assembly 2. The causes for the Industrial Revolution.
2. Rousseau 3. Scientific inventions in different sectors of industrial

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3. Reign of Terror production.

VII. Answer briefly (100 words). 4. Merits and demerits of the Industrial Revolution.

1. Examine the contributions of the French philosophers to the

French Revolution. Agricultural Revolution

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2. Write a note on the results of the French Revolution. The term agricultural revolution refers to the radical changes
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). in the method of agriculture in England in the 17th and 18th centuries.
There was a massive increase in agricultural productivity, which
1. Examine the causes of the French Revolution of 1789.
supported the growing population. The Agricultural Revolution
2.
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Trace the course of the French Revolution of 1789. preceded the Industrial Revolution in England. During the Agricultural
Revolution, four key changes took place in agricultural practices.
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They were enclosure of lands, mechanization of farming, four-field
crop rotation, and selective breeding of domestic animals.
Prior to the agricultural revolution, the practice of agriculture
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had been much the same across Europe since the Middle Ages. The
open field system was essentially feudal. Each farmer engaged in
cultivation in common land and dividing the produce.
From the beginning of 12 th century, some of the common fields
in Britain were enclosed into individually owned fields. This process
rapidly accelerated in the 15th and 16th centuries as sheep farming
grew more profitable. This led to farmers losing their land and their

272 273
grazing rights. Many farmers became unemployed. In the 16th and
17th centuries, the practice of enclosure was denounced by the
Church, and legislation was drawn up against it. However, the
mechanization of agriculture during the 18th century required large,
enclosed fields. This led to a series of government acts, culminating
finally in the General Enclosure Act of 1801. By the end of the
19th century the process of enclosure was largely complete.
Great experiments were conducted in farming during this
period. Machines were introduced for seeding and harvesting.
Rotation of crops was introduced by Townshend. The lands became
ed
fertile by this method. Bakewell introduced scientific breeding of farm
animals. The horse-drawn ploughs, rake, portable threshers, manure
spreaders, multiple ploughs and dairy appliances had revolutionized
farming. These changes in agriculture increased food production as
well as other farm outputs.
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Industrial Revolution
The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was used by European
scholars – Georges Michelet in France and Friedrich Engels in
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Germany. It was used to describe the changes that occurred in the
industrial development of England between 1760 and 1820. The
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Industrial Revolution had far-reaching effects in England.
Subsequently, similar changes occurred in European countries and in
the U.S.A. the Industrial Revolution had a major impact on the society
and economy of these countries and also on the rest of the world.
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This phase of industrial development in England is strongly
associated with new machinery and technologies. These made it
possible to produce goods on a massive scale compared to handicraft
and handloom industries. There were changes in the cotton and iron
industries. Steam, a new source of power, began to be used on a
wide scale in British industries. Its use led to faster forms of
transportation by ships and railways. Industrialisation led to greater
274
prosperity for some, but in the initial stages many people including
women and children had experienced poor living and working
conditions. This sparked off protests and the government was forced
to enact laws to improve the conditions of workers.
Causes for the Industrial Revolution
Ø England’s advantageous geographical location.
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Ø The precedence of agricultural revolution.
Ø New inventions and the introduction of machinery.
Ø The enterprising spirit of British entrepreneurs.
Ø Growth of capital in England.
Ø Colonial possessions of England, which supplied raw
materials and served as markets
Scientific Inventions
Textile Machinery
The primary cause of the Industrial Revolution was the scientific
inventions. The earliest mechanical inventions came in the textile
industry. Spinning was the slowest process in the manufacturing of
cloth. The invention of flying shuttle by Kay in 1733 improved weaving.
In 1764, Hargreaves invented the ‘spinning jenny’. This machine could
spin eight threads at the same time, instead of one. Arkwright
improved the ‘spinning jenny’ in 1769. Compton improved it still further
in 1779. In 1785, Cartwright invented the power loom. Whitney, an
American, speeded up the process (1792) with a cotton gin, which
automatically removed seeds from the fiber of the cotton. The
invention of the sewing machine by Elias Howe, in 1846, accelerated
the production of clothing and made possible the modern clothing
industry. Thus, one invention followed another, not only in textile
industries but also in many others. In this way, the present-day
complex machinery has evolved.
275
Steam Engine the extent to which water
transportation could be utilized.
Heavy machinery could not function with
Railroads provided a solution for these
out power to operate it. The invention of the steam
problems. The first tracks were made
engine provided the practical solution. The first
of wood and the first cars were horse
practical application of steam to machinery was
drawn, but the introduction of iron for
made by James Watt in 1765. He devised the first
rails and the application of Watt’s
closed cylinder with a piston pushed back and forth JAMES WATT LOCOMOTIVE OF GEORGE STEPHENSON

by steam. This has been extensively used in textile machinery.
Development of Transport
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steam engine for traction power
revolutionized the whole procedure. George Stephenson constructed
the first practical locomotive in 1814.The Stockton and Darlington

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There is a close relationship between the development of railroad started operation in England in 1825. The era of railroads
industry and improvement in transportation. Industrializaion depends had begun.
largely on the bringing of raw materials to factories and on the Communication
disposing of manufactured goods in a wide market. As late as the
Modern transportation and business enterprises are much
17th century, highways were poorly kept. A pack horse was the only

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dependent on rapid and efficient communication. Before the
possible means of travel on land. In the second half of the 18th century,
perfection of the telegraph, carrier pigeons and
John McAdam (1756-1836) built a type of hard-surfaced road in
semaphores were the speediest methods available. The
England. The only important change made in this method was the
electric telegraph depended upon earlier basic
substitution of a tar composition for mud as a binder. France copied
researches made by Faraday, Volta, Ampere, and
many highways were built. e
the English methods, and under the patronage of the government
Franklin. It was invented independently in Germany,
England, and the United States, by Steinheil,
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The heavy expenses involved in the building and upkeep of Wheatstone, and Morse, respectively. Telegraphic G R A H A M B E L L
highway encouraged the development of inland waterways. During equipment was widely installed after 1845. A cable from America
the second half of the 18 th century and the early part of the 19 th to Europe was laid under the Atlantic Ocean in 1866. By the close of
century thousands of miles of artificial water route were dug in the 19th century, all the important commercial centers in the world
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England, in France, and in the United Slates. In 1761, a canal was had telegraphic communications. The penny post was established in
built in England from Worsley to Manchester to carry coal from the 1840. The Universal Postal Union, to aid international mail service,
mines to the furnaces. was adopted in 1875. Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876.
There were serious drawbacks in the river and canal
transportation. The rate of travel was slow and the expense of
construction and maintenance was high. Geographical factors limited

276 277
Lighting
In industry, transportation, social activities, amusements, and
cultural pursuits, artificial light plays a very important role. In 1784, a
burner was devised for oil lamps, which was later used for kerosene
lamps. Gas for artificial illumination was introduced and widely used
by the middle of the 19th century. Davy, in 1821, worked out the
theory of the electric arc. Edison, in 1879 invented the electric bulb.
Iron and Steel
The coal and iron industries replaced old technologies of wood,
ed
water and wind. In 1709 Darby introduced coal for charcoal in blast
furnace. John Smeaton invented the blast furnace
with a rotary fan. For the new machinery, a better
grade than ordinary cast iron was needed. Henry
Cord and Peter Onions introduced puddling and
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rolling Process in 1784. In 1740 steel was produced
at Sheffield by Huntsman. Later, Henry Bessemer
invented a faster and cheaper method of producing
steel. The first iron bridge was constructed in 1777. EDISON
The first iron ship was made in 1790.
Merits of Industrial Revolution e children were employed for cheap labour. They worked for 12 to 14
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Urbanisation
The factory system introduced by the Industrial Revolution
created cities and urban centres. In England, cities like Manchester,
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Birmingham, Leeds, and Sheffield arose. People left their rural homes
and gathered around these cities by the hundreds and thousands in
quest of work and wages. The population of Manchester increased
six fold within a half century.
278
Machinery
The introduction of power machinery rapidly increased
production of goods.
Intellectual Movement
The intellectual encouragement had also been great. Schools,
colleges, newspapers, libraries, and the radio had been dependent on
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the capitalistic system for their rapid development. Many intellectual
like Marx, St. Simon emerged as a result of the Industrial Revolution.
Large Employment
The starting of new industries provided employment to many
men and women.
Demerits of Industrial Revolution
New Social Problems
The rapid growth of industrial cities created problems that were
difficult to solve. Accommodation, sanitation, and health were not
provided adequately. Sickness and crime prevailed. Women and
hours per day.
Capitalism
The establishment of the factory system increased the amount
of money in circulation. However, money concentrated in the hands
of a few people.
Class Division
The Industrial Revolution divided society into two distinct
groups: the rich middle class (bourgeoisie), composed of
manufacturers, merchants, mine owners, bankers, and professional
men, on the one hand, and the wage-earning class (proletariat),
composed of mill workers and factory workers, on the other. This
279
gap between employer and employee gave rise to many economic Learning Outcome
and social problems.
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
Growth of Colonialism and Imperialism
1. The meaning and the process of Agricultural Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution had strengthened colonialism because
2. The causes for the Industrial Revolution.
the colonies were useful to obtain raw materials and sell the finished
products. So, larger territories were captured thus paving way for 3. Scientific Inventions that contributed to the growth of

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imperialism. Industrial Revolution.

4. Growth of different industrial sectors such as textiles and

Industry Name Invention Year
transportation.

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John Kay Flying Shuttle 1763 5. The merits and demerits of industrial revolution.
Textile Hardgreaves Spinning jenny 1764
Machinery Richard Arkwright Water Frame 1769
Samuel Crompton
Spinning Mule 1779
Edmund Cartwright
Power Loom 1785

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Ely Whitney
Elias Howe Cotton Gin 1792
Sewing Machine 1846

Coal and John Smeaton Blastfurnance 1760

Iron Henry Bessemen Steel 1850
Industries
Field of
Sir Humphrey Davy Safety Lamp
James Watt Steam Engine
e
1736-1819
1816
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Power George Stephenson Locomotive 1781-1848
Field of John Mc Adam He used a mud
Transport birder to build a 1756-1836
type of hard
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surface road

Comm- Alexander Graham Telephone 1876

unication Bell

280 281
 MODEL QUESTIONS V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

I. Choose the correct answer. 1. Industrialization depends largely on the bringing of raw materials
to factories and on the disposing of manufactured goods in a
1. Rotation of crops was introduced by wide market.
(a) Harvey (b) Townshend 2. John Smeaton constructed the first practical locomotive in 1814.
(c) Mac Adam (d) Hargreaves 3. The Universal Postal Union was adopted in 1875 to aid

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II. Fill in the blanks. international mail service.
1. Alexander Graham Bell invented ……. VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1. John McAdam

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2. The electric bulb was invented by ……
III. Match the following. VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Flying Shuttle a. Hargreaves 1. Examine the causes for the Industrial Revolution.
2. Spinning Jenny b. Elias Howe 2. Discuss the process of Industrial Revolution in England.

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3. Power Loom c. Kay VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
4. Sewing Machine d. James Watt 1. Give an account of the scientific inventions that contributed to
the growth of Industrial Revolution.
5. Steam engine e. Cartwright
IV.
e
Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
correct.
2. Analyse the merits and demerits of the Industrial Revolution.
re
a. Bakewell introduced scientific breeding of farm animals
b. The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was used Georges Michelet
in Germany.
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c. John McAdam introduced railways in England.

d. Edison invented the steam engine in 1879.

282 283
 LESSON 27
FIRST WORLD WAR
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The concepts of colonialism, imperialism and their impact.
2. The causes for the First World War.
3. The course of the First World War.
ed
4. The end and results of the First World War.
COLONIALISM
Colonialism is the extension of a nation’s sovereignty over
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another territory beyond its borders. Colonizers generally dominate
the resources, labor, and markets of the colonial territory. They also
impose socio-cultural, religious and linguistic aspects on the conquered
population.
e
European colonialism began in the 15th century with the “Age
of Discovery”. This was led by Portuguese and Spanish explorations
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of the Americas, and the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India,
and East Asia. By 17 th century, England, France and Holland
successfully established their own overseas empires, in direct
competition with each other and those of Spain and Portugal. Spain
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and Portugal were weakened after the loss of their New World
colonies. But Britain, France and Holland turned their attention to
the Old World, particularly South Africa, India and South East Asia,
where colonies were established. The industrialization of the 19th
century led to what has been termed the era of New Imperialism.
The fight among the European countries to control and establish new
colonies led to the First World War.
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There are different types of colonies. Settler colonies, such
as the original thirteen states of the United States of America, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand and Argentina arose from the emigration of
peoples from a mother country. This led to the displacement of the
indigenous peoples.
Colonies of dependencies came into existence due to the
conquest by foreign countries. Examples in this category include the
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British India, Dutch Indonesia, French Indo-China , and the Japanese
colonial empire.
Plantation colonies such as Barbados, Saint-Dominguez and
Jamaica, where the white colonizers imported black slaves - who
rapidly began to outnumber their owners- led to minority rule, similar
to a dependency.
Imperialism
Imperialism is a policy of extending control or authority over
colonized countries. The term is used to describe the policy of a
nation’s dominance over distant lands. The “Age of Imperialism”
usually refers to the Old Imperialism period starting from 1860, when
major European states started colonizing the other continents. The
term ‘Imperialism’ was initially coined in the mid 1500s to reflect the
policies of countries such as Britain and France who expanded into
Africa, and the Americas. Imperialism refers to the highest stage of
capitalism which made it necessary to find new markets and
resources. This theory of necessary expansion of capitalism outside
the boundaries of nation-states was shared by Lenin and Rosa
Luxemburg.
Economic Market
Industrial Revolution created the need among the European
countries to find new markets for their industrial goods. Similarly,
they had to find raw materials for their industries. This dual need
285
pushed the European countries to compete with each other to establish
their political control over Asia, Africa and Latin America.
Improvement in Communications
Advancement in science and technology led to improvement in
transport and communication. Steamships, Railroads, roadways were
improved. This helped imperialism to have a firm hold over the
conquered territories.
Rise of Extreme Nationalism
The late 19th century was a period of intense nationalism. Many
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nations developed myths of superiority over other peoples. Each
country wanted to have colonies to add to its prestige and power.
Writers and speakers in England, France and Germany opened
institutions to promote the idea of imperialism. European countries
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took great pride in calling their territories as empires.
The ‘Civilizing Mission’
In the minds of many Europeans, imperialist expansion was
very noble. They considered it a way of bringing civilization to the
as missionaries helped in spreading imperialism. e
‘backward peoples of the world. Explorers and adventurers, as well
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US Imperialism
The United States has enjoyed its status as a sole superpower.
Beginning at the end of World War II, the U.S. largely took over
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from the United Kingdom certain roles of influence in the Middle
East. Several Middle Eastern nations such as Egypt, Iran, Iraq,
Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel have all been
directly or otherwise substantially influenced by U.S. policy.
286
First World War (1914 -1919)
CAUSES
System of Alliances
There were many causes for the World War I. The most
important cause was the system of secret alliances. Before 1914
Europe was divided into two camps. It was Germany which created
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the division in European politics before World War I. In order to
isolate France, Germany entered in to an alliance with Austria.
Bismarck formed the three Emperors League by making alliance
with Russia. Later Germany did not care for Russia. Hence Russia
left. But Germany continued its alliance with Austria alone. This
was known as Dual alliance. After Italy joined in this alliance, it
became a Triple alliance.
In the meantime Russia began to lean towards France. In
1894 there came Franco-Russian alliance against Austro-German
alliance. It was at this time England followed a policy of splendid
isolation. She also felt that she was all alone. First she wanted to
join with Germany. When this became a failure, she entered into an
alliance with Japan in 1902. In 1904 she made alliance with France.
In 1907 Russia joined this alliance. This had resulted in Triple
Entente. Thus Europe was divided into two camps. The secret
nature of these alliances brought about the war of 1914.
Militarism
The countries in Europe had been increasing their armies and
navies. This was the main reason for universal fear, hatred and
suspicions among the countries of Europe. In Europe, England and
Germany were superior in Navy. There were competitions between
these two countries in naval armaments. For every ship built by
Germany, two ships were built by England.
287
 Narrow Nationalism was also a cause for the war. The love
of the country demanded the hatred of another. For instance, love of
Germany demanded the hatred of France. Likewise the French
people hated the German people. In Eastern Europe narrow
nationalism played a greater role. The Serbians hated Austria-
Hungary.
The desire for the people of France to get back Alsace-Lorraine
was also a cause for the outbreak of First World War. It was Bismarck
who had taken away Alsace-Lorraine from France and annexed them
with Germany in 1871. The result was that there grew animosities
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between these two countries. It was this reason that forced Germany
to take steps to isolate France by making alliances with other
countries.
William II, the Emperor of Germany himself was a cause for
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the First World War. He wanted to make Germany a stronger power.
He was not prepared to make any compromise in international affairs.
He was mistaken in assessing Great Britain’s strength. It was a
misunderstanding of the British character by William II that was
responsible for the war.
e
Prussian spirit by Germany was also a cause for war. The
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Prussians were taught that war was a legal in the world. War was
the national industry of Prussia. The younger generation of Germany
was indoctrinated with such a philosophy of war.
Public Opinion
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The position of public opinion by the newspapers was also a
cause. Often, the newspapers tried to inflame nationalist feeling by
misrepresenting the situations in other countries. Ambassadors and
cabinet ministers admitted the senseless attitude of the leading news
papers in their own countries.
288
The desire of Italy to recover the Trentino and the area
around the port of Trieste was also a cause for war. The Italians
considered that these areas were inhabited by Italians. But they
were still part and parcel of Austria-Hungary. They cried for the
redemption of these territories. Italy also entered into a competition
with Austria to control the Adriatic Sea. As Austria was not prepared
to put up with the competition, there arose bitterness in the relations
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of these two countries.
The Eastern Question was also a factor for the war. This
complicated the situation in the Balkans. The misrule of Turkey
resulted in discontentment. There was a rivalry between Greece,
Serbia and Bulgaria for the control of Macedonia which had a mixed
population. On the occasion of Bosnian crises Russia supported
Serbia. Pan Slavism also created complications.
The questions Bosnia - Herzegovina in the Balkans was also
similar to the problem of Alsace-Lorraine. Bosnia and Herzegovina
were given to Austria-Hungary by the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
This was strongly opposed by Serbia. A strong agitation was started
in Serbia to separate these provinces from Austria-Hungary and unite
them with Serbia. This created rivalry between Serbia and Austria-
Hungary. This became very keen after 1909. Serbia also received
moral support from her big brother Russia (The Serbs and Russians
belong to Slav Race).
Immediate Cause
The immediate cause was the assassination
of Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand who was heir to
the Austrian throne. Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand
and his wife were assassinated by Serbians in the
Bosnian capital Sarajevo when they paid a visit to
this city on 28th June 1914. The news of this murder
shocked many countries. Austria-Hungary was ARCH DUKE FERDINAND
289
already sick of Serbia and she decided to take advantage of the new
situation to crush her. The murder of their crown prince and his wife
resulted in an ultimatum being sent to Serbia for immediate compliance
of certain terms. Serbia’s reply did not pacify Austria-Hungary.
Hence, Austria-Hungary backed by Germany declared war on Serbia.
Russia mobilised her forces in favour of Serbia.
Course of the War
army signed the armistice agreement on November 11, 1918 to mark
their surrender to the Allies. The allies of Germany had earlier
suffered defeat at the hands of the Allied powers.
Results of the War
The Great War took a heavy toll of lives. It is estimated that
about ten million lives were lost and twenty million people have been

During the war Germany and her allies were called Central
Powers. England and her allies were called Allied Powers. Germany
entered the war to defend Austria. Shortly all the powers in the
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wounded. People all over the world suffered untold miseries. There
was a large scale damage to civil property.
It is estimated that the direct cost of the war reached just over

ed
two hundred billion dollars and the indirect cost more than a hundred
hostile camps were automatically drawn into the war. Turkey and
and fifty billion dollars.
Bulgaria joined the war on the side of Germany. Italy left the Triple
Alliance and joined the opposite camp with the idea of recovering A large variety of deadly weapons such as incendiary bombs,
Italian territories under Austrian control. grenades and poison gases were used. Tanks, submarines and

M
aircrafts were also used.
England joined the war against Germany. There was bitter
fighting on the French soil. The Battle of Verdun decided the The war wrought its havoc on the economics of the participating
fortunes of the war in favour of the Allies. Germany started countries. It may be remembered that about 25 nations had joined
submarine warfare in a large scale. All the laws relating to naval the allies at the time of the outbreak of war. The victors felt the
warfare were thrown out.
e
Russia fought on the side of Allies up to 1917. The Bolshevik
devastating effects of the war even before the cessation. All these
nations were burdened with the national debts. The world economy
was in shambles.
re
regime wanted peace with Germany. Thus the Brest-Litovsk Treaty
was signed between Russia and Germany. Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles on 28th
June 1919. It was a dictated peace and Germany had by then become
The Lusitania ship was drowned by a German
even too weak to protest. She lost everything. Germany and her
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submarine and consequently many Americans lost

their lives. This resulted in the declaration of war
against Germany by the U.S.A. In spite of best
efforts, Germany could not stand and ultimately she
surrendered in November 1919. KAISER WILLIAM
The German Emperor Kaiser William lost all hopes of winning
the war. He abdicated his throne and fled to Holland. The German
allies suffered most since they had to pay heavy sums to the victorious
allies as reparation debts.
Austria Hungary signed the Treaty of St. Germaine. Hungary
signed the Treaty of Trianon with the allies in 1920. Bulgaria had
accepted the Treaty of Neuliy in 1919. Turkey, which sided with
Germany during the war, signed the Treaty of Sevres in 1920.

290 291
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After learning this lesson the students will be to explain I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The rise of colonialism and its impact. 1. Which one of the following was grouped under the settler
2. Imperialism and its impact on the world politics. colonies?

3. The system of alliances and other causes for the First World (a) British India (b) Indo-China

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War. (c) 13 American colonies (d) Indonesia
4. The role of USA in the First World War and the victory of the II. Fill in the blanks.
Allied powers in the war.
1. The Three Emperors League was formed by …..

ed
5. The Treaties concluded at the end of the First World War
2. The Congress of Berlin was convened in the year …..
and the results of the war.
III. Match the following.
1. Treaty of Versailles a. Austria-Hungary

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2. Treaty of Saint Germaine b. Turkey
3. Treaty of Sevres c. Germany
4. Treaty of Nueliy d. Bulgaria

e IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is

right.
re
a. When Italy joined Dual Alliance it became Triple Alliance.
b. Austrian Prince Francis Ferdinand was assassinated in Austrian
Capital.
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c. During the First World War the world was divided in to Allied
Powers and Axis Powers.
d. After the War Bulgaria joined the Treaty of Trianan.

292 293
V. State whether the following statements are True or False. LESSON 28
1. The Triple Alliance was concluded between Germany, Italy RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1917
and Austria-Hungary.
2. William II was the emperor of Germany during the First World Learning Objectives
War. Students will acquire knowledge about

3. The immediate cause of the First World War was the 1. Causes of the Russian Revolution.

ia
assassination of Arch Duke Francis Ferdinand.
2. The rise of Socialists in Russia.
4. The Brest-Litovsk was signed between Russia and Italy.
3. The Course of the Russian Revolution.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

ed
4. The end of the revolution and its results.
1. Colonialism
2. Imperialism The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a very important political
event of the 20 th Century. For the first time, Karl Marx’s idea of
3. Triple Entente

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socialism and Proletariat revolution became a reality. Russia was a
4. Treaty of Versailles big and powerful country. Even Napoleon Bonaparte could not
VII. Answer briefly (100 words). conquer Russia in 1812. However, during the beginning of the 20th
Century Russia was no longer a powerful country. During this time
1. Discuss the impact of colonialism.
Russia was ruled by the Romanov dynasty. Tsar Nicholas II ruled
2. Trace the course of the First World War.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
e Russia at the time of the Revolution. During his rule Russia faced
serious domestic and international problems. Eventually, a series of
re
political events led to the overthrow of the Tsarist rule by October
1. Enumerate the various causes of the First World War. Revolution of 1917. Bolshevik Party headed by Lenin led the
2. Examine the results of the First World War. revolution. Thus, Russia became USSR [Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics], which lasted until its disintegration in 1991.
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Causes of the Russian Revolution

Political
Politically the Tsar’s rule was very weak. Russia fought a war
with Japan in 1904-05. Small Asian Country Japan defeated the mighty
European country Russia in the Russo-Japanese war. This lowered
the international and domestic prestige of Russia.
294 295
 The Tsars believed in the divine right theory
of kingship. Tsar Nicholas II was autocratic in
his administration. The people had many
grievances. The members of zemstoves and
Dumas wanted liberal reforms from the Tsar. But
Tsar was not prepared to sanction any reforms.
Meantime, the working class of St. Petersburg
went on strike. The striking workers went on a TSAR NICHOLAS II
procession to Tsar’s place to present a petition to
redress their grievances. They were led by father
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Gapon. When the workers reached Tsar’s palace
the guards fired on the unarmed crowed. This event
is known as “Bloody Sunday” as it took place on
a Sunday, 22nd January 1905. This is also known
as 1905 Revolution. This event was indeed a
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RUSPUTIN prelude to the October Revolution of 1917.
The Tsarist court was under the evil influence of Rusputin.
The Tsarina was strongly under his influence and at times the
administration was affected by his influence. Hence, the nobles
poisoned Rusputin to death.
Economic e On the first of May 1890, millions of workers all over Europe
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The economic causes of the Russian Revolution largely
originated in Russia’s slightly outdated economy. Russia’s agriculture
was largely based on independent peasants. They did not own modern
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machinery. Russian agriculture suffered from cold climate. Russia’s
agriculture season was only 4-6 months. The famine of 1891 had left
many peasants in poverty. The rapid industrialization of Russia also
resulted in urban overcrowding and poor conditions for urban industrial
workers. Between 1890 and 1910, the population of the capital of St
Petersburg increased from 1,033,600 to 1,905,600, with Moscow
experiencing similar growth. In one 1904 survey, it was found that an
296
average of sixteen people shared each apartment in St Petersburg,
with six people per room. There was also no running water, and piles
of human waste were a threat to the health of the workers. Hence,
the workers in general were in a discontented situation.
Rise of Socialist Party
One of the most important events in the history of socialist
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movement was the formation in 1864 of the International Working
Men’s Association or the First International.
During the short period of its existence, the
International exercised a tremendous influence on
workers’ movements in Europe.
To unite the socialist parties in various
countries into an international organisation, a
Congress was held in Paris on 14 th July 1889, the
centenary of the French Revolution of 1789. The
KARL MARX
result of this Congress was what has come to be
known as the Second International. The formation of the Second
International marked a new stage in the history of socialism.
and America struck work and held massive demonstrations. Since
then the first of May is observed as the international working
class day all over the world.
In Russia when the workers’
organizations were set up they were dominated
by Marx’s ideas on socialism. In 1883, the
Russian Social Democratic Party was formed
by George Plekhanov, a follower of Marx. This
party along with many other socialist groups
was united into the Russian Social Democratic
Labour Party in 1898. However, the party was GEORGE PLEKHANOV
297
soon split over questions of organization and policies. One group which
was in a minority called the Mensheviks [Russian it means minority].
The majority party was called as the Bolsheviks.
The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir
Ilyich Ulyanov, popularly known as Lenin. He is
regarded as one of the greatest leaders of the
socialist movement after Marx and Engels. He
devoted himself to the task of organizing the
Bolshevik Party as an instrument for bringing about
revolution. His name has become inseparable from
ed
the revolution of 1917. The Russian socialists,
LENIN including Plekhanov and Lenin, had played an
important part in the Second International.
Besides the Menshevik and the Bolshevik parties, which were
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the political parties of industrial workers, there was the Socialist
Revolutionary Party which voiced the demands of the peasantry.
World War I
Russia had a very adverse history of military failures. Even
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before the outbreak of the First World War, Russia had lost a war
with Japan in 1904–05. Most of Russia’s fleet was sunk by the
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Japanese in that war. While the Russian army enjoyed some initial
successes against Austria-Hungary in 1914, Russia’s deficiencies
— particularly regarding the equipment of its soldiers and the lack of
advanced technology (aeroplanes, telephones) proved the causes for
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Russia’s failures.
Russia’s first major battle was a disaster. In the 1914 Battle
of Tannenberg, over 120,000 Russian troops were killed, wounded,
or captured, while Germany suffered only 20,000 casualties.
Whatever nationalistic or patriotic support the Russian government
had gained in the early stages of the war had been lost.
298
In 1915, Nicholas had taken direct command of the army. The
superior German army - better led, better trained, better supplied -
was effective against the ill-equipped Russian forces. By the end of
October 1916, Russia had lost between 1.6 and 1.8 million soldiers,
with an additional two million prisoners of war and one million missing.
Thus, a total of nearly five million men lost. These were heavy losses.
Mutinies began to occur in the Russian army. Soldiers went hungry
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and lacked shoes, munitions, and even weapons.
Nicholas was blamed for all these crises. As this discontent
grew, the State Duma issued a warning to Nicholas to grant
constitutional form of government. Nicholas ignored them. As a result,
Russia’s Tsarist regime collapsed a few months later during the
February Revolution of 1917.
February Revolution
The February Revolution was the result of the political,
economic and social causes mentioned above. On the eve of the
February Revolution there was food shortage in the city. People
protested against war.
As the protests grew, various political reformists (both liberal
and radical left) joined together against the Tsar regime. In February
the protests in Petrograd turned violent as large numbers of city
residents rioted and clashed with police and soldiers. There was also
total strike. Eventually the bulk of the soldiers garrisoned in Petrograd
joined the protesters.
On 12th March, 1917 the capital city of Petersburg (renamed
Petrograd and now Leningrad) fell into the hands of the revolutionaries.
Soon the revolutionaries took Moscow, the Tsar Nicholas II gave up
his throne and the first provisional Government was formed on 15
March.
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 The fall of the Tszar is known as the February Revolution
because, according to the old Russian calendar, it occurred on 27
February 1917.
Kerensky’s Provisional Government
The most important demands of the people were fourfold: peace,
land to the tiller, control of industry by workers,
and equal status for the non-Russian nationalities.
The Provisional Government under the leadership
of Kerensky did not implement any of these
demands and lost the support of the people. Lenin,
ed
who was in exile in Switzerland at the time of the
February Revolution, returned to Russia in April.
Lenin gave his “April Theses”. This promised KERENSKY
people what they wanted.
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Under his leadership the Bolshevik Party put forward clear
policies to end the war, transfer land to the peasants and advance
the slogan “All power to the Soviets”. Lenin and his trusted associate
Leon Trotsky led the October Revolution.
October Revolution of 1917
e
The unpopularity of the Kerensky’s government led to its
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collapse on 7th November 1917, when a group of soldiers occupied
the Winter Palace, the seat of the Kerensky Government. An All-
Russian Congress of Soviets met on the same day and assumed full
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political power. This event which took place on 7 November is known
as the October Revolution because of the corresponding date of the
old Russian calendar, 25 October.
Results of the Revolution
Russia withdrew from the First World War. Later, formal peace
was signed with Germany later. The estates of the landlords, the
300
Church and the Tsar were confiscated and transferred to peasants’
societies to be allotted to peasant families to be cultivated without
hired labour. The control of industries was transferred to committees
of workers. By the middle of 1918, banks and insurance companies,
large industries, mines, water transport and railways were nationalised.
Foreign debts were refused and foreign investments were confiscated.
A Declaration of the Rights of Peoples was issued conferring the
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right of self-determination upon all nationalities. A new government,
called the Council of People’s Commissars, headed by Lenin was
founded. These first acts of the new government began the era of
socialism.
The first Soviet constitution was adoped on July 10, 1918.
It created the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Later,
on December 30, 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
came into being. However, soon the new Soviet state was involved
in a civil war. The officers of the army of the fallen Tsar organised
an armed rebellion against the Soviet state. Troops of foreign
powers—England, France, Japan, the United States and others—
joined them. War was fought till 1920. By this time the ‘Red Army’
of the new state was in control of almost all the lands of the old
Czarist empire. Indeed, a revolutionary wave lasted until 1923.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be to explain
1. The political, social and economic causes of the Russian
Revolution.
2. The role of the Socialist led by Lenin in the Russian
Revolution.
3. Course of the revolution and the end of Tsarist regime in
Russia.
4. The formation of USSR and the results of the Russian
Revolution.
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 MODEL QUESTIONS VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

I. Choose the correct answer. 1. Bloody Sunday

1. The Bolshevik Party in Russia was headed by 2. The Bolsheviks

(a) Karl Marx (b) Tsar Nicholas II 3. October Revolution

(c) Lenin (d) Engles VII. Answer briefly (100 words).

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II. Fill in the blanks. 1. Discuss the role of Lenin in the Russian Revolution.

1. The Russian Socialist Democratic Party was formed by …… 2. Write a note on the February Revolution.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

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2. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republic came into existence in
the year ….. 1. Examine the causes for the Russian Revolution of 1917.
III. Match the following 2. Discuss the course of the Russian Revolution of 1917.
1. Tsar Nicholas a. Provincial Government

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2. Bloody Sunday b. Lenin
3. ‘April Thesis’ c. 1905
4. Krenskey d. Romanov Dynasty
IV.
e
Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
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a) The February revolution in Russia was led by Lenin.
b) The Menshevik government was led by Kerensky.
c) The Bolshevik party was a moderate political force.
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d) Tsar Nicholas II supported the Mensheviks.

V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. Russian withdrew from the First World War in the middle.
2. The trusted associate of Lenin was Leon Trotsky.

302 303
 LESSON 29
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The establishment of the League of Nations.
2. The organs of the League of Nations.
3. The achievements of the League of Nations.
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4. Causes for the failure of the League of Nations.
Establishment of League of Nations
The out break of the First World War made the leaders of the
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world to establish an international organisation for preventing future
wars. The Treaty of Versailles also provided a
Covenant for the establishment of an
international organisation to maintain peace and
security in the world. The founder of this
organization was President Woodrow Wilson of e It originally consisted of four permanent members and four
re
USA. It was his idea to create a world
organization to maintain peace and prevent
future wars. President Woodrow Wilson’s
Fourteen Points underline the creation of a
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WOODROW WILSON
general association of nations. It was Woodrow
Wilson who worked hard during Paris negotiations to bring about the
birth of the League of Nations. The League was actually established
in 1920 and its head quarters was shifted from Paris to Geneva in
Switzerland. Thus, the League of Nations came into being. However,
League failed to prevent the Second World War.
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Aims of the League
The League aimed at preventing wars through peaceful
settlement of disputes among member nations. Secondly it desired to
preserve and protect the independence of member-nations by
promoting international understanding and co-operation.
Organs of the League
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The League set upon itself the task of achieving the above
aims through its organs-mainly the Assembly and the Council. To
begin with, all those powers who worked for the defeat of Germany
and her allies became the members of the League.
The Assembly
This supreme body consisted of the representatives of the
various states which were the members of the League. Every
member state was given the right of one vote in the Assembly. All
decisions of the Assembly were required to be unanimous. It acted
as International Legislature.
The Council
other members elected by the Assembly. In 1926, Germany was
also given a permanent seat in the council. The number of non-
permanent members continued to increase and ultimately it reached
the figures of eleven. Of the two, the assembly was certainly stronger.
The Secretariat
It was located at Geneva. The
Secretary General was the prominent figure.
He was appointed by the Council but the
approval of Assembly was essential. The staff
of the Secretariat was appointed by the
SYMBOL OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS Secretary General in consultation with the
305
Council. The member states had to pay towards the expenses of the Mandate system
Secretariat..
It was set up by the League. The territories captured from the
Central Powers and Turkey were not restored to them. The
ORGANISATION OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS administration of those countries was given to various powers under
the supervision of the League of Nations.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The Assembly

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The Secretariat
Aaland Islands
These islands lie between Sweden and Finland. Both Finland
and Aaland once belonged to Sweden. On the ownership of Aaland

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The League of Islands, there came a dispute between Sweden and Finland in 1920.
Nations A special Commission of the League investigated the case and settled
The League the dispute in favour of Finland.
Permanent Court of
Council
International Justice Mosul Boundary Dispute

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This was a question related to the frontier dispute between
The International Turkey and the Great Britain’s mandated territory of Iraq. Both the
Labour Organisation
parties claimed Mosul Villayet which was rich in oil. Both failed to
come to an agreement on this boundary line. Ultimately the League

The Permanent Court of International Justice e Council gave its final judgment on the subject. . In June 1926, a
treaty was made between Turkey and Great Britain by which a small
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It consisted of 15 judges with its head quarters at The Hague. part of the Villayet was given to Turkey. The revised boundary was
It gave judgments on questions involving the interpretation of recognised as definite. Some royalty from Mosul oil fields were
international law, treaties and other mutual obligations. The judges given to Turkey.
of the court were elected for nine years. Eupen and Malmady
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The International Labour Organisation
It was also attached to the League of Nations with its
headquarters at Geneva. Its object was to improve the labour
conditions in various parts of the world. Its governing body consisted
of the representatives of the government, employers and workers.
In 1920 and 1921 Germany protested to the League of Nations
against the decision of giving Euphen and Malmady to Belgium.
The League Council discussed the matter in September 1920 and
wrote to the government that its decision regarding the transfer of
Euphen and Malmedy to Belgium was final.

306 307
Curfu Incident improve national health. It organised technical conferences. The
League did commentate Common Wealth work in the field of control
In August 1923, an Italian general and two officers were
of traffic in dangerous drugs, peasant reforms, suppression of trade
murdered on Greek soil. The Italians demanded apologies and
in obscene literature .
reparations too for the crime. Greece refused to accept the demands
of Italy. Hence Italy occupied the island of Curfu. In this dispute Causes for the Failure of League of Nations
Britain and France mediated and brought about a compromise
The League failed in its main object of maintaining peace in
between Italy and Greece.

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the world. In spite of its efforts for two decades, the whole world
Dispute between Greece and Bulgaria was involved in war again in 1939. There are many causes for its
failure.
There was a border dispute between Greece and Bulgaria. In

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1925 a Greek army commander was murdered. The Greek army The major powers like USA and USSR were not members of
marched in to Bulgaria. The League Council requested Britain and the League of Nations. This was a serious defect.
France to investigate this affair. The Greek forces were withdrawn
It was unfortunate that the Covenant of the League of Nations
and Greece was asked to pay compensation to Bulgaria for violation
was made a part and parcel of the peace settlement. It would have
of her territory on a scale to be fixed by a League Commission.

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Dispute between Great Britain and France
In 1921, there was dispute between France and Great Britain
over the nationality question in Tunis and Morocco. The matter went
been better if it had been kept separate. There were many states
which considered the Treaty of Versailles as a treaty of revenge and
were not prepared to ratify the same. By not ratifying the treaty,
they were refused to be members the League. The absence of great
powers [USA and USSR] in the international organisation weakened

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to the Court of International Justice. However the dispute was
decided by mutual negotiations between the foreign ministers of the
two countries.
the League. Japan, Germany and Italy had left the League.
There was also a feeling among the nations that the League of
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Nations was fully dominated by the victorious countries of World
Non-political Work
War I especially of France and England. The result was that the
The League did also a lot of non-political work. A slavery other states began to doubt about the working of the League of
convention met at Geneva in 1925. In 1932 it was decided to set up
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Nations.
a permanent Slavery Commission. The Financial Commission
The countries like Germany were humiliated by the victorious
was responsible for the issue and supervision of various League Loans
countries. Germany was compelled to pay war reparations when it
for Austria, Hungary, Greece etc. The league also set up in 1923 the
was suffering from economic difficulties. Hence there were no
Health Organisation with a Health Committee and a secretariat.
chances of peace.
It did good in fighting diseases such as Malaria, Smallpox, Rabies,
Cancer, Tuberculosis and heart diseases etc. It helped nations to After World War I, in Europe there came situations for the rise
of dictatorships in Italy, Japan and Germany. Japan in the Far East
308 309
conquered Manchuria. The League was not also in a position to Learning Outcome
condemn the action of Japan. Japan was also prepared to give up the
After learning this lesson the students will be to explain
membership of the League.
1. The formation of the League of Nations.
Likewise in Italy there was Fascist Dictatorship. This had
preached the people of Italy narrow nationalism. Italy captured 2. The role of Woodrow Wilson in its formation.
Abyssinia. When the League questioned the conquest of Italy on 3. The achievements of the League of Nations in establishing
Abyssinia, it left the League.

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world peace.
Germany too was not prepared to accept the commitments 4. Causes for the failure of the League of Nations.
under the Treaty of Versailles. In Germany too there was Nazi
dictatorship. Hitler preached pseudo patriotism. He also spoke about

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the superiority of German race over other races. He wanted to expand
Germany’s sway over Austria and Poland. He made conquests over
these countries. Defying the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles
he increased the armaments. When this was questioned in the

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League, Germany left the League.
Small nations lost their faith on the working of the League.
They felt that the League of Nations had no power to control the
aggressive activities of the big powers.

e
France’s insistence of forcing Germany to pay the war
reparation at the time of its economic crisis had disastrous effects on
re
the politics of the country. This contributed to the downfall of the
Weimar Republic. This led to the rise of Hitler in Germany and the
latter was responsible for the failure of the League.
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The birth of the League of Nations on the ruins of the First

World War was welcomed. However, the member states of the
League did not cooperate. As a result the League failed in its mission.
Thus, the Second World War broke out. Finally, UNO was established
on the disintegration of the League.

310 311
 MODEL QUESTIONS VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

I. Choose the correct answer. 1. International Labour Organization

1. Name the person responsible for the founding of the League 2. Mandate System
of Nations 3. Curfu Incident
(a) George Washington (b) Harry Truman VII. Answer briefly (100 words).

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(c) F.D. Roosevelt (d) Woodrow Wilson 1. Give an account of the formation of the League of Nations.
II. Fill in the blanks. 2. Describe the important organs of the League of Nations.
1. The League of Nations was established in the year ….. VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

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III. Match the following. 1. Examine the achievements of the League of Nations.
1. Headquarters of the League of Nations a. The Hague 2. Analyse the causes for the failure of the League of Nations.
2. Court of International Justice b. Curfu Incident

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3. Italy c. Turkey and Iraq
4. Mosul Boundary d. Geneva
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is

a)
right.
The U.S.A did not join the League of Nations.e
re
b) The League of Nations succeeded in preventing the world war.
c) The League of Nations successfully prevented Japanese attack
on Manchuria.
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d) Hitler and Mussolini did not respect the decisions of the League
of Nations.
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
1. The mandate system was set up by the League of Nations.
2. The League of Nations was replaced by the United Nations
Organization.

312 313
 LESSON 30
RISE OF FASCISM AND NAZISM
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The rise of Fascism in Italy and its causes.
2. Mussolini’s foreign policy.
3. The rise of Nazism in Germany and the factors contributed
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to it.
4. Hitler’s foreign policy and its effects.
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Mussolini and the Fascist Italy
Causes for the Growth of Fascism in Italy
Italy attended the Paris Peace Conference with great
e
expectations. The secret Treaty of London which was signed in
1915 with the Allies gave Italy great hope. At Paris, Orlando
re
presented the demands of Italy. But the US President Woodrow
Wilson rejected the Treaty of London. Italian claims over territories
on the Adriatic Sea, some Turkish provinces and Albania in the Balkan
were all turned down. Thus Italy gained nothing in the Paris Peace
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Conference. “Italy had won the war but had lost peace”.
Italy was disappointed. The representatives of Italy were forced
to boycott the conference. They felt that the Allies had purposely
deceived Italy. This discontentment created a feeling of revolt among
the middle class youth. They decided to form an organization and
unite in order to avenge their national humiliation and treachery.
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Economic Condition
During the war, Italy was forced to spend huge amount more
than her national income. Unemployment prevailed. People believed
that government was responsible for such a situation. They wanted
n alternative government. The rise of the Fascist Party was also a
result of above dissatisfaction.
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Spread of Socialism
The unemployment problem, poverty and inflation helped the
spread of Socialism. The believers in Marxism had a political party
called Social Democrats of Italy. In the 1919 election they gained
156 seats out of 574. This party helped a lot for the rise and
development of Fascism in Italy.
Rise of Mussolini
Benito Mussolini was the originator of the idea of Fascism.
He was born in 1883. Mussolini’s father an ironsmith, was a follower
of Socialism. Hence, Mussolini was influenced
by the socialistic ideology. He was a school
teacher a trade unionist and a journalist. He was
imprisoned in 1908 for revolutionary ideas. In
1912 he started the editing of Avanthi, a socialist
journal. He was a bitter opponent of the Church.
When the First World War broke out, the
MUSSOLINI
Italian Government decided not to take part in the
War. But Mussolini propagated that the Italian Government should
immediately join the war in favour of the Allies. For that Mussolini
was punished. But later Italy was forced to join the war on the side
of the Allies. As a result Mussolini became popular. He also
participated in the war as a soldier.
The Bolshevik Revolution took place in Russia in 1917. The
people of Italy also were influenced by the revolution. The
315
communists of Italy also were planning for a massive revolution. Mussolini as the Prime Minster of Italy
Mussolini, who was a staunch opponent of Bolshevism, decided to
Mussolini was an action oriented Prime Minister. He took the
start a new party to fight Communism. In march 1919 the Fascist
following steps for the reorganization of administration.
Party was established under his leadership. The members wore
black shirts and were equipped with arms. The party had its own § The dacoits living in the interiors of Naples and Sicily were
flag. The members were well disciplined and Mussolini was their crushed.
chief commander. § The economic and social conditions of the labourers were

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In the first party convention of Milan, Mussolini announced the improved.
programmes and Charter of demands of the party. They were: § Trade Unions were abolished.
· Nationalisation of factories § The entire powers of the Parliament were snatched.

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· Confiscation of surplus money from the capitalists § Members faithful to the leader alone were appointed as
· Universal Franchise ministers and officers.

· Forfeiture of the Church property Elections were conducted under the basis of the changed law.

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The Fascist Party got a complete majority in the National Parliament.
· Eight hours work in factories After elections, Mussolini adopted some measures to crush opponents.
· Framing of a new constitution. Ø All local bodies were suspended.
These demands of the Fascist Party soon achieved popularity
Ø Only Fascist lawyers were allowed to practice.

e
in Italy. The number of members increased very rapidly. In 1919
there were only seventeen thousand members in the party. The
number increased to 3 lakhs in 1922. The Fascists captured the offices
Ø
Ø
In 1926, all political parties were banned.
re
The cabinet system of government came to an end.
of the Socialist and the Communist parties by force.
Ø Freedom of the Press was curtailed.
In October 1922, the Fascist Party had its party convention at
Ø Unlimited powers were given to the police department.
Naples. A Charter of Demands was passed at the convention. They
S

include induction of Fascist members in the Cabinet, new election to Ø Members of the opposition parties were imprisoned.
the Legislatures and the adoption of a vigorous foreign policy. But Mussolini as the Dictator
the government refused to concede. The Fascists therefore marched
Rule of one leader and one party was the ideology of Fascism.
on to Rome, under the leadership of Mussolini. They captured all the
He had no faith in democracy and hated the majority. He believed in
government officers. The government asked the king Victor
the supremacy of the state. The individual had no right. The individual
Immanuel III to promulgate martial law. Mussolini was invited to
was merely a means to recognise the existence of the state.
form the ministry.

316 317
NAZISM IN GERMANY
After the First World War, harsh peace was imposed on
Germany and other defeated countries. This had created intense
nationalist upsurge in Germany. The economic breakdown and the
rise of socialist parties paved the way for the rise of Hitler and Nazism
in Germany. Similarly such situation arose in Italy and Japan. This
resulted in the Axis formation. The aggressive foreign policy of Hitler
led to the Second World War.
Germany at the End of World War I
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At the end of the World War I, the German King William was
forced to abdicate A republic was proclaimed in Germany. Friedrich
Ebert, the leader of the Social - Democratic Party formed a
temporary government. This was followed by an election to the
Constituent Assembly. The Social Democratic Party emerged as
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the largest party. The session of the Constituent Assembly was
held in the city of Weimar. A new constitution was drafted. This is
known as Weimar Constitution.
The Revolt of the Royalists
e
The Treaty of Versailles was very harsh and humiliating to Germany.
It suffered territorial loss. The policy of disarmament was imposed. The
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war reparation was enormous. Germany was held responsible for the
World War. This affected the sentiments of the Germans. A group of
people opposed the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.
S
In March 1920, the royalists under the leadership of Dr. Kapp
revolted. But he failed and surrendered before the republican
government. The second such revolt was led by Ludendorff. He
was assisted by Hitler. Ludendorff and Hitler were arrested and
imprisoned for 5 years. It was during this jail life, Hitler wrote the
famous book Mein Kampf which later became the Bible of the
Nazi party.
318
Economic Crisis
The post war Germany posed a disastrous financial crisis. For
the payment of reparation, the government was forced to take loans.
Factories were closed. Trade and commerce were deteriorating.
Heavy taxes were imposed. To meat the financial crisis the
government had no other option but to issue more and more paper
currencies. This resulted into inflation. Unemployment was rampant.
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Reparation
According to the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles,
Germany, which was held responsible for the First World War, had to
pay a heavy amount of compensation. The Reparation Commission
fixed the amount as 660 million pounds. There was opposition against
these provisions. Most of them argued that, since Germany was not
responsible for World War I, there was no need to pay the heavy
amount of war indemnity.
Dawes Plan
The financial crisis in Germany forced the Weimar Republic to
make an appeal to the allies for the reduction of the amount of
reparation. As a result a committee consisting of ten members was
formed under the chairmanship of Dawes, an eminent finance
specialist of U.S.A. The committee made some amendments to the
provision of the Treaty of Versailles. This known as Dawes Plan
The financial burden of Germany was reduced to certain level. When
the problem of reparation again appeared in 1929 the Young
Committee made a plan to solve it.
Hitler and the Nazi Germany
Adolph Hitler was born in April 1889 in a very humble family
in an Austrian village. On account of poverty he could not get proper
education. His father wanted to make his son a government
319
 employee. But Hitler was very fond of art from
his early days. So he went to Vienna at the
age of 18 to learn the art of painting and
architecture. While he was in Vienna, he
happened to witness the behavior of the Jews.
He felt that the Jews were the moral enemies
of individualism, nationalism and racialism.
Further he felt that the Jews were the
supporters of the Marxian ideology. Thus his
anti- Jews ideas developed at very early age.
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Hitler was opposed to democracy and believed
in the supremacy of the German race.
HITLER During the First World War Hitler joined
the army and participated in the war. In
recognition of his service and bravery shown during the war, he was
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honoured with the award of the ‘Iron Cross’. He believed that the
Jews and the communists were responsible for the defeat of Germany.
He therefore undertook a programme to avenge the defeat. He began
to work as a spy in Munich. He also started a new party with the
e
cooperation of his friends. National Socialist German Labour
Party was launched.
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Nazi Party
To carryout his programmes, Hitler started the National
Socialist Party or Nazi Party. ‘Swastika’ was made the symbol of
S
Nazi Party. By the year 1932, the membership of the Nazi Party
increased to 70 lakhs. To attract the young people to his party, Hitler
started ‘Hitler Young Society.’ Also he formed two military bodies.
The members were wearing brown shirts with a red armband carrying
a black Swastika. Another division was called as the ‘Black Shirts’.
They were the body guards of the Nazi party leaders.
320
In 1932, Hitler contested for the post of President. But he was
defeated with a few votes against Hindenburg. But in the general
election conducted in the same year, his party became the largest
party in the parliament. According to the provisions of the constitution
as a leader of the majority party in the Reichstag, Hitler was made
the Chancellor. Thus he formed the Nazi Government.
He established the dictatorship of the Nazi Party. Communist
ia
party was banned and its leaders were arrested. The civil rights of
the people were suspended. The Weimar Republic came to an end.
Hitler declared the establishment of the Third Reich. The flag of the
Nazi Party became the National flag. The Parliament was dissolved.
The powers of the parliament were transferred to Hitler.
Anti- Jew Policy
In Germany, the Jews enjoyed a privileged position due to their
wealth and education. He believed that they were anti- nationals.
Hitler now made several efforts to crush the Jews. Anti- Jew Laws
were passed. They were denied German citizenship. He adopted
very harsh and repressive measures for the economic and cultural
boycott of the Jews.
Military Reforms
Hitler reorganised his military on the basis of German
nationality. Germans alone were admitted into the military service.
He established a totalitarian type of government so that he could
follow an aggressive foreign policy.
Foreign Policy of Hitler
Hitler did not approve the Treaty of Versailles. It was a dictated
peace. Hence it was a humiliating one. The German people accepted
the policy of Hitler and accepted him as their leader. The important
aspects of his foreign policy are given below.
321
German came out of the League of Nations
Following the League of Nations Disarmament Conference on
February 3, 1932 Hitler announced the withdrawal from the League.
He started the process of rearming Germany.
Rearmament
As mentioned above, after the Geneva Disarmament
Conference, Hitler withdrew from the League of Nations. Now he
was free to rearm Germany. On March 16, 1935, Hitler announced
compulsory military training for all German people. He also aimed to
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have the air force equal to that of England and France. He announced
that the reason for the increase in the strength of the army was self-
defence. But France and England had natural suspicion over these
actions of Hitler. Therefore they convened a meeting at Stressa in
Switzerland and condemned the behaviour of Hitler. But their
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condemnation did not affect Hitler from rearmament.
Militarization of Rhineland
Rhineland was to be demilitarised, according to the Treaty of
e
Versailles. On March 7, 1936, Hitler sent his army into the heart of
Rhineland and started the construction of fortifications. France
opposed this move of Germany. But England was a silent spectator
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to this action of Hitler. Thus a golden opportunity to stop the
aggressive behaviour of Hitler was lost by both England and France.
The Spanish Civil War
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A Republic had been proclaimed in Spain in 1931. In 1936 the
conservatives under General Franco started a Civil War against the
Republic. Now Germany and Italy supported Franco whereas Russia
supported the Republicans. The Republicans were defeated and the
dictatorship of Franco was established. The net result of the Spanish
Civil War was that it helped Italy and Germany to come closer and
later their friendship was converted into a treaty.
322
Rome- Berlin -Tokyo Axis
In October 1936, On the basis of an agreement Germany
approved Italian control over Abyssinia and Italy granted permission
to Hitler to annex Austria with Germany. Hitler was antagonistic
towards Russian Communism. Therefore Hitler in November 1936,
signed an Anti- Commintern Pact with Japan, another enemy of
Russia. In November 1937, Italy was admitted into the alliance.
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This Anti Commintern pact was otherwise called as Rome –Berlin-
Tokyo Axis. This Axis was formed against England, France and
Russia. This was the beginning of Second World War.
Nazism grew in Germany under Hitler. It stood for aggressive
nationalism, authoritarianism and the leadership principle. On
becoming Germany’s Chancellor in 1933, Hitler undertook a
rearmament programme. His aggressive foreign policy led to the
Second World War. Similarly, Mussolini organized the Fascist
movement in Italy. He believed in dictatorship, aggressive foreign
policy and colonial policy. Thus, he emerged as the Il Duce or supreme
commander. The emergence of dictatorship in Europe paved the way
for Second World War.
Learning Outcome
After learning this lesson the students will be to explain
1. The factors led to the rise of Fascism in Italy.
2. The principles of Fascism and Mussolini’s aggressive foreign
policy.
3. Growth of Nazism in Germany and its principles.
4. Hitler’s foreign policy and the formation of Rome-Berlin-
Tokyo Axis.
5. The impact of the rise of Fascism and Nazism.
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 MODEL QUESTIONS V. State whether the following statements are True or False.

I. Choose the correct answer. 1. The aggressive foreign policy of Hitler led to the Second World
War.
1. Which among the following journal was edited by Mussolini?
2. Hitler was the author of Mein Kamph.
(a) New Italy (b) Mein Kamph
3. The Spanish Civil War was started under the leadership of
(c) Avanti (d) Risorgimento Dr. Kapp.

ia
2. The Nationalist Socialist Party was founded by VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
(a) Hitler (b) Mussolini 1. Fascism

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(c) Kaiser William II (d) Karl Marx 2. Nazism
II. Fill in the blanks. 3. Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis
1. Fascism was the principle of …… VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
2. Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis was signed in the year …. 1. Briefly discuss the causes for the growth of Fascism in Italy.

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III. Match the following. 2. What were the reasons for the rise of Hitler in Germany?
1. Treaty of London a. 1917 3. Discuss the foreign policy of Hitler.
2. Fascist Party b. 1936 VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
3.
4.
Anti- Commintern Pact
Bolshevik Revolution
c. 1915
d. 1919
e 1. Give an account of the rise of dictatorships in Germany and
Italy.
re
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is 2. Analyse the principles and growth of Nazism in Germany.
right.
a) Mussolini was influenced by the socialist ideology.
S

b) Mussolini was a staunch supporter of the Church.

c) Swastika was made as the symbol of the Fascist Party.
d) The members of the Fascist Party wore Red Shirts.

324 325
 LESSON 31 disbanded. Her army was reduced
considerably. The Weimar Republic was
SECOND WORLD WAR
not in a position to solve the post-war
problems. The German people decided to
Learning Objectives
take revenge for their humiliation. In fact,
Students will acquire knowledge about the Second World War was a war of
1. The causes for the Second World War. retaliation. Therefore, the Treaty of TREATY OF VERSAILLES

ia
Versailles had in itself the seeds of the Second World War.
2. The rise of dictatorships and other causes for the war.
Rise of Dictatorships
3. The course of the Second World War.
The inter-war period witnessed the rise of dictatorships in

ed
4. Results of the Second World War.
Europe. The inter-war period is otherwise called the period of
dictators. Germany, Italy, Spain and Japan witnessed the rise of
The First World War came to an end in 1918 and the Paris
dictators. In Germany, the Weimar Republic was weak. Hitler, the
Peace conference was held in 1919. Many treaties including the Treaty
leader of the Nazi Party took full advantage of the weakness of the
of Versailles were signed in the conference. One of the important

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Republican Government and brought the government under his control.
features of this conference was that only the victorious nations alone
He started aggression. He captured Austria and Czechoslovakia. At
were invited. The conference turned out to be a meeting of the victors
last he attacked Poland and World War II started.
to share the spoils of the war. The defeated countries were badly
treated. They also discussed about the establishment of permanent The same condition prevailed in Italy also. Italy felt that it was

e
peace in the world. In order to solve mutual problems among the
nations, under the initiative of the U.S. President Woodrow Wilson,
deceived in the Paris Peace Conference. Mussolini started the Fascist
Party. In 1922 he captured power and became a dictator. He also
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the League of Nations had been established. But the League failed followed an aggressive foreign policy. The spirit of dictatorship arose
to maintain the expected international peace. This ultimately led to in Spain and Japan also. In Spain, General Franco defeated the
the rise of dictatorships in Germany, Italy and Japan. The formation Republican Government and established his dictatorship. In this effort,
of Rome, Berlin, Tokyo Axis led to the Second World War. he was assisted by the armies of Hitler and Mussolini. Japan became
S

a partner of Hitler and Mussolini by signing the Rome- Berlin -Tokyo

Causes of the Second World War
Axis. This alliance disturbed world peace and the Second World War
Treaty of Versailles started.
Germany was defeated in the First World War. She was not Militarism
invited to the Paris Peace Conference. Germany was forced to sign
The failure of the disarmament efforts after the First World
a harsh and humiliating treaty. German territories were taken away
War was a major reason for the outbreak of a new War. In the Paris
from her. She was deprived of her colonies. Her navy was completely

326 327
Peace conference Germany was forced to disarm itself. The German
Government demanded disarmament of the victorious powers, in the
same way as she had been disarmed. As they refused, Germany
under the dictatorship of Hitler increased its military strength. Owing
to the immense increase in armaments and the development of
militarism, the Second World War became inevitable.
Imperialism
The policy of imperialism was one of the causes for the Second
World War. It was this same feeling of imperialism which played a
dominant role during the First World War. Germany and Japan, who
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were more imperialistic than the Allied powers, simply ignored the
decisions of the Paris Peace Conference. They made their efforts to
expand their respective territories. Hitler occupied Rhineland, Austria,
Memel, Czechoslovakia and incorporated them into German territory.
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Japan attacked Manchuria and captured it from China. Mussolini
occupied Abysinia and launched a series of aggressive activities.
Colonialism
There was also a race for colonies among the European
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countries in order to obtain raw materials and markets for their
industrial growth. This trend continued among these powers even
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after the First World War. Germany was deprived of all her colonies
at the Paris Peace Conference. Italy was dissatisfied with the
treatment of Allied Powers. Japan, a powerful Asiatic country wanted
to have colonies to enrich its resources. It is in these circumstances
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Germany, Italy and Japan decided to follow aggressive foreign policy.
These aggressive actions ultimately led to the Second World War.
Failure of the League of Nations
After the First World War, the League of Nations was
established to solve controversies among the nations and to maintain
permanent peace and order in the world. Even the members of the
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League failed to respect the provisions of the covenant of the League.
Those who violated the provisions simply walked out of the League,
without any punishment. The League could not contain the Japanese
annexation of Manchuria and Italian invasion of Abyssinia. Hitler’s
activities posed a challenge to the League. Thus, the failure of the
League of Nations to control aggressive countries was a major cause
for World War II.
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Dissatisfaction of National Minorities
The Allied powers though posed themselves as the champions
of the principle of self-determination, in actual practice that principle
was not followed by them. In some parts of Central Europe, the
problem of national minorities existed. It is these minority groups
which became the hot beds of discontent and dissatisfaction. German
annexation of Austria and Sudetenland and attack on Poland was
based on this policy of reunion of National minorities.
Mutual differences of the Allies
There was no collective cooperation among the Allies. England
followed a policy appeasement towards Germany. France’s fear of
Germany was opposed by England. The U.S.A., the architect of the
League of Nations, did not join the League. These differences among
the allies failed to check the increasing strength of the dictators.
Course of the War
According to the decisions taken in the Paris Peace
Conference, Poland had been made an independent kingdom. East
Prussia was separated from Germany. Now, Hitler wanted to unite
East Prussia with Germany. Hitler invaded Poland on September 1,
1939. Great Britain declared war against Germany on September 3.
Second World War started.
329

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In April 1940, Germany captured Denmark and Norway. In
May 1940, Holland and Belgium were conquered. Germany attacked
France and captured it in June 1940.
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Italy fought against the British forces in North Africa. Mussolini
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attacked Greece and captured it with German support. Yugoslavia
and Crete were occupied by the Germans.
After the fall of France, Britain was left alone. Hence, Hitler
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wanted to attack England by air. There was continuous air force
attack on Britain. But the dynamic leadership of Prime Minister
Churchill saved England. Germany could not conquer Britain.
Germany made a mistake of invading the Soviet Union, despite
a non-aggression pact. One of the important battles was the Battle
of Stalingrad. For five months the battle went on. It involved 2 million
330
men, 2000 tanks and 2000 aero-planes.
The invading German army was driven
back. In February1943, about 90,000
German soldiers surrendered. This was
a turning point of the war.
In December 1941, Japan
attacked the Pearl Harbour. This
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PEARL HARBOUR
tragedy dragged the U.S.A. into the
war. General MacArther was made the supreme commander of the
Pacific region. Lord Mountbatten, the Commander of South East
Asia drove the Japanese from Burma.
In Africa, Abyssinia was conquered by the U.S.A. from Italy.
The Italian Somaliland was also conquered. The British General
Montgomery captured Libya from Germans. He also conquered
Tripoli and entered Tunisia. In 1942 Algeria fell. In 1943 Sicily was
captured by the British and U.S. troops. North Africa was cleared
of Italian and German troops. The mainland of Italy was attacked.
There was a revolt in Italy and Mussolini was arrested, but he
managed to escape with German help. In September 1943, Italy
surrendered unconditionally. Mussolini was captured and killed by
his own people in April 1945.
In 1944 the Allied forces entered into France and expelled the
German army from France. After that the Allied forces attacked
Germany from the Southwest. Russia invaded Germany from the
East. On 2 May 1945 Russian army entered Berlin. Hitler committed
suicide. Germany surrendered.
Even after the surrender of Germany, Japan continued the war.
USA dropped two atom bombs on Hiroshima (6 th August) and on
Nagasaki (9 th August). Following this Japan surrendered on 14 th
August 1945.
331
 The Second World War was over. At the end of the war, some MODEL QUESTIONS
13 million Europeans were killed and 17 million civilians had died as
a result of the fighting. All major cities were in ruins. Agriculture I. Choose the correct answer.
was ruined. People of the entire world had to face untold miseries, 1. Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour in the year
directly or indirectly.
(a) 1940 (b) 1941
Results of the Second World War (c) 1942 (d) 1945
§

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In this war, about 15 Million soldiers and 10 million civilians II. Fill in the blanks.
lost their lives.
1. The U.S.A. dropped the first atom bomb on Hiroshima on ……..
§ An important result of the Second World War was that it
2. The Supreme Commander of the Pacific region was …..

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brought to an end the colonial Empire of the European
countries in Asia and Africa. III. Match the following:
§ Multi-polar world became bi-polar world. 1. Mussolini a. Japanese invasion
§ The USA and USSR emerged as Super Powers. 2. Manchuria b. Nazism

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§ Cold War started as an ideological war between USA 3. General MacArther c. Fascism
and USSR 4. Hitler d. Supreme Commander
of the Pacific Region
Learning Outcome

e
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
IV.
a.
Find out the Statement. One statement alone is correct.
Hitler invaded Poland on September 1, 1940.
re
1. The causes of the Second World War.
b. In December 1941, Japan attacked the Pearl Harbour.
2. The rise of dictatorships and the formation of the Rome- c. In September 1945 Italy surrendered.
Berlin-Tokyo Axis led to the outbreak of the war.
d. On 2 May 1944 Russian army entered Berlin.
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3. The main events of the war and the ultimate victory of the
V. State whether the following statements are True or False.
allied power.
1. Germany was invited to attend the Paris Peace Conference.
4. Results of the Second World War.
2. General Franco was the dictator of Spain.
3. The U.S.A. was an active member of the League of Nations.
4. The Battle of Stalingrad was fought between Germany and
the Soviet Union.

332 333
VI. Write short notes (Any three points). LESSON 32
1. Militarism GROWTH OF ASIAN NATIONS: CHINA AND JAPAN
2. Imperialism
Learning Objectives
3. National Minorities
Students will acquire knowledge about
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1.The rise of modern China.

ia
1. Trace the main events of the Second World War.
2.The emergence of the People’s Republic of China.
2. Examine the results of the Second World War.
3.The rise of modern Japan.
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

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4.Growth of Japan as an economic giant.
1. Give an account of the causes of the Second World War.

Rise of Modern China

Asia is generally divided into South Asia, South East Asia, East

M
Asia and West Asia. China and Japan are part of East Asia. The
People’s Republic of China, which was established in 1949 is the
largest country in East Asia. It is also the fourth largest country in
the world. It has the largest population in the world. It shares its

e border with 14 nations in Asia.

China is one of the oldest civilizations in the
re
world. China was ruled by many dynasties. During
the 19th and 20th centuries, China was ruled by the
Manchu dynasty. China during Manchu rule became
weak. China was called the sick man of Asia. It
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became a quasi colony of the western powers. The

European countries came to China for trade and
LIN TSE HSU commerce. China called the Europeans as “Red
Barbarians”. China imposed many restrictions on
European traders. Co-hong (security merchants) was the institution
that controlled the European trade. Particularly the English and
French did not like this. Slowly the English merchants introduced

334 335
opium to the Chinese traders. In due course of time, China imported
large quantities of opium. Opium-eating became a national vice.
Therefore, the Chinese government imposed rules to prohibit opium
trade. The action of Commissioner Lin Tse hsu led to First Opium
War (1839-1842) in which England defeated China. The war came
to an end with the Treaty of Nanking. In 1856 the Second Opium
War took place. This time Britain, France, USA and Russia fought
against China. The war ended with the Treaty of Tientsin in 1860.
Thus, the western countries established their supremacy in
China. China was partitioned into many economic zones controlled
ed
by western powers. This is known as “the cutting of the Chinese
Melon” (ie., cutting China into many pieces). The failure of Manchu
dynasty led to the Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) in China. It was
led by Hung Hsiu-chüan. The rebellion was crushed. China was
controlled by queen Tzu hsi from 1860 to 1908 till her death. Tzu
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hsi’s reactionary rule led to revolutionary movements in China.
In 1894-1895 a war broke out between China and Japan. This
is known as the First Sino-Japanese War. The war was fought for
the control of Korea. China was defeated in this war. This led to a
e
Chinese revolt known as the Boxer Rebellion
against the foreign domination of China. This
re
rebellion was also suppressed with the help of the
western countries.
However, during this time an intellectual
S
emerged as the undisputed leader of China. He was
Dr. Sun Yat Sen. He is known as the “Morning
Dr. SUN YAT SEN
Star” of China. He mobilized young revolutionaries
and started the 1911 Revolution in China. This revolution ended the
Manchu rule in China. New flag, new calendar were adopted. China
for the first time became a republic. Yuan Shih Kai became the
President of the Chinese Republic.
336
During the First World War, Japan captured the Shantung
Province from China. After the War, at the Peace Conference at
Versailles China wanted to get back her territory of Shantung
province. But the allied countries gave Shantung to Japan.
Immediately, the May Fourth Movement started in China.
Following this once again Dr. Sun Yat Sen assumed control of
China. He started the Kuomintang Party. With the Russian help he
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wanted to introduce reforms in China. It was during this period the
Chinese Communist Party of China was started. Mso Tse Tung
and Chou –en-lai were the original founding members of the
Communist Party of China.
In 1924 Dr. Sun Yat Sen passed away. The leadership of the
Kuomintang party was assumed by Chiang Kai Shek. In the beginning
there was an understanding between the Kuomintang and the
Communists. But, soon both became rivals. Chiang wanted to
exterminate Mao’s Communist Party. Mao retired to northern China.
It is known as the Long March. There the Communists established
their control. In 1945 a civil war broke out between
the Communists and the Kuomintang. Finally, Mao
established the People’s Republic of China in
October 1949. Chinag Kai Shek fled to Taiwan,
which is known as Nationalist China. During the
Cold War Era the USA supported the Nationalist
China . Hence, the Nationalist China became a
member of the UNO until 1971.The Peoples
Republic of China was admitted as a member in MAO TSE TUNG
the UNO only in 1971.
Mao Tse Tung introduced the economic reform known as the
Great Leap Forward. In 1966, Mao launched the Cultural
Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution those who were against
Mao were removed from the Communist Party and imprisoned.
337
 After Mao’s death in 1976 and the Gang of Four were Naval Conference was held in 1921-22. But this was only a
arrested. Following this Deng Xiaoping quickly captured power from temporary measure.
Mao’s successor Hua Guofeng. Deng introduced many economic
In 1931 Japan invaded Manchuria and established a puppet
reforms including the relaxation of government control over the
regime. In 1937 once again Japan invaded China. Finally, it joined
Chinese economy. Thus China moved from a planned economy to a
with Germany and Italy and formed the axis. In 1941 Japan attacked
mixed economy. As a result of the changing economic scene
the Pearl Harbour and the U.S.A. entered the Second World War in
China formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.
support of Britain and France and Russia.

JAPAN
Japan was the only country which was not colonized by the
European countries in Asia. Though it was geographically a small
ia
On August 6 th and 9th two atom bombs were dropped by the
U.S.A. on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan
surrendered to the U.S.A.

ed
country, it became a powerful country. Japan like the western countries
General MacArthur and Emperor Hirohito
followed a policy of imperialism in Asia. It possessed great military
strength. Today Japan is an economic giant. After the war, Japan was placed under control of the Supreme
Commander, Gen. Douglas MacArthur. The new constitution took
Japan followed a policy of isolation for more than 200 years. It

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effect on 3rd May 1947. The United States and 45 other Allied nations
was broken by Commodore Perry of the U.S.A. on 8th July 1853.
signed the San Francisco Peace Treaty in September 1951.
His mission paved the way for Japan’s trade with the West. During
Following the treaty, Japan was made an independent nation once
this period the Tokugawa Shoguns controlled Japan. Perry’s mission
again.
led to the restoration of the Japanese Emperor to full authority. This
is known as the Meiji Restoration.
e
The Meiji Restoration had initiated many reforms in Japan.
From the 1950s to the 1980s, Japan’s
history consists mainly of its rapid development
into a major economic power. The U.S.A.
re
The feudal system was abolished. Western legal system was adopted.
provided the latest technology to Japan. Thus,
Constitutional Monarchy, as in Britain, was introduced according to
Japan rapidly rebuilt its heavy industrial sector.
the Meiji Constitution. Japan was fully modernized.
Japan soon emerged as a significant power in
MACARTHUR
S

Soon Japan followed a policy of militarism and imperialism.
Japan defeated China in 1894-95. Subsequently, it defeated the biggest
European country Russia in 1904-05. During the First World War
Japan captured the Chinese territory of Shantung which was leased
to Germany. It also imposed the 21 Demands on China. Thus, at the
end of the First World War Japan emerged as a superior military
power. Hence, in order to control Japan’s Navy the Washington
many economic spheres, including steel making,
car manufacture and the manufacture of electronic goods.
Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the
cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in
closely-knit groups called keiretsu emerged. For examples
Mitsubishi, Sumitomo, Fuyo, Mitsui, Dai-Ichi Kangyo and Sanwa are
some of the powerful companies.

338 339
 Politically, the postwar Japan has been dominated by one party MODEL QUESTIONS
- the Liberal Democratic Party. The party remained practically
invincible for almost half a century. Emperor Hirohito died in 1989 I. Choose the correct answer.
and his son Akihito succeeded. 1. The sick man of Asia
In the 21st century Japan emerged as a strong economic power. (a) Turkey (b) Japan
Japan is the only Asian country to be included in the group of
(c) Korea (d) China
developed countries. Japan is a member of the G8 (Group of developed

ia
countries). 2. The First Opium War came to an end by the treaty of ……
(a) Nanking (b) Peking

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Learning Outcome (c) Tienstein (d) Shantung

After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain II. Fill in the blanks.

1. The rise of modern China and a brief history. 1. The Kuomintang Party was founded by …….

2. The emergence of the People’s Republic of China and the 2. The San Francisco Peace Treaty was signed in the year …..

M
role of Mao. III. Match the following.
3. The rise of modern Japan and its role in world politics. 1. Hung Hsiu-Chuan a. Cultural Revolution
4. Growth of Japan as an economic giant in 20th century. 2. Dr. Sun Yat Sen b. Japanese Emperor

e 3.
4.
Mao Tse Tung
Commodore Perry
c. US Mission
d. Morning Star of China
re
5. Hirohito e. Taiping Rebellion
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
correct.
S

1. Dr. Sun Yat Sen led the Taiping Rebellion.

2. Mao Tse Tung became the President of China after 1911
Revolution.
3. Japan was modernized after Meiji Restoration.
4. Japan is not a member of the G 8.

340 341
V. State whether the following statements are True or False. LESSON 33
1. China was controlled by queen Tzu hsi from 1860 to 1908. UNITED NATIONS ORGANISATION
2. After Sun Yat Sen Kuomintang party was led by Mao Tse
Tung. Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
3. Japan was the only country which was not colonized by the
Europeans in Asia. 1. The foundation of the UNO.

ia
4. Japan imposed 21 demands on China during the First World 2. Aims of the UNO.
War.
3. Organization of the UNO.
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

ed
4. Achievements of the UNO.
1. Taiping Rebellion
5. Non-Political functions of the UNO.
2. Long March
3. Meiji Restoration The Second World War proved to be more destructive than the

M
First World War. For the first time atomic weapon was used. The
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
people of the whole world were afraid of the consequences of such
1. Write a note on Mao Tse Tung. wars in future. In order to bring the quarreling countries to talks and
2. Discuss the developments in post-war Japan. negotiate for peace countries like the USA, the USSR and the UK

VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).

1.
e
Estimate the role of Dr. Sun Yat Sen in the establishment of
wanted a world forum. Although they had failed in their first
experiment during the First World War yet they were firmly committed
to peace. The result of their tireless effort was the birth of the United
re
modern China. Nations Organization.
2. Give an account of the rise of Japan in the modern world. Foundation of the UNO
After a series of conferences such as the Atlantic Charter, Yalta
S

Conference and Potsdam Conference finally in 1944 at Dumbarton

Oaks in USA the creation of UNO was finalized. The Charter of the
United Nations (U.N.) was signed by the representatives of fifty one
nations at San Francisco on 26th June 1945.
Delegates of fifty one countries after a long discussion,
accepted the scheme and they published a U.N. Charter. On 24th

342 343
October 1945, the United Nations came into being. The UN Organs of U.N.O.
Headquarters is located in New York, USA.
Aims of the UNO
The fundamental aims of the U.N.O. as set forth in the General Assembly
Charter are :
(i) To maintain and preserve international peace and security. International Security

ia
Court of Council
(ii) To develop friendly relations and harmony among the countries. Justice
(iii) To grant equal rights and self-determination to all countries.
Economic and

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(iv) To solve economic, social, cultural and humanitarian Secretariat Social Council
problems through international cooperation.
(v) To promote respect for human rights, dignity and freedom. Trusteeship Council
(vi) Not to intervene in the matters which are directly related with

M
the domestic jurisdiction of any country.
Organization of the U.N.O.
organ is to consider issues relating to international peace and security
The U.N.O. consists of six main bodies which are as follows :
and to discuss important international problems. UNO has a Secretary
(i)
(ii)
The General Assembly.
The Security Council e General. The official languages of UNO are English, French, Spanish,
Russian, Chinese and Arabic. Now [2006] UN has 192 member
re
countries.
(iii) The Economic and Social Council
The Security Council
(iv) The Trusteeship Council.
It is the chief executive body of the U.N.O. It consists of
(v) The International Court of Justice
S

fifteen members - five permanent and ten temporary. Russia, China,

(vi) The Secretariat.
The General Assembly
It is a deliberative body of the United Nations Organization.
This body consistis of five representatives of each member state.
But each member state has only one vote. The main function of this
U.S.A., France and Great Britain are the permanent members of the
Security Council of the U.N.O. Its main function is to preserve
peace and security in the world. It can take diplomatic and economic
steps against those nations who violate the constitution of the U.N.O.
Each of the five permanent members has a powerful vote known as
veto.

344 345
The Economic and Social Council
This council is composed of eighteen members (there are
twenty-seven members at present). All members of this council are
elected by the General Assembly. It is directly responsible to the
General Assembly. The fundamental principle of this body is to create
a spirit of universal respect for human rights and to promote a higher
cultural educational standard. Its function is to raise the standard of
living of the people, to assure them employment. The UNO believes
that world peace could be maintained only when the people enjoy a
high economic and social standard of living.
ed
The Social and Economic Council works through the
cooperation of several special committees and commissions. such
as, The United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation
M
Administration (UNRRA), Food and Agricultural Organization
(F.A.O.), International Labour Organization (I.L.O.), International
Bank, World Health Organization (W.H.O.) etc. This organ has
rendered undoubtedly great services to the mankind since 1945.
The Trusteeship Council
e
This Council is composed of the representatives of permanent
re
members of the Security Council, representatives of all those states
which hold the administration of colonies and some other
representatives elected by the General Assembly. The main function
of the Trusteeship Council is to preserve the interests of the territories
S
handed over to it and to help the General Assembly in the
administration of those countries over which the U.N.O. holds
Trusteeship.
The International Court of Justice
It is the judicial organ of the U.N.O. It has its headquarters at
The Hague (Netherlands). It is composed of fifteen judges elected
346
by the General Assembly and the Security Council for nine years. Its
main function is to solve the legal disputes of the member states of
UNO.
The Secretariat
It consists of the working staff of the U.N.O. The chief of the
Secretariat is called the Secretary General who is appointed by the
ia
General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
The main function of this body is to assist all bodies of the U.N.O.
Achievements of the U N O
From the very beginning, the United Nations Organization had
to deal with a large number of conflicts and problems in the
international field. The Security Council of the U.N.O. made several
efforts to solve those problems. But the efforts of the Security Council
had been greatly hampered by the free use of the veto power. During
the year 1946-47, Russia exercised the right of veto on twenty-two
occasions. But in spite of this serious handicap U.N.O. has achieved
success in solving many problems. some of them are as follows :
Decolonisation
UNO assisted the colonized countries of Asia, Africa and Latin
America to attain their independence from the colonial masters. This
process is known as decolonization. After the establishment of UNO
the process of decolonization was quickly achieved.
Maintenance of Peace
The main function of UNO had been the maintenance of peace
in the world. UNO achieved peace in the following conflict situations.
The Problem of Iran
On 1st January 1946, Iran presented a complaint against Russia
before the U.N.O. The root cause of the conflict was stationing of
347
Russian troops in Iran. U.N.O. took a very strong line as a
consequence of this, the Russian troops were withdrawn from Iran,
which had been stationed there for many years. This was the first
and the most important achievement of the U.N.O.
Syria and Lebanon
Similar complaint was also made by Syria and Lebanon before
the U.N.O. Both of them requested the U.N.O. that British and French
troops should be immediately removed from their respective states.
The Security Council, therefore, made its efforts and at last it
succeeded in securing the withdrawal of British and French troops
ed
from those states.
Indonesia
After the end of the Second World War, the nationalists living
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in Indonesia established a republican government. But the Dutch living
in the colonies of Java and Sumatra rose in rebellion against the
nationalists. The Security Council issued a cease-fire order to both
sides. The Dutch agreed to grant full independence to Indonesia.
The Palestine Problem
e
After the end of the First World War, Palestine had been handed
re
over to Great Britain under the mandate system. But the struggle arose
between the Arabs and the Jews which created disturbance and tension
in Palestine. After the Second World War U.N.O. appointed a special
committee to study the problem of Palestine. The Committee
S
recommended immediate partition of Palestine into three parts - an Arab
State, a Jewish State and the City of Jerusalem which was to be governed
by the Trusteeship Council of the U.N.O. Thus, an independent state of
Israel was established for the Jews in 1948.
The Arabs bitterly opposed the plan of the partition of Palestine.
They rose in revolt against the Jews. Consequently, a civil war broke out
348
in Palestine between the Arab League and the newly established Israel.
The UNO took effective steps to diffuse the tension in Palestine.
The Kashmir Problem
This problem arose between India and Pakistan. Both of them fell
into a state of great rivalry on this issue. This problem was brought to
the notice of the U.N.O. It made its best efforts to remove hostility and
ia
differences between them. As a result of its mediation, the war was
stopped between India and Pakistan. But this problem could not be solved
permanently. It still awaits a peaceful and permanent solution.
The Problem of Korea
Before the beginning of the Second World War, the whole of
Korea was under the control of Japan. After the Second World War,
Russia and America decided to divide Korea on the 38th parallel
line. On 24th June 1950 the army of the North Korea made a fierce
attack over South Korea. The matter was again brought before the
U.N.O. Hence, the Security Council decided to take some strong
steps against North Korea. UNO sent its army under the command
of an American, General Douglas MacArthur. A treaty was signed
on July 27, 1953 by which the U.N.O. withdrew its military action.
Other Important Problems
UNO tried to bring peaceful conclusion of many other problems
such as Suez Crisis [1956], Cyprus issue [1960], Congo problem
[1960], Gulf War [1990].
Besides, UNO was concerned about arms control and
disarmament, particularly the nuclear disarmament and control of
nuclear weapons.
Non-Political Achievements
UNO has achieved considerable success in non-political
matters. Such as ending racial discrimination [called Apartheid] in
349
South Africa, protecting human rights and providing financial MODEL QUESTIONS
assistance to many developing countries from World Bank, IDA and
IMF. I. Choose the correct answer.

The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose 1. The headquarters of the United Nations is located in
stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, (a) Geneva (b) The Hague
international security, economic development, and social equity. UNO
(c) New York (d) San Francisco
was successful in its main objectives, in spite of difficulties and set

ia
backs. II. Fill in the blanks.
1. The United Nations was founded on ……
Learning Outcome

ed
2. The judicial organ of the United Nations is …..
After learning this lesson the students will be to explain III. Match the following.
1. The foundation of the UNO after the Second World War. 1. United Nations Charter a. 1956
2. The aims and objectives of the UNO as an international 2. Suez Crisis b. 1960

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organization.
3. Cyprus Issue c. 1990
3. The structure of the UNO and its mode of functioning.
4. Gulf War d. 1945
4. The achievements of the UNO in settling issues between
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
nations and promoting world peace.

5. The non-political achievements of the UNO.

e a.
right.
UNO is the first world organization to be established to maintain
re
world peace.
b. International Labour Organisation has its Headquarters at
Rome.
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c. International Court of Justice has 15 Judges.

d. WHO is one of the six main organs of the UNO.

350 351
V. State whether the following statements are True or False LESSON 34
1. The Charter of the UNO was signed by 51 countries at San THE COLD WAR
Francisco in 1945.
2. Both the Permanent Members and Non-Permanent Members Learning Objectives
of the Security Council have Veto power. Students will acquire knowledge about

VI. Write short notes (Any three points). 1. The beginning of the Cold War.

ia
1. Security Council 2. The formation of military alliances.

2. Kashmir Dispute 3. The mounting tensions between the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R.

ed
3. Arab-Israel Conflict 4. The end of the Cold War.

VII. Answer briefly (100 words).

The end of the Second World War saw the rise of the U.S.A.
1. State the aims of the United Nations.
and U.S.S.R. as Super Powers. The strained relationship between
2. Write a note on the functions of the UNESCO.

M
these two countries till the collapse of the U.S.S.R is known as the
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words). Cold War. The term ‘Cold War’ was used for the first time by Bernard
Baruch. Thereafter this term gained popularity through the journalist
1. Briefly mention the various functions of the U.N.O. Walter Lippman.
2. Estimate the role of U.N.O. in maintaining the world peace.

e The Cold War may be described as the existence of continued

tensions and conflicts between the western world and the Communist
countries in general and between the United States and the Soviet
re
Union in particular. The Cold War was otherwise an ideological war
or a propaganda war or a diplomatic war. It was neither a condition
of war nor a condition of peace. It was a state of uneasy peace.
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Beginning of the Cold War

Even before the end of the Second World War the Soviet Union
had imposed Communist regimes in the East European countries of
Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary and Yugoslavia. Immediately
after the War the Soviet Union brought East Germany under her
influence. West Germany came under the influence of the U.S.A.

352 353
The Soviet Union blocked all roads to the west-occupied zones in
Berlin. This is known as Berlin Blockade. Thus, a tense situation
developed between the two blocs of the Cold War groups. The West
was now concerned about the Russian influence. The U.S.A. had
then assumed the responsibility of containing Communism. On 5th
June 1947, the Marshall Plan was announced by the U.S.A. by
which economic assistance was to be provided to the western
European nations. It was a step to save the European Continent from
the growing influence of Communism. In response to American
Marshall Plan, the Soviet Union initiated Molotov Plan. On 12th
ed
March 1948, Truman Doctrine [Truman was the President of USA]
was announced and accordingly the U.S.A. provided economic and
the military aid to Greece and Turkey to the tune of 400 million dollars
in order to stop the Soviet influence in those countries.
NATO
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The U.S.A. had created a military alliance to prevent further
spread of communism into Western Europe. A beginning in this
direction was made by the signing of the Brussels Treaty in March
1948. Britain, France, Holland, Belgium and Luxemburg signed this
e
treaty promising military collaboration in case of war. On 4th April
1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed thus forming a military
re
power bloc, commonly known as the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization or NATO. The U.S.A., Canada, Britain, France,
Holland, Belgium and Luxemburg, Portugal, Denmark, Italy and
Norway became its members. They had agreed to mutually extend
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military help in case of an attack on any one of them. It was formed
against the Soviet Union.
Warsaw Pact
Between 1955 and 1958, West Asia remained the centre of
the Cold War. In the series of western military pacts, the Baghdad
Pact was concluded in 1955, later known as Central Treaty
354
Organization (CENTO). In response to these western military pacts,
the Soviet Union concluded the Warsaw Pact on 14th May 1955 with
her satellite powers. During this phase a number of military pacts
were concluded, but the tension between East and West was
somewhat reduced.
China
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The establishment of People’s’ Republic of China by Mao-Tse
Tung in October 1949 strengthened the Soviet bloc. The U.S.A.
refused to recognize the Communist Government of China. On the
other hand the U.S.A. helped Chiang Kai-Sheik to establish his
Nationalist Government in Taiwan. The U.S.A. recognised the
Nationalist Government as the legal Government of China and made
her as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council. The
Communist China or the People’s Republic of China was prevented
by the U.S.A. to become a member in the UNO.
Korean Crisis
In 1950, the arena of the cold war was changed from Europe
to East Asia. After the Second World War Korea was split into
north and south Korea. In the North Korea the Soviet - supported
communist government was formed, while the South Korea had an
American - sponsored government. The two Korean governments
were in conflict with each other. On 25th June 1950 North Korea
attacked South Korea. North Korea was fighting with Soviet weapons
and Chinese troops, while the U.S.A. in the name of U.N. force was
fighting on behalf of South Korea. The Korean War turned the Cold
War into an open armed conflict.
Vietnam War
Cold War was extended to Vietnam also. The fall of Dien
Bien Phu on 7th May 1954 brought the final collapse of France in
Indo-China. By Geneva Agreement, Vietnam was partitioned at the
355
17th parallel between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. A conflict
developed between North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The U.S.A.
entered the war supporting South Vietnam. Further, in order to contain
Communism in South East Asia, the South East Asia Treaty
Organization (SEATO) was formed in 1954.
Regional Security Arrangement
of peaceful co-existence. They were, therefore, prompted to conclude
the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. This treaty was followed by a
‘Hot Line Agreement’ between Washington and Kremlin.
After the 1970s, the friction between the Soviet Union and
Communist China led to Sino-Soviet rift. The People’s Republic of
China was admitted into the UN. President Nixon of U.S.A. visited
Moscow in May 1972 and concluded the SALT -I Treaty (Strategic
Arms Limitation Treaty). In June 1973, Brezhnev paid a nine-day

ia
visit to the United States and further progress was made in the
direction of strategic arms limitation. This reduction of tension
between the U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. is known as era of détente.
NATO SEATO WARSAW PACT

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End of the Cold War
Expansion : North Atlantic Treaty Expansion : South East Asian Treaty Year : 1955 With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the collapse of
Organization Organization Communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe occurred. The
bi-polar world became unipolar world. On 31 st July 1991, American
Year : 1955 Year : 1955 Members : Russia, Poland, President George Bush and Soviet leader Michael Gorbachev signed

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Czechoslovakia, the ‘historic’ START - I Treaty in the Moscow Summit. This marks
Members :12 + Greece, West Members :U.S.A., U.K., France Hungary and Rumania
the end of the Era of Cold War.
Germany, Turkey Australia, Newzealand,
Paksitan, Thailand and The ideological war otherwise known as Cold War was fought
Phillipines for about five decades since 1945. The world saw the vertical division
of nation states. Military alliances were made. Arms race developed.
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
The Soviet Union stationed her nuclear missiles in Cuba, which e Nuclear holocaust threatened the world on many occasions. However,
after the 1970s détente resulted in the gradual relaxation of tension
re
between the two super powers which ultimately ended with the
was a communist country and Soviet ally. The U.S.A. considered
dissolution of Soviet Union.
this as a great threat to her security. John F. Kennedy sent the 7th
Nuclear fleet towards Cuba. This literally brought the two super - Learning Outcome
powers to the verge of war. However, the good sense prevailed on After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain
S

both the sides and the crisis was averted. Subsequently, the U.S.S.R. 1. The meaning of the Cold War and its beginning.
dismantled missiles in Cuba. 2. The formation of military blocs such as the NATO, CENTO,
SEATO and the Warsaw Pact.
Decline of Cold War- Détente (Reduction of Tension) 3. The turning of Cold War into real military conflicts such as
After 1960, the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. had developed equality the Korean War and the Vietnam War.
in nuclear weapons. Thus any nuclear war would lead to co-destruction. 4. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet
This awareness led both the super powers to believe in the inevitability Union.

356 357
 MODEL QUESTIONS V. State whether the following statements are True or False

I. Choose the correct answer. 1. During the Cuban Missile Crisis 7th Nuclear Fleet was sent by
U.S.A.
1. The term Cold War was first used by :
2. USA and USSR concluded the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in
(a) Bernard Baruch (b) F.D. Roosevelt 1960.
(c) Stalin (d) Churchill VI. Write short notes (Any three points).

ia
II. Fill in the blanks. 1. Cold War
1. The Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty was signed in the year 2. Warsaw Pact
……

ed
3. NATO
III. Match the following.
4. Vietnam War
1. NATO a. 1955
5. Korean Crisis
2. CENTO b. 1947
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).

M
3. SEATO c. 1948
1. Trace the beginning of the Cold War.
4. Warsaw Pact d. 1949
2. Briefly mention the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
5. Truman Doctrine e. 1954
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
IV.
correct. e
Find out the Correct Statement. One Statement alone is
1. Give an account of the formation of Military Blocs during the
Cold War.
re
a. On 5th June 1947, the Truman Doctrine was announced by the
U.S.A. 2. Critically examine the impact of the Cold War.

b. On 4 th April 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed.

S

c. Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) is also known as

Warsaw Pact.
d. When Dien Bien Phu was attacked the Korean War started.

358 359
 LESSON 35
WORLD TODAY
Learning Objectives
Students will acquire knowledge about
1. The emerging New World Order.
2. The Nuclear Disarmament.
3. The process of Globalization and the WTO.
ed
4. The menace of Terrorism.
5. The environmental issues facing the world today.
New World Order
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The Year 1945 is a landmark in the history of modern world. It
marked the end of multi-polar world and balance of power. The World
saw the emergence of bi-polar world and the rise of Super Powers,
the U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. In the 1990s the collapse of Soviet
e
Union once again changed the existing world order. The New World
Order is witnessing a Uni-polar world, Globalisation, new technologies,
re
age of information and also global terrorism.
Fall of Soviet Union
Mikhail Gorbachev became the President of
S
the Soviet Union in March 1985. He instituted a
number of political reforms under the name of
“glasnost”. However, Gorbachev’s relaxation of
censorship and attempts to create more political
openness had the unintended effect of re-awakening
MIKHAIL GORBACHEV
long suppressed nationalist and anti-Russian feelings
in the Soviet Union’s constituent republics.
360
Domestically, Gorbachev implemented economic reforms that
he hoped would improve living standards and worker productivity as
part of his Perestroika program. This new Economic Policy
permitted private ownership.
All these reforms led to revolutionary changes in the U.S.S.R.
On 8th December 1991, the leaders of the Russian, Ukrainian, and
Byelorussian republics issued a declaration that the Soviet Union was
ia
dissolved and replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States
(CIS). Gorbachev became president without a country. On 25 th
December 1991, he resigned as president of the U.S.S.R. and returned
the powers of his office over to Boris Yeltsin. The next day, the
Supreme Soviet voted to dissolve itself and repealed the declaration
written in 1922 that had officially established the U.S.S.R. Thus, the
collapse of the Soviet Union took place.
German Reunification
After the Second World War, Germany was divided into two
separate nations. East Germany was fully under the control of the
U.S.S.R. West Germany was supported by the U.S.A. and her allies.
A wall was erected across Berlin to separate these two German
territories. It was the famous Berlin Wall. But with the collapse of
U.SS.R, the German reunification took place on October 3, 1990.
The areas of the former German Democratic Republic (East
Germany) were incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany
[FRG] (West Germany). After the GDR’s first free elections on 18th
March 1990, negotiations between the GDR and FRG culminated in
a Unification Treaty.
Nuclear Disarmament
In the history of warfare, nuclear weapons have been used
only twice on 6th and 8th of August 1945, when the United States
dropped atom bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and
361
Nagasaki. Since then, nuclear weapons have been detonated on over
two thousand occasions for testing and demonstration purposes. The
countries known to have detonated such weapons are the United
States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, France, People’s Republic of
China, India, Pakistan, and North Korea.
In order to minimize the risk of future nuclear war the Non-
Proliferation Treaty (NPT) was proposed. The NPT is the most
extensive inspection and control system ever devised to prevent the
diversion of nuclear material form civilian nuclear programmes for
weapon purposes. The idea of Nuclear Weapon Free Zone (NWFZ)
ed
was mooted to convince the countries refusing to join NPT club. The
concept of nuclear weapon free zone means that countries without
nuclear weapons should agree not to produce nuclear weapons and
declare their region free from nuclear weapons. It was followed by
the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) to tighten the control
M
over nuclear weapons programme.
Globalisation
Globalisation has become an important issue in the national
e
and international economic field. Globalisation has assumed great
importance in the recent changes in global business environment.
re
Now business has global-orientation and the whole world has become
just like a global village. Globalisation implies integration of economy
of one nation with the rest of the world economy and liberalising the
rules and regulations for foreign investment in economy. Broadly
S
speaking the term Globalisation means integration of economies and
societies through cross-country flows of information, ideas,
technologies, goods, services, capital, finance and people. Cross
border integration can have several dimensions- cultural, social,
political and economic.
362
India and Globalization
The economic policy of India since 1991 proved to be a turning
point in the history of Indian economy. In 1991 Indian government
introduced a series of reforms to liberalize and globalize the Indian
economy. These economic reforms move towards the market economy
and globalization. These policies of economic reforms were intended
to integrate the Indian economy with the world economy.
ia
World Trade Organization (WTO)
The origin of World Trade Organization could be traced from
the Bretton Woods Conference of 1944. In this conference, it
was proposed for the creation of an International Trade Organization
to establish rules and regulations for trade between countries. It finally
succeeded in creating the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT). Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under the
GATT. The eighth round - known as the Uruguay Round — which
began in 1986 and concluded in 1995 established the WTO. The main
aim of WTO is to increase international trade by promoting lower
trade barriers and providing a platform for the negotiation of trade.
The World Trade Organization sets the rules for the global
trading system and resolves disputes between its member states. The
WTO headquarter is located in Geneva, Switzerland. There are 149
members in the organization with Vietnam set to join in January, 2007.
The General Council of the WTO is highest decision-making body.
This meets regularly to carry out the functions of the WTO.
One of the criticisms against the WTO is that it favours rich
countries and multinational corporations which affect the smaller
states. Another criticism is the introduction of Trade-Related Aspects
of the Intellectual Property Rights [TRIPs] into the WTO rules and
regulations.
363
European Economic Community
The European Economic Community (EEC) was an
organization established (1958) by the treaty between Belgium,
France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany,
known informally as the Common Market. The EEC was the most
significant of the three treaty organizations that were consolidated in
1967 to form the European Community. It is known as the European
As a result both buildings collapsed. A third plane was crashed into
the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. In this terrorist attack
2,973 people died. They belonged to many countries.
India has been witnessing terrorist violence since 1980, first in
Punjab and then in Jammu and Kashmir and other parts of India.
Nearly 20,000 people have been killed in terrorist violence in Jammu
and Kashmir, involving both shootings and bombings. In the Jammu

Union since 1993. The European Union or EU is an
intergovernmental and supranational union of 25 European countries,
known as member states.
ia
and Kashmir India is experiencing cross border terrorism.
The 1992 serial bomb blasts in Bombay were one of the major
incidents of terrorism in India in recent years. The bomb blast in

ed
Global Terrorism Lajpat Nagar in Delhi in 1996 had also resulted in a large number of
civilian causalities. There have been many more incidents of bomb
The term terrorism means politically motivated violence carried
blasts in different parts of the country. An Indian Airlines aircraft
out against mostly unarmed civilian population by a group of terrorists.
was hijacked to Kandahar, the headquarters of the Taliban. 178
The term international terrorism means

M
innocent passengers were held hostage there for a week. Indian
terrorism involving citizens of more than
government had to make a very difficult decision. It was forced to
one country. Today, terrorism is
release three terrorists from Indian prisons to secure the safety of
globalised. Hence, the UN Security
the hostages. On 13 th December, 2001 there was an attack on the
Council, on 28th September 2001 passed
Indian Parliament. Hence, India along with U.N. has condemned

e
a resolution against terrorism. The UN
Resolution condemned all forms of
terrorism because it violates the human rights of the innocent
citizens.
re
WTC ATTACK SEPTEMBER 11, 2001 terrorism such as political, ideological,
ethnic, religious or any other form. Environmental Threats
There are several acts of terrorism committed all over the Today the world is much more worried about the environmental
world. The most violent terrorist attack was made on the Twin Towers changes that are taking place around the globe. The major threats
S

of the World Trade Centre, New York on September 11, 2001 in the
U.S.A. On the morning of September 11, 2001, nineteen terrorists
affiliated with al-Qaeda terrorist organization hijacked four
commercial passenger jet planes in U.S.A. Each team of hijackers
included a trained pilot. The hijackers crashed two of the planes into
the World Trade Center in New York City, one plane into each tower.
identified are: Global warming, Green House Effect and Ozone
depletion. There is awareness among the educated public as well as
general population to reduce the environmental pollution and make
the earth a safe place to live.

364 365
Learning Outcome MODEL QUESTIONS
After learning this lesson the students will be able to explain I. Choose the correct answer.
1. The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the emerging New 1. The proposal for an International Trade Organization was made
World Order. at the
2. The Efforts taken to control the proliferation of Nuclear (a) Washington Conference
Arms.

ia
(b) Vienna Conference
3. The Process of Globalization and its impact on the
(c) U N Conference
contemporary world.
(d) Breton Woods Conference

ed
4. The growth of terrorism and its impact on India.
II. Fill in the blanks.
5. The environmental issues that affect the life on earth.
1. The New York Twin Towers of the World Trade Center was
attacked by the terrorists in the year ….

M
2. The headquarters of the WTO is located in ……
III. Match the Following
1. Gorbachev a. Environmental threat

e 2.
3.
NPT
EEC
b.1958
c. Perestroika
re
4. Green House Effect d. Nuclear disarmament
IV. Find out the correct statement. One statement alone is
right.
S

a) Michael Gorbachev became the President of the Soviet Union

in 1990.
b) Gorbachev’s economic policy criticized private ownership.
c) He instituted a number of political reforms under the name
‘Glasnost’.

366 367
d) He resigned as the President of the USSR in 1995. NATIONAL MOVEMENT
V. State whether the following statements are True or False TIME LINE
1 Unit = 10 Years
1. In 1991 Indian government introduced a series of reforms to
1880
liberalize and globalize the Indian economy.
2. On 13 th December, 2000 there was an attack on the Indian
Parliament.

ia
VI. Write short notes (Any three points).
1885 - Foundation of the Indian National Congress
1. Nuclear Disarmament

ed
2. World Trade Organization
3. Global Terrorism
1890
VII. Answer briefly (100 words).
1. Discuss the events that led to the fall of the Soviet Union.

M
2. Describe the reunification of Germany.
3. State the main features of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. 1895
VIII. Answer in detail (200 words).
1.
e
Explain the process and impact of Globalization.
re
2. Examine the role of WTO in the regulation of global trading
system. 1900

3. Evaluate the impact of Global Terrorism.

S

1905 - Partition of Bengal / Swadeshi Movement

1906 - Establishment of the Muslim League
1907 - Surat Split

1910

368 369
1910
MODERN WORLD IN THE 20TH CENTURY
TIME LINE
1 Unit = 10 Years
1914 - Outbreak of the First World War 1900
1915
1916 - Home Rule Movement

ia
1919 - Jallianwalabagh Massacre
1920 - Non-co-operation Movement 1905 - Russo - Japanese War

ed
1922 - Swaraj Party

1925 1910

1927 - Simon Commission

M
1928 - Nehru Report
1929 - Poorna Swaraj Declaration (Lahore Congress)
1930 - Civil Disobedience Movement / Dandi March 1914 - Beginning of First War
1915
1932 - Poona Pact

e 1917 - Russian Revolution

1918 - End of First World War
re
1935 - Outbreak of the Second World War
1920 - Foundation of League of Nations

1939 - Outbreak of the Second World War

S

1940 - August Offer

1942 - Cripps Mission / Quit India Movement 1925

1945
1946 - Cabinet Mission Plan
1929 - Great Economic Depression
1947 - Indian Independence Act
1930

370 371
1930 Bibliography
1931 - Japanese Invasion over Manchuria
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Arnold, David. The Congress in Tamilnadu. New Delhi : Manohar,
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1939 - Outbreak of the Second World War Chandra, Bipan. India’s Struggle for Independence. New Delhi:
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Nationalism and Colonialism in Modern India. New Delhi : Orient
Longman , 1984.

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Desai, A.R. Social Background to Indian Nationalism. New Delhi :
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Eugene, Irschick. F. Politics and Social Conflicts in South India:
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1954 - SEATO (Manila Pact) Majumdar, R.C. H.C. Raychaudhuri & Kalikinkar Datta, An Advanced
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e History of India. New Delhi: Mac Millan India Ltd., 2003.

Mehrotra, S.R. The Emergence of the Indian National Congrees,
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Pillay, K.K. Social History of the Tamil. Madras: University of
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Sathianatha Aiyer. History of India, Vol.III Madras: S. Viswanathan
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Seal, Anil. The Emergence of Indian Nationalism. Cambridge:
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 Subramanian. P. Social History of the Tamils. New Delhi:: B.I.
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Sumit, Sarkar. Modern India 1885-1947, Delhi: MacMillan, 1983.
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Charles Downer Hazen. Modern Europe Since 1789. New Delhi:
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Clyde, P.H. & Beers B.F. History of East Asia. New Delhi: Tata Magraw

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Hill, 1980.
Elise K. Tipton Modern Japan A Social and Political History.
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Fisher. H.A.L. History of Europe. New Delhi: Omsons Publications,
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e
Lowe, N. Mastering Modern World History. New Delhi: MacMillan

McKinley, Albert E., Arthur C.Howland & Mathew L.Dawn. World

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History. Vol I & II, New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 1994.
Norman Davis. Europe A History. New York: Oxford University
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Rao, B.V. History of Europe (1450-1815). New Delhi: Sterling
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Radhey Shyam Chaurasia. History of Modern China. New Nelhi:
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Swain, J.E. A History of World Civilization. Reprint, New Delhi:
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Wells, H.G. A Short History of the World. New Delhi Atlantic
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