Linux Lecture Sem1

Operating Systems
Computers have two fundamental

components:
Hardware: Physical components inside a
computer
Software: Set of instructions or programs
that understand how to use the hardware
of the computer in a meaningful way
Operating Systems (continued)
Hardware components include:
Processor (CPU)
Physical memory (RAM)
Hard disk, floppy disk, and CD-ROM
drives
Sound and video cards
Circuit boards
November 17, 2009 3

Two different types of programs are executed
on a computer:
Applications
Operating system (OS) software
Device Driver: Software containing instructions

that the OS uses to control and interact with a
specific type of computer hardware
User Interface: An application program that
allows the user to interact with the OS and
other application programs
November 17, 2009 4

Operating system:
 Software program
 Set of instructions between hardware and
software
 Way user communicates with computer
Processing of application programs
 All input/output of computer
 Controls/manages resources and users
November 17, 2009 5

The role of operating system software
November 17, 2009 6

Unix/Linux History
Unix first version created in Bell Labs-1969
Write Unix system in C language-1973 by Denis Ritchie
AT&T licenses source code for low cost, Trademarkes Unix
name, licensees must create new name for their operating
systems
Many Unix Flavors:, IBM-AIX, Solaris,UnixWare, HP-UX
November 17, 2009 7

Unix Principles
Multiuser, Multitasking
Configuration data stored in text
Ability to chain programs together to
perform complex tasks
Working with Wide variety of
computers
High Level of Security
November 17, 2009 8

GNU Project / FSF
GNU (Gnu Not Unix) Project started
in 1984 (R. Stallman)
Goal: create “free” Unix clone
By 1990, nearly all required users
applications created (gcc, emacs,..)
Free Software Foundation
Non-profit organization that manages
GNU project
November 17, 2009 9

GPL- GNU General Public
License
Primary license for Open Source
Software
Encourages free software
All enhancements and changes to
GPL software must also be GPL
Often called “copyleft”
“all rights reversed”
November 17, 2009 10

GPL- GNU General Public
License-2
freedom to run the program, for any
purpose.
freedom to modify the program to
suit your needs.
freedom to redistribute copies, either
gratis or for a fee.
freedom to distribute modified
versions of the program, so that the
community can benefit from your
improvements
Linux Origins
Linus Torvalds
Finnish college student in 1991 create
Linux kernel
Code was made available over the
internet for free
Coders world wide took part in developing
the OS
When Linux Kernel combined with

GNU applications, complete free Unix-
like OS appears (GNU/Linux OS)
Why Linux
Linux and GNU software are distributed
under the terms of the GNU Public License
Agreement (GPL)
Linux is continually being developed by

individuals throughout the world
Skilled programmers can submit additions

and improvements to the Linux OS to
Linux Development Team over the internet

Why Linux
Applications are developed that are
both free and commercial
Linux is for Intel based platforms,
Power PC, Alpha-based Linux is for
Intel based, multiprocessor
compatibility (SMPs)
Fully supported
Many distribution
(redhat,suse,fedora,ubuntu ...)

Red Hat Enterprise Linux
Custom version of recent Linux
kernel
Utility and applications
Installation and configuration
software
Support available

Installing Red Hat Linux
Partitioning Hard disks
Primary Partition + Swap partition
Installation method
Network Configuration
IP ,Netmask, Gateway, Hostname +Domain
name +Name Server
Configuring Boot manager (LILO, Grub)
Select Package

Hard disk partitioning
hda: Primary Master IDE
hdb: Primary Slave IDE
hdc: Secondary Master IDE
hdd: Secondary Slave IDE
sda: First hard on SCSI bus (or SATA).
sdb: Second hard on SCSI bus (or
SATA).

Hard disk partitioning-2
Primary Partitions: 1,2,3,4
Logical Partitions: 5,6,7…
hdxy IDE
sdxy SCSI, or SATA
x (name of hard disk)
y (partition number )
Example: hda2,hdb5,sda6

Track
Sector
Cylinders
Sectors
Head

• Series of Sectors addressed by

(CHS)
• First sector name MBR: Master
Boot Record contain:
• Boot program
• Partition Table:4 Primary partitions
1234
MBR Partition 1 Partition 2 Partition 3 Partition 4

Primary Primary Primary Primary
Partition 1 Partition 2 Partition 3 Partition 4
1234
Status Start FS End
A 2 FAT32 2000
Boot 2001 FAT16 3500

0000
Program 3501 EXT2 6000
1BEh 6001 NTFS 8000
Partition
1FEh Table

Primary Primary Primary Primary
Partition 1 Partition 2 Partition 3 Partition 4
MBR
1234
Boot Sectors
P. P. 1 P. P. 2 P. P. 3 P. P. 4
Type: FAT32 Type: Extended Type: Ext2 Type: NTFS
M
B
R

P1: FAT32 P2: Extended
M
B C: D: E: F:
R
P1: FAT32 P2: EXT3 P3: Extended

M
B C: / D: E: F: Swap
R
< 1024

Installing VMWare and using a
virtual machine to install Linux
Download VMWare
(http://vmware.com/download/server/)
Apply for license keys
(http://register.vmware.com/content/regist
ration.html)

Begin the installation
Accept the license terms

Customize

Choose desired features and
installation path

Disable AutoRun
Note: Windows XP requires extra steps here

Disable each auto-run type in
XP

Ready to install!

This may take a while
Note: You may need to temporarily disable your

Virus Shield (mcsheild.exe hogs processor ticks
while VMWare installs)
Enter one of the serial number
you applied for in the step
above.

Finished!

Connect to the new VMWare
instance

Check settings

Select a directory on a drive
with plenty of free space

Create a new virtual machine

Choose Linux

Give it a name

Using NAT is easiest

8 GB is plenty

VMWare will now create a new
space for the Virtual Machine

New Guest OS setup complete

Confirm NAT is selected
This works best, especially when the Host OS is using DHCP

Ready to install OS
Insert your install CD (DVD) and start the virtual machine

Installation Mode
New or Upgrade
from where
CD
HTTP, FTP, NFS, Hard disk
Kickstart

Performing the Installation:
Starting the Installation
(continued)
Beginning a Red Hat installation

Linux-OS
48
(continued)
Press F2 at Welcome screen to get
installation options
Check media for errors prior to installation
Optional, but recommended
Linux-OS
49
(continued)
Viewing installation options
Linux-OS
50
Choosing the Language,
Keyboard, Mouse, and Monitor
Keyboard model and layout automatically
detected
Check “Emulate 3 Button” if mouse does
not have third button
Most monitors automatically detected
If not, try to locate on list of monitor models or
use generic model with correct horizontal and
vertical sync
Incorrect monitor settings can damage
monitor
Linux-OS
51
(continued)
Selecting an installation language

Linux-OS
52
(continued)
Verifying keyboard
configuration
Linux-OS
53
(continued)
Figure 3-6: Selecting a mouse

type
Linux-OS
54
(continued)
Verifying monitor configuration

Linux-OS
55
Specifying the Installation Type
Personal Desktop
GUI environment and common applications
Workstation
Same as Personal Desktop plus administrative
and network tools
Server
Several server services
Custom
Linux-OS
56
(continued)
Figure 3-8: Choosing an installation

type
Linux-OS
57
Hard Disk Partitioning
Filesystems can be accessed if attached
(mounted) to a directory
Minimum of two partitions
Partition for root directory
Partition for virtual memory (swap memory)
 Area on hard disk used to store information normally
residing in physical memory (RAM)
Automatic or manual partitioning
Linux-OS
58
(continued)
Common Linux filesystems and sizes
Linux-OS
59
(continued)
Figure 3-9: Choosing a disk partitioning

method
Linux-OS
60
(continued)
Different types of filesystems
Ext2: Used on most Linux computers
Ext3: Performs journaling
Vfat: Compatible with Windows’ FAT filesystem
REISER: Performs journaling
Journaling: Keeps track of the information
written to the hard drive
Disk Druid: Graphical partitioning program
Linux-OS
61
(continued)
The Disk Druid partitioning utility

Linux-OS
62
(continued)
Figure 3-11: Creating a new

partition
Linux-OS
63
Configuring the Boot Loader
Boot loader: Program started by BIOS ROM
Loads kernel into memory
Can also boot other existing OSs
GRand Unified Bootloader (GRUB): Boot
loader configured during Fedora Linux
installation
Dual booting: Choose OS to boot at startup
Linux-OS
64
(continued)
Figure 3-12: Configuring a boot

loader
Linux-OS
65
(continued)
Boot loader usually resides on the MBR or
on first sector of / or /boot partition
Kernel parameters: Information passed to
Linux kernel via the boot loader
Large Block Addressing 32-bit (LBA32):
Enables Large Block Addressing in boot
loader
For large hard disks not fully supported by the
BIOS
Linux-OS
66
(continued)
Configuring advanced boot loader options
Linux-OS
67
Configuring the Network and
Firewall
Specifying a network configuration
Linux-OS
68
Firewall (continued)
Will NIC be activated at boot time?
Manual IP configuration
Set IP address, Netmask, host name, gateway, primary
domain name space (DNS)
Automatic IP configuration via DHCP
Firewall prevents traffic from entering computer
Customize which traffic is allowed through
Linux-OS
69
Configuring a firewall
Linux-OS
70
Choosing a System Language
and Time Zone
Selecting additional language support
Linux-OS
71
Choosing a System Language
and Time Zone (continued)
Choosing a time zone
Linux-OS
72
Creating the Root User
Authentication: Users log in via valid user
name and password
Configure two user accounts
Administrator account (root)
 Full rights to system
Regular user account
Linux-OS
73
(continued)
Setting a root password
Linux-OS
74
Selecting Packages
Figure 3-19: Selecting

packages
Linux-OS
75
Installing Packages
Figure 3-19: Package

Installation
Linux-OS
76
Completing the Firstboot Wizard
Complete the installation
License agreement
Graphics settings
User accounts and authentication
Install additional software
Log in with user account for daily tasks
Shadow password: stored in separate DB
from user accounts
MD5: password encryption method
Linux-OS
77
(continued)
Setting the date and time
Linux-OS
78
(continued)
Configuring screen resolution and color

depth
Linux-OS
79
(continued)
Creating a regular user account
Linux-OS
80
(continued)
Configuring user information

Linux-OS
81
(continued)
Configuring authentication
Linux-OS
82
Installing Linux: Installation
Methods
FTP server
HTTP Web server
NFS server
Packages on hard disk
Boot from first Red Hat (Fedora) Linux CD-
ROM
83
Performing the Installation: Starting
the Installation (continued)
Beginning a Red Hat installation

84
Performing the Installation: Starting
the Installation (continued)
Press F2 at Welcome screen to get
installation options
Check media for errors prior to installation
Optional, but recommended
85
Choosing the Language, Keyboard,
Mouse, and Monitor
Keyboard model and layout
automatically detected
Check “Emulate 3 Button” if mouse
does not have third button
Most monitors automatically detected
If not, try to locate on list of monitor models
or use generic model with correct horizontal
and vertical sync
86
Mouse, and Monitor (continued)
Selecting an installation language

87
Verifying keyboard configuration

88
Selecting a mouse type

89
Verifying monitor configuration

90
Personal Desktop
GUI environment and common applications
Workstation
Same as Personal Desktop plus administrative
and network tools
Server
Several server services
Custom
91
(continued)
Choosing an installation type

92
Filesystems can be accessed if attached
(mounted) to a directory
Minimum of two partitions
Partition for root directory
Partition for virtual memory (swap memory)
 Area on hard disk used to store information normally
residing in physical memory (RAM)
Automatic or manual partitioning
93
(continued)
Common Linux filesystems and sizes
94
(continued)
Choosing a disk partitioning method

(continued)
The Disk Druid partitioning utility

96
(continued)
Creating a new partition
97
Boot loader: Program started by BIOS ROM
Loads kernel into memory
Can also boot other existing OSs
GRand Unified Bootloader (GRUB): Boot
loader configured during Fedora Linux
installation
Dual booting: Choose OS to boot at startup
98
(continued)
Configuring a boot loader
99
(continued)
Boot loader usually resides on the MBR or
on first sector of / or /boot partition
Kernel parameters: Information passed to
Linux kernel via the boot loader
Large Block Addressing 32-bit (LBA32):
Enables Large Block Addressing in boot
loader
For large hard disks not fully supported by the
BIOS
100
(continued)
Configuring advanced boot loader options
101
Firewall
Specifying a network configuration
102
Will NIC be activated at boot time?
Manual IP configuration
Set IP address, Netmask, host name, gateway, primary
domain name space (DNS)
Automatic IP configuration via DHCP
Firewall prevents traffic from entering computer
Customize which traffic is allowed through
103
Configuring a firewall
104
Choosing a System Language and
Time Zone
Selecting additional language support

105
Choosing a System Language and
Time Zone (continued)
Choosing a time zone

106
Authentication: Users log in via valid user
name and password
Configure two user accounts
Administrator account (root)
 Full rights to system
Regular user account
107
(continued)
Setting a root password
108
Selecting Packages
Selecting packages
109
Installing Packages
Package Installation
110
Complete the installation
License agreement
Graphics settings
User accounts and authentication
Install additional software
Log in with user account for daily tasks
Shadow password: stored in separate DB
from user accounts
MD5: password encryption method
111
(continued)
Setting the date and time
112
(continued)
Configuring screen resolution and color depth
113
(continued)
Creating a regular user account
114
(continued)
Configuring user information

115
(continued)
Configuring authentication
116
Local Login
Text mode login at Virtual consoles
Multiple non-GUI logins are possible through the
use of virtual consoles
There are by default 6 available virtual consoles
Available through Ctrl-Alt-F[1-6]
Graphical login
If X is running, it is available as Ctrl-Alt-F7
November 17, 2009 117

Linux Graphical Environments
XFree86: standard X windows System

GNOME – Desktop environment based on the
GTK+ toolkit
KDE – Desktop environment based on the Qt
toolkit
November 17, 2009 118

Shells, Terminals, and the
Kernel
Shells, terminals
119
Common Linux terminals
120
Running Commands
Command-line terminal may be accessed
from GUI environment
Command prompt:
Root user: #
Regular user: $
121
Running Commands
Command have the following syntax:
command [options] [arguments]
Each item is separated by a space
Case sensitive
Options modify the command’s behavior
Arguments are filenames or other
information needed by the command
Separated commands with semicolon (;)
Example: date;cal
November 17, 2009 122

Changing Your Password
Password should be changed after first login

From the Red Hat menu, choose
Preferances Password
From a terminal, use passwd
November 17, 2009 123

Shutting Down the Linux
System
Commands to halt and reboot the Linux operating

system
124
The Filesystem Hierarchy
Standard
Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS):
Standard set of directories for Linux and
UNIX systems
File and subdirectory contents
Gives Linux software developers ability to locate
files on any Linux system
 Create non-distribution–specific software
125
Standard (continued)
: Linux directories defined by FHS
126
Standard (continued)
Linux directories defined by FHS
127
Linux File Hierarchy
Concepts
The Windows filesystem structure
The Linux filesystem structure
128
Linux File Hierarchy Concepts
Directories may /
contain plain files
or other directories bin users tmp
Leads to a tree
structure for the doug rocket
filesystem
Root directory: / joke.txt cs2204
lab1.txt lab2.txt
November 17, 2009 129

Listing Directory Contents
List the content of a current directory or a specified
directory
Usage:
ls [options] [files or dirs]
• Example:
• ls
• ls /home
• ls –l
• ls -a
130
The Home Directory
Every user has a home directory, typically under
/home
Contain user-specific configuration files as well as

user data
Represented by the ~ character
November 17, 2009 131

Absolute pathnames
Absolute pathnames begin with a slash (/)
Complete “road map” to file location
Can be used anytime you wish to specify a file

name
November 17, 2009 132

Relative pathnames
relative pathnames do not begin with a slash (/)
Specifies location relative to your current working

directory
Can be used as a shorter way to specify a file name
November 17, 2009 133

pathnames
 Separate directories by /
 Absolute path /
 start at root and follow
the tree bin users tmp
 e.g. /users/doug/joke.txt
 Relative path doug rocket
 start at working
directory
joke.txt cs2204
 .. refers to level above;
 . refers to working dir.
lab1.txt lab2.txt
 If /users/doug/cs2204 is
working dir, this refer
to the same file as
previous one
November 17, 2009 134

Changing Directory
pwd displays the absolute path to the current
directory
cd changes directories
- To an absolute path: $ cd /home/issa/work
- To relative path:$ cd project/docs
- To a directory one level up: $ cd ..
- To your directory home: $ cd
- To your previous working directory: $ cd -
November 17, 2009 135

File names
File names may be up to 255 characters
All characters are valid, except the “/”
It may be unwise to use certain special characters in
filename
File names are case-sensitive
Example: MAIL, Mail, mail, and mAil
Again, possible, but may not be wise
November 17, 2009 136

Getting Command Help
Linux distributions contain many
commands
Manual pages: Most common form of
documentation for Linux commands
“man” pages
At command prompt, type “man” followed by a
command name
Contain different sections
137
Manual page section numbers
138
Getting Command Help
Examples
man ls
man 5 passwd (5 for section)
man passwd
November 17, 2009 139

Other Help Utilities
command --help
The whatis same as man –f
The apropos same as man –k
info
 Text based with sections organized by subject
 Command is info section_name
Gnome documentation
November 17, 2009 140

Copying files and Directories
 cp – copy files and directories
Usage:
cp [options] file destination
More than one files may be copied at a time if the
destination is a directory
cp [options] file1 file2 dest
November 17, 2009 141

Copying Files and Directories:
The Destination
If the destination exists and is a directory, the
copy is placed there with the same name
 If the destination exist and is a file, the copy
overwrites the destination file
If the destination does not exist, the copy is
created with that name
142
Moving and Renaming
Files and Directories
 mv – move and/or rename files and directories
Usage:
mv [options] file destination
More than one files may be moved at a time if the
destination is a directory
mv [options] file1 file2 dest
143
Moving and Renaming Files and
Directories: the Destination
If the destination exists and is a directory, the source
files or directory is moved there with the same name
 If the destination exist and is a file, the source file is
moved to that filename, overwriting the file
If the destination does not exist, the source file or
directory is renamed with that name
144
Removing and Creating Files
 rm – remove files
Usage:
rm [options] filenames
 -i interactive
 -r recursive (when removing directory)
 -f force
 touch – create empty files or update filestamps
145
Creating and Removing
Directories
 mkdir – make a directory
 rmdir – remove an empty directory
 rm –r – recursively remove a directory
and all of its content
Determining File Content
Files can contain many types of data
Check file type before opening to determine
appropriate command or application to use
Syntax
file [options] filename (s)
November 17, 2009 147

Viewing an Entire Text File
Syntax
cat [options] [file …]
Contents of the files are displayed
sequentially with no break
Files display “concatenated”
November 17, 2009 148

Viewing Files One Screenful
At a Time
Syntax
less [options] [filename]
Display the contents of a text file one screen at a time
less is the pager used by man
 Syntax
more [options] [filename]
November 17, 2009 149

bash Introduction
Bourne shell (sh) –original UNIX shell written
by Steven Bourne at AT&T
bash “Bourne Again shell “ Developed for
GNU project
bash The de facto standard Linux shell
Backward – compatible with Bourne shell (sh)
– the original (standard) UNIX shell.
November 17, 2009 150

bash Heritage
C shell (csh) – written by bill joy at UC Berkeley
Added many features such as command completion,
history and job control
Korn shell (ksh) – written by David Korn at AT&T
Bourne Again Shell (bash) Implements many of
the extra features found in csh, ksh
Command line completion
Command line editing
Command line history
Sophisticated prompt control
November 17, 2009 151

File Globbing
Globbing is wildcard expansion:
* matches zero or more characters
 ? matches any single character
 [a-z] matches a range of characters
 [^a-z] matches all except the range
Example
$ls /usr/bin/b*
$ls /usr/bin/?b*
$ls a[0-9]
$ls [!Aa]*
152
The Tab key
Type <TAB> key to complete command line:
For the command name, it will complete a command
name
For an argument, it will complete a file name
Examaple:
slo<TAB>
slocate
ls myf<TAB>
November 17, 2009 153

history
bash stores a history of commands you’ve entered,
which can be used to repeat commands
Use history command to see a list of
“remembered” commands: $ history
Use bang character !
!x execute last command begin with x

!2 execute command no 2
!! Execute Last command
154
History-2
Use the up and down arrow keys to scroll
through previous commands
Type <CTRL-R> to search for a command
in command history
(reverse-i-search)`’:
To recall last argument from previous
command:
<ESC>. Or <ALT-.>
November 17, 2009 155

Command Editing Tricks
<Ctrl-a> move to beginning of line
<Ctrl-e> move cursor to end of line
<Esc>f move cursor to beginning of next
word
<Esc>b move cursor to beginning of
previous or current word
<Ctrl-u> delete to beginning of line
<Ctrl-k> delete to end of line
156
Command Editing Tricks
Editing Modes
By default, bash uses emacs-style key
bindings for command editing
Type set –o vi
to change key bindings to vi-style
Make vi the default by adding the command
above to $HOME/.inputrc
November 17, 2009 157

Tilde
Hidden file begin with . for listing them use ls -a
Tilde (~)
Refer to your home directory:
$ cat ~/.bashrc
May refer to another user’s home directory:
$ ls ~issa/.bashrc
158
The bash Shell
Variable
A variable is a label that has a value
Variables are resident in memory
Tow types: local and environment
Local variables are used only by the shell
Environment variables are passed onto other
commands and shells.
 set to display all variables
 env display environment variables
November 17, 2009 159

Local Variable
Conventionally all upper-case
Setting variable value
$ CREDIT=300
$ echo $CREDIT
Common Local Variables
HISTFILESIZE determine how many command to be
saved in the history file on logout
COLUMN sets the width of the terminal
LINES sets the height of terminals
PS1 sets the prompt
November 17, 2009 160

Environment variables
Shell variables exist only in current shell

instance
Environment variables passed to subshells
Shell variables can be exported into
environment
$ CREDIT=300; export CREDIT
November 17, 2009 161

Common Environment variables
HOME Path to user’s home directory

LANG Identification of default language
program should use
PWD User’s current working directory
EDITOR default editor program
LESS options to pass to the command less
TERM terminal type
November 17, 2009 162

Environment variables
PATH colon separated list of locations where

commands can be found
which command (not variable) showing path
of executable
$which ls
Path to command can also be given explicitly
$ /bin/ls /etc
$ ./ls /etc
November 17, 2009 163

Aliases
Aliases let you create shortcuts to command

$ Alias dir=‘ls –laF’
Use alias to see all set aliases
To see alias value: $ alias dir
$ alias dir=‘ls –laF’
November 17, 2009 164

Variable and String
Parameter/Variable: $
Substitute the value of variable in a command line
$ cat $HOME/.bash_profile
$ echo $PATH
Curly braces: { }
A string is created for every pattern inside the braces
regardless if any file exist
$ rm hello.{c,o}
November 17, 2009 165

Command and Math
Command output: ` ` or $()
 substitute output from a command in a command line
$ echo “Hostname: `hostname`”
$ echo $(date)
Arithmetic: $[ ]
Substitute result of arithmetic expression in a
command line
$ echo Area: $[ $x * $y ]
November 17, 2009 166

Protecting from Expansion:
Backslash
Backslash ( \ ) is the escape character and makes
the next character literal
$ echo Your cost: \$5.00
Used as last character on line to continue command
on next line:
$ echo “This long string will be echoed \
back as one long line”
This long string will be echoed back as one long
line”
November 17, 2009 167

Protecting from Expansion:
Quotes
Single quotes (‘) inhibit all expansion
Double quotes (“) inhibit all expansion except
 $ (dollar sign) including $()
` (back tick), command substitution
 \ (backslash),single character inhibition
 ! (exclamation point), history substitution
November 17, 2009 168

Shell Startup Script
November 17, 2009 169

Shell Startup Script
November 17, 2009 170

Startup Script: order of execution
November 17, 2009 171

/etc/profile
November 17, 2009 172

/etc/profile.d
November 17, 2009 173

~/.bash_profile and ~.bashrc
November 17, 2009 174

~/.bash_logout
November 17, 2009 175

Overview of vi and vim
vi: the “visual editor”, standard Linux and
Unix editor
vim: the “vi improved” standard Red Hat
editor
On Red hat operating systems, the vi
command invokes vim
Derived from earlier Unix editors
ed->ex->vi->vim
November 17, 2009 176

Starting of vi and vim
To start vim : vi filename
If the file exists, the file is opened and the content
are displayed
If the file doesn’t exists, vicreate it when the
edits are saved for the first time
November 17, 2009 177

Three Modes of vi and vim
Command mode
Cursor movement
Change, delete, yank, put
Insert mode
Type in new text
Return to command mode with <ESC>
Ex mode
Configuring, exiting, saving
Search and replace
November 17, 2009 178

Three Modes of vi and vim
command
mode
wrong command
i ESC :
insert last line
mode Mode or Ex mode
November 17, 2009 179

Cursor Movement
Insert mode
h left, j down , k up , l right
w word ahead, b word back
Arrow keys also work
a append after the cursor
i insert before the cursor
A append to end of line
I insert at beginning of line
o open a line below
O open a line above
November 17, 2009 180

Command mode
<esc> takes you from insert mode back

to command mode
 cc change line, dd delete line, yy yank
(copy) line
 cw change word, dw delete word, yw
yank word
Use p or P to put (paste) copied or deleted
data
November 17, 2009 181

Undoing Changes
u undo most recent change
U undo all changes to current line since the
cursor landed on the line
<Ctrl-r> redo last “undone” change
November 17, 2009 182

Searching for Text
/text search downwards for “text”
?text search Upwards for “text”
n continue search in the same direction
N continue search in the opposite direction
November 17, 2009 183

Saving and Exiting: ex mode
:wq save changes

:q or q! abandon changes
:w save without exit
:e! abandon changes without exit
:wq! Forcing save changes
:w! Forcing save without exit
November 17, 2009 184

A few tricks
5dd delete 5 line (a number can precede any
of the tow character change, delete, yank, or
put command
x delete a character
rc replace a character with c
R replace character for character until
<esc>
November 17, 2009 185

Users
Every user of the system is assigned a
unique User ID number
User’s names and uid are stored in
/etc/passwd
User are assigned a home directory and a
program that is run when they log in (usually
shell)
Users cannot read, write or execute each
others’ files without permission
November 17, 2009 186
Groups
User’s are assigned to groups with unique
group ID number (gid)
gids are stored in /etc/group
Each user is given their own private group
They can also be added to other groups to gain
additional access
 all users in a group can share files that
belong to the group
November 17, 2009 187

The root users
The root user: a special administrative
account
Sometimes called the superuser
root has complete control over the system
 An unlimited capacity to damage the system!
You should not log in as root without a very
good reason
 Normal (“unprivileged”) users potential to do
damage is limited
November 17, 2009 188

User and Group ID Numbers
User names map to user ID numbers
Group names map to group ID numbers
Data stored on the hard disk is stored numerically
Authentication information is stored in plain text files:
/etc/passwd
/etc/shadow
/etc/group
November 17, 2009 189

System Users and Groups
Server programs such as web or print
servers typically run as unprivileged users,
not as root
Examples: mail, lp, nobody
Running programs in this way limits the
amount of damage any single program can
do to the system
November 17, 2009 190

Changing Your Identity
To change your password, run passwd
Insecure passwords are rejected
To start a new shell as a different user:
su
su –
su username
su - username
November 17, 2009 191

The Linux Security Model
Users and groups are used to control
access to files and resources
Users log in to the system by supplying
their user name and password
Every file on the system is owned by a
user and associated with a group
Every process has an owner and group
affiliation , and can only access the
resources its owner or group can access
November 17, 2009 192

Linux File Security
Every file and directory has permission set
that determine who can access it
Permission are set for:
The owner of the file (called “user”)
The group members
All others
Permissions that are set are called read,
write and execute permissions
November 17, 2009 193

Linux Process Security
When a process accesses a file the user
and group of the process are compared
with the user and group of the file
If the user matches, the user permissions apply
If the group matches, but the user doesn’t, the
group permissions apply
If neither match, the other permission apply
November 17, 2009 194

Examining Permissions
File permissions may be viewed using ls
$ ls –l /bin/login
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 19080 Apr 1 18:26 /bin/login
File type and file access permission are

symbolized by a 10-character string
November 17, 2009 195

Using Categories
File permissions are established for each of
three user categories. Each category also
has a one-letter symbol:
u - the file’s owners (user)
g - other users in the file’s group
o – everyone else (others)
November 17, 2009 196

File Permission Types
Four symbols are used when displaying
permission:
 r : permission to read a file or list a directory’s

content
w : permission to write to a file or create and
remove files from a directory
x : permission to execute a program file or
change into a directory and do long listing of the
directory
- : no permission (in place of the r, w, or x)
November 17, 2009 197
File Permission Types
November 17, 2009 198

Examining Directories
The first character in the long listing
distinguish directories (d) from regular files
(-)
$ ls –ld /bin
drwxr-xr-x 2 root root 4096 Apr 1 18:26 /bin
$ ls –l /bin/df
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 4096 Apr 1 18:26 /bin/df
Others file types indicators exist
November 17, 2009 199

Examining User Permissions
Characters 2,3, and 4 in the access mode
identify user permissions
$ ls –l /bin/login
-rwxr-xr-x 1 root root 19080 Apr 1 18:26 /bin/login
This file can be read, written, and

executed by its owner, and read and
executed by everyone else
November 17, 2009 200

Examining group Permissions
identify group permissions
$ ls –l README
-rw-rw-r-- 1 issa teachers 9080 Oct 1 8:26 README
This file can be read and written by

people in group teachers, but it cannot be
executed.
November 17, 2009 201

Examining Other Permissions
identify permissions for others:
$ ls –l README
-rw-rw-r-- 1 issa teachers 9080 Oct 1 8:26 README
This file can be read by people outside

group teachers, but it cannot be changed
or executed
November 17, 2009 202

Changing Permissions
Symbolic method
To change access mode :
$ chmod [-R] mode file…
Changes the access mode of files and directories
-R option: Change permission to directory and all
files and subdirectory inside it content
November 17, 2009 203

Symbolic method
Examples: try this example
chmod u+x file (or dir) , chmod o-w file(or
dir)
chmod g+wx,o=r file (or dir)
chmod u=rwx file (or dir)
November 17, 2009 204

Numeric method
Uses a three-digit mode numbers
First digit specifies owner’s permission
Second digit specifies group permission
Third digit represents other’s permission
Permissions are calculated by adding :
November 17, 2009 205

Numeric method
Examples:
chmod 755 file1 (dir1)
chmod 666 file1(dir1)
November 17, 2009 206

umask
Only applies to newly created files and directories
Used to alter the permissions on all new files and
directories by taking select default file and directory
permissions away
Will never be used to modify the permissions of existing files
and directories
Read and write for all is the default (666) for files and
777 for directory
Non-privileged user’s umask is 0002 and the root’s
umask is 0022
November 17, 2009 207

umask
Non-privileged user’s umask is 0002 and
the root’s umask is 0022
File will have permissions of 664
 Default Mode 666
umask -002
New File Mode 664
November 17, 2009 208

Performing a umask 007 calculation
209
Special Permissions
Special permissions: a fourth permission set (in
addition to user/group/other), Applicable in four
cases:
SUID (set user ID) for an executable, Processes are
granted access to system resources based on user
who owns the file.
SGID (set group ID) for and executable, Same with
SUID except group is affected.
SGID a directory: Files created in that directory will
have their group set to the directory's group.
November 17, 2009 210

Special Permissions
The sticky bit was used on files in the past
to lock them in memory
Today, the sticky bit performs a useful
function only on directories:
Sticky bit for a directory, If set on a directory,
then a user may only delete files that he owns
or for which he has explicit write permission
granted, even when he has write access to the
directory. (e.g. /tmp )
Special Permissions
November 17, 2009 212

Setting Special Permissions
(continued)
Representing special permissions in the mode
213
Numeric representation of regular and special
permissions
214
SUID Permissions(example)
When you login, your login shell process’ values are your user
ID and group ID
E.g., if you run passwd (owned by root), THE user ID is your ID, not
root; then how can it update /etc/passwd file owned by root ?
SUID bit enables this functionality
When an executable file with set user ID (SUID) permission is executed,
command run with permission of the owner of the command, not
executor of the command
File permission of /usr/bin/passwd is r-s--x—x
The SUID can only be applied to binary compiled programs
November 17, 2009 215

Files sytsems
Disk drives are divided into partitions
Partitions are formatted with filesystems
alloying users to store data
Default filesystem: ext3, The Third Extended
Linux Filesystems
Other common filesystems:
 ext2 , msdos, FAT, NTFS
 Iso9660(typically used for CDs)
November 17, 2009 216

Files sytsems(continued)
Filesystem has three main structural

sections:
Superblock: Contains general information
about the filesystem
 e.g., number of inodes and data blocks
Inode: Describes a file or directory
Data blocks: Data making up contents of a file
217
Inode
An inode tables contains a list of all files in an ext2 or ext3
filesystem
An inode (index nodes) is an entry in the table, containing
information about a file (the metadata), including:
File type, permission, link count, UID, GID
The file’s size and various time stamps
Pointers to the file’s data blocks on disk
One inode is associated with each file.

The system uses inodes as the definition of a file.
November 17, 2009 218

Directory
The computer’s reference for a file is the
inode number
The human way to reference a file is by
file name
A directory is a mapping between the
human name for the file and the
5 apples
computer’s inode number
4 oranges
7 home
2 .
November 17, 2009 219

cp and inode
The cp command:
 allocates a free inode number, placing a new
entry in the inode table
Create a directory entry, referencing the file
human file name to the inode number
Copies data into new file
November 17, 2009 220

mv and inode
If the destination of the mv command is
on the same file system as the source, the
mv command:
Creates a new directory entry, with the news
file name
Deletes the old directory entry with the old file
name
Has no impact on the inode table (except for a
time stamp) or the location of the data on the
disk: no data is moved!
November 17, 2009 221

rm and inode
The rm command:
Decrement the link count, thus freeing the
inode number to be reused
Places data bocks on the free list
Removed the directory entry
Data is not actually removed, but will be
overwritten when the data blocks are used
by another file
November 17, 2009 222

Linking Files
Symbolic link: One file is a pointer or
shortcut to another
Hard link: Two files share the same data
223
Symbolic (or Soft) links
ls –i for displaying inode number
A symbolic link point to another file
ls –l display the link name and the
referenced file
$ ls –l pf
lrwxrwxrwx 1 issa issa 11 Oct 1 8:26 ps/etc/passwd
 File type: l for symbolic link
Syntax
ln –s filename [linkname]
November 17, 2009 224
The structure of symbolically linked files
225
Hard links
Do not work with networked file systems, any
mounted devices, or any other file system
Only exist on same disk and partition as original
file
One physical file on the filesystem
Each link references the file’s inode
File is present in the filesystem as long as at
least one link remain
Syntax
ln filename [linkname]
November 17, 2009 226

Hard links
To see which files are linked—check inode
numbers
Two files with same inode numbers—
identical files
Any changes made to one file - reflected in
second file (true because files are linked)
To create links to files in different
directories first give read, write, and
execute permissions to other users
November 17, 2009 227

The structure of hard linked files
locate Command
Fastest way to search for file/s in entire
directory tree
 locate looks in pre-defined database
 Wildcards can be used with locate

command
 If database not updated cannot locate
files even if files are in system
find command
find command
Locates specific file or group of files
 Does not rely on a database
 Searches directory tree for files
meeting criteria specified
Searches recursively
Wildcards can be used in filename
statement
Ch 2 230
find command
 Syntax
find <dirs> [conditions] [action]
Recurses down in file tree in dirs
Optionally executes command on
each line of output
<Ctrl> + C is quick way to break
into command and stop it from
executing
November 17, 2009 231
some find options
Ch 2 232
Finding Examples
Example:
find . -print
 find
all files in the current directory (and all
subdirectories) & display the results
find . -name “*.c” -print
 find all files in the current directory (and all
subdirectories) with the extension .c & display
the results
November 17, 2009 233

Finding Examples
find / -name myfile -print
 Thiscommand tells the find command to
look inside the / directory and every
subdirectory to look for a file or directory
with the name myfile and to display each
match it finds
 find . -name “foo*” -amin -10 -print

 Thiscommand tells the find command to
look inside the current directory and every
subdirectory to look for a file with name
begin with foo that have been accessed in
the last 10 minutes and to display each
match it finds
Finding and processing Files
-exec action execute a command
 Syntax
find <dirs> [conditions] -exec cmd {} \;
“Found” files are passed to cmd as arguments

{} is a place holder for the filename
The escaped semicolon delimit the generated
commands
Finding Examples
Example: (for student)
find . -size +5000k

find . -name "*.tmp" -exec rm {} \;
November 17, 2009 236

whereis Command
 ls, locate, and find commands
used to locate files of interest
 whereis command
locates/displays locations of a
program, source, and manual pages
for a specific command
Ch 2 237
whereis Command
whereis command
 Faster than find command since
search path is built in
 More specific than locate
command
 Searching for files that are
programs
whereis
KEY CONCEPTS:
 Most binary Command programs
located in the /usr/bin directory
 Most documentation located in
/usr/share/man directory
 Cannot execute a command unless it
is in your search path
 Must have permission to execute a
command
File Compression
Results in smaller file size

Text files can be compressed up to
75%
Binary files usually don’t compress
much
File Compression
 gzip
 Compresses a file or files
 Compressed file renamed filename.gz
 Syntax: gzip [options] [files]
See option: –l -d
 gunzip
 Uncompresses a file or files
 Takes all of gzip’s options
 Syntax: gunzip [options] [files]
File Compression
 bzip2
 Compresses file/files
 Compressed file renamed to filename.bz2
 Syntax: bzip2 [options] [filenames . . . ]
 bunzip2
 Used to uncompress file/files
 Syntax: bunzip2 [options] [filenames . . .]
File Compression
zcat
Reads compressed files compressed
with gzip and writes them to
standard output
 Identical to gunzip –c
 Syntax: zcat [options] [files]

File Compression
Sample compression commands (for

student)
gzip termcap
gzip -v termcap
gunzip -c termcap.gz | wc –l
gunzip termcap
November 17, 2009 244

File Compression
KEY CONCEPTS:
 file no longer exist in home directory with
original name
 To see size of file when uncompressed pipe
output from zcat to wc command
File seen in red—compressed/archived file
 Can see contents of .gz file (must be text
file) with zcat command
Archiving Tools
Tape archive (tar) utility: One of oldest and
most common backup utilities
Can create archive in a file on a filesystem or
directly on a device
Accepts options to determine location of archive
and action to perform on archive
Archiving Tools
tar:
Used for archiving file/files
Often compressed
Easier to back up, store, and transfer
Used to create single file that when
unpacked creates a directory structure
 Software that has been processed by tar
and compressed by gzip usually has
extension .tar.gz, or tgz
Archiving Tools
Syntax:
tar [options] [tarfile] [other-
files]
tar cvf archive_name files

c create a new archive
v produce verbose messages
f archive_name is the name of new file
Options do need a leading dash
November 17, 2009 248

Inspecting Archives
Syntax
tar tf archive_name.tar
tar tvf archive_name.tar
First form display a list of all files in the archive

The v cause a long listing of each file in the
archive
November 17, 2009 249

Extracting an Archive
Syntax
tar xvf archive_name.tar
The archive will be extracted in the current
directory
Change to the target directory first
Files maintain their hierarchy relative to
the current directory
Compressing archives
Often tar archive are compress
tar can compress/uncompress archives
Compression switches- use during creation
and extraction
 z for gzip compression
 j for bzip2 compression
November 17, 2009 251

tar with Compression
file1 tar gzip
.tar .tar.gz
sub-
directory
November 17, 2009 252

tar to Unformatted Floppies
Floppies can used like tape drives
Low level format required
File system not needed
Use tar to write to the floppy
/dev/fd0 is the destination
Floppy cannot be mounted
Example:
$ tar czvf /dev/fd0 mydir
November 17, 2009 253

Standard Input and Output
Linux provides three I/O channel to
processes
Standard input (0): keyboard is default

Standard output (1): terminal windows is
default
Standard error (2) : terminal windows is default
Redirecting Input and Output
standard input, output, and error can be
reconnected to alternate locations
Shell redirection operators allow standard I/O
channels to be redirected to/from a file
Pipes allow standard I/O channels to connected
to the input or output of programs
Redirecting Output
In order to study redirecting standard
output, and error, we will use the find
command.
find /etc –name passwd
This command will search for all files
named passwd in /etc and its subdirectory
By default both the standard output and
standard error are displayed on the screen.
November 17, 2009 256

Redirecting Standard Output
Redirecting standard output with >
 find /etc –name passwd > findresult
standard error is still displayed on the screen.
If the target file of file redirection with >
already exists, the existing file will be
overwritten
To append data to an existing file, use >> to
redirect instead of >
November 17, 2009 257

Redirecting Input and Output
Redirecting Standard Error
Redirect standard error with 2>
Example : redirect standard error to a file:
 find /etc –name passwd 2> finderrors
Standard outputs still displayed on the
screen.
To append data to an existing file, use 2>>
to redirect instead of 2>
November 17, 2009 259

Redirecting Standard Error
Can redirect standard error to a
device called /dev/null
 Example: Redirecting error
message in find command
find / -iname gedit 2> /dev/null
November 17, 2009 260

Redirecting Both Standard
Output and Error
Redirection of standard output and standard error
can be performed simultaneously
 find /etc –name passwd 2> error > result
Each I/O channel can be redirected to different files,

or the same file:
 find /etc –name passwd > alloutput 2>&1
Or find /etc –name passwd &> alloutput
November 17, 2009 261

Redirecting Input
Redirect standard Input with <
Some commands only operate on standard input
tr doesn’t accept filenames as arguments- it require its
input to be redirected from somewhere
tr ‘A-Z’ ‘a-z’ < .bash_profile
This command will translate the uppercase character in
bash_profile to lowercase
November 17, 2009 262

Using pipes To connect
processes
Pipes (the | character) let you redirect output
from one command to become input to another
command
ls /usr/lib | less
The mail command takes the message contents
as standard input
ls –l | mail –s “here the listing” issa
November 17, 2009 263

tee
Let you tee a pipe: redirect output to a file
while still piping it to another program
set | tee set.out | less

Output from set command is written to file
set.out while also being piped to less
November 17, 2009 264

tee
Let writing to output and simultaneously
 date | tee file1 file2
Thu Jun 10 11:10:34 CEST 2007
 cat file1
Thu Jun 10 11:10:34 CEST 2007
 cat file2
Thu Jun 10 11:10:34 CEST 2007
 uptime | tee -a file2
11:10:51 up 21 days, 21:21, 57 users, load average: 0.04, 0.16, 0.26
 cat file2
Thu Jun 10 11:10:34 CEST 2007
11:10:51 up 21 days, 21:21, 57 users, load average: 0.04, 0.16, 0.26
String Processing Tools
head
head command display first few line (default : 10
lines) of text in a file
head /tmp/output.txt
Use –n or --lines parameter to change number

of line displayed
head –n 20 /tmp/output.txt
266
tail
tail command display last few line (default : 10 lines) of
text in a file
tail /etc/passwd
Use –n or --lines parameter to change number of line
displayed
tail –n 5 /etc/passwd
Use –f to follow the end of a text file as it changes
tail –f 5 make.out
Used to watch log files
267
wc
“word count” – also counts lines and characters
wc story.txt
39 237 1901 story.txt
Use –l for only line count
Use –w for only word count
Use –c for only character count
268
sort
Sort text to stout –original file unchanged
sort [option] file(s)
Common option:
-r Reverse sort to sort descending
-n Numeric sort
-f Ignore case of characters in strings
-u unique (remove duplicate lines in output)
-t ‘x’ Use x as field separator
-k pos1 sort from field pos1
269
sort
$ cat b
fish
dog
animal
bird
$ sort -r b
fish
dog
bird
animal
270
sort
Sort numeric file as text
$ cat c
5412 this line should go last
998 this line should go second
50 this line should go first
999 this line should go third
$ sort c
271
sort
Sort numeric file as numbers
$ cat c
$ sort -n c
272
uniq
Remove successive, duplicate lines in a file
Can use in conjunction with sort to remove all
duplicated (or use sort –u)
Use –c to count number of occurrences of
duplicate data
273
uniq
Just sorted: sort | uniq:
$ cat a | sort $ cat a | sort | uniq

bird bird
bird dog
dog fish
dog fly
fish
fish
fly
274
cut
Display specific column of file data
cut –f4 result.dat
Common option:
-f Specifies field or column
-d Specifies field delimiter (default is TAB)
cut –f3 –d: /etc/passwd
-c Cuts by characters
cut –c2-5 /usr/share/dict/words
275
cut
Example – output second word on each
line:
Delimiter: space “ “
Fields: 2
$ cat a
the quick brown fox
jumped over a quick brown fox
$ cut -f 2 -d ' ' a
quick
over
276
cut
Example – output characters 1-3, 5, 7-end
$ cat a
the quick brown fox
jumped over a quick brown fox
$ cut -c 1-3,5,7- a
theqick brown fox
jume over a quick brown fox
Example for student:

cut –f1 -d: /etc/passwd | sort -r | less
277
tr
tr command:
 Translates and/or deletes characters from
standard input, writing to standard output
 Takes input only from standard input
 Syntax is tr [options] string1 [string2]
Example:
 tr ‘A-Z’ ‘a-z’ < .bash_profile
This command will translate the uppercase
character in bash_profile to lowercase
278
paste
paste - merge line of files
Syntax:Paste file1 file2
Most useful when combining files with

columns of information
279
Version Comparison with
diff
Compares two files for differences
diff area.c /tmp/area.c
33c33
< x = y + 2;
----
> x = y +4;
33c33 indicated line where files differ
< indicates line in first file
> indicates line in second file
280
Formatting a
Document with pr
pr utility program:
 Converts text files into a paginated,
columned version
 If no files specified, pr read standard
input
 By default, pr formats files into single-
column pages of 66 lines
 To print in formatted form—pipe
formatted document to lpr
 Syntax: pr [options] [arguments]
Ch 7 281
Formatting a
Document with pr
282

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Operating Systems

Computers have two fundamental

November 17, 2009 3

Device Driver: Software containing instructions

November 17, 2009 4

November 17, 2009 5

The role of operating system software

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When Linux Kernel combined with

Linux is continually being developed by

Skilled programmers can submit additions

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• Series of Sectors addressed by

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Status Start FS End

Boot 2001 FAT16 3500

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P1: FAT32 P2: EXT3 P3: Extended

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Note: Windows XP requires extra steps here

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Note: You may need to temporarily disable your

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This works best, especially when the Host OS is using DHCP

Insert your install CD (DVD) and start the virtual machine

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Beginning a Red Hat installation

Viewing installation options

Selecting an installation language

Figure 3-6: Selecting a mouse

Verifying monitor configuration

Figure 3-8: Choosing an installation

Common Linux filesystems and sizes