MEASUREMENTS AND

INSTRUMENTATION
Prepared By
CHARLES S.
Course Synopsis

• This course introduces the

principles of instrumentation and
measurements. It explores the
working principles of DC & AC
meters, oscilloscope and signal
generators as well as the operation
and application of various sensors
and transducers
 SYLLABUS
UNIT – I STANDARDS AND INDICATING
INSTRUMENTS

• SI units – Units for charge, voltage, current, power, energy,

flux. Standards – Brief Introduction.
• Deflecting, controlling and damping forces in indicating
instruments –
• Moving iron : attraction and repulsion type instruments, errors.
• Moving coil instruments – Permanent magnet moving coil
instruments, Dynamometer type moving coil Instruments,
Torque equations, errors.
• Ballistic Galvanometer – extension of ranges, use of shunts
and Instrument Transformers.
 SYLLABUS
UNIT - II MEASUREMENT OF POWER AND
ENERGY

• Dynamometer type wattmeter – Torque expression,

Errors. Energy meters, Calibration of energy meters.
• Measurement of power using Instrument
Transformers.
• Maximum demand indicator, Trivector meter, Power
factor meter
• Power Analyzer.
 SYLLABUS
Unit III - BRIDGES

• Resistance measurement - Wheatstone bridge,

Kelvin double bridge, substitution method. –
Transformer ratio bridges – Measurement of
Earth resistance.

• Measurement of inductance and capacitance –

Maxwell’s Bridge, Anderson Bridge, DeSauty’s
Bridge and Schering bridge.
 SYLLABUS

UNIT - IV TRANSDUCERS AND MEASUREMENT

OF NON-ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

• Transducers – Classifications, Principle of operation of

Resistance potentiometer, LVDT, Strain Gauge and Piezo-electric
transducers.
• Encoders.
• Measurement of Pressure and Flow – Measurement of
Temperature: Resistance thermometers, thermistors,
thermocouples, optical and Radiation pyrometers.
 SYLLABUS
UNIT – V DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS

• Electronic voltmeter – Digital voltmeter of ramp

and integrating types.
• Digital Multi meter – block diagram.
• Block diagram of dual channel oscilloscope.
• Spectrum Analyzer.
• Signal and function generators.
• Harmonic distortion analyzer.
• Strip chart and X-Y recorders, Field Bus
Instrumentation.
 Introduction to
Instrumentation and
Measurements
 Measurement?

• The Measurement of a given quantity is

essentially an act (or) the result of
comparison between the quantity and
predefined standard. It expressed in
numerical values

• Measurement is the process by which one can

convert physical parameters to meaningful
numbers
Measurement?

Simple instrument method

 Measurement?
In order that the results of measurement are
meaningful there are two basic requirements

• The standard used for comparison purposes must

be accurately defined and should be commonly
used

• The apparatus used and the method adopted

must be provable
 Methods of measurement

1. Direct method :
The unknown quantity is directly compared
against a standard . The result is expressed as a
numerical value
e.g.. Length , Mass , Time
2. Indirect method:
Measurement of indirect methods are not
always possible, feasible, and practicable.
These methods in most of the cases are
inaccurate because they involve human factors
 Instrument and Measurement
Systems

• Measurements involve the use of instruments as a

physical means of determining quantities (or)
Variables

• In simple cases, an instrument consists of a single

unit which gives an output reading (or) signal
according to the unknown variable applied to it.

• In more complex measurement situations a

measuring instruments may consists of several
separate instruments. These elements may consists
of transuducing elements which convert the
measured to an analogues form.
Instrument and Measurement
Systems
Process Instrumentation System
Classification of the instruments

They are many ways in which instruments can be

Classified broadly

1. Absolute Instruments
These instrument give the magnitude of the
quantity under measurement in terms of
physical constants of the instrument
2. Secondary Instruments
These instruments are so constructed that the
quantity being measured can only be
measured by observing the output indicated
by the instrument
Measurement Standards

• Based on definition of the seven

fundamental SI units of measurement

• Categorized into four:

– International standard (SI)
– Primary standards
– Secondary (transfer) standards
– Working standards
Base Units of Measurement
Base Units of Measurement
Deflection type instrument

• The deflection of the instrument provides a

basis for determining the quantity under
measurement

• The measured quantity produces some physical

effect with deflects (or) produces a mechanical
displacement of the moving system of the
instrument

• An opposing effect is built in the Instrument

which tries to oppose the deflection (or) the
mechanical displacement of the moving system
Deflection type instrument

• The opposing effect is closely related to the

deflection

• The opposing effect is so designed that is

magnitude increases with the increase of
deflection

• The balanced is achieved when opposing effect

equals to cause producing the deflection.

• The value of measured quantity can be

measured from the deflection, at the point of
balance
 PMMC type Instrument

θ I
Td
Spring
Tc

Td = G.I [ where G is depends Flux density, number of turns are the moving coil

Tc = K.θ [ where K is the spring constant which depends upon the material and
dimensions of the spring
PMMC type Instrument

Advantages:
1. Uniform Scale
2. Since Driving power is small, Power Consumption is
Low
3. Due to aluminum or Copper former hysteresis loss is
absent
4. Using shunt or multipliers the ranges can be extended

Disadvantages:
1.Ac quantity cannot be measured
2. Compare than the PMMI, its costlier
3. Friction, Temperature, ageing of control springs might
introduce errors
 Null type instrument

• In this instrument, a zero (or) null indication

leads to determination of the magnitude of the
measured quantity

• A null type instrument attempts to maintain the

deflection at zero by suitable application of an
effect opposing that generated by the measured
quantity
 Null type instrument

a b

Sliding Slide Wire

Contact

DC Potentiometer
 Summarize the above two
instruments

• Null Type instrument are more accurate than

the deflection type instrument

• Null Type instrument is highly sensitive as

compared with the deflection type instrument

• Deflection type instrument are more suited for

measurements under dynamic conditions
 Damping Systems

• Definition:
The action of reducing the vibration of an object.
This tends to return the vibrating object to its
original position.

• The damping torque should be such of a

magnitude that pointer quickly comes to its final
steady position, without overshooting

1. Under damped
2. critical damped
3. Over damped
 Damping Systems

• The Damping device should be such that it produces a damping

only While the moving system is in the motion

• The effective damping torque should be proportional to the

velocity of the moving system
 Damping Systems

1. Under damped:
The moving system will oscillate about the final
steady state position with a decreasing
amplitude and will take some time before it
comes to rest.
2. Critical damped:
When the moving system moves rapidly but
smoothly to its final steady position, the
instrument is said to critical damped
3. Over damped:
If the damping torque is more than what is
required for critical damping, the instrument is
said to be over damped
 Damping Systems

The methods of producing damping torque

1. Air friction damping

2. Eddy current damping

 Air friction damping

When the piston moves in to chamber, the air inside is

compressed and pressure of air thus build up, opposes the
motion of piston

When the piston moves out of chamber , the pressure in closed

space Falls, and the pressure on the open side is greater than
the other side
 Eddy current damping

In Fluid Friction damping oil is used in place of Air

Viscosity of oil is greater

The damping force is also correspondingly greater

When the moving system moves, the disc moves in oil and a frictional
drag is produced

The Frictional drug always opposes the motion

 Eddy Current damping

• When a conductor moves in a magnetic field an emf is induced

in it if a closed path is provided, then the current flows, this
current known eddy current

• This current interact with the magnetic field to produce

electromagnetic torque which opposes the motion

• This torque is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field

and current product
TαϕαI
• The current is proportional to emf which in turn is proportional
to velocity of the conductor

I α emf α velocity of the conductor

 Electromagnetic Damping

• The movement of a coil in a magnetic field

produces a current in the coil which interacts
with the magnetic field to produce a torque

• This torque opposes the movement of the coil

and slows the response
 Moving Iron Instrument

• In moving iron are movable system consists of

one (or) pieces of specially shaped soft iron

• Which are so pivoted (central point) as to be

acted upon by the magnetic field produced by
the current in the coil

1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion type
Moving Iron Instrument
 Moving Iron Instrument

• A plate or vane of high permeability steel forms

the moving element of the system

• This iron van is so situated that it can be move

in a magnetic field produced by the stationary
coil

• The coil is excited by the current (or) voltage

under measurement
 Moving Iron Instrument

• When the coil is excited, it becomes an

electromagnet and the iron van moves in a
such a way so as to increase the flux of the
electromagnet

• This is because iron vane tries to occupy a

position of minimum reluctance

• Thus the force produced is always in such a

direction
1. Attraction type
2. Repulsion Type
Repulsion Type
 Moving Iron Instrument

Attraction Type Repulsion type

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Instrument [PMMC]
 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Instrument [PMMC]

The general theory of moving-coil instruments may be dealt with

considering a rectangular coil of N turns, free to rotate about a vertical
axis.
 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Instrument [PMMC]
• A moving coil instrument consists basically of a
permanent magnet to provide a magnetic field
and a small lightweight coil is wound on a
rectangular soft iron core that is free to rotate
around its vertical axis

• When a current is passed through the coil

windings, a torque is developed on the coil by
the interaction of the magnetic field

• The aluminium pointer attached to rotating coil

and the pointer moves around the calibrated
scale indicates the deflection of the coil
 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Instrument [PMMC]
• Principle of operation
It has been mentioned that the interaction
between the induced field and the field
produced by the permanent magnet causes a
deflecting torque, which results in rotation of the
coil.
1.Deflecting Torque

2. Controlling Torque

3.Damping Torque
 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Instrument [PMMC]
• Deflecting Torque

If the coil is carrying a current of .iamp ,

The force on a coil side = BilN (newton, N).

∴Torque due to both coil sides = (2r)BilN (Nm)

= Gi (Nm)

Where, GI- is the Galvanometer constant and it is expressed as

G = 2rBlN (nm/amp)
= NBA

(note A= 2rl -area of the coil.)

 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Instrument [PMMC]
• Controlling Torque

The controlling torque is directly proportional to

the angle of deflection of the coil.

Control Torque = Kθ

Where
θ – Deflection angle
K – Spring Constant Nm/rad
 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
Instrument [PMMC]
• Damping Torque:
It is provided by the induced currents in a
metal former or core on which the coil is wound
or in the circuit of the coil itself

As the coil moves in the field of the

permanent magnet, eddy currents are set up in
the metal former or core.

The pointer will therefore swing more

slowly to its proper position and come to rest
quickly with very little oscillation.
 Types of strain gauges

• Unbonded metal strain gauge

• Bonded metal wire strain gauge
• Bonded metal foil strain gauge
• Vacuum deposited thin metal film strain
gauges.
• Sputter deposited thin metal film strain gauge.
• Bonded semiconductor strain gauges.
• Diffused metal strain gauge.
Unbonded metal strain gauge
• Used almost exclusively in transducer
applications.
• At initial preload , the strains and resistances of
the four arms are normally equal, with the result
the output voltage of the bridge, e0=0.
• Application of pressure produces a small
displacement , the displacement increases
tension in 2 wires and decreasing the resistance
of the remaining 2 wires.
• This causes an unbalance of the bridge
producing an output voltage which is
proportional to the input displacement and
hence to the applied pressure.
Bonded metal wire strain gauge
• It consist of a grid of fine resistance wire
of diameter of about 0.025mm.
• The wire is cemented to a base.
• The base – thin sheet of paper or
bakelite.
• Wire is covered with a thin sheet of
material so that it is not damaged
mechanically.
• The spreading of wire permits a uniform
distribution of stress over a grid.
 Bonded metal foil strain gauge

Extension of the bonded metal wire strain gauge.

The bonded metal wire strain gauge have been
completely superseded by bonded foil strain gauge.
The local increase in area reduces the transverse
sensitivity which is a spurious input since the gauge is
designed to measure the strain component along the length
of grid elements
Metal foil strain gauge
 Semiconductor strain gauge.

The resistance of the semi conductors

changes with change in applied strain
The semiconductor strain gauge depends
for their action upon piezo resistive
effect. (i.e. the change in the value of the
resistance due to change in resistivity.)
Measurement of pressure and flow

• Measurement of flow
– It mainly operate on the principle of placing
on obstruction in the path of fluid causing a
change in fluid pressure which is dependent
upon the rate of flow

– Thus by measuring the difference in

pressure before and after the obstruction by
means of a differential pressure sensors, the
rate of flow may be determined

– The examples of these flow meters

Orifice plate, Venturi tube, Rotameter
•The turbine flow meter (better described as an axial
turbine) translates the mechanical action of the turbine
rotating in the liquid flow around an axis into a user-
readable rate of flow The turbine tends to have all the
flow traveling around it.

•The output is usually in the form of a digital electrical

signal whose frequency is directly proportional to flow
rate and whose total count is proportional to the total
quantity , as each pulse represents a discrete volume
 Temperature measurement

• One of the most common devices for measuring

temperature is the glass thermometer.
• This consists of a glass tube filled with mercury or
some other liquid, which acts as the working fluid.
• Temperature increases cause the fluid to expand, so
the temperature can be determined by measuring the
volume of the fluid.
• Such thermometers are usually calibrated, so that
one can read the temperature, simply by observing
the level of the fluid in the thermometer.
• Another type of thermometer that is not really used
much in practice, but is important from a theoretical
standpoint is the gas thermometer.
 Classifications

• Other important devices for measuring

temperature include:
• Thermocouples
• Thermistors
• Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• Pyrometers
• Langmuir probes (for electron temperature of
a plasma)
• Infrared
 Resistance Thermometers
• The resistance of the conductor changes when
its temperature is changed. This property is
utilized for measurement of temperature.
• The variation of resistance R with temperature
T can be represented by the following
relationship for most of the metals as
R=R0(1+α1T+ α2T2+…+ αnTn+………)
• Where R0=resistance at temperature T=0
and
• α1 ,α2,αn are constants.
• The resistance thermometer uses the change in
electrical resistance of conductor to determine
the temperature
• It’s a positive temperature coefficient.
R T
Requirements of a conductor material
to be used in (Resistance
Temperature Detector) RTDs are

• The change in resistance of material per unit

change in temperature should be as large as
possible.
• The material should have a high value of
resistivity so that minimum volume of
material is used for the construction of RTD.
• The resistance of material should have a
continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.
 Thermistors

• Contraction of a term “thermal resistors”

• Its composed of semiconductor materials.

• Used in applications which involve

measurements in the range of -60oC to 15oC

• The resistance of thermistors ranges from

0.5ς to 0.75 Mς
 Thermistors

Composed of sintered mixture of metallic

oxides such as manganese, nickel , cobalt,
copper, iron and uranium.
Typical resistance–temperature
characteristics of thermistor materials.
Applications thermistors

1. Measurement of Temperature

2. Control of temperature

3. Temperature compensation

4. Measurement of power at high frequencies

5. Measurement of thermal conductivity

6. Measurement level, flow and pressure of

liquids
 Thermocouple

• When two metals having different work

functions are placed together, a voltage is
generated at the junction which is nearly
proportional to the temperature. This
junction is called a thermocouple.

• A thermocouple or thermocouple
thermometer is a junction between two
different metals that produces
a voltage related to a temperature difference.
Construction of thermocouples
Measurement of Thermocouple output

• The output emf of a thermocouple as a result

of difference between temperatures of
measuring junction and reference junction can
be measured by the following methods

1. Measuring the output voltage directly with

PMMC
2. Measuring the output voltage with the help of
DC potentiometer
3. Measuring the output voltage after amplifying it
 Pyrometer
• It is a temperature-measuring device, originally an
instrument that measures temperatures beyond the range
of thermometers, but now in addition a device that
measures thermal radiation in any temperature range

• A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts

and measures thermal radiation, a process known
as pyrometry. This device can be used to determine
the temperature of an object's surface.

• These pyrometers find applications for temperatures

which are above the range of thermocouples and also for
rapidly moving objects
Optical Pyrometers

The Radiations from a heated body at high temperatures fall with in the visible
region of the electromagnetic spectrum

For a given wavelength in the visible region the energy radiated is greater at
high temperatures

Within the visible region a given wavelength has a fixed colour and the energy
of radiation is interpreted as intensity or brightness

Therefore if we measure brightness of the light of a given colour emitted by a

hot source , we can have an indication of temperature
Optical Pyrometers

• In an optical pyrometer the wavelength of

radiation accepted is restricted by means of a
colour filter and the brightness is measured by
comparison with standard lamp.

• An image of the radiating source is produced by

a lens and made to coincide with the filament of
electric lamp.
• The current through filament is made variable
so that lamp intensity can be adjusted.

• The current through filament is adjusted until

the filament and the image are of equal
brightness
Optical Pyrometers

• When the brightness of image produced by the

source and brightness produced by the filament
are equal, the outline of the filament disappears

• The range of temperature which can be

measured in the order of 1400 0 C

• Applications
1. Temperature of furnace
2. Temperature of molten metals and other
heated materials
 Radiation Pyrometers

Radian pyrometry measures the radiant heat emitted or reflected by a

Hot object

Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted as a result of

temperature

The radiation detector is either a thermal detector, which measures the

temperature rise in a black body at the center point of the optical system
Radiation Pyrometers

• Thermal detectors respond equally to all

wavelengths in the frequency spectrum, and
consist of either thermopiles, resistance
thermometers or thermistors.

• All of these typically have time constants of

several milliseconds, because of the time taken
for the black body to heat up and the
temperature sensor to respond to the
temperature change.
Radiation Pyrometers

• The operation of thermal radiation pyrometers is based

upon blackbody concepts

• The total thermal radiation emitted by blackbody is:

•
qb =σT 4 W / m2
where σ = Boltzmann cons tan t = 57.2 ×10−9 W / m2
T = absolutetemp0
 UNIT V

Digital Instruments
Digital Voltmeter [DVM]
• A digital voltmeter displays the value of a.c or d.c voltage
being measured directly as discrete numerals in the
decimal number system

• Advantages:

• It eliminates the observational errors committed by

operators
• Parallax and approximation are entirely eliminated
• Increase the speed which readings can be taken
• The output values we can store for future computations
by using memory devices
Digital Voltmeter

Types :

1. Ramp Type DVM

2. Integrating type DVM

3. Potentiometric DVM

4. Successive approximation type DVM

5. Continuous balance type DVM

1. Ramp type voltmeter

• The digital voltmeter is to measure the time that

a linear ramp voltage takes to change from
level of input voltage to zero voltage (vice
versa)

• This time interval is measured with an

electronic time interval counter and the count is
displayed as a number of digits on electronic
indicating tubes of the output readout of the
voltmeter
 Linear ramp type DVM
Input
Input Voltage Comparator
Ranging Start pulse
&
Attenuator

Read
Oscillator Gate Counter out

Stop pulse
Ramp
Generator
Ground
Comparator
Sampled
Rate
MV
Integrating Type DVM ( Voltage to
Frequency Conversion )
• A constant input voltage is integrated and the
slope of the output ramp is proportional to the
input voltage

• When the output voltage reaches a certain

value, it is discharged to 0 and another cycle
begins
• The frequency of the output waveform is
proportional to the input voltage
 Integrating Type DVM
R1
ei e0
Digital
Frequency
Meter

R2 er

Pulse
Generator
er Waveforms
at output of the
integrator

t1 t2
Pulse
Output of the
Pulse generator
Multimeter

• A multimeter or a multitester, also known as

a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is
an electronic measuring instrument that
combines several measurement functions in
one unit.

• A typical multimeter may include features such

as the ability to measure voltage, current,
resistance, etc……….
• There are two categories of multimeter,
1. Analog multimeter and
2. Digital multimeter
Digital Multimeter

• The current is converted to voltage by passing it

through low shunt resistance.

• The a.c quantities are converted to d.c by

employing various rectifier and filtering circuits

• While for the resistance measurements the

meter consists of a precision low current
source.
Digital Multimeter
signal generator

• signal generator is an electronic device that

generates repeating or non-repeating electronic
signals (in either the analog or digital domains).

• These instruments usually produce a fixed

frequency sine wave, whose output can be
frequency or amplitude modulated by another
signal.

• The instruments cover a frequency range of

0.001Hz to 50GHZ
 signal generator

Amplitude Output
Oscillator Modulation Attenuator
amplifier
Circuit Output

Detector
Input for
Frequency
Modulation

Feedback
Comparator
Amplifier
Input for
Amplitude
Modulation
signal generator

• Frequency Modulation
It is achieved by varying the voltage across
a variable capacitance diode in the tuning
circuit of the oscillator

This gives a system with low output

distortion, for modulation depths below 1% of
the carrier frequency

During the frequency modulation manual or

automatic methods may be used to keep the
amplitude of the output constant
signal generator

• Amplitude Modulation
It is most conveniently done by varying the
supply voltage to the oscillator

• Feedback – can be used to reduce to reduced

output distortion

• Output
To obtain the modulation envelop,
comparing this with the amplitude modulation
input, then amplifying and feed back the
difference as the modulation signal
Function Generator

• It’s a Versatile instrument that delivers a choice

of different waveforms whose frequencies are
adjustable over a wide range

• The outputs are

– Sine wave
– Triangular Wave
– Square Wave
– Saw tooth Wave
Simple Oscillator Circuit
Threshold Decision Oscillator
Function generator
Function Generator

• Features
– These various outputs of the generator are available
simultaneously

– Useful feature of the function generator is that it can be

phase locked to an external source.
– One function generator can be phase locked with
second function generator, the two output signals can
be displaced in phase by an adjustable amount.

– The function generator can be phase locked to a

standard frequency of the source.

– Output waveforms of the generator will have same

accuracy and stability as that of standard source
STORAGE AND DISPLAY DEVICES

Magnetic disk and tape

Recorders

digital plotters

Printers

CRT display

digital CRO

LED

LCD

Dot Matrix Display.
 Recorders

 A recorders records electrical and non electrical

quantities as a function of time.

 They are used for having permanent records. It

monitors continuously the condition state or value
of the process variable such as flow, force,
pressure, temperature, current , voltage, electrical
power etc.

 Current and voltage can be recorded directly while

the non electrical quantities are recorded indirectly
by first converting them to equivalent currents or
voltages with the help of sensors or transducers.
 Recording device

Analog recorders Digital recorders

Oscillographic recorders Magnetic tape recorders Incremental digital Synchronous digital

Graphic recorders

Strip Chart recorders

Galvanometer type

Null type

Potentiometric recorders Bridge recorders

LVDT recorders

X-Y recorders

Circular Chart recorders

Strip Chart

• Strip Chart Recorder are those in which data is

recorded on a continuous roll of chart paper
moving at a constant speed

• The recorder records the variation of one of

more variables with respect to time
Strip Chart

• It consists of
– A long roll of Graph paper moving vertically

– A system for driving the paper at some selected

speed (1 – 100 mm/s)

– A stylus for making marks on the moving graph paper.

The stylus moving horizontally in proportional to the
quantity being measured

– A stylus driving system which moves the stylus in a

nearly analog of the quantity being recorded
Strip Chart

Stylus
• Most recorders use a pointer attached to the
stylus
• So that the instantaneous value of the quantity
being recorded can be measured directly on the
calibrated scale
Strip Chart

• Most strip chart recorders use a servo feedback

system, to ensure that the displacement of the
pen across the paper tracks the input voltage in
the required frequency range

• A potentiometer system in generally used to

measure the position of the writing head

• The Chart paper drive system generally

consists of a stepping motor which controls the
movement of the chart paper at a uniform rate.
Strip Chart

• Basically it having three types of mechanisms

– Paper Drive Systems

– Marking mechanism
– Tracing systems

Paper Drive Systems

The paper drive system should move the paper at a
uniform speed
A spring wound mechanism may be used in most of
the recorders a synchronous motor is used for making marks on the
paper
Strip Chart

• Marking mechanism
– There are many types of mechanisms used for
making marks on the paper

1. Marking with ink filled stylus

2. Marking with heated stylus
3. Chopper Bar
4. Electric Stylus Marking
5. Electrostatic Stylus
6. Optical Marking method
Strip Chart

• Types of Strip Chart Recorders

– Galvanometer Type

– Null Type recorder

Galvanometer Type
Null Type recorder
Strip Chart
X-Y Recorders
 Oscilloscope
• An oscilloscope (abbreviated sometimes as scope or O-
scope) is a type of electronic test instrument that allows
signal voltages to be viewed, usually as a two-
dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential
differences (vertical axis) plotted as a function of time or
of some other voltage

• The CRO depends on the movement of an electron

beam, which is bombarded on a screen coated with a
florescent material, to produce a visible spot.

• If the electron beam is deflected on both the

conventional axes (i.e X-axis and Y-axis)
Oscilloscope

• The Oscilloscope is basically an electron beam

voltmeter.

• The heart of the oscilloscope is the Cathode

Ray Tube (CRT)
– Which makes the applied signal visible by the
deflection of a thin beam of electrons.
 Cathode Ray tube
Vertical
Deflection
Electron Gun plates
anode

heater
supply

- +
Horizontal phosphor
H.T. supply Deflection screen
plates
Cathode Ray tube

• The Electron gun assembly produced a sharply

focused beam of electrons which are
accelerated to high velocity

• The focused beam of electrons strikes the

Fluorescent screen with sufficient energy to
cause a luminous spot on the screen

• After leaving the electron gun, the electron

beam passes through two Paris of “Electrostatic
Deflection” plates
Cathode Ray tube

• Voltage applied to these plates deflect the

beam

• Voltages applied to one pair of plates move the

beam vertically up and down
– and the voltage applied to the other pair of plates
move the beam horizontally from one side to another.
–
• These two movements ( horizontal and vertical
are independent of each other and thus the
beam may positioned anywhere on the screen)
 summary
electron gun y plates x plates
produces a beam
of electrons light produced on
anode the screen by
electron beam

heater
supply

a p.d. across the y a p.d. across the x

-plates
+ deflects the plates deflects the
H.T. supply
trace vertically phosphor
trace horizontally
screen
Cathode Ray tube

• The main parts of a CRT

– Electron gun assembly

– Deflection plate assembly

– Fluorescent Screen

– Glass Envelop

– Base, through which connections are made to various

parts