News and Short Contributions

Author(s): Aron D. Mazel, Douglas S. Frink, Oscar White Muscarella, Martha S. Joukowsky
Source: Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Autumn, 1984), pp. 345-364
Published by: Boston University
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/529286
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News and Short Contributions
Field Report
ArchaeologicalSurvey of the Natal
Drakensberg,Natal, South Africa
ARON D. MAZEL
Natal Museum
Pietermaritzburg
SouthAfrica
In March1981 the authorcompleteda three-year
archaeologicalrecordingproject in the Natal
Drakensberg.Conservationof the archaeological
resourcesrankedas the primaryaim of the projectand
ca. 400 sites and 20,000 paintingswere recorded.
Thispaper outlinesthe aims and scope of the project,
the.fieldsurveyand recordingmethodologies,and
some of the morepertinentresults.
Introduction
A tremendouswealth of parietalart covers the walls
of rocksheltersin SouthAfrica. Researchof this arthas
a long andrichhistory.Thisresearch,however,hasbeen
primarilyof an academicnatureandit is only in the last
decade or so that professionalarchaeologistsand con-
servationistshavebegunrealizingthe conservationneeds
of this fragile, non-renewableresource.It is difficultto
comprehendthe reasonsfor the apparentlack of interest
in the conservationof the art, but it is certainlynot ex-
plicable on the groundsthat the art has not been van-
dalized or that there is general ignorance of this
destruction.Vandalismand degradationhave a history
almost as long as the studyof the art itself,' with little
1. For examples see P. Vinnicombe, People of the Eland (University
of Natal Press: Pietermaritzburg 1976) and V. Ward, "A Survey of
the Rock Art in the Natal Drakensberg: Preliminary Report,''
S.Afr.J.Sc. 75 ( 1979) 482-485 .
or no action to apprehend perpetrators. Even now with
the recent awareness that urgent measures must be taken
to conserve the art little has been achieved. One excep-
tion, which we hope represents the turning point in rock-
art conservation in South Africa, is a three-year project
completed in March 1981; it is described in this report.
This project had as its primary aim the conservation
of rock paintings in the Natal Drakensberg. The reasons
for initiating this project were clear: an advisory com-
mittee set up by the Directorate of Forestry2pointed out
that the Directorate lacked the appropriatedata on which
to base a long-term conservation program for the rock
art of the Natal Drakensberg. This advisory committee
suggested that to rectify this situation a comprehensive
rock-art recording project be initiated. Funds for such a
project were granted at the beginning of 1978. The Natal
Museum accepted supervision of the project and agreed
to provide the necessary facilities and working space.3
Papers have been published recently on the recom-
mended conservation program and various aspects of the
rock-painting research.4 This report deals with the aims
2. The Directorateof Forestryis an ann of the Departmentof Envi-
ronmentAffairsand is responsiblefor the conservationof the larger
portionof the NatalDrakensberg.
3. The NatalMuseumis the only institutionin the provinceof Natal
which has an ArchaeologyDepartment.
4. A. D. Mazel, "Up and Down the Little Berg: Archaeological
ResourceManagementin the NatalDrakensberg,"unpublishedM.A.
thesis, Universityof Cape Town (1981); idem, "Principlesfor Con-
serving the ArchaeologicalResourcesof the Natal Drakensberg,"
S.Af.Arch.Bull.37 (1982) 7-15; idem, "Distributionof Painting
Themesin the NatalDrakensberg,"Ann.N.Mus.(1982) 67-82; idem,
"Eland,RhebuckandCranes:IdentifyingSeasonalityin the Paintings
of the Natal Drakensberg,Natal, South Africa," S.Afr.Arch.Soc.
GoodwinSeries 4 (1983) 34-37; idem, "Towardsthe Conservation
of the ArchaeologicalResourcesof the NatalDrakensberg,"Lantern
32 (1983) 3-9.
346 News and ShortContributions

Figure 1. Flow diagram outlining the

aims of the project.

PHASE 1

Natai Museum records | ! Pubiication data | | Previous

v \>
DATA BANK Reduce data to e
< standardized format C n
Site data
Map piot
Written records
Visual records

PHASE 1 REPORT

Progress report
Proposals for Phase 2

PHASE 2

Ai MS OF Fl ELDWORK

DATA BANK Estabiish site localities

Fuiiy record sites
As per < Assess vaiue of rock art and
Phase 1 other archaeological remains
gather conservation information

PHASE 2 REPORT

Work summary
Recommend conservation program
Prescribe site monitoring system
Suggestions for future research

and scope of the project, the field survey, and the site-
recording methodology; it also details the more signiEl-
cant results.
Aims
The overriding aim of the project was to obtain ac-
curate and detailed information on archaeological sites,
concentrating on rock-art sites. Although these data were
primarily intended for conservation planning, it was also
noted that they would be of significance for archaeolog-
Area
The survey area extended longitudinally along the high
Natal Drakensberg from Royal Natal National Park to
Bushmans Nek. It is a long narrow belt between the
Lesotho/Natal border and the Administration Catchment
Boundary (ACB). The ACB is the cadastral boundary at
a slightly lower altitude than the Molteno Formation.
Occasionally sites in lower areas were investigated, eiier
because of their proximity to the ACB or because they
were in major access areas regularly visited by the pub-
lic.

ical research and would form a permanently stored rec-
ord. The project was divided into two phases,S and the
aims of these two phases are detailed in Figure 1.
5. Phase 1 lasted from June 1978 to March 1979 and Phase 2 was
fromJanuary1979to March1981. Phase 1 was doneby ValerieWard
and Phase2 by the author.
Figure 2 illustrates the position of the research area in
southern Africa and the different areas in the Natal Drak-
ensberg. The State forests are controlled by the Direc-
torate of Forestry and the national park game reserve and
nature reserves by the Natal Parks Board. The area be-
tween Royal Natal National Park and Cathedral Peak
State Forest is known as the Upper Tugela Location and
 Journal of Field ArchaeologylVol. 11, 1984 347
l

29°30 Figure 2. Position of the research area

29t
in southern Africa and the different
reserves in the Natal Drakensberg.

-29 0

29°0

ROYAL NATAL

a\s >

CATHEDRAL PEAK
L
MONKS COWL

GIA NT S CAS T L E

HIGHMOOR

. KAMBERG

MKOMAZI

F:Wg :::*
-
: ::w w-:w
t:-: ::*
.g....s
LOTE Nl -2930

.
2930 - VERGEL EGEN

- - - - COBHAM
==

GARDEN CASTLE

National Park

@ State Forest

* Game Reserve

* Nature Reserve

0 5 1,0 2 3,0km

l
} -

29°0
2go30

falls underthe authorityof the KwaZuluGovernment. Field Survey

Smallareasof privatelyownedlandabovethe ACB were
also earmarkedfor survey.6
6. Insteadof using the differenttitles that the landholdingagencies
have given to their areasthey will collectivelybe referredto as re-
serves
By no means was this the first rock-art survey project
undertaken in the Natal Drakensberg. It followed three
major projects and a handful of smaller ones. The major
projects were Vinnicombe's7 survey of the southern
7. Vinnicombe, op. cit. (in note 1).
348 News and ShortContributions
Drakensberg (south of the Giants Castle Game Reserve),
Pager's8 survey of the Cathedral Peak State Forest,
northernMonks Cowl State Forest and parts of the Upper
Tugela Location, and, finally, Lewis-Williams's9 survey
of the central and southern Giants Castle Game Reserve.
These projects and the smaller surveys that had been
conducted provided us with the knowledge that the re-
search area contained an abundance of rock-art sites and
that these sites were generally rich in paintings. At the
same time, however, it was evident that there was in-
sufficient information on the individual sites to integrate
them into a long-term conservation program. Therefore,
save for 17 rock-art sites recorded by Pagerl° in the Nde-
dema Valley, and which had been fully published, other
sites located and recorded by previous researchers re-
quired reexamination.
From the outset it was evident that it would be im-
possible to explore carefully and record in two years the
rock art of this area, which comprises roughly a quarter
of a million hectares. Consequently a system of priorities
was established. This was done on two levels: first, iden-
tifying on which reserves work should be concentrated
and, second, ranking the survey areas within the indi-
vidual reserves. On the first level, priority was given to
Directorate of Forestry land. These were followed by
Natal Parks Board land, the Upper Tugela Location, and
private land, in that order. Within these areas the survey
prioritywas towardsthe High IntensityUse Areas (HIUA)
and along current and proposed access routes in the Low
Intensity Use Area (LIUA) where the greatest threat of
vandalism exists.
Prior to the initiation of research in a reserve I had
extensive discussions with the resident management of-
ficials to ascertain the extent of the HIUA and further
within which zones in the LIUA the paintings were most
threatened. These areas were marked onto the survey
maps. On the basis of this informationthe priority survey
areas within the reserves were demarcated.
In those areas that had already been investigated the
survey priority was to relocate the known sites and to
search for new ones. Some of these areas had not pre-
viously been exhaustively investigated and as a result the
number of known sites in them was increased greatly.
There were also extensive areas that had been searched
on a very limited scale and had to be investigated from
scratch.
8. H. Pager, Ndedema: a Documentation of the Rock Paintings of the
Ndedema Gorge (Akademische Druck Graz 1971).
9. J.D. Lewis-Williams, "Believing and Seeing," unpublished Ph.D.
thesis, University of Natal (1977).
10. Pager, op. cit. (in note 8).
A total of 13 rock-art recording fieldtrips were under-
taken between late January 1979 and early December
1980. These fieldtrips were generally three weeks in du-
ration and were mostly done by the author alone, al-
though on occasion I was accompanied by students and
colleagues. Because of the relative inaccessibility of the
majority of areas in the Natal Drakensberg the overall
survey strategy employed was to establish a base camp
in the area to be covered and to work out of it on a daily
basis, returning to camp at night. Occasionally I stayed
overnight away from the base camp, especially when it
was inconvenient to walk back and forth over inhospit-
able terrain. The type of accommodation used as a base
camp varied considerably, and included private homes,
housing quarters provided for research and inspection
officers by the conservation departments, caravans
(housetrailers), and rockshelters far into the mountains
to where provisions and equipment had to be transported
on horseback.
Painted sites occur both in rockshelters in the various
sandstone bands and on large boulders that have become
detached from the sandstone bands. Rockshelters are
found in four sets of sandstone bands in the Drakensberg.
These are the Clarens Sandstone Formation, Elliot For-
mation, Molteno Formation, and Upper TarkastadGroup
(FIG. 3). The overwhelming majority of the painted rock-
shelters occur in the Clarens Sandstone and Molteno For-
mations with the occasional site in the Glen Elliot
Formation and Upper TarkastadGroup. No painted rock-
shelters have been recorded in the Drakensberg Basalt
Formation.
The searching strategy for these sandstone bands and
boulders varied according to the area, but, on the whole,
two approaches were employed. The first was to proceed
up one side of a valley investigating the more promising
rockshelters and detached boulders and then to return to
the departure point via the opposite side of the valley.
When searching the first side of the valley a constant
lookout was kept for potential sites on the opposite side
and these were noted and became priority sites for the
return trip. If no potential sites were spotted on the op-
posite side of the valley, and I was convinced that there
were no sites in that area, I would move into another
area or check smaller side valleys. Because rockshelters
might exist at varying altitudes, I often had to search the
sides of valleys in a zigzag fashion. The second search-
ing strategy, usually employed in areas where several
sandstone bands were exposed, was to search two or
three bands and boulders in their proximity on the way
out, and to investigate the outstanding bands and boul-
ders on the same side of the valley on the returnjourney.
As with the first method, this searching was done in a
zigzag manner and promising shelters on the opposite

Figure3. Schematicdiagramof the geology of the Natal
Drakensberg.
side of the valley were noted and then checked when
searchingthatarea.Figure4 shows a situationwherethe
Elrstmethodwould have applied.
Figure4. PoachersValley in the GiantsCastleGameReserve.
Journal of Field Archaeology/Vol. 11, 1984 349
A daily writtenjournalnotingthe routeswalkedand
areas covered duringthe survey was kept. In the final
project reportll detailed descriptions of the regions
searchedduringthe projectand lists of those that still
requireinvestigationwere presented.
Figure S shows the site locations and walk paths in
the Royal Natal NationalPark, one of the smallerre-
serves in the Natal Drakensberg.This reservewas sur-
veyed in a three-weekfieldtripin March 1979 and the
known numberof archaeologicalsites was more than
doubled.Note thatwhenlookingat FigureS all the sites,
except for one open-air site, are rocksheltersand the
sites' altitudesrangefrom4800 ft to 6550 ft.
Site Recording
The standardrecording document was the Site Report
form which was then being used by the Archaeological
Data Recording Centre (ADRC), South African Museum
11. Mazel, 1981 op. cit. (in note 4).
350 News and ShortContributions

Figure5. Mapof the Royal Natal

NationalParkshowingthe walkpaths,
archaeologicalsites, base camp, and
otherfeatures.

_ Park boundary

,-- Road

*..-- Wale path

g Rockshelter

X Open-alr site

* Base camp

JX, Contou r ev ery 400 feet

skm

Parks Board, and Natal Museum. Each site also was

and the Natal Museum.l2 This report form requires cer-
plotted on the standard1:50 000 topo-cadastralmap sheet
tain specific information, for example site category, map
references, etc., but leaves blank spaces for the direc- produced by the Trigonometrical Survey Office, Repub-
lic of South Africa and, where possible, on overlays of
tions to the site, and the site and archaeological (includ-
the 1:20 000 color aerial photographs of the area.
ing rock-art) descriptions. The written rock-artrecording
Extensive color slide and monochrome photography
system employed during the project essentially involved
was done. As far as possible the photographic record
beginning on the left-hand side of the site and working
followed the same pattern as the written descriptions.
right, describing each painting individually. Measure-
Both general panel shots and more detailed pictures were
ments of distances were taken when paintings were more
taken. Some 16,000 monochrome and color-slide pho-
than a few centimeters apart. Typed copies of these re-
tographs were taken during the project, and are now
port forms have been distributed to the Natal Museum,
housed in the Natal Museum.
the Directorate of Forestry, and the Natal Parks Board.
Limited tracing of selected paintings was done. These
A Management Data Questionnaire (MDQ), which
were generally of paintings/scenes of particular impor-
contained pertinent management questions, was com-
tance which would not show up to full advantage through
pleted on site. 13 This MDQ was formulatedby the author
photography. Initially Ozatex was used but during Phase
and representatives of the Directorate of Forestry, Natal
2 we switched to ordinary polythene (which is lighter
and cheaper) using permanent ink and a fine felt-tipped
12. E. Speed, The South African Archaeological Site Recording Man- pen for tracing. Those tracings that have been redrawn
ual (South African Museum: Cape Town n.d.). were done either in color or monochrome, depending on
13. Mazel, 1981 op. cit. (in note 4). the abilities and experience of the person doing them.

Labelsbearingthe site numberwere placedin the re-
cordedshelters.The reasonsfor this were twofold:first,
it would assist in identifyingsites in the proposedcon-
servationplan and, second, it would preventfurtherin-
advertentsite duplicationby recordersin the field.
Previousresearchwas characterizedby the frequentdu-
plicationof sites by independentrecorderswho gave the
same site contradictorylocations. This duplicationcre-
ated problemsboth in the field of locatingthe sites, es-
peciallywhenonly superficialsite androck-artdatawere
available, and then back in the Museumunscrambling
the administrativemess. GrahamAvery, of the South
AfricanMuseum, suggestedthe use of Dymo stainless
steel strips with the site numberspunchedonto them.
These strips, which are thin and no longer than 5 cm,
are inconspicuousandwere attachedwith epoxy resinto
the bottom left-handcornerof the site. If no suitable
spot could be foundfor them on the left-handside they
were glued to the right of the site, and this was noted
on the site report.By the completionof fieldwork341
site labels had been applied.
ProjectResults
Survey
Ca. 2,000 km were walkedby the authorduringthe
project, and Figure6 shows the areas surveyed.Three
pointsof significanceemergefromthis figure. First,the
majorityof the researchareawas investigatedduringthe
project;second, limited areas within the already sur-
veyed regionsstill requireinvestigation;and, third,there
are two large areas, the UpperTugelaLocationand the
centraland southernGiantsCastle Game Reserve, that
were not surveyed. Concerningthe second point, as
mentionedearlier, gaps in the regions surveyedwere
specifiedin the Final ProjectReport.14 It has been sug-
gested that these areas, which are LIUAs, should be
investigatedby residentmanagementofficialsas they are
not very extensive. This is not the case for the Upper
Tugela Location and Giants Castle Game Reserve for
which individualsurvey projectshave been proposed.
Little is known aboutthe rock art of the UpperTugela
Locationbut it is bracedby two rich rock-artzones and
predictablywill be equallyrich. As a resulta two-year
projectto surveythis areaand anotherareasouthof the
Natal Drakensberg,and which is to be appropriated by
the Directorateof Forestry,has been suggestedto that
Directorate.Althoughthe GiantsCastle Game Reserve
has been the focus of previoussurveysit still requiresto
be resurveyedso that the importantconservationinfor-
14. Ibid.
Journal of Field ArchaeologylVol. 11, 1984 351
mation on the individual sites can be upgraded to parallel
data on sites in the other reserves. To meet this goal a
five-month survey of the central and southern areas of
the reserve has been suggested to the Natal Parks Board.
Site Recording
When the project was begun in June 1978 there was
no indication of the total number of known sites in the
research area. By September 1978, and therefore four
months after the beginning of the project, 396 sites were
on record. This number was further increased to 473 by
the completion of Phase l . lS This included 433 painted
sites and 40 non-art sites.l6 At the completion of the
project the total stood at 604 sites, with 516 rock-art
sites and 88 non-art sites.
The establishment of, and increase in, the number of
sites during Phase 1 was primarily the result of careful
scanning of the published and unpublished literatureand,
to a lesser extent, of our being informed of sites by
people who had previously searched for sites in the area,
and through the location of new sites during fieldwork.
Increase of site numbers during Phase 2 was accom-
plished principally through locating new sites in the field
and our being informed of others by resident manage-
ment officials.
The increase in the number of sites was predictably
more marked in areas in which no detailed surveys had
been conducted. Thus in the Royal Natal National Park
and Monks Cowl State Forest in the northernhalf of the
research area which had not been subject to systematic
investigations the number of known sites was more than
doubled. On the other hand, only a handful of new sites
were located in the Cathedral Peak State Forest which
had been extensively surveyed by Pager and helpers.l7
Although the area south of Giants Castle Game Reserve
had been surveyed by Vinnicombe, the coverage was not
as thorough as she had originally planned (Vinnicombe
pers. comm.). Thus the total number of sites in that
region was increased by 46%, and in one area, the Cob-
ham State Forest, it was more than doubled, from 49 to
106.
Four hundred and twelve sites were recorded during
the project; 24 during Phase 1 and 388 during Phase 2.
All except for 19 of these sites were fully recorded.
Therefore close on 70% of all known sites in the Natal
Drakensberg were recorded during the project and 65%
15. V. Ward,op. cit. (in note 1).
16. Non-artsites wereusuallyrockshelterswithno paintingsbutwith
scattersof artifactson the surface,and occasionallyopen-airscatters
of artifacts.
17. H. Pager,op. cit. (in note 8).
 km

352 News and ShortContributions

29°0 29g30
Drakensberg.

-29 0
29°-

Reserve bou ndary

River

O A rea s u rveyed

29°30

29 30-

0 5 10 20 30

29°0 2 9° 30

of these sites were fully recorded.Figures7 and 8 show
the accuracyof mapplottingsandthe statusof site records
before the project, at the completionof Phase 1 and
finally at the end of the project.The rock-artand non-
art site data are shown separately.The two figures are
self-explanatoryandthe resultsclearlyindicated.Figure
9 illustratesthe state of site recordingin each of the
landowningareas, and Figure 10 the accuracyof map
plottingin these areas. A greaterproportionof sites in
Directorateof Forestryareaswere fully recordedthanin
any otherlandowningareas. This is understandable be-
cause fieldworkwas concentratedin them. In terms of
map plotting,however, thereis a greaterpercentageof
accuratelyplotted sites in the Natal Parks Board re-
 X1111 m....

Journal of Field ArchaeologylVol. 11, 1984 353

n - -

S PRE-PROJECT
400
E PHASE 1

2 PHASE2
300

200

100

-g o
ROUGH PART IAL NON E
PRECIS E APPROX U N KNOW N FULL c]
MAP PLOT RECORDING tr
:
o
m
C]
en z
Figure7. Statusof rock art sites.
tr tr <
< > D
n L ,, X
LL
tr X F D
N
o
11.
<: ir B
v
Z L

E PRE-PROJECT

n m PHASE1
60
-

[ml PHASE 2

50

40

30

20

10

o
F
PRECISE APPROX ROUGH UNKNOW N FULL PARTIAL NONE
wW - -

tr
MAP PLOT R ECO RDI NG :
o
m
Z
v 'I

Figure 8. Status of non-art sites. >

tr g
X
X
s
X
F X F D
N
tr R > <
o 6 tr g
+ Z L Y
354 News and ShortContributions

Figure 9. Status of site recording,

according to land ownership. S////// lllllllll
NONE PARTIA L FULL

t/////0 111111111

o/o n =4c I n=11:

n=22
100

90

80

70

60

50

{//////}
40

30

_
20

10

o
STRY NATAL PRIVATE
LU
KWAZU
FOREI
PARKS LAND
BOARD

serves, mainlybecauseof the assistancegiven by Natal CastleGameReserveandnorth.Viewedfroma different

Parks Board officials and Dr. J.D. Lewis-Williamsin
the plottingof sites in the GiantsCastleGameReserve.
Paintings
A total of 20,668 paintingswere recordedduringthe
project;1,801 duringPhase 1, and 18,867 duringPhase
2. Of these, 3,748 paintings(18%) were from newly
recordedsites with 2,529 (67%)of them from south of
GiantsCastleGameReserveand 1,219 (23%)fromGiants
perspectivethe total numberof paintingswas increased
by 6% in the northand ca. 20% in the south.
To get an idea of the totalnumberof knownpaintings
in the NatalDrakensbergthe numberof paintingsPagerl8
countedin sites not recordedduringthe projectin the
CathedralPeak and Monks Cowl State Forests and
Hughes's counts from the GiantsCastleGame Reserve
18. Ibid.
 Journal of Field ArchaeologylVol. 11, 1984 355

Figure 10. Status of map plotting,

t/////S lllllllll according to land ownership.
UNKNOW N ROUGH APPROX . PRECISE

a111111111
o/o
n =451 n-112 n=19
100
m////X
90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

o
FORESTR'y QATA PR IVATE KWAZUI
Lu
'ARK L LAND
e 30AR
DS
D

will be added to the projecttotal. Pagerl9recordedan Discussion and Conclusion

extra 7,645 paintingsand Hughes an additional1,561.
Added to those recordedduringthe projectthe total is
29,874. If one could add the numberof paintingsfrom
Vinnicombe'sand Lewis-Williams'ssites, not recorded
duringthe projectand for which we have no exact fig-
ures, the total would definitelyregisterover 30,000.
19. Ibid.
The stimulusfor the projectcame fromthe realization
by the Directorateof Forestrythat they lacked the data
on which to formulatean archaeologicalconservation
programfor the Natal Drakensberg.In this respect it
shouldbe stressedthatit is not adequatemerelyto know
that a site exists and have a vague idea of its locality,
but for it to be adequatelyprotectedit is necessaryto
have detailed informationon the site's archaeological
content, know its exact location and, finally, have the
356 News and ShortContributions
appropriate managementdata.It is foolhardyandindeed
irresponsibleto announcethat one is going to conserve
the archaeologicalresourcesof an area without infor-
mationof the above-statednatureanda carefullydevised
program.In this regard,the pertinentinformationwas
recordedfrom ca. 450 sites during the project and a
detailedarchaeologicalconservationprogrambased on
that informationproposed. The managementranking
scheme was formulatedin such a mannerthat sites will
be able to be rankedprovisionallyby residentmanage-
ment officials and thus be includedin the conservation
programpriorto theirhavingbeen visited by an archae-
ologist. These sites shouldbe visitedby an archaeologist
at the first possible opportunity,and be given a final
managementassessment.Thus, althoughthe projectwas
completedin March 1981, the basis has been laid for
sites to be continuallyincludedin the managementpro-
gram.20
A questionoftenposedto me beforeI surveyedcertain
areas was: "But surely this area has been investigated
before is there a need to cover it again?". Here, the
results speak for themselves. Besides the facts that the
numberof known sites in the Natal Drakensbergwas
increasedby roughly25% andthatin some reservesthe
numberof sites has morethandoubled,and the number
of knownpaintingsincreasedby just under15%,Figures
7 and 8 clearly indicatethe increasein the numberof
fully recordedand accuratelyplottedsites. Thus, while
the majorityof sites were known at the completionof
Phase 1, the informationessentialfor conservationplan-
ning was not available.Thereis a cogentmessagein this
knowledgefor archaeologistsand conservationplanners
bothin SouthAfricaandelsewhere.Beforethe planning
of an archaeological conservation program,muchthought
mustbe given to the questionof whetheror not thereare
adequatedataon which to base it. I am doubtfulthat, at
this point in time, thereis sufficientarchaeologicaland
otherdatain areasof SouthAfrica, except for the Natal
Drakensbergand perhapslimited areasof the sw Cape,
on which to devise a conservationplan, especially in
view of the fact thatthe Natal Drakensbergwas always
regardedas a well surveyedarea with its rock-artsites
relativelywell known.
Despite the conservationbias of the projectthe infor-
mation recordedhas great researchpotential.Informa-
tion on rock art, site distributionpatterns,archaeological
deposits, and surfacescattersof artifactsfrom over 600
sites in the Natal Drakensbergis on recordat the Natal
Museum. Already some of this informationhas been
20. Fora descriptionof the archaeologicalconservationprogrampro-
posed for the Natal Drakensberg,see Mazel, 1981 op. cit. (in note
4).
used in rock-art research articles,2l in directing research-
ers to sites in the area, and as a guide to promising
deposits and large scatters of surface artifacts. With re-
gard to rock art, the two papers published not only shed
new light on ffie rock art of ffie Natal Drakensbergwhich,
as mentioned above, was thought to be well known, but
have also highlighted avenues of future research in this
area and elsewhere. What has emerged from these two
papers and the research in general, is that in order to
obtain a clear picture of an area's art content it is essen-
tial that extensive and detailed studies be undertaken. Of
further note is that preliminary research on site distn-
bution patterns indicates how the grouping of sites may
have been influenced by local nver drainage systems,
and this is the subject of ongoing research. However, by
no means has the study of the rock art and other data
recorded during the project been exhausted; in fact, they
have hardly been touched, and these data are available
to bona fide researchers.
21. Mazel, 1982 and 1983 op. cit. (in note 4).
AronD. Mazel is a graduateof the Universityof Cape
Townwherehe obtainedan M.A. degree in
Archaeologyin 1981. At present he is a Senior
ProfessionalOfficerin the Departmentof Archaeology,
Natal Museum,Loop Street,Pietermaritzburg 3201,
SouthAfrica. His currentresearchon the LaterStone
Age of the TugelaBasin will serve as the basis of his
Ph.D. thesis.
Special Study
Artifact Behavior within the Plow Zone
DOUGLAS S. FRINK
Universityof Connecticut,Storrs
Surfacecollectionsat two sites in NE Connecticutwere
conductedfor three consecutiveyearsfollowing
plowing. Conclusionswere drawnconcerningthe
representativenessof surfacecollectionsand the kinds
of archaeologicalinferencesthat can be validly
deduced.Estimatescan be made concerningsite size
and artifactdensitywithinthe plow zone, but
inferencesconcerningsite functionand cultural
associationcannotbe adequatelydrawnfrom such a
sample. Experimentallaws governingthe physical
behaviorof artifactswithinthe plow zone are

presented.These experimentallaws cover vertical
displacement,horizontaldisplacement,and vertical
distributionof artifactswithinthe plow zone.
Introduction
Archaeologists have long recognized that agricultural
activities such as plowing disturb the archaeological rec-
ord of a site. Until recently, however, little empirical
analysis has been brought to bear on the question of how
plowing disturbs this record. Plog et al., recognizing this
fact, declared that "until we more adequately understand
the effect of this transformation process, the circum-
stances under which particularapproaches to working in
plow-zone situations should be taken will remain un-
clear. s s1 This paper presents several hypotheses focusing
on how plowing affects the archaeological record, and
examines some of the limitations upon archaeological
inferences that can be made from the data obtained from
these plow-disturbed sites.
Recent research in the field of "plow-zone" archae-
ology falls into four general areas of inquiry; 1) vertical
displacement of artifacts, 2) horizontal displacement of
artifacts, 3) plow breakage of artifacts, and 4) interpre-
tation of surface collections obtained from plowed fields.
By far the greatest emphasis of recent research has con-
centrated on horizontal displacement of artifacts and
interpretationof surface collections obtained from plowed
fields.
Roper measured the horizontal displacement of arti-
facts at the Airport site, Springfield, Illinois, and found
that artifact displacement was negligible within a 3-sq-
m area.2 Reynolds, at the Butser Ancient Farm Project,
Petersfield, Hants, England, used marked, synthetic ar-
tifacts to measure horizontal artifact movement resulting
from plowing.3 Movement was found to be random and
step-like (stochastic) from the original positions. Through
time, artifact movement was described as following a
normal distribution with 68So of the population posi-
tioned within one standard deviation of the original po-
sition and only lSo moving beyond three standard
deviations.
Redman and Watson first evaluated the correspon-
dence between cultural debris lying on the surface of a
1. S. Plog et al., "Decision Making in Modern Surveys," in M. B.
Schiffer, ed., Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 1 (Ac-
ademic Press: New York 1978) 416.
2. D. C. Roper, "Lateral Displacement of Artifacts Due To Plow-
ing," AmAnt 41 (1976) 372-375.
3. P. J. Reynolds, "The Ploughzone," Festschrift zum lOOjahrigen
Bestehen der Abteilung fur Vorgeschichte (Naturhistorische Gesell-
schaft: Nurnberg 1982) 315-340.
Journal of Field ArchaeologylVol . 11, 1984 357
site and what was found buned below the surface, at two
mound sites in Diyarbakir Vilayet, Turkey.4 Binford, at
the Hatchery West site, S Flannery at the Coapexco site,6
and others have duplicated this approach. All found rea-
sonably high correspondence between surface artifact
distribution and subsoil features in plow-disturbed sites.
Two studies evaluating artifact damage resulting from
plowing have recently appeared.Mallouf evaluated plow-
damaged chert artifacts from the Brookeen Creek Cache
site, Texas, and produced a typology of fracturepatterns
attributable to plow actions.7 Reynolds evaluated plow
damage to pottery sherds and found that much of the
damage was the result of secondary causes, such as frost
action, precipitated by plowing.8
Vertical dislocation of artifactsbecause of plowing has
received very little attention. Again, from the experiment
using the marked, synthetic artifacts, Reynolds was able
to deduce that plowing distributes the artifacts so that
1/6 of the total number of artifacts contained within the
plow zone appeared on the surface after plowing.9 In
another experiment,l° this figure was tested using actual
pottery sherds collected from the soil surface after plow-
ing over a four-year period. A decrease in total number
of artifacts collected from the surface of 16 2/3% per
year demonstrated that this distribution is maintained
through subsequent plowings. Lewarch and Obrien mea-
sured the frequency of artifacts according to size as they
occurred on the plowed surface and found a higher per-
cent of large objects than small objects were recovered
after plowing,ll empirically validating the "size effect"
phenomena referred to in other studies. 12
4. C. L. Redman and P. J. Watson, ''Systematic, Intensive Surface
Collection," AmAnt 35 (1970) 279-291.
5. L. R. Binford et al., "Archaeology at Hatchery West, Carlyle,
Illinois," SAAMemNo. 24 (1970) 7-15.
6. K. V. Flannery, "Sampling by Intensive Surface Collection," in
K. V. Flannery, ed., The Early Mesoamerican Village (Academic
Press: New York 1976) 51-62.
7. R. J. Mallouf, "An Analysis of Plow-damaged Chert Artifacts:
The Brookeen Creek Cache (41HI86), Hill County, Texas," JFA 9
(1982) 79-98.
8. Reynolds, loc. cit. (in note 3) 316.
9. Ibid. 332.
10. Ibid. 332.
11. D. E. Lewarch and M. J. Obrien, "Effect of Short Term Tillage
on Aggregate Provenience Surface Pattern," in J. O. Obrien and
D. E. Lewarch, eds., Plowzone Archeology: Publications in Anthro-
pology No . 2 7 (Vanderbilt University 1981) 7-49.
12. E. D. Stockton, "Shaw's Creek Shelter: Human Displacement
of Artifacts and its Significance," Mankind 9 (1973) 112-117; C. M.
Baker and M. B. Schiffer, "Archeological Evidence for the Size
Effect," in C. M. Baker, ed., The Arkansas Eastman Archeological
358 News and ShortContributions
Description of the Experiment
Archaeological survey work conducted by this author
in NE Connecticut has provided an opportunityfor further
investigation of the disturbanceprocesses of plowing and
its effect on artifact distribution. Two sites, each having
several cluster areas of artifacts, were collected from the
surface after plowing for three consecutive years, 1981-
1983. The Bluebird site (6-WM-63-001) is a multicom-
ponent, Middle through Late Archaic period site, and
the Flicker site (6-TO-78-20) is a multicomponent, Late
Archaic through Early Woodland period site.
The soils from both sites are sandy loams, character-
ized as being very friable, non-plastic, non-sticky, well
drained soils, well suited to agricultural activities. The
soil from the Bluebird site is a "Hinckley gravelly sandy
loam, 3 to 15% slope," developed over glacial outwash
materials; the soil of the Flicker site is a "Paxton fine
sandy loam, 3 to 8So slope, " developed over basal till. 13
During the three years of this study both sites were
planted in silage corn. Agricultural field preparations
consisted of contour plowing and disking before annual
spring planting. Because of the well drained and friable
nature of these two soils, the techniques of deep plowing
and chisel plowing have never been used and agricultural
disturbances of these soils, therefore, have been limited
to the upper 10 inches.
This study is designed to address two issues of "plow-
zone" archaeology. First, the validity of interpretations
made from surface collections obtained from plowed
fields is tested. Surface scatter of artifacts on open ag-
ricultural fields is often used to locate and identify sites
during survey work. These surface scatters, however, are
only a sampling of the artifactpopulation of the site. The
representativeness, quality, and percent of this sample
are herein investigated. Secondly, the results obtained
by Reynold's studies on vertical displacement of artifacts
are tested and expanded to examine artifact variability in
order to discern which physical attribute(s) relate to this
phenomenon.
Bone, pottery, and other refuse were not evident at
either site, and so lithic artifacts provided the sole basis
for analysis.
Thorough and intensive surface surveys of both sites
Project:ArkansasArcheologicalSurvey,ResearchReportNo. 6 (1975)
117-122;c. M. Baker, "The Size Effect: An Explanation of Varia-
bility in Surface Artifact Assemblage Content," AmAnt43 (1978)
288-293;D. P. Gifford, "Ethnoarchaeological Observations of Nat-
ural Processes Affecting Cultural Materials," in R. Gould, ed., Explo-
rationsin Ethnoarchaeology (Schoolof American Research, University
of New Mexico Press: Albuquerque 1979)77-lol .
13. Soil Surveyof Windhamand TollandCounties(U.S.D.A., Soil
1981).
Conservation Service
were conducted of the entire plowed field to describe all
evident artifact cluster areas, and to collect these arti-
facts. Multiple collections in clear, sunny weather as
well as rainy weather were conducted to insure complete
removal of all visually apparentartifacts.
Artifacts were provenienced according to site, cluster
area, and year of collection. Analysis was designed to
ascertain both cultural attributes(choice of lithic material
and tool typology), and physical attributes that might
demonstrate response to plowing (length, width, thick-
ness, and weight).
The patternsof information discernible from the plow-
disturbed archaeological record were then extended to
formulate experimental laws (hypotheses) covering both
the qualitative, archaeological inferences, and the quan-
titative, physical inferences that can be made from sur-
face collections of plow-disturbed sites.
Plog et al. argue that in defining a site two criteria
must be met. 14
A site is a discrete and potentiallyinterpretablelocus of
culturalmaterials.By discrete,we mean spatiallybounded
with those boundariesmarkedby at least relativechanges
in artifactdensities.By interpretable
we meanthatmaterials
of sufficientlygreatqualityand quantityare presentfor at
least attemptingandusuallysustaininginferencesaboutbe-
havioroccurringat the locus.
The present study addressesthe interpretabilityof these
two sites, and by extension other similar sites in New
England, based on surface collections.
The usefulness of qualitative archaeological inferences
was tested by two correlation procedures. The Presence-
Absence correlationtest measured the predictabilityvalue
in terms of population variability of the collected artifact
inventory. The artifact inventory can be partitioned into
culturally derived types. A quartz flake with dimensions
equal to a quartz projectile point would be indistinguish-
able in a purely physical evaluation. The distinction is
evident, however, and it is precisely from these cultur-
ally derived variables that archaeological inferences are
deduced. An artifact population lacking in projectile
points and scrapers, but containing choppers and pestles,
would suggest to the archaeologist a plant-processing site
as opposed to a hunting-butcheringsite.
The Brainard-Robinson correlation test measured the
predictability value of the population distribution of the
collected artifacts. The relative number of examples from
each variable class is another important factor in the
deduction of archaeological inferences. An artifact in-
ventory dominated by flint (a material exotic to this area
of New England) would suggest a culture organized for
I4. Plog et al., op. cit. (in note 1) 389.

trade. An artifact inventory dominated by quartz (abun-
dant in this area) would suggest cultural isolation.ls
These two procedures provide a statistical test of the
representativeness of the sample collected from the sur-
face, and, as such, a measure of the degree of confidence
that can be placed in these kinds of archaeological in-
ferences.
The usefulness of quantitative,physical inferences was
tested by linear regression. The numbers of artifacts per
cluster, per year, were evaluated to test the predictability
value of vertical distribution of artifacts within the plow
zone. The physical attributesof length, width, thickness,
and weight were employed to discern which of these
factors affect this distribution.
Results
The coefficients of similarity for both the Bluebird and
the Flicker sites are given in Table 1, for the Presence-
Absence correlation test, and Table 2, for the Brainard-
Robinson correlation test. In the Presence-Absence pro-
cedure, higher numbers indicate greater correlation with
100 signifying complete correlation. The same is true
with the Brainard-Robinson procedure except that 200
signifies complete correlation. The types included in this
study are quartz flakes, points, tools; quartzite flakes,
points, tools; flint flakes, points, tools; oier lithic flakes,
points, and tools.
From the Presence-Absence test data, the Bluebird site
yielded two cases out of 26 where the highest coefficient
of similarity belonged to samples from the same cluster.
These were BB- 1-82 and BB- 1-83 . The Flicker site
yielded nine out of 30 cases where the highest coefficient
of similarity belonged to samples from the same cluster.
It should be noted, however, that cluster F1-2 which ac-
counts for six of the nine cases has yielded a total of
only five quartz flakes over the three year period, thus
giving the appearanceof greatercorrelation. The average
total number of artifacts from the other clusters is 32.
From the Brainard-Robinson test data, the Bluebird
site yielded two cases out of 18 and the Flicker site
yielded seven cases out of 23 where the highest coeffi-
cient of similarity belonged to samples from the same
cluster. Again, cluster F1-2 represents six of the seven
cases in the Flicker site.
It is evident from these two procedures that the con-
stituent elements that compose the inventory of individ-
ual surface artifacts differ from year to year. Surface
collections from sites like these do not represent an ad-
equate statistical sample of culturally derived variables.
15. D. F. Dincauze, "The Late ArchaicPeriod in SouthernNew
England,"ArcAnth XII-2 (1975) 23-34.
Journal of Field ArchaeologylVol. 11, 1984 359
This inadequacyis truebothfor the presenceandabsence
of thesevariablesandforthe relativeproportionsof these
variables.
Results from the physical evaluationof the artifacts
from the Bluebirdand Flicker sites are given in Table
3, numberof artifactsper clusterper year, and in Table
4, averagephysicalattributes.
Analysisof the numberof artifactsperclusterperyear
shows an averagesteadydecreaseof 15%from year to
year. This uniformitysuggests a patterndescribingthe
physicalbehaviorof artifactsin the plow-disturbedsite.
Artifactsare evenly distributedby plowingregardlessof
subsequentdecreasesin the population.
Analysisof the averagephysicalattributesshows great
variabilityin weight and surfaceareafrom year to year
withineachcluster.Lengthandthicknessshow less vari-
ability, and widthshows the least amountof variability.
The uniformityof width suggests a patternexplaining
the selective processbehindthe even distributionof ar-
tifactsin the plow zone. Regardlessof weight, and with
some considerationfor lengthandthickness,artifactsare
sortedby plowingto producea homogeneityof artifacts
suchthatthe averagewidthof those artifactswithineach
horizontallevel remainsconstant.
Discussion
In a similarstudy of a surfacesurvey conductedby
Reynolds,l6resultsbasedon pottery-sherd recoveryafter
plowing showed a similartrendto that obtainedin this
study.Reynoldsdeduceda 16%rateof decreaseperyear
as opposed to the 15% rate of decrease found in this
study.It is, therefore,concludedthatartifactswithinthe
plow zone have a probabilityof appearingon the surface
of the field afterplowingonce every six to seven years.
The averagewidth of the artifactsappearingon the
surfaceafterplowing each year remainsrelativelycon-
stant,suggestingthatthe actof plowingsortsthe artifacts
accordingto this attribute,homogenizingthe artifacts
within the plow zone accordingto width. Length and
thickness may be secondarilysorted by plowing, but
weight appearsto be an independentand randomvari-
able. None of these attributesfollowedthe trendof 15%
constantdecreasesuggestedby theartifactfrequencydata.
The two correlationtest proceduresfailed to indicate
any trendin predictabilityvaluebasedon qualitativecul-
turalinferences.DiscountingclusterareaF1-2,fromthe
Flicker site, occurrenceof highest coefficient of simi-
laritybetweenpopulationsfrom the same clusteris ex-
plainableby chance. The proposed 15-16%sample of
the plow zone appearingon the surfaceof a plowedfield
16. Reynolds,loc. cit. (in note 3).
360 News and ShortContributions

Table 1. Coefficientsof similarity:Presence-Absence.

Bluebird
BB-1-81
BB-2-81
75
BB-3-81 25
33
BB-4-81 33 25
17
BB-5-81 40 33
50
BB-1-82 40 33 40
so
50
BB-2-82 50 50 40 67 67
67 20
BB-3-82 75 33 50 50 67
100
BB-4-82 50 50 17 67 67 100 67
67 20
BB-5-82 75 33 50 50 67 100 67
100
BB-1-83 33 25 17 40 75 50 40 50 40
40 33
BB-2-83 60 25 40 40 50 75 50 75 33
75 14
BB-3-83 25 0 33 33 50 33 50 33 25 25
33 o
BB-4-83 25 100 33 33 50 33 50 33 25 25 0
33 25
BB-5-83 40 33 50 50 67 50 67 50 40 75 33 33
50
17
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l
B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
Flicker
Fl-1-81
F1-2-8 1 25
F1-3-8 1 60 25
F1-4-81 50 50 so
F1- 1-82 50 20 29 40
F1-2-82 25 100 25 so 20
F1-3-82 17 33 17 25 33 33
F1-4-82 20 50 20 33 17 50 25
F1- 1-83 20 50 20 33 17 50 25 100
F1-2-83 25 100 25 50 20 100 33 50 50
F1-3-83 25 100 25 50 20 100 33 50 50 100
F1-4-83 20 50 20 33 17 50 25 100 100 50 50
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
l l l l l l l l l l l l
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
l l l l l l l l l l l l
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
F F F F F F F F F F F F

is thereforeconcludedto be inadequatefor certainkinds Conclusion

of archaeologicalinferencesdeduced from one year's
surface collection of these sites. The total numberof
artifacts,however, likely to occurwithinthe plow zone
circumscribedby a clusterareacan be predictedby cal-
culationusing the 15-16%figure,thus site size andcon-
centrationof settlementactivitiescan be inferred.
In New England many archaeological sites are located
in shallow soils, most of which have been subjected to
plowing (in Connecticut, roughly 95So of all arable soils
have been plowedl7). With current interests in settle-
17. H. D. Luce, personal communication.
 Journal of Field ArchaeologylVol. 11, 1984 361

Table 2. CoefElcients of similarity: Brainard-Robinson.

Bluebird
BB-1-81
BB-2-81 170
BB-3-81 162 140
BB-4-81 80 90 80
BB-5-81 76 96 66 100
BB-1-82 154 170 144 92 110
BB-2-82 152 170 142 80 124 186
BB-3-82 105 117 68 67 132 111 125
BB-4-82 60 80 50 50 150 94 108 117
BB-5-82 78 90 40 40 120 84 98 173 120
BB-1-83 98 118 88 92 154 144 144 133 138 120
BB-2-83 127 147 101 81 133 145 159 150 117 123 155
BB-3-83 10 30 0 0 100 44 58 67 150 80 88 67
BB-4-83 38 140 200 80 66 144 142 67 50 40 88 101 0
BB-5-83 99 119 89 81 155 133 145 134 139 121 177 172 89 89
1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l
B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B
Flicker
Fl-1-81
Fl-2-81 181
Fl-3-81 159 146
Fl-4-81 173 166 166
Fl-1-82 180 166 155 175
Fl-2-82 181 200 146 164 164
Fl-3-82 157 156 146 156 165 156
Fl-4-82 161 160 146 160 161 160 156
Fl- 1-83 163 162 146 162 163 162 156 198
Fl-2-83 181 200 146 166 167 200 160 160 162
Fl-3-83 181 200 146 166 167 200 160 160 162 200
Fl-4-83 151 150 145 150 161 150 150 180 188 150 150
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
l l l l l l l l l l l l
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
l l l l l l l l l l l l
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
F F F F F F F F F F F F

ment-procurement patternsof earlierpeoples, archaeol-
ogists involved in regionalsurvey work have begun to
encounteranddescribemoreof these shallow soil sites.
Thoughthe disturbedcontextof thesesites is recognized,
artifactsfound on the soil surfacehave been taken as
representativesamples of the archaeologicalsite, and
variousinferenceshave been drawnfromthese samples.
The resultsobtainedfromthis studyhave led this author
to questionthe validityof some of these archaeological
inferencesand to questionthe representativeness of the
surfacesampleobtainedfrom the plowed field.
Archaeologicalinferencesdrawnfrom surfacecollec-
tions of plow-disturbedsites need first to establishthe
representativenessof the sample. In many cases, espe-
362 News and ShortContributions

cially in largesites containingpottery,the sheernumber by this paper,however,thereexists a lowerlimitof total

of artifactsobtainedfrom the surfacecollectionprovide availableartifacts,below which certainarchaeological
a samplenormalto the entirepopulation.As suggested inferencescannotbe validly drawn.
The samplesize foundin this studyis not abnormally
small for many of the preceramicuplandsites in New
Table 3. Numberof artifacts. England.It is necessary,therefore,to questionandreex-
1981 1982 1983 Total aminearchaeologicalinferencesmadeearlierconcerning
Bluebird otherpreceramicsites basedon only one surfacecollec-
BB-1 21 18 16 55 tion sample.
BB-2 20 17 12 49 Experimentallaws concernedwith the behaviorof ar-
BB-3 3 3 1 7 tifact movementwithin the plow zone have been sug-
BB-4 5 4 3 12 gested. These experimentallaws concernedwith physical
BB-5 6 5 9 20 behaviorof artifactsin plow-disturbedsites can be ap-
Flicker
plied to futurearchaeologicalinquiry,settingepistemo-
Fl-l 28 24 21 73
F1-2 2 2 1 5
logicallimitson whatmayandmaynotbe validlyinferred
F1-3 11 9 7 27 fromthe sample.First,estimatesof artifactdensitiesand
Fl-4 6 5 4 15 totalpopulationwithinthe plow-zonevolumecan be in-
TOTAL 102 87 74 263
ferred by using the 15-16%sample represented.This
experimentallaw is concernedwith verticaldistribution
of artifactsand the probabilityof any given artifactoc-
curringon the soil surfaceafter plowing. The second,

Table4. Averagephysicalattributes.
surface area
Bluebird weight length width thick greatest least
BB-1-81 10.50 2.81 1.89 .79 5.32 1.49
BB-2-81 9.25 2.71 2.30 .69 5.50 1.49
BB-3-81 13.58 2.56 1.78 1.03 4.56 1.83
BB-4-81 7.93 2.87 1.91 .70 5.48 1.33
BB-5-81 2.50 2.63 1.79 .46 4.99 .88
BB-1-82 5.16 2.39 1.57 .75 4.26 1.36
BB-2-82 8 64 2.76 1.88 .87 5.83 1.89
BB-3-82 2.33 2.50 1.83 .50 4.50 .88
BB-4-82 3.60 2.81 1.75 .69 4.91 1.22
BB-5-82 2.94 2.50 1.70 .70 4.36 1.21
BB-1-83 14.25 3.52 2.47 .89 10.16 2.46
BB-2-83 9.63 3.25 2.31 .65 9.39 1.60
BB-3-83 161.50 8.50 6.00 2.00 51.00 12.00
BB-4-83 11.97 3.00 2.33 .75 7.92 1.92
BB-5-83 11.83 3.33 2.17 .81 7.82 1.84
. * .

FclcKer
R-1-81 27.27 3.76 2.59 1.19 12.66 4.33
R-2-81 11.50 3.75 2.25 1.25 8.50 2.75
R-3-81 44.39 3.45 2.50 1.52 11.46 5.69
R-4-81 2.62 1.83 1.58 .67 3.08 1.21
R-1-82 29.02 3.83 2.48 1.23 12.03 4.38
R-2-82 6.55 2.50 1.25 1.13 3.38 1.50
R-3-82 22.16 4.06 2.31 1.06 11.94 2.92
R-4-82 14.04 3.35 2.10 1.30 7.40 3.20
R-1-83 13.16 2.99 1.89 .95 6.97 2.05
R-2-83 6.50 2.50 2.25 1.00 5.63 2.25
R-3-83 4.59 2.39 1.68 .64 4.30 1.14
R-4-83 7.00 2.63 1.94 1.00 5.19 1.98

based on previous research mentioned above,18 provides
for reasonable deductions from the horizontal relation-
ship between artifacts and artifact clusters pertaining to
site size and limits. Inferences about site function and
cultural association, however, cannot be deduced from
the surface sample because of the randomized vertical
distribution of the artifacts within the plow zone. The
physical orientation of the artifact, direction, and face,
must also be considered void of meaningful information
based on the experimental law that suggests that artifacts
have been homogenized within the plow zone according
to width.
The attributesof length and thickness are also involved
in ways not discernible by this study. Further experi-
mentation designed to sort out these three variables is
necessary for the clarification of this hypothesis. Such
experiments would need to evaluate the specific variable
affected by the individual vectors of force created by the
plow; horizontal drag, and the angular turning caused by
the moldboard. Since at the moment of plowing the soil
is in a less viscous state, the effect of gravity must also
be examined. This information would be necessary for
the precise description of the experimental law con-
cerned with the effect of plowing on the movement of
artifacts according to physical attributes.
Acknowledgments
I extend thanks to Robert Bee, Douglas Jordan, and
Nora Sabo for their support, helpful suggestions, and
criticisms of this paper.
18. RedmanandWatson,loc. cit. (in note4); Binfordet al., loc. cit.
(in note S); Flannery,loc. cit. (in note 6).
Douglas Frinkobtainedhis M.A. in Anthropologyl
Archaeologyin 1983from the Universityof
Connecticut,Storrs.Mailingaddress:Box 336a, Rt.
97, Hampton,CT 06247.
Announcements
AFFA FellowshipCommitteeReport
Four applications were received by the Committee for
review and deliberation; each represented a viable ar-
chaeological project. After consultation, however, the
Fellowship Committee decided that the AFFA Fellow-
ship should be awarded to a program involved with in-
Journal of Field ArchaeologylVol. 11, 1984 363
novative field researchand/or techniquethat has the
promiseto be importantto overallfieldwork.We do not
want to give the awardfor normaland typical archaeo-
logical investigationand activity(for traveland partici-
pationexpensesassociatedwith an on-goingexcavation,
or for the generalexpensesresultingfromwritinga Ph.D.
dissertation).Perhapsthis attitudecould have been ar-
ticulatedin the first announcementof the awardin JFA,
but the Committeeneededsome time and experiencein
vetting applicationsbefore it could clanfy its position
and share it with AFFA membersand potentialappli-
cants.
In this context, althoughevery applicationreceived
this year was importantas an archaeologicalprojectthat
meritedattention,the Committeebelievedthatnone was
compellingin the strict sense expressedabove. It was
decided, therefore,not to awardthe AFFA Fellowship
for the 1984 year.
The Committeewishes to thankthe 1984 applicants
for their efforts. And it also wishes to take this oppor-
tunityto servenoticethatapplicationsforthe 1985award
are hereby solicited. The deadlinefor the 1985 appli-
cations will be December 15, 1984 (see also JFA 10
[1983] 385).
To date the Committeereceived $1545.00 in contri-
butions for the awardfrom a small group of generous
supporters.To have met the $2500.00 needed for the
award,the AFFAExecutiveCCommittee wouldhave had
to subsidizethe Fellowshipas it hadto do last year. The
collectedfundswill now be set asidefor the 1985 award.
And please note that it is requestedwith some urgency
that AFFA membersand friendscontributeas soon as
possible to the Fellowshipfund. Indeed, for the award
AFFA needs an endowmentof $40,000 to $50,000, the
creationof which will not only make the awardstrong
and continuousover the years, but will allow AFFA to
contributeits funds (alas, also meager)to other worth-
while causes.
Please send donationsto the FellowshipFundand, if
possible, to the Endowment,to the attentionof the
Treasurer: MarthaS. Joukowsky,620 ParkAvenue,New
York, NY 10021 (checks to be made out to AFFA and
appropriatelylabelled). Applicationsare to be sent to:
OscarWhiteMuscarella,AncientNearEasternArt, The
MetropolitanMuseumof Art, New York, NY 10028.
OSCAR WHITE MUSCARELLA
Chairman
AFFA Fellowship Committee
364 News and ShortContributions

AFFA Contributors provide a monthly stipend, housing, a private study, and

the time, space, and quiet needed for creative research.
The AFFA Fellowship Committee gratefully acknowl- Residency is usually for 11 months and begins in Sep-
edges the receipt of $2135.00 towards the Fellowship tember, 1985.
Award. The list of Donors to the AFFA Fellowship Fund The application deadline is February 1, 1985. For fur-
(ending May 1, 1984) follows. ther information write to: School of American Research,
Resident Scholar Program, P.O. Box 2188, Santa Fe,
Daphne Achilles NM 87504.
John P. Albanese The School of ArnencanResearchwas founded in 1907
Ray B. and Jean M. Auel and is a nonprofit advanced research institution in an-
E.R.G. Capital Fund c/o E. Gebhard thropology and related disciplines. In addition to its Res-
Elizabeth Gwyn Caskey ident Scholar program, it conducts advanced seminars
Ethel W. De Croisset and archaeological excavations, publishes scholarly
Robert C. Dunnell books, and houses a major research collection of South-
Elsbeth B. Dusenberg west Indian arts.
Wayne C. Fields
Brian Hesse
R. Ross and Nancy Holloway
Hattula M. Hug
Artemis A. A. W. and Martha S. Joukowsky
Mary Elizabeth King
Alfonz Lengyel
Lynne G. Lewis
William A. McDonald
J. Wilson and Eleanor E. Myers
Anne C. Ogilvy
William C. and Elizabeth Overstreet
Susan J. Patullo
George Howard Railsback
George and Jeanette Rapp
Larry and Chris Roberts
Schimmel Foundation, Inc.
John M. Shonsey
Fred W. Trembour
Frances L. Tucker
Paula Wapnish
James R. and Lucy Wiseman

MARTHA S. JOUKOWSKY, Treasurer

Perspectives
Associationfor Field Archaeology

Corrigendumon Copper Drills

Fellowships Available in Santa Fe
Four Resident Fellowships will be awarded by the
School of American Research in Santa Fe, New Mexico,
to scholars in anthropology and related disciplines for
the 1985/86 academic year.
The fellowships, which are supported by the Weath-
erhead Foundation and the National Endowment for the
Humanities, are open to holders of the Ph.D. and to
doctoral candidates whose field work is complete. They
In our recently published article, "An Ancient Repair
on a Cycladic Statuette Analyzed Using Scanning Elec-
tron Microscopy," JFA 10 (1983) 378-384, we made
an erroneous observation. While it does not affect our
conclusions, for the sake of the record and accuracy we
would like to state that subsequent research has shown
that drilling into marble can be accomplished with an
arrow-shaped copper drill.
A. JOHN GWINNETT
LEONARD GORELICK
State University of New York, Stony Brook