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iiG tort aJj

am c.t 6tw c.t" Ifmcu;i_ [ani'fu.1

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(Iu a, LdUS taln dcrnlne.. rC')C__

RTo

DAVID HARRIS

DORLING KINDERSLEY LONDON • NEW YORK • STUTTGART

A DORLING KINDERSLEY BOOK

Project editor Louise Candlish Art editor Liz Brown Assistant editor David T Walton Assistant designer Carla De Abreu Senior editor Roger Tritton

Senior art editor Tracy Hambleton-Miles DTP designer Zirrinia Austin Managing editor Sean Moore Managing art editor Toni Kay

Production controller Meryl Silbert Picture research Julia Harris- Voss, Jo Walton Photography Steve Gorton, Andy Crawford

First published in Great Britain in 1 995 by Darling Kindersley Limited,

9 Henrietta Street, London WC2E 8PS

Copyright © 1995 Darling Kinderslev Limited, london Text copyright © 1995 David Harris

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

A CIP catalogue record for this hook is available from the British library ISBN 0 75 13 01 49 3

Colour reproduction by G RB Editrice s. r.J.

Printed in Singapore by Toppan Printing Co. (5) Pte Ltd

Introduction 6

The Development of Western Script 8 Script Timeline 12

Getting Started 14

Contents

ROMAN & LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS Rustic Capitals 16

Square Capitals 20

Uncial & Artifical Uncial 24

INSULAR & NATIONAL SCRIPTS Insular Majuscule 28

Insular Minuscule 34

Bastard Capitals 78 Cadels 80

'ITALIAN & HUMANIST SCRIPTS Rotunda 84

Rotunda Capitals 88 Humanist Minuscule 90

Italic 94

Humanist & Italic Capitals 98 Italic Swash Capitals 100

POST-RENAISSANCE SCRIPTS Copperplate 102 Copperplate Capitals 106

CAROLINE & EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Caroline Minuscule 38 Foundational Hand 42 Early Gothic 46

GOTHIC SCRIPTS Textura Quadrata 50 Textura Prescisus 54

Gothic Capitals & Versals 58 Lombardic Capitals 62 Bastard Secretary 66

Batarde 70

Fraktur & Schwabacher 74

ROMAN & LATE ROMAN SCRIPTS Imperial Capitals 108

Script Reference Chart 120 Glossary 122

Bibliography 124

Index & Acknowledgments 125

INTRODUCTION

BOOK PRODUCTION The production of a manuscript book is

~ complex business. requiring the skills of

numerous crafesmen.

GENERALLY, LATIN-BASED scripts fall into two categories: formal - that

is scripts used as the instrument of authority; and informal- the cursive or quickly written scripts used for everyday transactions. History repeatedly shows formal scripts degenerating into cursive forms, which are, in turn, upgraded, finally achieving formal status as new hands in their own right. The pages of historical analysis in this book chart the rise, fall, and revival of these hands, and explain the emergence

of other Significant scripts.

Practical advice

FollOWing the historical study of each script is a practical gUide to

the construction of the letters in

that hand. A complete alphabet is included, showing the separate strokes needed to produce each letter, and indicating the probable sequence

of these strokes. To the left of this alphabet, the chief characteristics

of the script are described and demonstrated in a separate panel.

The appearance of a script is influenced by a range of practical factors, including the cut of the nib used to write it. Full information about tools is given for each script.

Introduction

FOR 2,000 YEARS, the western Latin alphabet has developed and been modified by a vast range of social and technological changes, providing a rich and varied resource for the modern calligrapher to guarry. This book charts that development, presenting scripts

in both historical and practical contexts. Calligraphers of all levels will be able to explore the origins of each script and understand anew the construction of

the 26 letters that we use every day.

Counter

M~A.GNIFYINC CLASS A rnagni fYi ng glas.< or eyeglass is a valuable aid to examining the lerterforms in lnsrorical manuscripts shown in this book.

BrackclCd ,erif

MaJu,wle (capl',~1 leuer, upper. case leuer)

"" ~ curved su()k.) ~1f1ntr.

Stem leue

(moln stroke} 'P""

i Inu,/ine.ar space -----=--------'1----

NlOdlmc I (waisrliM, _l-line)

6- Penannit , Basdmt

Descender line

LEITER ANATOMY

I n order to identify or construct scripts. it is essential to become familiar with the vocabulary of calligraphy. Unfortunately, there is no agreed standard nomenclature. so terms used in this book are those most commonly favoured by calligraphers and palaeographers, Alternative cerrns, including those used by typographers,

are shown here in brackets. For example. the

headline is known to some caUigrapher.; 2S the "waistline" and co typographers as the "x-line". Although these leuers represent only a few characters, the terms used to describe their components are applicable to all the letters in the alphabet. A full glossary of the calligraphic terms used in rhis book is also included /.pp. 122-123).

6

.I

• Pen

I width

._

&wl(bow,

CUTWW stroke) Cro« stroke (crossbar)

Honxonto] JOOI

\---- Ho. irJinc "-- tail

FOOl

ill/TRODUCTlOl'i

Ttns "naic mdic.nes (he deBTee ~r ,forward lean oj the leucr: In tins (QU, the ansle is close /0 10°

1he minim h~'.9h( of , his r" fOUT pen wid,h,

LETTER HElGHT ANI) PF.N ANGLE. The height of a letter is calculated in pen widths, shown in this book to the lefi of the letter in [he fom1 of 1 "ladder". Each scnpt is drawn with the pen held at one particular angle. The figures used co indicate this ~ngle refer co degrees to (he 'horizontal. Where relevant. the approxlIlldte angle of the forward lean of a letter is also given. This is measured in degrees to the vertical.

.. ~ The heighl of the

ascender IS about ,hTN pen widlh,

400 -- The p<" JS held Qt an angle of 40° tD tlu l>o1l2onlaJ

,_- This later ss WTJ/tCn ... "h a "slanted" pen {square-cut mb)

STI\OKE SEQUENCE

A recommended sequence of strokes is given {or all 26 letters of each script. The use of lHlJSpa'renc colours makes it clear where J srroke crosses or overlaps wuh another.

Th~ first feller in rl-u ,rqutnce shows ,he model thai you ,hould follow - in this adlnp/e. a Caroline Minuscule ((pp. 40--41)

The ;wsitiTity if ~ qUIll p<n 1Mb! il nn ideal tool JOT drQlVme hairlines

An atro w- f,eaa indICQ(," .. here ,he

stroke jlnish" and tnt pen if Jyre,;

The black arrow indtrate: ,he PTo9Te;.5 ~rthcfi'" SlTOkc; on r~afhinB th, baselmc, the p<n J, pu,hcJ back OVCT theJim moke and upward,

Tbe second st Toke creates the ascender of the letter and,Jinnlly. the crossbar 15 add,.,/. II'i(h a tlnrd "TOke

WRITING TOOLS

Some materials and implements are more suitable (or an accurate represenration of a scnpr than others. For instance, most scribes writi ng before 1500 used eicher parch rnent or vellum, which remain to chis day IWO ofche finest

wri ring surfaces. Frequeudy, the writing implement is of equal i mportance, For a Birarde letter (Iefi). it would be ditlicuh to achieve the very lint' lines with JIl)' other implement than a sharply cut quill. Advice

on the selection of surfaces and writing tools

is given in "Cerring Started" (pp. J 4-15).

_____ Thc quil! bas been .<horn if most <1 It< barb s. m~~jn9 If easier ro handle

Model scripts

The search for a definitive model

for any particular hand is virtually impossible. Within each script there are endless variations, ranging from the excessively formal to the almost indecipherable. Therefore the scripts included in the practical pages of this book are actually a synthesis of various different stvles, and should

.I

be used to prompt your own

personal redefinition of the hands. Manuscript sources

By definition, a script is a system

of handwritten characters, and the majority of the scripts included in this book come from manuscript sources. Where appropriate, an enlargement of a section from an important manuscript is shown, often reveahng the basic ductus of the script under scrutiny and giving invaluable dues to the construction of letterforms. Imperial Capitals

One signiflcant script included in this book must be regarded separately from the rest - the Roman Imperia! Capital. A product of the brush and not the pen, it was, until recently, not accepted as a script at all. Due to its complexity and importance to modern calligraphy and typography, it is explored in depth in a section at the end of the book. For the first time, the origins and structure of all 26 letters are demonstrated in an easily accessible way (pp. 108-1/9). Lift-handed work

The step-by-step letters demonstrated in this book are the work of a righthanded calligrapher. Left-handed calligraphers can follow the same angles and stroke sequences, but might find it useful to adjust their normal writing position to the "underarm" position: tuck the arm inwards, turn the hand to the left, and shift the paper down to the right. Nibs cut obliquely from top right to bottom left can also be very useful.

7

THE DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN SCRJPT

The Development of Western Script

THE FIRST ALPHABET evolved in Phoenicia in about 1200 B.C .. This was adapted in the eighth century B.C. by the Greeks, whose letterforms were borrowed by the Etruscans and, in turn, by the Romans. All subsequent Western scripts have evolved from Roman originals. The scripts in this book are grouped in six categories: Roman and Late Roman Scripts (pp. 16-27,108-119), Insular and National Scripts (pp. 28-37), Caroline and Early Gothic Scripts (pp. 38--49), Gothic Scripts (pp, 50-83), Italian and Humanist Scripts (pp. 84-101), and Post-Renaissance Scripts (pp, 102-107). The duration of each script is shown in a timeline (pp. 12-13).

PROBABLY the most important event in the history of Western script was the Roman adoption of the Etruscan al phabet. By the first century B, c. the Romans had developed several scripts. One was a quickly penned, cursive script used for correspondence, scratched onto a wax tablet or written with a reed pen on papyrus. This hand was influential in the development of the minuscule letter, including the Half Uncial (pp. 38-39), Another

key script was the Rustic Capital, used in manuscript, signwritten,

and inscribed forms (pp. 16-17). Imperial Capitals

The third Roman hand produced by the Drst century B.C., now known as the Imperial Capital, was used in both stone-carved and brush-drawn form (pp. 108-109). Over 2,000 years later, the letters of the script provide the basis of our modern capitals.

By the fourth century, the Square Capital, a modified de luxe bookhand, had also emerged (pp. 20-21).

Another important script that had its origins during the Roman period was the Uncial (pp. 24--25). Similar in form to the Greek Uncial that preceded it, this was developed for use by the early Christian Church.

ETRUSCAN LETTERS These letters have been written in Oscan,

an ancient Julian language derived from Etruscan. In addition to the writing system, almost every aspect of Etruscan culture was adopted by the Romans, including rhe legal

and military systems.

Tins urracouo tablet, <1 a type USW 10 mark pTOpeny and land, shows clearly rcco8n1~able lelu10rms, such as l.hlS cbaraaer, .. huh re<.mbl.., an ovenurncd E

THE LA TIN ALPHABET

This inscription from the base of the Trajan Column, Rome. is one of the finest surviving examples oflmperiaJ Capitals (pp. 108-109).

The oldest Latin alphabet contained 21 characters, as opposed co the Etruscan 20. By late Roman times, the Latin alphabet had 23 characters, the two addi rional characters - Yand Z - having been taken from rhe Greek Upsilon and Zeta. All of these characters have survived for modem use, with the addicion in medieval

times of lecters j, U. and W.

, \ .'\ \ 1/\ \

l I ~q l l \1

~ '\ \J LI E I ~.\ l'-ll~ It r T'\

THE DEVnOPMt.?-.'T OF WESTERN SCRIPT

CI-IARLrMAC,NF AN]) ALCUIN In many ways the eighth-celltury Emperor Charlemagne modelled himself and hrs court on lus Roman forebears, Roman in tlucnce III the Fran kish Empi re was particularly

important ill the areas of leami ng and scholarship. in which the e.nperor was aided by J prormnenr monk trotn York named Alcuin. Under Alcuill'~ abbotship from 79(,- 804. the great scriptoriurn at Tours. Fr~nce, was founded.

Hal', (he Caroline Mmuscule was created (pp. 38-39).

The rounded lip tj .he pcnknij. W8f}"'lS tba! u

H'lts aIM !lSedJOT s(orina --~

lioes on the ['Qoe

The '{fib, WIl' Q criucal ,yo 0"" tbc newly sharpC'neJ osb of the ~"iJ/

n,_r;nishcd m~nusaipt kok lend, aUlholl'J' to ,hi monk 's. preochino

The book is bound 'mJ '.he scribe p"[,I11e; to rna}( any nCCL!S.J'Cl?, annalalJrms to Iht tal

Once the [eaves ?/rht? manuscript are plated in MJer. they art uncbed lI>geth"

The prodvaion tjkok ,overs IV".' d ,,{xIrdte aofl rcqui,jn8 the ,kill, of a tr.dffl oj worken

THE PftQI)UCTION OF MANUSCRIPTS

These 12th-cemury illustrarions show some of (he proCL"SSCS involved 1Il rhe production of J

medieval book. First, rhe parchment maker would soak the skin and then stretch and scrape it. Next, the dried parchment would

be trimmed and scored in preparation for the scribe. The text would be planned in derail. wuh spaces lefi for rhc work of rhe illustrator and illuminator.

After the sen be had completed his text. the illurmnator would apply the gold leaf. which was then overdrawn by the illustrator. Finally, separate leaves were gathered and bound, and the

cover fitted.

Tbe punched ho/", are joiMd by scored Imcs. btt .... cen ",Iuch the scribe would then .... me thc leX!

7J)C parchment H ereubed on n woodell frame. and scraped wilh a cUTI"ed knife

Once dried and ciconed, Il,e parchment ,js 'rimmed to size

TCdcnins_l,om wrille.n m(Jn'Ustripr:.~ ~'a.r a kq Q'pecl 1 monosuc l!fe

Small ho/,.' ar.: punch«1 lhroush lhe parchment, probdi>ly /0 provide

• qUldelmcs for s['deme

Insular and National scripts

After the demise of the western Roman Empire in the fifth century, numerous hands developed in the kingdoms carved out of the remains of the Empire. Irish scripts, such as the Insular Majuscule (pp. 28-31), derived from Uncial and Half Uncial forms, are now known as "insular" scripts. Elsewhere in Europe, national scripts included the Visigothic in Spain and the Merovingian in France.

The most important means of communication between different nations was the Christian Church, which kept the torch of literacy and learning alive. Irish monks formed many monastic centres in Scotland and northern England, as well as in Luxeuil and Corbie in France, and Bobbio in Italy. Meanwhile, monks from Rome entered southern England and were responsible for the widespread conversion to Christianity there.

_,

Caroline and Ear0-' Gothic scripts The first empire in the West to emerge from the remains of the Roman Empire was that of Charles the Great (Charlemagne). By the ninth century, his Frankish Empire stretched Irom the Pyrenees to the Baltic. A reformed hand devised by Alcuin of York became the established hand of the empire - it is now known as the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38-39).

Outside the Frankish Empire, national hands persisted. In Italy,

the Bcnevenran script was one of the longest .~urviving post-Roman scripts, used from the mid-eighth century until 1300 (pp. 84-85). In England, the Insular and Anglo-Saxon Minuscules sufficed until the tenth century (pp. 34-35), when the Caroline Minuscule was introduced. Over time, the Caroline Minuscule became more compressed, anticipating the angular, uniform aspect of Gothic letters. This compressed script is known as Late Caroline or Early Gothic (pp. 46-47) .

9

Till' J)/'I n Of.11J. \ t 1)1' I Vun:R.\· 51"((/1'1

.,,- . .. . .. ;

U1'c:m"nilttdm ~u~ qb p~l" ~~_"dt{ttttidettirrtU; aquantr

1~.Ul.Jru PlriJsdql~ '._' l.J)IIYdcr.·TII'Ctl / J~I rJh' "cut o/l'}CI..'I j\{n;rtdl1l

lcucrs, ~u(JJ as rfw r !f~)m

lhe. Irrndnl/lJ Pcult cr

Gothic scripts 13\- the end olrhe

12th century. a

complex ~) stem of Gothic scripts h,)d e-volved throughout Europe. For simplicir,', these arc often divided into two groups: the hi gh-q ual it y (de luxe), formal hands used for both religious and secular book text, and the cur si ve hands used for

documentary wor]; and, from the late 13th century, fOI" \ cr nacular hook production. The two most important de luxe bookhands were the Tcxtura Quadrate (pp. 50-5 J) and its twin, the Prcscisus (pp. 5-1-5),

Bastard scripts

Got 11 ir cursivc scripts (Ire known as bastard scriptx, and they remained in usc unt i I su pplantcd b)' the Copperplate in the 18th century (pp. 102 - J OJ), xorne 200 years after the demise 0(" till' [orrnal Gothic bookhands. Bastard hands art'

dimctd t to c;otegorizc, cl i tTC'ring from COli ntl')' to count r)-, town to town, and trade to trade. )-1 owcvc r, genel'al dilrcrt'IKc,~ can casilv he discerned hct\\'(:"('1l Engli~h (pp. 66--67), French (pp. 70.7/), and German (pp. 74 75) models. It \\-J.~ in bastard text script that minuscules ancl capitals or the same hand Iir st appeared togeth('l" "jtb the Gothic Capitals used to

bcgi n ncvv sentences and denote proper nouns (pp. -; 8 ~ 9),

)'-!Ui\-I;\NI' ( M,NU,,' lE Til;, l11~m"Cnpl PCI!!"' Ii-CUll " translarion or I'h,w-, ,\'I,"""II-II."M)' ,il,)w< bt::\tltilitlly 1'\'1111,·" l-l um.mix ,\11111'SClIk it"tr,'rs. TIll" h" lid" ri It ,'11 R ~n_ai";l11Ct· scrip, was (l't,d :15 .1 111<',,1<-1 !;)r 1)')1t" I", ISlh-(CIHlI,,· VCIICI';,lIl prilll'<'f'_ It 'llLi,'kly r<'pbcnl the (;olhic i1\odd~ fJI-o\lrcd bv \011011]) GIlIL;nht"n.:. till" Cernl:tn i 1\\"'111;);' oj pri 1)1 i ng wir li 'lllovab.1t- typv.

,IH)\\" COI),i\- TnHlra Prcscisus sc ripr V'I'- -'~-.ii). HOlh Iht' I'rc"C1,m ,1I1d ih twin <cnpl Ihe: Qu"dr,llOl \V4.::re rl'~l·n·\.·d for prc~(I~(' n:h~(nl~ boo], work.

. !n"l' i!'~u:n .('.(II:~'l'~1 , .. "",,,,,,,0;;\';,, ,u,-!"""""'-''''''''''

'~"ll~Llq'l:'r,ur.lItJK1J r.~L. f):jt \,11 h.lIle' n .. nr.lpl~,r A tnn~'r~ ..::tllp.l,nb11"_no

<>'\1{{<2"'lIii'J r~ r-.';rn"_u~tf.w:L('.I'" ~~1.\~111 ~m \rli71:Q~I'll-lU'i Jtw w..~~w.'mrtt"3-u,r.'I: j{'l~'~lltrtT j~~;~~;~~:~~~

~~t1'Li.."L!~-f u~n.u,~u~ hlnL"111 • 11:!;:;Jl7'I2' 1~'I\I,lrl' .l"Ul~ Ih"lllf~~ltll ~nrdL'1LH'ml~ ml~!ltl"nL'"

,.' '91Ql1W nfl'llT" i'11'n!~b!d-MIVl'L:]]':~lll"tllf,r..t:.Ul,(.lm.1( ~U:lnm[mpl~

d (Iom~q_n.l ~LUJt1I:;tr,lnll"1 ~tl(111'ldtj..n.tllm (j::un;L" 9JJlI.T' tmff;:rcmf.CI::;:~r..Jh Sed 1).'1: ~U7fF'ffif Ln\l'~yultlr omnb.Ul'·i;'\btf1.tn.~f Uj~1.11 utt u t l~l.Hn·WI-r1~-n;l,bd tltUtll' Hc~, i.l'ltm ll1TlIrtl dl- (1.I~~dmC'rub!J{.\HHUt)l ~~ n01Yu 1\,11 U., n~ dlGJrlmlm.T1,I p;Jl!~'l.l rtrttll" 11udllb ~ftlll'}v.ntPr J"tmuIJ.ulll~fmrt~fiHw "!r1.('('Ibmll.' 0f!(mlJ rurl'£ Jem~. Olldtrtf"UfIl-J(I('If. 1tud tt lil~~t(nI1 ~:l(1('.( 11m lcee. 0F"l ({m\.~'('rTUu J ''I('~~(lnhY ~I~ ~~\;1\C'rlTnTr(Ol!Utll ~'I,H·-JI""fJlrilnulr~"itlllCrbff nTf~'CiIrl} ." rl~b-r.\ .e;n.,\m m~JIt'tlmpl m~'l:." ~ (t\tJ,lr dll.\ J.'\ TI,JlHd ,~(tI1lOTVrn U1s,_n111"lt:l f,.,fLtilf ...i,'r Jnl'l"tt:nllrr-T.JU(L'trtVlJ d~~I(ul" na; lJ1d1X)Iff':nlj':m.U1um''f1!illi"T~~"''i" l~(!'" ri~o \l1'Wl\n{01:l~'llml,)to ~.Jr, h:t t.,phl.r 911t r"1l:1m1f(l)1,J'I~'-- jh!. n~'H'1'J ~'UfL .'IbUrLmmn&.lnuL~Hl,)llftfl. ~l.C}bT Pn'li"Iuf MU.Lll(Jrnl'm'"Inn-ttIc..O\;,'ICt,Ft h'9Ll'" 'LU'i~. WIHr-"t';'I=~ IIJUt~lmutr9." ((m11,lcI'l1r H."ir~'m"mn'"' dl;t;,t" ~1J tHll'FUO

ntfrc~1nl1 "ltn.1:.~anw' nJca.drchf::;md.L' l.Jfri'11JJJm,,]~dl "'.

~t(\"Tt" 1\)11110r!1dvl)1 r:era:t'lm UUI'JJ", ru:" ~({lI1!a:rrr'l,ulnl1,'o"q;<,,['''',f..1lbll'''T''i~'

10

Italian and Humanist scripts

In Italy, the formal Gothic ~cript.) never rcallv secured a rooting. Italian

o L

le tteriorrns or this pcriod - ocncra llv

c- _

known hy the name ()r Rotunda

(pp, 8'+-8:» - \\TIT rounder, \\'itll a much more ope!.l aSj>t'ct than their Cothic contemporaries.

By 1400, (l revised version ofthe Caroline Minuscule script known as the I-I umanist M inusculc hi~d ]Jccon"lC' the established "\Tiling hand of til(' Renaissance (pp, 90--91). Eventually, i ls adapt ion for t )'pe In arle it the pre-em i ncnt lcttcrfor m i I) Europe, and its usc continues to the present clav. A variant of the Humanist

.

Minuscule that also remains in lise

is the Italic (pp. 94 9~). Devised a~ a manuscript hand in 1420, it was adapted I'or t)'PC h~' 1 500. Post-Ren ai ssan ce scripts

The lin,}! script or significancL'

is the Copperplate' (pp. 102--1(3). As the name suggesb, this was originally a hand engraved or etched on sheets of copper. TypifIed by delicately joined loops and exotic proporrions, this cursive letter could he engraved with lar greater ease than it c:ou 1<1 he drawn, However, in its simpler handwritten lorrn , the Copperplate did have the ac!nntagc or being \tTy last to PCIl and, hv till' 19th ccnturv. it \\'J~ the st.incl.nd script of husi nc~~ dll< 1 c< lucation. Modern calligraphy

A modern callioral)h), revival hcuan

~. b-

at the beginning of tJ1C 20th ccntur)'

with die pioneering work of Edward Johnston in England (pp. 42 ---/-.3) and Rudolf von Larisch and Rudolf Koch in Germany (pp_ 74-7'}). Since the 19 50s, i ntcrcst in call igraphy has prol i [crated in many cul turcs, hoth those with and without Latin - hA ,('d alphabets. During the last 20 vcars, as calligraphers have explored and rcdcf ned lctrcrforrns, call i~r<1ph;' ha~ become an ar t form in its own right.

/1

SCRIPT T1MEL/NE

s

crlpt lOll rN~;A.~~fTJr ~:£HrAr6N;
Timeline 011) H._O'\,IAN GltEEK UNCLAl
~()() CUllSIV"
K~y 1=1lJUS TJ(y)1
(-;rry liuc: Cbicfti1lf' "f !tJflt,,,,,z:c ~----'--,---"'-.
·D{ll1td UriC DlIr.uwn of- s('l'ipc for text
IV/,i/e lin«: DlIrJ!iOIi of script for use 3ll(l [~ ~' ;ui1
other I hln for [,'X! UNOAL
(1,' W1{rv,' 'flS .. u(iCCl-C u, f20nno~
~Oil .i. I"'"" -
NEW ROMAN
CUI[<;IVE HALF UNCIAL J l CURS!Vl: HAL!' UNCIAL
100 I INSULAR MINU,(~UlE I
'"
cou ~trC f6ue1an paCt~ r '~mu~tl'ft ettut p~~Ut'D&: I-- mrrt(jua tnt
VrslGOTHIC • I BENEVEl'o.lT AN MINUSCU u: LUX,BUll ; ~l-1SduS~
7(111 MII'o.'l;$(;IJLE I I MINU~'(;UI,E
I I 1
• _.
• .' ..... INSVI.;\I{ f
• I
~l!1I I ~ J MAIVSCUU !
- I g -
I I b~pCl(mO tOh~H l- i
90n I I CAR,OLlNE I
I I MINUSCULE •
I .. :!'
I i
1(1111) I ~
•
I I
lion I I
"' I
'l:omml fUlXT ttl ~ EARLY ndcnS~ K.auutaa1b
1211[1 ~. COTHIC
ROTUN)M • I pOllnfimn nmmn ~US (E mnu trnll
I
1:\1)(\ I I ,....._
I I
I I TEXTUI1.A • TEXTU)lA •
HCi(J I I I'ltESClSUS I QLJAI)RJ\TA I
• _.l I I
I • I
• i •
1500 I I I
• -.I: ..
m
16()0 •
17011
--,
son
1900
F, 'UNI lATIONAl HAr-.!I) [With the.hor
III!O (1l~ITISH c.-\HI';[tll~Hrc
KElIl\i,\lj 2

12

SCRIPT TI,IJEU,\.'E

i SENATVSPOP' II- fomOOVM'CO "',
~
IMI'EIlIAL • Ru:m<., CAI'ITAL> I
I I
C.'<i'IT .. \L\ : I
----_:_-----,_:_,- --'""'! I •
I .. I
I I
_l _.
I
d"u I : IMPROBtIDVR. I
I
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Getting Started

THE ART OF CALLlGRAPHY begins with the tools and materials, and these should be selected with great care. Often, a struggle to achieve

a good result is an indication that the chosen surface or writing tool is unsuitable. Owing to

a widespread revival of interest in calligraphy, there is now an enormous range of pens, paper, and other equipment available. Here, basic information is given on the types of surfaces and writing implements you can use, and also on how to make the two traditional types of pen - the reed pen and the quill.

The reed pen

The reed pen and the quill ('p!'o.<irc) hJVC been used since annquiry. Although both have now been superseded by other wriong implcrneurs. {he reed pen remains :!Il IJ<,.l! tool for expn:s..\lve ca!hgnphy. II IS usually made from a hollow-stemmed .tprden cane (P"m,~!lljris ((ll"'''IIIIi.<). but some c~lhgrJpher) IIS<' .1 xvnrhcric in.uerial. such a; plastic tubing.Tnsread. A Sh:Hp cr.1fl kllili::

is required !O make J reed pen - alwavs rake the gre~leSI care when usi Ilg ir.

1. CUI a length of cant' about 1 S cenrimerres (i inches) long. USt'd ltrong crafi knife to lH'lk~ a cut about ~ (tllllmctrn (I 'f, inches) long to reveal rhc hollow centre of the cane,

3., Ret\\nI to [11(' underside of I 11<, pen .11ld c.rrvc shoulders b,'IWCCI) the I\\'() CllIS. f>.hh' a squart or oblique CUI across lhe lOp or the nih .1.< desired (St'C "Srraighr" :mJ "slantrd" pc-ns. ('ppo;ilc).

2. On Ihe reverse side of the (;111 t' , directly underneath the first CUI. make ashorter cut to create [he Ilat top of the pfn nib. Next. remove ally pith froll] rhe core of I he cane.

4. Fiuallv, make a longirudina] cur about I :'i centimetres ('/, inch) long through tilt' centre of the nib - this 1I't1111lakr the flow of ink caly. The reed pen [s now readv [0 use.

14

SURfAr:ES

For practice

and rryi Ilg 0111

inirial Ideas. a Ilghrwelght desiguers lavou I paper is ideal. For

more (ormal work, good-quality paper is important - preferably J smooth, cI ose-grained and :lc;d(re" type, V cllu III , made from calfskin or go~t~ki 11, is t he fi[[e.\l matcna 1

f(,r wnung, wich parchment a close second.

WRITIN(; IMl'l.IiMENTS

In addition 10 rhe reed p<::n and quill, there is a huge rmt(<' of writlllg implements from which rhe calligrapher can choose. F!bre-lipp(;-d pens are ideal (or trying OUI ideas. whik, for t1ex!bllity and economy, detachable nibs are an excellent opnon. The use of a iOll!1Lll1l pen glJ~raIHa~ a constant supply of ink. although a spring-loaded dip pen is more convenient lor changing ink

colours easily. A broad-edged brush is essential for construcung lmpcrial Capitals (pp. I to-t 19).

lljibrc-tippcd pm ". iJeuljof prc!imlnal)' J\'ork

/1 srandord

pm l,dJ" can ~(il II IICJdcly

~r UCI acba bl.; nibs (opposj(e)

Usc (1 wwJl pO!""'d sable bru,r,

JOI JrJJWlll9 bUlIt·up leuers

The calhgraphJ( fountain pen IS 011(" if (he most con r~'ni('n1 tools

Spring-loaJed dIp pens a" iJ,al Jor laTf],' scale work

"0 .. Z

GfTnV(~ ST!lR7ED

The quill

Allhoul;h the qUlll is probublv dw 111lt'sl of ,,11 w';\ln~ 1001s. it lS not as couve nient "S other nnplements 31)(\ reqlllTt'S more Pr.lC[lCt' 111 h:mclltll~ lklllf; of a softer material than .1 steel mb or" reed pen. it requires gnnler prCSSllrt than you would expect, but the subtlerv of hue IhJI It produces is f..r slIpenor to th:u of other pellS. Turkey. goose. Or «v.u: ic.)lhcr:; .ire the most useful, and duck or crow <113), .ilso be' u,,,d for fOn1lJl work,

,

USING A \VI-IETWONI~

To sharpen a Sled nib, hold rhe pen at -150 It) rhc whetstone and stroke the top <ide along the stone:

J)[TACI-lAJ3LE NIDS

I. C III the ,h aft of tilt' It",thn [0 :1 I,'nglh of about 20 centimetres (7'1. inches) and cardully strip 11,.. barbs IT-om it llsillg ~, <calpd or sharp c-mii knife,

2. Holding thc ,ldt li'-llliy. 1l1.lk" J lon~. «vrepi ng cut on (h<.~ undL'rsiJe of the quil]. C., rdllll\' make .1 S"CQtlt1 ClI[ to IilJf'" Ihe <houlder, and pare

the L'clg6 to iorlll the lip, '

I PJI{nm,m is madcIrom ,n,·cp.fkm, and H lOU,9h{!{ (JrJJ lIwrL'_fibrou-, tban l'L·/ftmJ

\

.·1 l~n,1' brcc.lcdad sobl» '" DJnthl'1iL~ hnHll

ts IL'q!J J~' Id'!lc-;calt Impmnl topio't-J!,

,I broad -"Ji1~_J ~r'll.he{;ctif sable brusn IS f.'iscnlJa' {or Impmui C(IP'/Ui.<

]'h" 'Iud;

j" rh .. · mO$t trodnsonol. q/.ooh

3. Make " short longitudinal ell! through [he centre or IhL' nob to <':lLC the now of ink. ItclIuw" Iht' i~i"l Jrom th C centre of ilK fWll .tu rl ~ll~' n:nl,llnlllg nl~l(erj:ll on dH::' our-ide.

4. PI~lT the lip ofth,' quill ()ll ,J clitling '"nlce ~lld or~tuJlv cut :llrO" the sJ,;ii 10 (r,'jtt· rhe nib ,:dgt" Make "" ''lllart' cut lor 1 "slanted" f't'li Jlld "11 oblique nil tor J "Slr,lir;lu" pCII (bcl,»d,

"STltAl(:I-rT" ANi' "~I_A1 -, 'n~I)" Pe.N.'>

Throllgholll this book. there ~re rl,fl:rnln's to "«,-";,,ilr" and "<lnntcd" pens, 'I~hi$ on Cl\lS~ conlusron. as the lllC'fllllllg of d;oc- I\<roll.< ~.ppe'a" to be C<'llHr.ldicrory. The "'Iraie:lll" pen i, held horizontally. produong thick ,,,,'111,3110 thiu horizontal strokes. Thl' "slanted" pell is held It ll1 .111!!k ot about ,\0'. crc;uing horizont rl ,111(1 verricnl .<[roke's of similar weight.

,I "n I'(]lfll,l" p{~Jr lia-. IJn ot-ltouc-cu: :Jib, (U( at lln /J/1BJt oj about 10° [0 {he ,ell,"!!, it 1.\ JJcaJ_fuT )"Crlpl_1 3Ul'n 1).1 In, I-I"I( /lnnal (pp. ·40--11)

II "dOillcJ"/,l'H Jhj~\ {.' ~(/(lCi:rL' nib, CUl

ut fiSh! iHJ!l:.~~( to Ita' .s09Ji Jl;J Ilh~l)1

.I'M $CflPU "uclll,J.( Ih~ Corolu»: .liJnlJ,wic rpp. 40--I_I!

15

IF THE CALLIGRAPHER of today is sometimes confused by the rich variety of scripts available, both modern and historical) then the opposite must have been true for the scribe of the early Roman period) who had only three basic hands. The first was the magnificent Imperia] Capitalthe most complex of all scripts, used in stonecut form on the great monuments of state (pp. 108-109). Secondly, for everyday needs, there was the cursive script - the quickly executed hand used by everyone writing in the Latin language. Thirdly, there was the Rustic Capital, an elegant alternative to the Imperial Capital and popular with both signwriter and scribe.

FROM THE FIRST TO the fifth century,

the Rustic Capital was used for de luxe manuscripts, particularly works by Virgil. After the fifth century, it lost favour as a manuscript hand, although its use for titles continued for centuries afterwards. As far as is known, the script "vas not used for Christian literature, and the conversion of Rome to Christianity in A.D. 313, with its attendant use of the Uncial (pp. 24-25), may be one reason for the demise of the Rustic as a bookhand.

Rustic Capitals also served as stonecut letters, often used in conjunction with Imperial Capitals on the less

Rustic Capitals

prestigious monuments.

THE H)EI<ARCl-IY Of SCRIPTS Rustic Capitals were used for titles until the late l Zrh cenrury as pan of a so-called "hierarchy or scripts".

Rustics were used for chapter open i.11[;>, Uncials (or the tln:t I ines, followed in this example by d fine Caroline Minuscule text (yp.38--J9).

-

111. A\t\:\- S \' _\ \ 1\ \A:l l ocv 1:\' 1

., ,1 \A1or\tS'\.'l~ t·~.\DVN1-AL ~

"{he nib woulJ have been

VERGILlUS R.OMANUS, ECL()r:;A II

This Illagnifi(cnl and

rare ~xample of a Virgil manuscript in l-l..ustlC Capuals dates from the second hair

or (he fifth century.

The words are separated by a PUl/{lIIS (mid-point). instead of the sttiptura rontinua (continuous script) rvpical of thIS period.

1 N C L r 1 r L I & J s, T [k.T 1 V S'

SJ\TSc:rJSSl oox, mA~~~lT€J'-1TIS hlST()~U}t['TJJ 110m; t" lu.CA.m CApur.bULn;. tr:fi,,"W~ U:s enau", mfnumJum . M"UOfnd1c..u:ur _$X0rJ,,, . rtTU~m en r~a.JnJ, lJln-i n~n.. fmem recptCK ...._....__. ~aJ.JUp'~ur6u~perronA-eu~~(Ut. (iu~df1,~rur:Ql/tb:

J!' \i , \

C:cp

16

RUSTIC CII'ITALS

_I'

'\' ,AUNJrV1\\1 N. ... -

~ - - - -

T \~ \ "\' I~' \ t. e \ r

I . ~ . _ .,\ ,. U ... \." Jo

ne pen or brush t< h!J1d ," an (mflle ~r 40°j"or ,/,,, h".",J

Jh!8"'w) sirol»

l{.uSTIC CAPITAL R The exer ution ,,( (he I~H~r R begilll "villi ~ twist of the

pen at the head of the stem.

ThcJeel <!.f the lcuer wrfj .~/inhl'~\r downwards bifimJill1shmfJ "rill an up "'a rd flick

l-fiii----~-- The pMlro,it dhmwlion shows Virgil siHing 0es.7JC 1.1 lcct ern , Inln <J (llPS() .fer st(frJ1W scroU.~ 10 his '0'

~ .\ l:)[ oAT ~\L f .1N

1 u . ..L:i~ \ ~~' t, I

.\ .. \~ ,d. ''!. I,.~.,

'.';C.l(\ .~\ \ t N,.\ [\~(,,~

\.'~ 011~\:Sl"Q·~

Tne int erlincar t]/o!:.'.' na.~ been written in a modem lioltc hQnd (pp. 94,-'>5)

PETER I-iALLl))A Y This modem version of Virgil's Erlogu« vn, (IT;llt>n in bhr.k ink or: cr~a111 paper, \VdS penned hy I 'et!;,r H <lll.iday i l] 1,0S3. N Ole th e contrast he ac h ieves between tile broad horizontal \1 nd dbgC)[l") ,~rokes and rhe thin verticals,

CaII18'"ph;,JJol;'rLhc,<

IV C , 'l1\roJN\.T5 lNi16~4S101\T1\lSIN nVVllSXFillOOlO

NJl~, ~,~$jl,. rI~3.1fllVS .\tsl.\\flfCl:ThtrOl.\\

OSfMviSttttrN\fS lNSll\TE~ID}1·rlbl

N\'MtS:!.'Nj-Vj" 11(' t .:y~f~.:~.<I' ..

11 -r; o· . , IC),'"''''

, . . Vl~c.H

•.. ',' . ,'1m:I;''';/o':1

Writing materials

TI1e fact that we have evidence of the Rustic Capital in both manuscript and sign written form shows that t\VO different \vriting implements were used. The script would have been written with equal fluency with either a reed pen - or after the fourth

een tu ry, a quill - or a brush. The

br ush used would have been a broadedged, flexible sable, held at a nearupright angle to create the thin stems and broad horizontal strokes.

A simple ductus

The basic difference between the Imperial and the Rustic lies in the complexity of the stroke ,"veight.

The strokes of the Imperial are even, with no sharp contrasts in w·cight. This <::~IJect requires numerous changes in tool angle (pp. J 10-1 f 9). The' ductus of the Rustic is simpler to pen, with a pronounced difference

in stroke ,"veight between the

thick and thin strokes.

PAPYRUS !.EAf Papyrus was the principal writing surface lor over 3.000 ye,ar:; lint; I I:.he late RQ1)l;1n period, I r W~!, rnade by pounding toge,tila two strip; of papyrus lea I laid

at right angits

[0 each other.

Df:TAIL FROM VERGlLJUS R.OMANUS. E(~[_O(;A /I

17

ROMAN &...LATE ROA-IAN SCRJPTS

Rustic Capitals

THE DUCTUS OF the Rustic Capital is different from the other hands shown in this book in that the pen angle can be as steep as 85° to the horizontal for the thin vertical strokes. This angle

is re laxed to nearer 450 for the foot serifs and diagonal strokes. Therefore, from the top of the stem to the beginning of the foot, the pen must twist as much as 400, and this transition is the key to well executed Rustic Capitals. With its serif, thin stem, and broad foot, the L (below) typifies many Rustic letters. The letter height is generally between four and six pen widths, but can reach seven.

1. Using a square-cut pen nib, begin the serif of the letter L by pushing downwards with the broad edge of the nib. The pen angle should be about 65° for chis stroke.

3. At about halfway to the baseline, anncipare the (oat serif by gradually turning the pen 10 about 50°. This will <reate the distinctive Ruscic thickening of the stem base.

2. Pull rhe pen downwards to the right, while twisting the nib from 650 to almost vertical at the line of the stem. Without lifting the pen, begin dnwing the fine Stroke of the seem.

4. Lifi the pen, tum it to 45°, and add the foot serif in one finn, downward diagonal sweep. The foot is a major element in the script for ic leads the eye forward eo the next letter.

This broad sWffPing curve is draWl! in one smO<>th srro)u with a Pi'll atlgle of 45-500

Diagonal sweep

lr is the repetition of the downward sweeping strokes, combined

with the near-diagonal strokes of the feel,

that gives the Rustic Capital its characteristic rhythm. These strong strokes provide a counterpoint to the

fine vertical stems.

\ Thm is uo

1 \:~Mronl"eA

n,C B iso tall/mer and rises ahout": tlu: headlill<'

The J"tXOIld stroke if the lall F rises above rh" /1EadliHf

-.~

....._

4

18

Thi.<jOrrtloj G ismosl lommon/y l;scd

RUSTIC CAPITALS

Themifof t~e tall L rise! above th« ~,'adli"e

3

3

2

-----

3

--~\-

n~

s-

I l1J

.--.-_ ..

----..

3

\\-

This is

the modem \ \ \

{onnofU ~

w\ X _,~ 2'

J

,-1\ :~N ~~.

,~O __ '_~

-2 J

\r°rt~ev, \

lise the 'lime 1

d~ClII.( '" tlu: A

T-

71,;s [onn of Y is

used for all text 1

except 'h, "nO'" 1. /

I,ue oj Q page .J

Use lhisjomt \

of Y ollly on 1

the bottom line

oj a ptlge of text

3

4

The Z could alremdlively he

2 completed ill a

single stroke

19

RO,tiAN &.. LATE ROIJ.!AN SC/I/PTS

1\5 A LATE FOURTH-CENTURY Roman hand without .l"lprecedent or descendents, the stately Square Capital (Capitalis Qyadrata) falls awkwardly into the evolutionary pattern of Roman scripts. Because very few examples survive from this period, the duration of its use and the development of its style are subj ect to conjecture. The script remains, however, one of great dignity, its grace owing largely to the openness of the letterforms and the clear letter separation,

Square Capitals

JT IS OFTEN BELIEVED that the Square Capital originated as an attempt to interpret the brush-drawn Roman Imperial Capital (pp. 1 Og-I 09) in pen-drawn form. However, the thick downstrokes and hairline horizontal strokes of the Square Capital point to the use of a horizontally held pen, in contrast to the angle or 300 required to produce the visually balanced vertical and horizontal strokes of the Imperial Capital. This suggests that the Square Capital may have been derived from another source. Contemporary influences

It is perhaps more likely that scribes '.vriting in Square Capitals looked for inspiration to contemporary carved lettering, rather than to the brushcreated capitals of their predecessors. One such example is the fourthcentury plaque in the Church or San Sebastiane, Rome (fIght), in which stroke angle and letter proportion coincide wi th the manuscript hancl.

Smfll1 sup ore. JrulVTJ with th.e cornc.r ~f the pen nib

SQUAIU_ C>\l'ITAl.:\-I The broad downward makes ofrhc _H !Vpif\' the Scp..f;1,"t" Capital [encl.

Parchment a·cJS 1U'C:'i'cneJ arms.' l.l la'oo{I(J"}"l.jr~~me ~l1d I hi: 'c}iduflJ_flcsh lL'mO"I!~J m', h u CITcu/LJf k!l~rc

P"i\lcCIIMENT MAr(£IZ

In Rome, parchment was all established rival to PJPVIW by A.D. }()(i and was tl1t" principal surface (or \Vriling b.te· Roman manuscripts, such ,I;' rhe Codex V/J/iCi1'llJ/S 325"(, ("ppO.'il,').

11 was invented in P<"rgalllon, Asia MiIlOT.

ill re spouse to an Egypcian (r~dc embargo ill 197-·)5» lJ.C Ill:\I C(,[ oflthe supply of papyrus.

SAN SUIASTIAN() PLAQUE

The insr nprion 01) this plaque inthe Church of $~I) Seb~q iano, R.orrw, d.:uc:' /fom berwecn t he YC3'" 366 and J~4. Noun' til c imamn au \I~ ilg,I'tul'cS 01' cenain letters, such <>,. :\I-·r H·R,

V-A, 3.lId [-b·. ,nd rhe" way some lette,,> ha ve beell i nsertcd ill,ic1c- orh ers.

1

I

I

I.

I

20

-

SQ_UARE CAPITALS

B-J. vl i~:~lA 1,\". 'I\.~~n.\:.I."'-,\I'· UtP,,_l:Cl,\.1 '\~I." I _\[1'\ I' t I I J".,.".-:_';·ITL\t.;1,. .H .. 1,,\ ti "., r:t." I [ i '\i N\ I n.\ LI N.\

1: V .\ I ( U~ R I ~I C 0Rl~ 11..1.,\;t(__ "'. \.·1.\'lL\M "",I I »; .\::»1 R l~\[ N,\~jrrtl~.\ h::'\'~) llt7i'='CINf1II),.\:"to;: I [1'Se-.1 U I 1..'1;~\·)~1 T\'!\ \ '-.\:1 r:~.r~ T ..... tR L'd:t 1 l I;" £1>0 ;1:0.\ I ,,, .. , \, r ('1 I

l'\'~ PROI; [.1 D\' .,1 S~\' Rca N: IN:U r,>,\r.t:a.':"T:\'~ I'RI.x,\.'(~It:i r.,.,t L~:'tO;\ I URI"ll < v r It! f ru I I ... m."' \,

I :--.;~; I U VI 'l-\<J\\ 1.\.\tc:;L\ N(')I ':'>.\ H.:l:.\ RoI"" T •. ~.X\" ... 1)1 f h. ~(~t_lN I ~ll ~Xbl (\'Il ',1 \'N;. r)' )r~,~),~A;o,.;:LC",~j .\\U~.flll~\ .\H' .... : 11~1.x ~l),~.\Pj)nvi"l;"I.I\1 Nf{ .~L.\I: t"'~1 I :'~X 'I\H,';O~fI,,'ll!'O: Ii tl)'R:t fWl.: n 1"N ,;'(~ r:-:'I " f

t '~',~I'lV\. ~ IS r , ... 1 ~.~ ,..:'[1....:( 1",( $..;vr, f~'~ fl"lV;X Silt l\'i'f'"Xh.1:t;lJ 1)\ liid I~ II ~~k!l"'; IlTN;'( l\tl-"\lL\

I.' III. I .... b:.)ITYM £ ISl,t;:'l,lr~D0:\\J ~ \.l'''lv:t ~X:"f M ("'\'tJI )j~ I~H 1 J)~' OV,IS URtRAXI.1 N"'I" 1.\ 0.( ~B .. \ [;~u:" I. I ~ It ,,1\.11;') ~"\\. [5 fiR" ftl St;.lP.\CI L\lC(;I?R.~XlI ,:,-,r.\Hl~,},~YnI15l) "0, x \'~:tl;or;\\ t. 'I l"-f ~·.\4..:;\(:N ",'\c.\ Lr t 1~1"'~f uvs 1 R.A$ L'f('_l,\fr;I~i\O' "' (';C:.l~( 'Vs~,\Jl.f.\X\L\11 N~.j v I~:,<OL'~'" rtf ~\' r ~ i'w<.'lJ':. D\' .... \·I [(1\ .~f~' 11'.; (r:)'·,I':?-.\:CRlBl ~·;\:t.\l:

Instead cf lhe more c~mmon ,hid jim ,,;okc of lhe leuer R. a hniTlm' stroke hn< be<'D u<cJ

DETAIL FROM CODEX VAJ'/CAi'iU5 3256

I n this detail. ic is clear tha t the script is written without word division and punctuation. On the fine

upright strokes of A, N. A{ R. and V, rh .. pen IS turned from horizontal co vertical, which produces 3 strong contrast III stroke proportions. The triangular seri (5 that [eon inate the hair] ine strokes have been

added wah [he corner of the pen nib.

The tall L is often found in inscriptions and manuscripts from Ihe lateJounh century

COOIiX VATiG/1/\'US 3256

This manuscript of Virgil's Georgie( was wrirren in Square Capitals in the late fourth century. Perhaps one reason why it has survived is that it w~s written on parchment instead of the more (ragile papyrus. Because of the scarcity of examples of Square Capitals, it is difficult (0 assess the duration of [he hand, and there is no evidence to suggest that it survived beyond the early Gfeh century.

SUTvivinB examples

Only two known surviving examples of Square Capitals exist, compared to some 400 of the other late Roman bookhand, the Uncial (pp. 24-25). Both manuscripts are de luxe texts of Virgil dating from the fourth century. One is the Codex Vacicanus 3256 (left), housed in the Vatican library,~ the other a text from the monastery of St. Gall, Switzerland. From this scant evidence, it is dear that the Square Capital 'was the most shor tlived of Roman scripts, and palaeographers are forced

to conclude that in terms of

the evolution of calligraphy the

hand represents a blind alley. Time-consuminq work

One reason for the short life of the Square Capital is the time it would have taken scribes to write each letter. The multiple angle changes and difficult serif constructions require considerable patience (pp. 22-23). While such time-consuming labour may have been acceptable for titles, it would have been highly uneconomical for text, particularly in comparison with the more practical Uncial

or the Rustic Capital (pp. 16-17).

1

t.

21

ROMAN &._LA"fE RO/IfAN SCRIPTS

Square Capitals

THE SQUARE CAPITAL is characterized by a combination of broad strokes - both straight and curved - delicate hairlines, and neat serifs. Of the dominant broad strokes, the diagonal is the most difficult to draw, involving a pen twist as great as 45°. The simpler vertical strokes are made with a single movement of the pen, held almost horizontally. Upright hairline strokes occur on the letters A, M, N, R, W, and X and can be made

by skating the wet ink from the main stem stroke.

.UO>I Sqllare Capila/; urc about [our pm toidtirs high

Complex letters

The perfectly balanced leucr tv is one of the most complex letters in the hand. [( consists of one broad diagonal, tWO hairline verticals and three senfs. A series of angle changes is required lor ill consrrucnon.

3. Return to the headline and build up rhe serif under the honzonul stroke.

Basic elements

Thl' Square Capital letter IS about four pen Widths high, With the letters F and L drawn slightly higher than (he resc, The script is best drawn wieh a Iced pen or a square-cut steel nib.

77l(comer of flit· mb is "sed/or Ilddmg the

ierifs

1. Begin the N with a peuaugle of about 45°. progressively ruming (he pen co tbe vertical a$ it reaches Ihe baseline.

4. Now draw the leading vertical stroke with the comer of the nib and add the serif.

-B

Use the corner oj Ihe "ih to add Ille urifi of tile A

1 1

i

--~--~--__,

'CL

Drag lile tail of tht C wilh tlu: comer oj Ihc rlib

.. _'u

2

-~__I_I

-r

2

__".

2. Make a small

horizontal stroke on (be L - C{

headline, then pull Ihe 1

wet ink downwards

with [he edge of the nib. . -- _~ _

.)

2

5. Stili using rhe corner of the nib. add {he serif at the head of the di.1gonal stroke'.

f-nUFi.<arall

. leuer, risiug

slightly above

___ the Iteadline

]1 Drag till' rail '!itlle J ",ill, tlu: comer ~f lire >lib

22

SQYARE CAPITALS

3

fI7~

--~--~------

T unst the J>C"-!rom 45 0 to almost 110nZOliiai for Ihe diagonal srTOke_ of the K

TI,e L U a rall leuer, I risillg slighdy above

the headline

- 2

Use the wmer of Ore nib 5 ttl <ldd the lenft of Ihe M

7 3

Twist tlte pm_ftom ~- --N"

45° 10 lilt venice! ~ J

jor the diagotlal 1 6 2

;/roke of the N _ _ _

Use r"e corner of the nib to draw the serif; i!{ the N

TIIiQ i; IIIadrftom the 0, with

an addi/ional stroke [ar the lail

Sllghlly twist the pen jor the lail oftheQ

- ru- - U~~ --;;;; corner oj J1

· lite nib [or the 1

- sen] oj ttu R

- --- ~----~-~~~

2

Use the corner ofthe nib 10 add the top seri] of lire S

combined

2

~ 5

This leuer U is a modem tonstmaion

[

u

U" the corner of/he nib to draw rIle senf' of the X

3

~-'--~,jt~?-;

Use tlie corner oj 111e nih 10 add me sen] oflheY

2 --

VIRGIl

The elegaNce of Square Capilals U assisted hy gmcro!,> inter-letter spaci/lg aua by inteninear spacing thor equals rlre feller hngllt

GIOR_GICS

Two lines of Square Capitals

23

RO,HAi\' &..Lrrc ROMAi\' SCRIPTS

Uncial &

Artificial Uncial

THE ROMAN UNCIAL script (Littera Uncialis) originated in the second or third century A.D., possibly in North Africa. Although its beginnings are subject to conjecture) there are noticeable similarities with the Greek Uncial - a· curved) functional script that had been used since the third century B.C. and

)

was the official hand of the Christian Church.

By the second century, Christianity was increasing in influence throughout the Roman Empire, and it is likely that the early Christians consciously adapted the Greek Uncial to the Latin language as a script appropriate for their new religion.

THE UNC1AL SCRIPT was hl"ought to southern England from Rome by the m issionarv St. Augustine in the year

I I

597. Its name, meaning "inch" or

"inch-high letter", is attributed to St. Jerome, a translator and compiler of the Vulgate (common) Bible. He possibly used it as J term of derision, in objection to the common practice of \vasting parchment by using large letters for de luxe books.

OriBins of minuscules

The beginnings of our modern lowercase letters can be discerned in the Uncial script. The letters J, h, and J rise above capital height while i,J, n, p, q, and r drop below the baseline. A further departure from the capital form is the absence of any elaborate ~erjf constructions. This simplicity makes the Uncial, together with the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38-39) and the Foundational Hand (pp. 42-43), ideal [or learning the basics of pen handling and calligraphy.

e~t..:;;,'p' l(Jl"'qU"(_~'N("-t·'tnc..')()NI.O l~H:!oI)It.'l"'~4...~~l~rl~Xtl.U_~·''''~"f':~C:!ll!=W SO~.l4tOF;\;{)Sl !~O S.'ci)<:::if~'{.'\.t.:;_ ...

~d~~~~!,~~~~P~lL~-~\~~~~~~~

l~)4.!l]O(3"l~ sccu 100l cor n.\.v-r~\.t:l.(\~l}~

- ur;"(li:'j:\\'!~en:~nLl'lCflT...&NOli;srp:..,

Paragraph vpfnings iJrc prar;JcJ (n\11,tJ_I'"ol1c(1\~,i~ur~."i'::QN)f;(U:€.7~X:J'(

1.~)' V Jo'})Cr leila II) [h(' mtJ'BIf! -1-.-.--():;~f~~;09~~!;~'~~~;~ltIV ~1~L"1-JIGOl'..ft;_~l!' F~uC"l)l~tOI:4~ ,u-ctt.::l'l'~I=\IAl''lffj\.'lll~~h.'.\I;.'e:&I~1 u'n;c..ul~LHt"I~l;,c5-:1~u.~r:i~~ .''fliJ!;f _

qno~.~onulr-.:cncc~,Y'ufF J eJ::curo'l\CC}1'"J.:u.£r

l\_un:ckf(Jsepl.. • .fe~ lFhM~t._'(AA"PU .~ .

. h.,. \J:e~ . .:,r!. u~c~C~pL~l'~q3\.-yUfO~ ·l:I~e\ ... Ncp~lUI;"$-l'Jo::;"ittlbe~~ Cllio'N' ,,-"O.,-e'f'oJO S ceo ~l~b'!U~ll:l~~~ (.'tI'.'lJ.SfOlt":'JN'?~(tl8.'l~flaA i"",,~ 9u",esccw.:.:::(\lrt:C::OtQ,STf( .. .n~~'L!Ij ntS'l"(,u.)) u ~ ~un..

~e t..'inl'NI't>""TC.

~~t-J·(_ .... CA.S',)o._)C"nNc.lIumJ>'~FR..:ii ~ ~ orrro p),.u .• pn.0nt.~sS~I';J~~f"Dto...~'

. ....de"'~<tt\c>.'I'i"~P~gso;<i"''',.

~' " ~

1'/01,1111, ctrobcs ,;'ould he

JTfJ"'n as fil)C~r a.~ possible, wing Ihe I,'fi corner '!I'hc nih

UN(-I,II_ SClz 11'1' This economical U",-i11 scrip! was writrcn in JbOUI 450. The pen is held :H :30". !,iving.a well-mannered. flowing quality to the text. Th e rext is writtr-n

i1>; w-;plUm <wllill)I(1 (without ,pJCC; between words), which was C0l111110n tor this period.

AI1:.TIFICr,\1. UNCIc\J. "I Broad d i:'gotiJI and verrica I <rrokes. conrrasrcd wilh delicate hairlines. lypiC)· Anifici.11 Uncial lerrers.

Tnt ,I t1if'ool IJnCloIJorm oj ,I j, Jrmm wilh tbc pm hch! ncur In lAt." bon rooio}

The 1f~·JS.lO.l1S In lhc)lrs£ lint! 5{;r.m to hd"~' hc.:n mode b)" d later. unt ut orc-a. hI.Jllj

CODES A.I n:1 Ti:,;( ·s

The Code.\" :'llllion·,ws lJible \Va_, wrilll'll ill Weannourh ;lnd Janow before 71.6. initiated by Abbot Coefrid, this imposing book is the emlil"$l known Bible ill Latin ~nd was produced

for presentation 10 Pope' Cregory I L Although. llllst;lkc, occur in the first, second, and firth Ii ncs, thc' n·Hlallling scrip' lS ~ h)JIf ''''_F'ITe (JI tlte Artificial

U ucial. The finely drawn h:l irliJ){':' and delicarc selits are of J supe-rior qll:ltir\, to riJQ<e ill (he Vespasian Psalter (opppsi/c).

q(Je(l~ C;\p(H t!fx:l;eHN~_~ ~_ Tf;" d,·dicuwry ) ",-<.Jrom the Codex

- Amiatinux show, !)'f'iwJ0 fine· "erljOd

(')C()ICXI AI:n '·.lr;_ .... c· .,"

., .'''_ 'J _~ ArlJfiClu! Undo! h'mr.<

PT~ni.'O~ 1. \N~:OD .M~OOR<Kl: ) CX:Tr~(':'(Ill~ c)epNUl- ,\r.axs OCl.IOTI ~'I~F(iX:T(:IS pISNOrU,mrTT(t) €f:s@1 (n~"q(.I(E o.:)Ct)sq>Op'r:x~S T\!'JTI 'Nrell <;~qOI.\ p,~1 IN C\ cI,IS CHCff)(;' !Rem

Sc(npert h,\ucnc tocucn

24

Till' VI;~l'l\'IAN P~ALTEI"

The Vcspasiun P,altn \\'a~ wnrren at SI_ Allg:uscil1C", Abbe'y, C'ltlttll.l11r\', ill th~ (,-;Iriy eighth C<'lUll!'V_ TIIC mterhnear gJos~ C~1l\.1;11' the ";,,-lit;st known C;)P), of dl~ Psalms in English. The opening D from Psalm 26, showing the jig-uTe;; of D:n,-id and [onarhan. is

lh~ t'arlk~'! cx.nnple of.' histofi;1tc'd- i1l;tial ill \Xi,',tl'rn manuscnprs, Tile iiiL\Iltill<lted title- i\_· written i'l built-,,!, Roman c.lpid"

ii: }_melhn~or elO:H L!',!J.~' tlJ,dfd In th~~ ninlb ("C.m~itJ

D-ETAt I, I'I<.OM 'fl-I F V I,;,I>A:;-IM~ P,AI TEll The 'eriF ill thi' d~l"il He $lightly bolder (11;111 those in the rudn-- J'lmilllillif> ("J'l"".li!<,), which indic.ires the use

of n k~\ shnrplvcut quill.

.,. ...... ,II" ~'-'~ ......., ............... ,/1 ,.._',_._,'-",I'" ....... _...~

• J '._. I .... .:- r·~ , ~ ~

~~(1)~1 xrru ;\.ON"()'I)",,~c Rcq{JIRX(

.. ~ I.. tl ., ,

rxoomo UNI on )NI. P,(IS ()16llUS

~(~~ " • • • \~ .Y-tl! -1 1

'T (ll,Oel\(ll tJolu~'"r~re{l)--oNI e'r

, • 1

.~ .

U():1 M\SCON:Or'r(llC lNT~J)t::RN~(

RUt I) 'J) RO"p(1.J,rr(I)C IN ~l;S cox 0 n

, . 1t' r

~f)lr-rn.~ (;~MT,'-(Jrr(r)c'

ArtijJciaJ UnciaJ

The Uncial hand 'was well established in Britain by the time the twin abbeys of Wear mouth and [arrow were founded in 674 and 682 respextivelv. Soon, the monks of Wear mouth, [arrow, and Southumbria (England south of the River Humber) were producing manuscripts of a quality equal to that anywhere else in Europe. Their work included the landmark Bible the Code,\ Atmotmus (opposw:). However the hand thev were using

, ,

was not the Uncial of St. [erome, but a highly intricate and serilcd version, \-\'ith thin horizontal and thick vertical strokes, and serifs reminiscent of those on Square Capitals (pp. 20-21). This cxtrcmclv beautiful callioraphic hand

.; to

is known variously as A r ti hci,11 U ncial ,

Late Uncial, or Romanising Uncial

of the Canrerburv Stvle .

.; .;

25

ROM/IN &_J-ATE ROMA"I SCRJPTS

Uncial & Artificial Uncial

THE UNCIAL IS ,J, practical writing hand and as such presents no difficulties to pen. The Artificial Uncial, however, is subject to considerable elaboration involving rnany pen twists and changes of angle. Both (orrns of the script are regarded as bilinear - written between two horizontal lines - but thev

J

show the beginnings of a tendency that ultimately leads to the

development of our lower-case letters: F, I, N, P, Q.., and R drop below the baseline, and D. H, and L rise above the headline.

UII(ldi

Basic differences

The Uncial letter i, written with ~ p~n ,Ingle or 30°. Sunpler ill construcrion t hall the Aruliual vancry, II

C:1n be quickly and

flrliji{w/ Ul/ri~/

casilv permed \\'11 h " creel nib, The 111 on' complex A ni 1iC\~1 Uucial leuer IS wntten with J pen .l!lgl~ of I ()O II on be penned wirh J steel nib or a quill.

Pen twists

In the Arnficial Uncial. the characteristic pC-1l [Will that occurs on the sen[, of lcuers

C, E. F. C, K. L N. and r can be executed si III ply and quickly.

1. B~S~n by draWing a horizontal hairline strok e,

usi Ilg the full length of the nib.

2. 011 reaching (he end of the stroke, graduily twist the p~n annclock wise from the horizontal to near vertical ~nd lift. The resultan t ,crir IS indented, wsth ,I s"",11 blob visible ~t the top right-halld corner,

7),( sen.! ('W "t Irfl wirl, tltc 1>1010 <lIld .",10111111011 stil! ""i/,ie

3. The sen!" CJn be neatened

by tIS I til:( the corner of lhe PCII

rub to draw ,I hairli n,' stroh

back II P [0 the headline. ThIS extension is then lillecl ill with ink.

Uncial B

Artificial Uncial B

2

'iJ

'~

3

TIll' second and 11r',J strokes of lire 13 {~II I" w",b,'"d

B

c

For Iile scroml

stroke oj lire C.

III~.<I rile nib antid"lA'1J1ise QIl,1 ,1,a~ the illk dou~'wards

c

Uncial C

Artificial Uncial C

P"ll OUI tlie rail oj lile C ",illr rI,e {('mer if thr IIlb

~ o ,d),

Uncial D Areificiat Uncial D

Uncial E

2

F ~ jY:

To dtau: tlu: ;crif oj the F, II",,., it« lIib ,l!Hi·r/o[k"'''l' 111111 dmS the i,li,

do umivards

Uncial F

Artificial Uncial F

s ~- I«C

Uncial. G Artificial Uncial G

Q AJ2"IH I~~'

Compltlt'rhe limit "",1 Mil oJlheG ill /I

sill,~ie 'Iroke

Modern Uncial]

u.!' J A,}' J

Uncial r

Modern Artificial Uncial]

~ ti« I alit! J nrc arml11 1'>1 a ,i"J!ic strolsc

J I

Dm,J( ollr the IIl,I o(

J J J ,/0, , ""J J ,,;,1, tlic

, [Nlln ('j lire ",10

26

UNUM &_ARTIFICIAL UNCIAL

E:IR g", n,e simpler
J 2 U,lOal Z (all
Drag Ihe ItI/! b( pennrd ill
1(' 111l' nglll cl single stralec
Im'tll the corner
~f the lIib
Uncial R Drag our the tai! if the K witll the corner ~(!/u nib

01/ l/1ellli,,1 ;rroh. tuns:

I/o" "ib 10 tlte llOriZ~"ldl

n"'Amjhia! Jler~~iotj matns the appearance ~(a capita!

r<,_'clllblfS a IIlilllc,wle letter

A I the end of the .Icco"d strolsc of fl,c L. tuns: Ilu nib llwi·t/DCilll'i_'t dlld drl1R the illk dOIIJlIllJJrds

Uncial L

Artificial Uncial L

Uncial M

Artificial Uncial M

0" lile_l;r:;1

N N 1 r~ j J "~~~!f~

Uncial N Artificial Uncial N B' I fi k if i

1)/111 IIC ust <Iro e 0 I"

N at 45° a"d uois: 10 a lie,,, vertical alltlc

nil' b~1I4 (?f ,ltf UI/(i,,1 P is II/Ore <lJ'fII 111011 tiun of thr Arlifitidl_fimJl

Uncial P

Artificial

lcfi ,I'il/1 'he comer of the lIib

Uncial P

2

g q I((J

Tile S1'(ond and ,hi,,/ uroees of lilt Q maybe drawn 11.( a .(iIlRle stroke

Uncial Q

Artificial Uncial Q

Alternative Artificial Uncial Q

2 TIwall(-'7J1,lIi,.'('

Q ~j) Amp{1QIUllrial

1 Jonll ~(Q !1Il .. (

Ihe appcamnr<' of" {apiialklll'(

'?-

2

I~~ __ ' ~~

~

J

To draw tll~ -({rif' of tll~ S, III!ISI the "i/; allli·(ltl(kllliJ'C

~lId dlttg lite IlIk dou-'II!/!<l1d.,

s

s

Uncial S

Artifidal Uncial S

FDf IJie sen! oj I/le T, 1111;$1 the "ib ~11I;'·dockwise ,lIId d,,(~ the iuk IIOWHW(1rds

Uncial T

Artificial Uncial T

U U ,[ t

Uncial U Artificial Uncial U

111c:S1! [orn« l1 V are modern {OIISJrIUf;OH$

v V ~~2

Uncial V Artificial Uncial V

TlIl'S{ [om« qF W arc moden: constructions

WLV'«~>

Uncial W Arttticl.aJ Uncial W -

2

For tlu: sen] q( I/'e X, 1II~'<1 the IIiil mniriockll!i" allil

drag the ink dOl jJJ, wards

Uncial Y

2_

4--.7- 7/' L-, ~J

Uncial Z Artificial

Uncial Z

Pen» b0111 senj; of II,C Z by lII!i<lillg the nib ,,"li·r}<>.-/:twJ3C ami draJ.:.Ri"x the iMIt d~Il·'III·,ml_'

27

:. lpSOJ1 ]111 esc ,ftul11 ~ l(iUll n:·

.. "-

-, ~(l InTGe3' lJOl1JaID JPSl TJOS,~J

~ ~ 1Jeb~ll'; llRG_] 1c:=9 :. QZ ~

•

;. ;~:~~;~:.. ~ llml,"! ~ It:mlCqU01J1WIl,

( 01 -Sl WOOllClll ~~

ST~l .

1"1 i .

!j\'.,>UtAR MAJUSCULE

Insular Majuscule

THE INSULAR MAJUSCULE (Insular Half Uncial) derives its name from its origins in the islands of Britain and Ireland.

"I· I'" f the L . f ". 1 d" d "M . 1" r

. nsuar is rom tne i atm. or IS an .. , an aJuscu e rerers

to the height of the letters, much larger and bolder than those of the complementary Insular Minuscule (pp. 34-35).

As a prestige hand, the Insular Majuscule is characterized

by letters drawn 51m""I1' and carefully, with many lifts of

the pen (pp. 32-33). In early medieval Britain and Ireland, it was the favoured hand for sacred manuscripts written

in Latin, including two of the most beautiful books ever produced, the Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells.

BEATrrVDES T'AGE fROM THE BOOI{ Of KELl_'

The border of this page from the Book of Kells combines

the eight initial bs and incorporates both zoomorphic and anthropomorphic decoration. The horizontal stroke over "sp""

in the fi rst line denotes an abbreviation of "rpiriIJt" ("btT:ath of God"), The horizontal stroke is .1 device used by scribes (or o(trcpeared words. Also typical is the letter ,! in the 13th line, which has been cxtravaga ntlyextended \11 order co fill space. The use of red dots to outline initials and omament text is more sensitive and restrained here than ill the Liudistaruc Gospels (,))p. 30-5 I).

("rrJid <wd, V Inc ilnnner Ink on Ihe T jJil'es.ciue< 10 (he (o.1l$r.nlnion 9rrma/c:u t~l(JjLJ,;cu/'t leuess

~--

THE GOSI'El, OF ST. MARK

The Insular M;\iuSCl.!I e is without capitals as they are used in the modern sense, Chapter openings. such JS this detail from the Gospel of St, Mark in.the !Jook of Kells, commenced with a line of display capitals, a Versa! (Pi' 58--59), or a cornbinarion of both. V erses wou ld open wi [h a la rger character, which was often decorated or tilled with colour,

The ascender if rho leus» b slams to tbr "Bill, "''' h tbe ",,,d8" wi/ballincing over ,nc bow/if ih« leuer

IN$UL~I<' MAJU,CULE.F Th e pnncrpal characteristic

of rh .. Insular M<ljlbc,tk letter i, [he wedge-shaped "'TiJ Oil rhe headline (pp, 32-33),

Th~:' i-t,:(1"m . .'d h.r)"k' is ('n;d~ ,'J 6.,,1"" m"L'ina rhe pell ,r.8hl~)" to ,/". d8/1I ~r!)lC."lCm.iL,",i then pash,ng J~ u;p rc lhl' mJdwo) pOlnr

IF EVER THERE WAS a golden

age of calligraphy, it was the heginning of the eigbt.h century, when Nort.humbria was one

of the most nourishing centres

of art and scholarship i.n western Europe. interaction between scriptoriurns of the twin Aueustinian

to

monasteries [arrow and Wearrnouth

(see the Codex Amiat.inus, P: 24)

and that at Celtic Lindisiarne (see the Lindislarne Gospels, pp. 30-3/) led to the production of some of the greatest achievemen ts of medieval art. The Book ?f Kells

The Book of Kells waswritten <It some time in the second half of the eighth oentury and the early years of the ninth century, probably by IrishNorrhumbrian monks. Its place of origin is shrouded in uncertainty and the first record we have of its existence is an account of its theft in 1006 from the monastery of Kells in Ireland.

The four illuminated Gospel texts in the Book of Kells were written

by at least three scribes in insular versions of Uncial (pp. 24-25) and Half Uncial (pp. 38-39) letters. These would have derived from characters originally introduced into Ireland from the: ancient region of Gaul by St. Patrick and his missionaries.

29

CHI-RHO PAGE These ornate display capitals on the Chi-Rho page' or dle Lindisfa me Gospels make Ihis one of the most impressive IC:Jve~ III the book. A variery of influences ~'rC evident, including Greek, Roman, Half Uncial, and runic.

Eadfrith's use of rhe capitals is highly creative.

There :tre three ditlcrcnt [orms of (he letter A on Ihis page: IIVO on the second line. and a third, OC foml 011 the bottom line (1'1" 32-33).

The Lindiifarne Gospels

The richly illuminated Lindisfarne

j

Gospels date from the end of the

seventh century, when the scribes

j

of the Northumbrian monasteries

were entering their most productive phase. The Gospels were written

in Latin by a Single scribe, Eadfrith, who became Bishop of Lindisfarne in 698. An interlinear gloss, providing a translation of the text into English, was adeled in the tenth century.

The Durham Gospels

In addition to the Gospels from Lindisfarne and Kells, there are a number of other books and fragments from this period that reveal wel]executed Insular Majuscules. Among the most outstanding are the Durham Gospels, which are contemporaneous with those or Lindisfarne and

may even have been written

in the Lindisfar ne scriptorium.

The elegant, well-balanced hand is markedly similar to Eadfrith's. Other examples include the Echternach Gospels and the Book of Durrow,

TAltA UltOOCH

This inrricarelv decorated brooch was (ound in lreland In 1850 nOI fa r Ii-om anr icnt T ara. The dare of ill construction IS unknown, although srrikuig design similanries with some decorated

inuials il1 th~ Lindisfarne Gospe-ls suggesc all early medieval dace.

TJusc (uldlincor piJrl.erlls llle '"(IT), smnlar W '/W5l' .n the J_jnd'-'farnc Gospc}: (right)

DETAil fROM HIE CI-II-RI-IO PAGE The interbced birds and cu rvi hnear patterns ill th" detail are almost identical (Q decoration 011 the TJrJ brooch. This srvlc or zoomorphic interlacmg is or Genuanic origin.

30

!':\iSUl.lIR ,H;I)USClfLE

ST. JEllOME'S PREFACE

This bC:Hltili.llly decorated page {rolll the Lillcii-,r.,rne Gospds showc rile preface !O rhc text of SI. jerome. The abundant use of red dors around til<" initial leiters i, J common design (on,m: of 111(' hook.

As well JS ourlin i Ilg rile letters, the dots provide ~ background of Jd1CJle colour, One (olio in the l.mdrsfarne Gospels IS .leroratcd witl: over j()_(I()O such dots, Tht' ru bn(;l(ed letters at 111(; top o(

the pa~~ indicate I he end of OIK

tcvt and Iht hq,J!H1111g of another.

Th~ nn cri iuear Hloss. U"Tlllcn In an .1 nll/(1- So.x.on mJ nusculc 11'1" 34 Hi, is the ((l1J'CSl SU(1'Jl'iutl translcnon into Anflln. Sux"" of'

,''" Four Gospel:

In dds work hy ne'nIJ Brown. the meJle,'alln.<Ulur J/aJ',swl" letters hart" been recrrat al In (J mDJ('n) nmrcJt.l

DENIS Hlt()WN This culhgraphic piece, entitled Cul/u",1 Dccomposluon, was created by the Irish cl1hwapher Derus Brown in 1993. AI 1.2 by 1.6 metres (47'/, by 6.) inches), it i~ a work of gr~'H scale and rower. The medieval arrisrrv of Ill,· lusular M".)lIscttie letters are seen to be svsremadcally corroded by the symbols of rnodernirv. the electric cables,

,.

Manuscript decoration

The scholar Giralclus Cambrensis, writing in J J 85, remarked: " ... you mav say this was the work of an

) ./

angel, not of man ... the more J

studv, the more J am lost in fresh

./

amazement." I-Ie was describing,

in all probability, the decoration

of the Book of Kells (pp. 28-29). This, along with the illustrations in the Lindisfarne Gospels and other works from the earl" medieval

)

period, represents the highest

achievement of Western manuscript decoration. From the carpet

pages (pages without text and filled entirely with intricate designs) to the decorated initials and display capitals, and from the shields, trumpets, spirals, and knots to the labyrinthine interlaces that dissol ve into fanciful animal forms, the craftsmanship

has rernai ned unsurpassed. Today, we view the work with the same wonderment as Cambrensis. often requiring a magnifying glass to study the fine detai l.

31

Insular Majuscule

THE l",slILAR MAjllSClILf: i~ among the most prestigious of scripts. Most letters in this hand are built up from a series of composite strokes and involve multiple pen lifts. Ascenders and descenders are minimal. The script tends to be bold, with a letter height of between three and fl ve pen widths. Clear spaces should be allowed both withir, and between letters, and interlinear space is generally equal to about two minim heights.

Pen angle and wedge serifs Insular Majuscule letters' are written with an oblique-cut nih, with tht" pen ,Ingle berwcen the horizontal and 15°, Th~ disrincnvc wedge serif such as

that on the I,. i, 1\l~de by drlwing a <hort downward stroke J( about 45° 111[0 the IllJIll stem, TIllS C~ n be preceded or followed by a hairline stroke along the tOP of (he wedge.

Horizontal darts

To create the darts that appear 011 lerters d, g, I. and 2. use (h(' back or {he pen nih. Begin by drawing OJ diagonal stroke [0 the nght. followed by J short

do\Vnw~ni.strokc. then pull the pen 10 [he right to make J long horizontal stroke, Letters ,~ and I have a second darr; create Ihi; by rwisung the pen downwards to an angle of about 15°,

Alternative dart

An alternauvc technique (0 thaI described above ;1 to use the comer of the p~rJ nib to define Ihe dan before filling in the outline wuh ink.

2

-([

PH.'1r th«

firsll""l or (I .

Ille .<Imitt __

Ot forru O( a

TIle O( _Ion" 4" is ~rlm 1I5ed

Uncial form of a

b

",roc 10 II" left

--c

Uncial form oed

d

Alternative d

e

I

-c

2

32

Thr s,,",lIld wok, 'f tlu:« j~Jji'_(Ji{'s rpt,f,! d skilled iJai,!hlf

Balnna: the I~p r.f ih« _,/tlPl {/llcr' ,h .. "D"'/ of t/rr h

3

2

TlJc ,'era/l,; strola: o(lit~ c is (J ,\'l'lMrilte, p,,,Ilcd wah

4

2

rile /"",Iilll of the e {Oil II C,\'/clI/led /0 1/',' n,~'" III"l(rl1i.</;,./ ll)rlh (} ddJr

Complete ;iJt s(fOnd strole« d 1111" f i~ a si'I,!!/1' IIIDJi,nJclll

,Dr/lIP the {Ill(] /Ivn',:ollral ddr~ of lire g tVill1 1/" b,lIk (,_rIlle Hi!

INSULlR MAJUSCULE

'l he second "n,1 ,/rifd strokes oflhe h (an be combined

3

~lJ-

I

l-,Tl_

gSkdlC 'he tai! 4 the J

The an of th« k CIln be made iu

r

Alternative"

O TII,ol$-

composed ~( III", ""gle opposlIIg strokes

P ._' '--= -"

- II

Afrer drowiflg the uri/, the III carl be {omplrfl'd unthout liftillg (lit' pell

Eililer of 1/"'" Iwo form, <>/ n mil he uwl

A}lrr drmvillg the serif, 'he p mil be {ompletcd ill a ,mgle stroke

q

--

2

TIlt Jeri! 01 (I,e top l~-IIJ( q H t1 Vt1ritJlitlu (\f II,e wedge smf

I

-~-

0----- -

~ 2

I

~

2~

, 4

I t 5

The aoss ;(roke of the n {all be eXI,,"ded 10 tI,C right 10 fill spa(/' at ti,e end of a line

3

2

J

1

e--

•

-q

2

I

2~

J

The 'V (aker tile Jom. of a modem II

4

6

4

TI,e lrairline of Ihe x is skated or draum

witll Ihe >lib rOnln

2--e-;~

Swiue! the .!lib "pljd, dOIj~1 J .

Jor flu lo"t horizontal woke

-·-"'~r ~ _-,_

DTlIW the I/lird stroke of lilt z ,,~th the edge qf tile Hlb

33

Insular Minuscule

J\LOl\C;S]I)E ~.-\O-I Of TI-JE MAJOR prestige formal hands, I"lthcre has usuallv developed a functional cornplcrncntarv hand ior lise in evcrvdav transactions and for \vriting 110n-

, , c

SJCTL'c\ rnanuscripts. In the case of the Insular Majuscule, the

complementary script is the Insular Minuscule, which dates from the late fifth or carl" sixth ccnturv, Its usc continued

, ,

in England until after the Norman Conquest of 1066, and in

Ireland it has survived For Gaelic lise into the 20th ccnturv,

,

making It one of the most enduring of all Latin scripts.

THE. !.\·SlJL tR MI,\"USCtJ/.E was brought to the Briti.,;jl mainland Iroru irebmd In' St, Columba ,)))<1 \",1.' taugln ,ll t he rn()nZl~t('l"ics of lon a J.lld Li nd i:.Jar nc. As xvi cll the Insular Majuscule. the' script was (hen di~~t'millaled on the Continent 1)), missionarv Irish monks. The term "in-u [ar" i.": appl kd h)' pZtlZK'Og I·z\phcr., to indicat e ,1 shared culture bel \'-ct~n Ireland a nd l~r i t a in, 1"1",;1.:' from Continental influence.

An a!O-S(lXOll hall d

:\.fln llw C[)ullc!l ()t' \\lilith\· in 664. I he in IlUl'IHX' Dr the C olri c Chu I'ch weakened in England, Scothlnd, ,111<1 \V<ik~ ,"11111 a Ili00T disi inctivc Anglo~aX()ll h,m(1 hegan to ern l'FgC. I u.

(1 ualitv is d"SSl~d ill foul" grades:

1 , "

hvbr irl, \\hich rontains half-unci"l

elcm cuts <In(1 the O{ lorm of il; set ,

a can:i"ujl.1 expcuted., lormal hand; ("ur.,i 1.'0.;., tIll' basic, run CI i (m;) 1

hand; anrl currens ,. the CjU ick];' p(~nr\t'd, informal hand. l~:' tl'll' ('<11'1)' nint h l"cntu]"\', the roost bl\'ourcd hanci in xouthcrn I3rilzlin \\',H the pointed cursive III inusculc, and it is th is that 1\(' U~'" ,I~ our model (pp. 36 37).

l\w'.;-ru, ,\\I.Nl'~CUll i' The m111(, dc'm't~, lron: th~ riHC(\ct"Tbti( IOJl~ s\\"<:'<:p of t h<' Jl>'·<'lld~,~. Thi- " ill ,()Illrl'( to In(' <.qu~[cr de~t'cnd{'r(, 01 the' ',,:\ minuscule.

U"iI'lot-Al!NF.

The' l'nnry ur L""lhj~ml' \\"u'.10'lInd"d In I !l~n. on !Iw >11,' "ftil,- ~'Irli.~r An,~I"-~"_'()\l 1Il\.lI1,,~e,·r:\'

I~ .\]".L\BoL\.e s.U_o(no)..ns(nClt1111."r-"111C

~ ~J nCu.Uttl1·'-lU1L1 .. neuum ~dH.tr t_.c,~ itnl1lltf tn{lr<c,

) , "cn on r1 (I.e f7Jt.1 ur Jttn ~HU r &~ltl(1 fU: i fnut4'ttU

,_"'" 1\ /'1<'01'1'11'111.'1 ),.ILI\I'),\.'J'

Lf 11/ 1'1:<",,,,1>,,, .\','li<lI!I(1lli.<, ~ " ork

hv till' gre;n :\ IIgll)-~a~.lI I hi"':JIIJO Ik(ic;. \\'~, \\'I"1(\U1 ill .in lu-ailar Miml'cuk ,cr'),l tllJt h.nl bee'll peI1(Xlt"d in W",ln1Wll1h-IJtn'N bv 7511,

/vIEle< II\·~ I'I!-.I \"[,1'..-1"" IK Th.. pilgC' o( "'I minuscule 11'(l1ll .1 M,'r(lall p,.;l\'lT-h,,,,k 10\'.1' .vrittcn in ch~ "arly ninrh ~<' JI uny, 1',,'<11>1 Y In \Xto rccstcr, Hnt.un. (- "mj';!]"'" ~i1<.' r,,.tn' vd), ""'(I'alll"d .lecornnon ui th t· i ruual lee tel" wit hthar or lkd,'" 1 Ii, I (1ri" 1::;C(I('.\ld.\·llm ("I'P,}J iii'). \,-lIich rcailire" 'PJr.1k. fret" ""d knot interlaces.

1 Jr I "II I 1,( \\ \ \

Mt 1,\ I IN I'I~,\YI :Z-II( '(ll,

Dor H ippl!! tHh.i 1 olonr '.1.1''::

"I{em 1,J.'!:e,d, ~tl dcr.url'1lt" the /1f".1 Jt!IIN (lj LJ Ilerx

_~ ,,' 1-1 ,h I

" . J~'l\11:11"0h""{'lh'11~t,;; ;'11~';1';

~ F'J\"~lhl~' :1!n::lh\l1) \:~:"n,.l~""~;? , ..l~ "n,\ hiUfCt. c m;:>1 ,IT'F tl1'.lr;;'.II~' "M~ Si lllD1I1!i:lW\''''1:u\lfltufi1)- <111 1r.::ttl'"·'

I !'\,'t ~ ~!V,$il\\in'111lt"l\<;'1\1j~\1: l'\1jl11J,t.\~'11t1ll" ''il:J ~,C~ll\~ ~s.',ml)\' I:9m <'>1])rl1P,"",iTdi'

. -'p:'9\~n tl~i;me..:01\· ql1lq\'~11r.'. 'Hetu~) &\-.;ci'n"n) m,\ll<l ,:'01111"11.\ 'ItJ" In ('I\" """ ~u+-Inomj)tbus ,';;,;tf\l\ &II) i,(: 6"",blh""le

\J~ i:?i1t~ nilhl 0"1111,),].\ .l~l" 1T\~t'('1I1n

r,~m"tL\ 1!)\>(\,,"V;i[It"~!~T~M.1 '1\J.~~,P.i.1 C\Wk11'{"1~: '\ll1\im~ \lJ.e.I~·b\:l'l' );T; I)~m~~ ,lti,,~-1;)(l1\'''Y~. ft-~ftI'''lf l11tl('hblr: hll,,;'!j b111ISt\f"'tlltg¢'(I\ 'li1< l'fi>ml tum.l ~ ?"'ttv itl~LS\r t1af~~ ,tRi"tJ.' nli"~'(~'\IL 11'11'11 I~,t \1l1;"\\)il01\'; i?l~m'ltrdir Camml",)

J~uq' ~"fIl\~~ '\~,'l,":-:' ~i ~)I\I.U1

. oml11f'a:tI\K"~1''\ 'rl\1' \1"'- .... c )l1[ ~n.\ "

/,"'SUIAR MI,'v1J5CULE

n]L~ JLYOYIJIII)f7 (lrOlmJ lilt

r---'~iF1ii;'!fif$<'~~~iiiijr?ii~I- JrlJr wi h (1!.(l.:mhlc.1 lhl.Jl_fIJUnJ

II] mCi:(J/m'.Jrk on U i.oar.l ,» f,call.i'IJr:.ilc, CDmwoll

! !!SF' !!H I ! __ ':CI ;L/!S!,IS'J'!< '- .. 1

J 11 1 ~.;,;"dt"' ~ /-lirlon'I-I E[dc .. ,dlJ..~1 /({I (J'(1l1j; A II,Qlcvu/U1 written 111 southern Ensbnd in "bOllt 82IJ. the descenders are 111;.1(1" in ,1 single stroke and terminated bv an upward rlick. The pen

;, Ii ft,'d be!\\'l';;ll t':lch st roke,

rilL'!. fVJ,'I:~J tarir~llle1raj' JcrIJUnS:JJlHL' ;'"VHle I!Jjlvt'nas

Tih' tliOrt ~ i~ u<f!d }\Olh ()J~J,I1.d~l and [Cml,JrlVJ~I'

DerAIL r-RO,vl HH,_ '-fIS'f/Jln,1 ECcLEsHSnc.-l

t\'OI.t' (h,' two di{li:'r('1H tonus cit' r that "all r ;'1 th t' "tid of the lirst ,1Il d second words or this detail. The usc of till' uptight t{)nll of the kiWI din th" second line is a ikp"rHlre 1'1'(1)1 the Uncial f011ll (J'P. 24-25)

CumpOft' ~hjsJorm ~FJ u'uiJ lhl? Ot.;.F·)lm lI~l"u' j n ~ne H isroria f:.cdC!;l.ll'ric..:l

EX.ET£lt He )0](

Wri!(.t~ll dUlillg the second half of lhe tt:ntLt century ill a fin" AIl?:k, ... Saxon >'j u1 r~ m: 11.lIscule, th e Exeter nook is an nnt hology of vern acular poetry,

c

This H'h1(nSlCUi Je(~);·(j'UOJJ, wJLh fc(!c-r..,- umrfOlmrnfJ Wt1~ umm!ds, is: j\~~)~'rm(l) ll'l(,Jn dWI IjS~{.! [or copiials In Jhe J Jfldlsj'{)rne C"'pd, "Pl" 30 J I)

Carolingian influences

13)' the tenth century, the Insular Min uscuic was undergoing changes, first becom i ng angular and upright and then, under the influence of the Caroline Minuscule (pp. s« 39), becom i ng more rounded. By the

11 th c('Dtury, the script had entered its final phase or chilnge, with the letters gai ning a sCju<lrer aspect. Changes oj pen angle

Throughout the development of

the carlv Insular Minuscule, it was the

/

changes of pen angle that allowed the

scribes to express their calligraphic virtuositv, This element of play seems

" "

progressively to have diminished

as the hand became squarer.

To the modern eye, the long, spiky descenders of the pointed cursive minuscule are made all the more dominant by their appearance on letters rand 5 (pp. 36 37). The other minim characters are rounded and compressed, which gives a more flowing texture to the page than any of the later Insular Minuscules,

/! dccorauvc swup 011 1h4.." _!i""II<SrJm mu)' OC[U}, 01

(lrc enJ (.foU! :\-Df(!I'T 1m€' ,

35

Insular Minuscule

CALLIGRAPHERS / v IAY WELL find the ductus of the insular Minuscule one of the most satisfying to accomplish. In the Anglo-Saxon pointed minuscule shown here, the characteristic pointed aspect - most noticeable on the descenders - is created by progressively turning the pen to a steeper angle as the stroke is drawn. The pen begins at the headline at an angle of about 40° and on reaching the bottom of the descender has turned

to a near vertical. The minim height is about five or SL,{ nib widths.

1. Using the edge of

~ square-cut nib. bcgm JI the headline with

J short downward diagonal stroke.

4. AI the baseline. the pen angle should be about 65", rcaching 75" at th,· t1P of rhe descender.

2. Return 10 Ihe headline and begin the downward stroke with the pen at an angle or about 40°.

5. Once the descender 1,,\ tapered 10 a POInt, begin rerraci ng {he stroke before separati ng at Ih~ baseline.

3. Continue to pull rhe pen downwards, gradually turniog the mb in an <1111;clock wise direction.

711c a is poillied at ,lie top

c ~- 7f)
2

~ -G)' TIlt ascender of tile f (ould rile "hove rile lundlinr

The (fOJJ/xI, oj Ih, f should be 0" (lie baseiin«

6. On reaching the

headline, the pen should ~ _-- -I 7,- b2

be at irs original Angle. "- j

Now proceed with (he

next part of rhe letter,

J

TIle V(lu!1 oj II" g {Ou/,I be mor,' opm tha» Ihi!

~A:lIt----

<,. , TIlf ieu« j

~J ls e modem

V 2 construaion

36

INSUUiR MINUSCULE

TI,e stem of tile I ("I' be (ompler.ely Ilprighr

___ Jr

rc

•

_-. . __ . __ ~ a

--7. -- -,~

I\aJt( f'\"Pl

.---- u .. --.

~~2 f~3 -11

t.t r ,[__1J_1f1)_-.,,-,,--

Cmue the letter w by combining tiff u and v

<1" -

..

3

2 The 0 can be

draw" with one slroke or IwIJ

3

2

J

111_--

4

- X-

-.;/ ~y:

-,,, .

Ult ei the« one or two slroko 10 d,dw Ihe z

2

This modem form of r is more re(ognizable than lire histoncallv conea form

Traditional

form _,. .. -_,.,

ofr

Longs

---t

cc.__-,

The lall e UJa.l CMltI10nly Ilgalllred lvil" f, g, " rn, n, p, r, S, [J u, x, y, and z

E-t ligature

4

37

C1ROI_INE &._EAR/_Y GOTHIC SCRIPT\

CAROL-INE MINUSCULE H The Caroline Minuscule is written with a square-cut nib. with the pen held at 300

(1'1" 40--41).

Caroline Minuscule

J\ t first sight, the differences between the Caroline Minuscule fl.(Carolingian Minuscule) and the late Half Uncial scripts (see Vatican Basilicanus , below) are not clear. The main distinction between the two is in the pen used to write them, the Half Uncial using a "straight" pen and the Caroline a "slanted" pen (pp. 40-41), In fact, the Caroline Minuscule was developed

in the eighth century as a reformed version of the Half Uncial. It survived in this form until the 11 th century, before evolving into the Early Gothic (pp. 46-47) and Rotunda (pp. 84-85),

By THE LATE eighth century, Charlemagne (Charles the Great, King of the Franks), had created a Frankish Empire that stretched from the Baltic to northern Italy.

Inspired by the glories of antiquity, Charlemagne instigated a great cultural revival. The prominent scholar Alcuin of York was made Abbot of St. Martins in Tours, France, where he established a scriptorium and Court School. I t was here that the existing Half Uncial was reformed

to create the Caroline Minuscule,

A dominant script

Characterized by its clarity and uniformity, the Caroline Minuscule

o

gradually became the dominant

script in Europe. It arrived late in England, but was adopted in the tenth centUl'y for Latin texts, such as the Ramsey Psalter (pp. 42-43).

Over 400 years later, it was

.I

rediscovered bv Renaissance scribes

/

and, in tum, adapted by Nicholas

Jenson and other type designers in Venice for their early

printing types (pp. 90-91).

VATICAN BASILICANUS The HalfUnc iwl rs It.';llJLly defined by its capital form of ,,,. "nd by the oblique-cut mb used to write it (p. 40). Although lacking III subrlerv. (his early example, probably from the Iale fifth century. shows clear and unambiguous leucrfonns, Note how vertical the script is compared to the slanted Caroline of the Grandvll Bible (opposi/c).

38

The ~scanJeT is equal in neig!Jt (0 ,he minim

Ti,e mmims odha» stria ~v (a rh" heosllir« dJ,d boselme. (;realms nt~(][. /<!JiMe lme: ':f rt.<1

CIROLfNE /V!INUSCULE

FRANKISH EMPIRE

The extent of Charlemagne's Frankish Empire in rhe early nimh century is marked in red 011 this map of modem Europe. As the empire expanded north of the Alps.

Larin and Greek learning was carried with it.

These modern Caroline lcuers bove bun WTilleti In gOUdCI>, on ~ background,!! watercolour

CJj>ilal letters, loosely deri,'ed(wm Uncia] and Roman models, have brcn created to harmonJu wuh the minuscule honJ

eqUjdjSQ;n~dse<lj1te plumes' Fro"" rh .. ~-wJ;;te-ff~,-of .... ;sr-

8~e"," tJ,""",,,,, ",tain chains

In morni,,~sun. whichstc~b"""6 -tI,e v"Ue,Yfi'$'''~ T;l.:e"'1ft>a~c,,";v,tF""8i:ni~~""""_~' wfticJ,..t& Awhj'lijN,J.fJ;~'J;.mo.L. _ 0/ 1'!7~ip$lt'fh~'$1l~a41_o.ltJw~r"'"· ..AlIl'~'i>U~fl"'! .... 1I:cs ~

."Rar1 I lld( It>p~~t-~~

INCIPIT LIBER-

EXO DVS

SHEILA WATERS Composed in \990

by the English-bor» calligrapher Sheila W;l.ters, (his work

is part of a mprych entitled CI,,,,d Concepuons fro",

Ai>ol'r. The (ext is arranged asynunerncally in a stretched, modem version of Caroline Minuscule. The even height and stJC\ighmess of the lines allow subtle- colour changes (0 be made (0 the letters without

rhe overa 11 design becoming tOO busy.

A square-cut nib

The major difference between

the Half Uncial and the Caroline Minuscule is the cut of the pen nib. The earlier hand is " .... ritten with an oblique-cut nib, which produces an upright letter with contrasting thick and thin strokes. The Caroline is written with a square-cut nib, which produces letters with strokes of even proportions (pp. 40-4/). Textural colour

When viewed as a page of text,

the textural colour of the Caroline Minuscule is quite distinct from that of the Half Uncial. While the Half Uncial letters have a static aspect, the Caroline letters have a slight forward thrust, an element roost noticeable on the ascenders and descenders. Minims adhere sharply to the headlines and baselines, which emphasizes the script's ordered and logical aspect.

~EC 5UfI~ £"'1:1: L t-4" @CID 1 ~ 7'f~L16~U 'l5RAh€~

<JLl 11 J--1<;RES

51 S~'TltJ 1)

A-€S1pTm CUrol~eO£ 5J~t?U:L..l

eu (Y).V:G) ml

.BGIS SUJ5

'J~ ;rJ1:.0J .e }l~"". -r.'

r~u bCfl- frm~t1-le=t:u .1u¢A-. f rGx . .eJ,AJf'{'Zl\..b1,1. b..__..---- Tbesquare-cvt pm nlbgi r es Ih. Caroline

,. ;~d ,,:.,.-: Minuscule I,IJ(TS lJ $JiglJlJ~TwI1Td Ii~TUSl

e'&e&:rr1~1t:l· d_x'"'~'''''I}~:m yJ. ~~.fe·rr/"

THE G~NDVAL Bun.t

61''":N:.1'l~J51~j'i-fQftl1!t.~~tmKe=:cv-F:um 9U~'~ There is a subtle forward thrust to rhese exemplary

r~ d ~ h .r: ~ . Caroline Minuscule letters. They arc written

' . ~, fj>11~' ~T·""''''·~";tol.C''''· ~ 'f~~'f"'/~qU'f<tl 'Jell c- between fou r nnagina ry hnes: the III inims

Jo.i[itti>A j..U~l. ff1~p'q;;oC1""XZ"" B, tl''''me . .,... .. ct,t"O ci:! adhere co the cenrral rwo lmes, the ascenders

'1 ' ..:> • '-1 reach the top line, and the descenders reach

Ul1lU ~r~~ &;~¢t14F Clm"I1CFcc@1~.t:;Ul,11~ .. V the bottom Line. TI.i~ ascenders and descenders

~~ _. are cxacdy (he sallie height JS (he mi nuns,

39

CAROLINE &.._EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Caroline Minuscule

THE CAROLINE MINUSCULE is one of the easiest hands for a calligrapher to master. As a reformed script, its original function was to communicate legibly (pp. 38-39). The letters are without embellishments, the word spaces clear, and the ligatures minimal. Although closely related to the Half Uncial, from which it derives (below), the Caroline is always written with a "slanted" pen whereas the Half Uncial is usually written with a kstraight" pen.

Caroline Minuscule ~~-. The Caroline Mil//LSCHre a IS

a liro-siorey,

- - oPf" letter

Half Uncial

A [oru-ard slant of "bou'

1 0° is tharaaaistic if Ihe Caroline .o\1i"lIIcule letter

TIu pm allgle for Ihe hand is about 35°

Basic elements

The minim height or the Caroline Minuscule is between three and live pen widths, wirh

a further (\'.'0 or three {or the ascenders and descenders. The serifs on the ascenders of h,

d, h, k. and I have a clubbed appear.lnce. Other letters, such as i. m. and 11, have slightly wedge-shaped serifs.

-{It

TIlI'_, OC Jorm if a

. II c/ldra((eristic oj

_. . _ th« Half UI/cial

-v=' Tile Caro/iJu n takes II

recog'lizably

-- '-- - lou-er-tase fon»

TIle H"I! Uno'al Irand retains lire Uncial capital n

40

nel/II'rd s (roke if rlre d could be a continuation ~r the $ffonJ

J TIu stem of lire f

call also be made !Pill, a sittglc d(l"~I.U'ard Jlrok,

TI" bowi of the g should be left opett

Finish liu h wilh --this inward mwp or wjllt a foot (sec auematiue n, opposue)

Siwe tire tail of lile i 10 form d j

CAROLINE MINUSCULE

PIIII tire foci of the I

alollg the baseline

J"

Use one continuous stroee for rhe

ri1ij':~:',~

m wilh all iluvard "veep or a foo: (see altematiue n, below righr)

'I

2

Fi"islt the 0 __ o._~r;,s_ with all inward

suJeep or (1 [oo! (sec alternative n, below right)

Altemntioel», Ihe p could be draWl! ill Iwd s rrolu:s, wilh the second stroke c011tilu,itlg 10 the ."1:'"

2

tt« S!"III of the q {ould be a lOHl'"ualion of tile second stroke

2

-~ ~

-4Z--~~~

J

2

2

~-----------~~-~ -~

.~ -k "-,y-y

~ ~

J

..

-;v__._....p'

---

2

!rtfdiliona//ollg form of' ------------I~~~-----~._-------------

Alternative"

41

CUWU,,/E &_ EARlY Grn Hie SCRIPF.S

Foundational Hand

No BOOK ON THE mechanics of calligraphy is complete w-ithout a reference to Edvvard Johnston's Foundational Hand and its simplicity and integrity. Historically, it belongs to the earlv 20th ccnturv. However, the basis for the script is

) ,

a manuscript dating from the year 966, the Ramsey Psalter.

Believed to have been produced by scribes at Winchester, the Ramsev Psalter was written in a hand 110\\' known as

~

the English Caroline Minuscule, an Anglicized version

of Frankish Caroline Minuscule (pp_ 38-39)_

By THE END OF the 19th century, under the influence of the Arts and Crafts movement in England, a whole

'-'

new philosophy was cnwrging among

artists and craftsmen _ The basis of this philosophy was that the honest construction of an artefact was achieved onlv bv the correct

, -'

interaction of too I and materia].

Medical student Edward johnston readily endorsed this idea and began, in 1897, to experiment in writing letters \·vi th a broad -edged pen. In 1899, his work came to the attention of W_ R _ Lethally, Princi pal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts in London, who invited him to teach classes in Calligraphy and Illumination. In 190 I , Johnston also beglln lecturing at the Royal College of Art) London.

In 1 h" dctai], ,/'" "r""'pcll" ,·c'r!! on ,/J~ I hos: been couiplaed a(r.,.;;,r the "tern ho.t been dMn·-n

THI' RM"ISEY P\.~lTEP.

The Caroliue Minuscule of tilt' R:un\cy Psalter \\'~h (c"ll- of th,· hands 011 \\'],ich Johnstoli '.< (~Ihgr"ph" work was based in WrrrijJ_~ ami lI/1IIPrllllllil1,\' .wil l-,-'lIen'II,~_ 11", stared, "it has ,.\1 rl1<' qunliucs of ~ood wntil'.g in ~ marked degree. .mel 1 C()", i ,In i I" taken "IJ round, I h t' most perfect .Uld sClmi:l(:10ry penmanship which I. hJvc'see,,-',

FC'U!','i)ATJ()Nf\L i'

With the' pen held at 3(lQ _ r h ,. \\'t-i gh! of each Foundational letter ;lpp"aI> co be

evenly d'$lriblited between horiaontal all d vertical strokes,

~D t~lre-dncdleJIto_#

fine peecaro nof cultodlre-' " m tfercre:-nn cfrle.-mlfcrcre-nn- # " F tile mtfcncDlliunu.dne

fU12 nof quem.a9!nodum

fpc:rau1muf Ina:-' " '~ .. '

I nrc' dnC: fp,erattLnonconfUn - dar tnMXtrnum' ,

_,...__ hy.w~us 1J.uAl rll~·RJ) R_~<R. i cncd1mr-oniiopcradnufno:

/ Lwd~ltt'«'rupc:r ~Ixar:c-

rum tnRa..tLa.. < '. _

B eli 4nm.f 1 dtii drlo:tl' edt. d~· :

- ?J-- -' f -.

Bmaq~~omr~ltlCfupqiof . fUTlC drio ~i)on1fulrruafdrii chlo '"

B m fol&lun4 dnO . ~

bmedlQrr ildLte- '-}it dno .

,,-/ --- ....

B cnomlf1mbcr&rofdrlo .-

42

WClltJ(~I-JHT

Jill <jot), in collaboration 1I'1Ih I he .1rI iSl Ene Gill, Johnston produced a series of studc III worksheets on which he described till' Foundanonol H and as

€th .. 1CC scnbimus -; vobis ttt &1udc.1tis~ , ~ &ludit!nl wsnum

SIt plCnUlll. '

E't f!a,r(.(s~ aIlHLlHciar{o,~lJJ1---- {arc!,,! vonsidcranon oj'1CX' ,ju, [cttcr

aud!vl.mu~ (Ih ll.!(V (llll!l/IJCl!llHlI$ WOIf/h" and 'po(,n.q I.' J"f))OMtrald ,n

Hl{J{$; (~o!!i a!l! Dm$ltl.\' esr. In" nw, me work h)' [ohnston

&. rmcbm( in «(11iOll sllllfullac.

"excellent (or fim'u;Li MS work .md [0 develop into later forms". 011 the sheets, h<, modified lh.- R"ms('~'

Psalter script by making it lighl<'! and more upright. ~!)d he included hi, ch"r"ct<:risriL' "sharp- headed" sen ".

Sn;ny SHL£T

The main r,'XI of rlns study sheel ii'ol1l 1 <) 1 ') IS wrttt cn in )OI1IlSIOI1'" 6W!) Jullv developed Fouudanonal Hanel. The ,,'cende,s arc more ordered \lnd shorter lh:'!l

I host' demonstrated 011 tht' ea rI ier worksheet (lIili'VI'). JohMlorl 's mastery of Italics (1'1' ?4-- 95) " also clear

Er rw AJ.>..I I )( lHNSTON

Through his olhgraphy, dcsiS'll. writing, :lnd tCil{ hi Ilf.:, Edward johnston bn;~J nc one or t he I he most in 11 uenrial penmwn of tile' early ::!lIth century He" pictured her" \lqll~ hi$ favourile

wririu;t instrument, the quill,

"Slanted" pen letters

Johnston was encouraged in his work bv Sidnev Cockerell, the former

j j

sccrerarv to Wi lliarn Morris, who

.I

introduced him to the Ramsey Psalter.

I t was then that he wrote to a friend:

"And so the idea came - to make living letters with a formal pen". In his great instructional work Writing and lfIuminating and I.werin8, published in 1906, he explained his preference for "slanted" pen letters, such as those in the Ramsey Psalter, over

the Half Uncial letters written with

a "straight" pen (pp. 3g--39), Drawn with a broad-edged pen held at 30°, the "slanted" letters had the greater strength and legibility, and the text thev produced was of an even Weight. "Sharp-headed" serifs

The most marked diflCrence between Johnston 's letters and those of the Caroline Minuscule is the serif on ascenders. Regarding the "pushed" pen strokes used for "lumped" serifs as forced, Johnston advocated the usc of "sharp-headed" serifs made from "pulled" pen strokes,

43

CIROLfN£ &..EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Foundational Hand

ALMOST :\S IMPORTANT in calligraphy as the lettcrforms is the £\. manner in which the words are laid out on the page and the textural effect that they achieve. With its regularity of ductus, in which arches, curves, widths of letters, and internal spaces an relate, the Foundational Hand demonstrates a perfect evenness of texture (see Inter-letter spacmg, below). The pen angle is about 30°, increaSing to about 45° for diagonal strokes. Minim height is four or Gl'e nib widths, with a further three for ascenders and descenders.

The key letter

As this composite character of a, d. e, II. ,]nd q snows, the " is the key letter of t he ha nd, Take time and care to compose iL< rwo curved ;trokes. It is

useful to explore [he consrrucrion of Foundational letters by drawing them with two pencils taped together. The pencil points relate to the comers of a pen nib.

Internal spaces The elegant oval

of space wirhi» the letter 0 provides the model to which all other spaces In the hand should ideally conform.

r

.1.

-'-I

Inter-letter spacing

The ,paas between letters should be .s consistent as possible Many scribes Ira in their ~yes to study inrer-leuer spacing as kc~nly as [he letrerforrns ihcmseives.

a

b

To draw tI,e senf a"d stetu oj rI,e b. see leiter j

1

1 .: -~-

3

3

c

P"II lite fim ;Iwkr of II,e c QI,'n.~ lJ,t b,,;e/'H(

l

2

fo

e ( ~
~ ,,__.
)
2
-f [ d

s/

h To '.0'0 ,/" <~t l

and Sle", oj rlie

. h, sec letter 1

;),,4 I"

2~J

3

To' drdlv rile serif, of lire i JlYlil j, see lei/a I

44

FOUNDATIONAL HAND

k 2ftl

T» draw Ihe seri] J

ami stem if 'he

k, see leuer I

PI"h lire ed,~e of

l/lf nib dau!11wards

10 tlu: leli (I)

.Hake ~" inward mrve 10 join the mal .. stem (2)

m

To draw Ille senf of lire m, see Ie/1fT I

n

To draur Ihe

sen! if (ire n, see Iettcr I

a_._. _

o

--/

- P- To- drm~ II,e 2 '\ t

seri] of lire p,

sec letter I

-q-

- - ---

t Reum: to lire lOp

and pull tlu pc .. dOWJlwards 10 draw lire SIClt! (3)

To complete lire ICI/(r, pull tI" stroke along lire ba.!eiillf (3)

~2

----

4

~-- ---

5 71ie JiJih woke of Ihe p can be,qin (0 lite left of Ihe stein

2

l

r

To draw lite serif of rlie r, see leuer 1

s

To avoid Ille s liilillg, ;(fcld, the firsr sl(Ok_ 1r0rizo!l/~lIy

u

T~ draw rIfe JmjDjt!,e

U, sec leller 1

y

-'r'" -~

2 3

I

-~-

Pull the second strok» oj die I aloug li'2 baseline

1

.~

v

''''1 . ¥It--

---,rV- -

z

-&

J J

\ 2~l Jw

,--",

4

)

-

Tum Ihe pm nearer 10 Ihe lion ZOII(allo broadell II'e s<'(ond stroke of lire z

-n,i, altemative g may prove easier for ufjliw"rs 10 pm IIIIlII tlu: tradili<mal form

9 Alternative

J

2

C0_flj'

4~

45

CIROLl!Vt s: EAR/_Y GOTHIC SCRIPTS

THE EARLY GOTHIC script (Proto-Gothic, Late Caroline) was used widely in most of western Europe from the late 11 th century to the mid-13th century, a period that fell between the end of the Caroline era and the beginning of the Gothic. In retrospect, the script can be seen as transitional between the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38-39) and the Gothic Textura hands (pp. 50-57), for it contains characteristics of each, including the rounded bows of the Caroline and the split ascenders of the Quadrata.

Early Gothic

THE EARLY GOTHIC script evolved directly from the Caroline Minuscule. It was more compressed and oval than its predecessor and greater attention "vas paid to such details as serifs and the feet of minims. Its development was possibly the simple result of scribes altering their pen nibs from square-cut to obliquecut. This produces more angular letters and gives an upright aspect

to a page of text. The difference between letters written with a square-cut nib and those written

with an oblique-cut nib can be seen when comparing the Winchester Bible with the Grandval Bible (p. 39). The Winchester Bible

The Winchester Bible is one of

the most outstanding books of the Early Gothic period. Commissioned by Henry of Blois, the Bishop of Winchester, Britain, it dates from about 1150. Written with a "straight" pen held at an angle close to the horizontal, the script features short, neat ascenders and descenders. These create more interlinear space than longer ascenders and descenders would, and so aid the reading of

the line. Many of the lombardic Capitals in the Winchester Bible, used both as display capitals and as capitals within the text, are among the finest of their kind (pp. 62-63).

The initia] illuminated P h cxianded 10 jiJllne ImBll. <f the roJumn ~f (ext

ST. AMBROSE, DF. MISTERII!, / This page II (rom a theological tract probably penned at Rochesler Pnory > Bruam, in 1130. The Early Gothic hand used i~ in complete contrast to chat of the Wmchester Bible ("bout). Although the nib is square. the pen IS held at 3 n angle close LO 400• which results 111 J strong headl inc, reinforced by a sturdy basel me.

r----- TheJlick at Inc n,,,J <flhc Wm (l.Jn 4.."11 her be Jrmrrn as an Hllll<ll 51 rok« or added on rompla i(}.!)

ti, bOll" JS ~UJ"· compressed. f{il-j,tlg 11 an oval dSpi.'L.1

EARLY GOTHIC B ThiS Early Corhic letter is wrutcn Wllh (he pe" :11 all :lJIj::.k o(abollt -too.

THE WINU·I£STER I3mLE

The illunnnared minals m the Wmchester Bible represenr a high point in llIc·dic\'al arnstry and are the work of six dliTt"renc illuminarors. TIm illlci.ll lener P (rom

the Book of K iug; shows Elijah being consulted by (he messengers of Ahaziah.

These ru[vic""d (Qpilu/s rd1e(~1 In~ usc ~r RUJtfc Capiwl<Jor titles. (S(,· the n;notchy ~I scripts, 1'. 16)

LOI1',r" I, ~,.r; H.!t! .\;"~1\.~>1I·\\!~1 ,\IIOj ~\--3 .. ,~..:l\l,rrls ... \,"i"l ftr .\tl911~l'-_".,7~'

. '

... \ <: ~ a-_\\"1l·\'-"'__I~I';-.

~ ·"'<'I\\lIbttf <'l';tih..mum fmn<l11<m Cum tld f="L\~rii~, '¢:.l''''~''''W\'ttm !~'Jl1I=tr f1Y"V"'-·'tl'

1f1,.( ,,,,ftlt"llrt.m.·'I"r<" mltmm lffi ... ~;:ru "'\I1~di :11,~,,-.it!ttl!l'Tfm:r.·· <..\vpm •• I~m~mnf ~b:!ati:,<'t~\I:!lh>;<rIP t'¢tlCl14<l Vcr' ~!m"m •. ~~ m<y.ufttl;'"« _, lm-mf·.,.u$ ,\bttr<Q\" d~ .. ijun~ d{ m}1k . Tlrf ,h\XI~ &"'l'Iif .(cl:rn0l1'-" ,itq:1f'r.\m= rM:~m<lm>Ii'UIl1 . ..do'; .-lU.I1~ ·.1",.... b.qmfmnm \'i p!<!OIli"tmtJ( mfi

n,t.lrt<i"!l11Jm<ium mm.mt:: ~'ll.'c\nhtre~ qI\ml).~dtff"t ~1M' ,·.mUl·,.lJ.md< ,:lttl"t"!l.mn{m( mi&Ufl<:tpC\ 1t,1:\" mj~ornttrinflt <ltm:"~ qu.m.fium f(t,,:o.\[lqun·j)l.}M"t"T1fo:e.A::p.-nre tmM'~. <t··lwnmn ~ !I~rmfl[41t;111\'ln:s rmm=1Mr,jIU~IJ1 ~'.~I~fi~llmui=~~~. ~~ "l'(~.' .~.t(jl. ~W" ut'u=,t'lIflUT1rl"qug~oI<Ip' qd ~~Iif",=", .. qU,d1>:fvmfm;--mcmm~d~l~

1)0: mj1krtwn~,.[~"b.=.J<icm~c fu=(~.=~" ,~-t.UI1_'),-dill<"<>$"ml,wr,qtn"mtmfrl1 ~«fimlu',

I i1o!ht:ro r.QO',4'Tifllf~·!Ono Wffl'~tr':ln .11m ... qtrt.\ =me!lk "tl!ttt!11 ~. Firnin.tm lWtI~· ~~. ~·1\'(1l·4rMitfr; f.fci\(ro;... '~m~~1'.t.':it:nml.~'reqU«I~~t$. nUW'l>f<'equi.i1;'$~a"iSl &.¢tI\IrtMlh·~[o ~i1pttrIbtt(ottt:f. Jl"I"tia.,-<t~ ~,t.:~,c["f'Vtt1frt;$.i'~n<mr tI~m.\. rtminw· 1lIUkm=wmm.;f~ !1I[Ww~·v~illt4~1T· ~~f,1(>.'t~, tltd!. Ilifu.mmit. ·.f~.~ .... r,H~ ~.I<k;'<tN ~Miir~.f~tmm~ii· ~.'eW~¥1$

~~(lrue"{mpnIm-ql:.qIIlX ~tt:Irri'M

. ),(VSI:',r;,r ,.

! .B.RIL\ N

\ \ . "\:-1 C)',\l . n «:- _ ... I':

, ..... ~\_. . c:r..J1"'''r '

46

EARn Goin«

r7

~_____"Lm-~

l~mTj>1NCIPIT:XXI;

N'1~]y~

,acqutt UtWI'- 'ttXni'~!1t)'rfb: nIt"t, "tZlltta. ·eft, lU.ttanotte"'pm1ittat"",..._',,,,,--- Tk,,, /""cr.' on I"_,, compressed tI",n

1.1 lJpirdlJor furfy Gar/tic Itrlp'

tn:-utrru(q;. pat~afw:nc(;tt~

butte ttC(J; tlfttll(4tfcuntOftl pottdw

I _, 't' ~

d£pMtnm;· ntqrNlt1it5' tv2portUCU-

NrUdCU!t f'_dtuqttat7;~qutf' , __ pe-'etu( fetlttuttS; .a.ttn:a ~~ "'"cqn:tone- U(ttC gtau~' m;-q$ at!' ad foLttn ~ ~ niut:t

"""""'.l\..--..,"

fi -" ' t:7--'

11ount\. P W\.lttalffdW puer;

non.nullf uertlttaetU11onb; P"l'-rtf Utferultftn;- :' ut: 1j. '}LUCea:; 1it&nuufpenenaredeftdemr- ;tnt'qutK

t1 It tnu.mUtr"·!ed J)ocfibr ear-quod finrf (ilCfltu:ar abfcondai;, l.jmIe-bC"-

ne quoq: narranone- blilo:uca per (~lftGUJOJ~ dtamr; wlletlfucob Ult:qal popidtaf u{Ndef.d:"afn~da,;Unaf. ~t;XpLUanlf ~parce dtroLncautt:" ea,f.7demu:afq; comclbnfln

I11fq~~poltaza frwtall;; OlndOL appaNU{;j Illi. tt q~{~ ~ Uttldld.J?,tnilJ1fentm;/arq; tnbunc tntldti'~ ~l.o2 effuCtuf.·e; U4f1u1jV6:t ~.u...1,:.~ Pofutz;q: ear lnCdrultili;

T'II.\ t'o.'lll letter r Jt.·PiJrr.f from Got/}J('" convcnnons In ibc extreme i'!_}ormuJlf_.Y 0.fir3 dL~rO/"i1J iLlf]i

Tile pen j; hdJ ,<11 Q s/)",/Io"'"" an8/c th an m dn' Sr. ,Ambrn:st.:'~ Dl' ML~lcrjLS I m/1nuscopl /opposit e). reJ"ll/ting ill less Icfl,blc [tries {,r t cxt

P /WEIt M,\K[ I, The earliest European p,lper \V~h 11 \ld" from r.,!;, (Ie COl !.O 11 or I inen, which were chopped. soak cd. ;)11 d I~id Oil ,\

';n'c before be-; ng pressed .in d dri "d. 1\\ !lritai \I. reh!; velv fi I) ~ Jl~pL"r svas :"'Jibl;]c bv

tile" 1 ~th (,'lImry,

;HU/I./IU'I /.\')Ol!

Tlu: ,\,IV"'/I" u, _/"h volume were COlli ple: c·d

;11 1111 bv scribes nnd illuruinat or« .S! Citeuux, Fran n·. 01',," ye;1r before St. 1l e ll1;1rd ;Jr,-jvd

a"d ;", posed t,he harrl disci pi i nc for \Vh ic h tile Crstcrcia n order b~c\l" r kn 0\\'1\, The h U 11\0[1 r nnd vibrant colour ;11 the illusrrario» of this 1''It(r lron \ tile" manuscr: pi ate i 1\ sharp con trast III r he wor], prodllenl In t h~ all>tlTc" time" th;H follower].

Development oj Early Gothic

The Early Gothic script originated

in the areas that W(TC subject to Norman and Angc\"in influence - rnainlv England and France - before spreading to northern Germany. Scandinavia, Spain, SiCily, and part of

I tal)". As a rcsu It of English influence, more attention was paid to the feet of the minims, which were formally app lied, as opposed to the upward flick [avourerl on the Continent.

As the scri pt deve loped, minims generally became more compressed. The demise oJthe hand

The hand is perhaps best regarded as the mid-point of the pendulum swing between the Caroline Minuscule with its clearlv defined

, ./

letrcrforms, and the Gothic Texture

hands, in which the overall textural effect is of the greatest importance. Although influenced by the Caroline, scribes quicklv realized that if thev

) ./

increased the compression of letters,

thev could alter the textural colour

./

of the page. This reached its extreme

form in the Gothic Textura hands, which quickly grew in popularity and displaced the Early Gothic.

47

CIROLl."lE &_EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Early Gothic

EARLY GOTHIC SCRIPT is written with a Ustraight~ pen and

has an upright, compressed aspect. The wedge serifs on

the headline of the minim characters help create a strong horizontal stress to the text. The minim height varies between approximately four and six pen widths, and ascenders and descenders frequently equal the minim height. Because of the great variation in pen angle - between \00 and 40° - various types of serifs are included in the hand. The most distinctive of all is the split serif on the ascenders of letters b, J, h, k, and 1.

Split serifs

Create rhe SpU! ascender with J pen angle of 40°, drawing the leti. '·~rif and main SWH fl~t. [hell adding dle thin ner fight serif (JI). Ahernau vely, extend the thin serif into the stem (B),

D

c

"Filled" serifs.

A third methodinvolves "filling" the spl it serif (C). The peu is held J( a constant 30G for (he whole letter.

E

.«faiglll strokes of the minilH-_~ terminote \.Vii}, an upward

turn of ttie pell

Flat-headed and wedge serifs

A (ounh scnf variarion is the flat-headed rype (D). created by overlapping two strokes with a pen angle of about \00. A fifth serif type is [he wedge scrif(E), whicb appears on the letters i, HI, 1" p, r, and 11, as well as the modem leuers j, I', and 11'. This on be drawn

in one or two strokes. with a pen lnglc o( about 400•

Eldy GOlhi{ i(llm Illoriid br wriflellllJitli (1/; oblrqu('1Il1 Ilib

The os/en.tcr heighl of !lIe b WIl cqua! 111<11 of Ihe mi"il"

The bOl,,/ 011 ,hc a s/'M,ld be l"I).'e

2&;

- --~ ~~- ...

I .1)3

_ _ V

)

~~-----

cv 7;

~G

y~

V

Onii: lire ,ros,b" of lire r to lrt'lIli Q lo"~fon" ojs

Allenl.lively. IIII' g (mild hi

4 wwpiocd i)1 three stroees

r 2\

--"-l,

1 I J l'Ire h (",,,'J

. A,fl)~ olu""",w1r I""

v-- I) ,I "e~rcdfool

48

--.~

a _

TIll' j i.<" modern

en nst ru a j r.Jn

~ -ntlL--

3 4

n_~L_m_·-

-11-

-'-T-

EARLY GOTHIC

2

TIle fi rst stroke r1 ! be I amid cxtetl d abcvc Ilu headline

~-~-- -

TI,C v is a modem

construction

- . -(-~~ ~f~-- ~'ffi '

~ '\ ~_6 _

TIle w is a modem

construction

~-1

This half r om be used The lrolfr is (Ml</nu/ed t'

aJm lettets b, 0, and p J with a ,i"gfe ;troke

--;y- ~ .~ -- -

1-----~ ~~_1 ......... "----u:2 ,~ .,_

Full r Half r

S-t ligature

C-tligature

J

-7'1»--' ,TIle 'WOll_d~ld -

Ihi,i! ilfolw oIliJe

_ '!!' x (all be wmbillcd

The x has a 3

disliuclive tail, ~4

.. J

7;'-

/

1 -----

---7/-7

s.

3

49

GOTHIC Sell/PH

Textura Quadrata

By THE BEGINNING of the 13th century, the Early Gothic script had evolved into a non-cursive, angular hand known as the Textura Quadrata (Black Letter, Old English)_ The name indicates the woven appearance of the lines of text, "Textura" meaning "an even effect in weaving" _ The script represented

a revolutionary change in calligraphy - after centuries of emphasis on dear letter recognition, individual letters were suddenly subservient to overall textural effect.

WITH ITS DENSE, angular strokes and diamond-shaped heads and feet, the Quadrate letter is to many people a graphic embodiment of the Middle Ages, In northern Europe, it was used into the 16th cenrury for high-grade liturgical manuscripts, second only in prestige to its twin script the Prescisus (pp. 54-55). The Quadrara's decline as a de luxe bookhand may have been partly due to its large size; the demand for smaller, hand-held books meant that more modestly sized scripts such as the Schwabacher

(pp. 74-75) and Humanist Minuscule (pp. 90- 9 J) were more suitable.

However, the Quadrate did survive into the 20th century in the form of

I

-cut letters stained glass letters, and

titles on deeds, as well as being much favoured in Europe by signwritcrs, shop owners, and designer.~ of newspaper mastheads.

THE MET? PONTIFICAL Tim, beauo fillly crafted PJgt' from ~ 'J e~rly l-lth-centurv French manuscript shows Tcxtura Quadrara at its [lIle'St. The even, textured dfc"d or' lite p8ge i, Cfc"ced by the scribe's "",ticuiou> r"!o,'Uhtion of spacing and miuim heigh!. The ,(rille nl"lY have: ",eel all oblique-cut nib, whieb

would have made till' prO(hiCIi()l\ of fine hairlines particularly t'a"y (1'1'. 14--15). Non- the mbrieMc'U opitals S~lId 1, preceded by {he Opil~1 P. The

stroke through the sum or the- P denotes the con trac Lion of "par" ~ "per", or "po r".

,

TEXTURA QU'\I)I(..~TII N The scri PI"s most disci Ileti V" re~tur( is rhe d ;3"'Ol] d-s) inped ''''I'm i "at, or the mi "in I strokes,

Tc.XH/JU QYWIlU:1

PAIt\'TING IN O,~JjC'IEYT[R C,ITI-IJ:lJI\AL This p~il\t;ll,g ShOW$ Dishop Sherbourne ;\Sk\ng KlUg Henry VItI to conf"-m the ("harte-~ (0r Chiche_'tcr CH lredr» 1 , [h- tile' titl1~ the work \\"~s p~il1tcc1 m I S I SJ. the Quadrara would have been obsolete as 3 text hand, "PP,"lfing only occasionallv 111 hrushdr:,wn l(trl1)_ Th e :1)"[i.<I has padd(·d ow the' text Oil the rop Ii lie' with nwk ward word breaks, The i ne;lt'g,mce or the,;" brea ks is possi bl y cXJrerh~led by tht req\lirel\lcm [0 plare th« word "RC'x" above the Killg's Iwad_

Th. "ph, ascenders r..wd JeNt"nJcr.1 }]{H"~' eeen 'fxa.[l8rr(~t,,;d.. con r(,!.){H~].· on the

(rtYCi~Ju ~flhc' p

.. jlrH~Y _W((Ikt"S, sue]: 11.\ thou on Iht" e, t crnnmn.: L"itn hal1ill}.! j10UTJShN - fl-IJcn(,' qIr'f-ri? srribes ~'lrlUOSU)'

\

Tfltl cmUlr 0 if th). hJral' I'mal P H me,", lV,dJSp!a)' fht' C'Or:lI ~r arms ?F' Il('

J '(Jrp<moril_fomdy

GOTIIIC ,\IYI-IAI3ET This ra~e (i-om" n[,'nrhr-. hvntn-, "lid prayer-book belonging to G\lilbllll\c d'Orgcmonr c1Jlt'S from about I J~6, It gj vcs us ;H1 alll H)'it cOl;,pl<ttc alphabet of

T extura Quadrnra ieuers. H)cl udin:; I'\'O versions of II. r. and iClosL' examination of

111 e lett ers su o"eq~ -- -, co -.-

rh;H the p~n ma)' h;wC' be<'11 cut oblique-ly, ThL, would explain rhe relative thickness of dlt' ,Itm strok es, compa red [() lil c cli_~,gon(rl and cli"'llOnel strokes,

Th< test en Ihc hook mdr1l,/t'S ,n, olt crruutve Gothi( a, ,,'hlch_fo0W"'_' :-1 '(lO",lbJI! crossbar ,I'rDt.lfjh rnL· counter

DETAIL mOM [',IINTINU IN Ci IICJ-JE.'iTEI-l Cf\TJ-JE]11< At

Th c spl i [ ascenders .1\1 d descenders J rc partie \II arl y cleve loped; nth is bru sh- dr; wn version of Qu:tdr'l!l, but they have caused

t Iw ~rtist di flicu lties - the ;ls-rt'ndcn of I crt crs Ii and / clash with the de,cc'nders of the ps,

. ".

(. '-.

r

,,>

~.~.tl.b.r. f.f .!f.btl.k~ 1. m . tl. 0 · 11'· Q. r ~.1. f. . r . \): .1'-1· i> ~ 3 · t • ~ ·

.t·.Ct~t~ ~.lt~(

nr noftn~

mues ((I

rrmrna

DoUin8 the i and j

The characteristic unilor mitv of the Textura Quadrate letter produced

an interesting innovation that remains in usc today. I-la\'ing been easily mistaken for other letters, the I \\'.15 distinguished from other letters b), a nick (bv the late 14th ('CIHun', thb had

, ,

developed into a dot), The letter j abo

doubled up as a l. acquiring a tail when so used, This change, along with the late medieval inclusion of the II' and the diffcrcnriation of,. and u, gal'e us our 26-lcttcr modern al phabct. Script status

The status of a script is gencrJlly determined by the number of separate strokes and pen lifts used in its creation, a distinction par ticularlv discernible in the Quadrate. Gcncrailv, the more <)ngular and compressed the letters, the mort;' strokes w i II have been used in thei r construction, A useful indicator or the status of a scri pt is the howl of the letter a, wh ich can range from

a low-status, almost cursive Conn

(sec the Pai ntino in Chichester ;:0.

Cathedral, OhMC) to ,) higlHtJtus,

rigid Iy geometric. form (see the Gothic alphabet, lefi) ,

)}

GOTHIC SCR.IPTS

Textura Quadrata

TH~ ESS.ENCE OF .T~E _QlIadr~ta is the fo~mal, upright letter WIth strokes cHflenng as little as possible from one another. Curves are practically eliminated and the formality is only broken by the use of hairlines. These include the skating strokes that occur on letters a, e, and r, created by dragging the wet ink with the corner of the nih. The Quadrata's other distinctive features are the split ascenders and the diamond feet on the minims, applied with only a small space between each one.

Basic elements

A "slanted" pen (square-em nib) is used for the Quadrata. The pen is held ~t

all angle ofberwcen 35° and 45° for <item strokes, adjusted to

a 'Ihdllowe~ angle for connecting strokes. Minim. height is generally about five pen widths, The relatively large size of the letters makes the use of a reed

pen ideal.

Drawing 8 right serif

The split ascender is drawn in two strokes. Begin [flt righr serif above rhe headline. pulling, the pen down to the len 10 complete the stern in one stroke.

Adding a left serif

The pointed Ieli: serif should be a link shorter than the right one. Turn the nib onto its left comer and use the wet ink {rom the previous stroke.

Textural effect

To achieve rhe ideal textural elIect of Quadrata, inner-letter spsres and inter-letter spaces should each equal the width of one stroke

Inter-word .<pnre lnould be equal (0 abo", lW<J )lib widdIS

~. --LL------

1 6

-~ -((-~

12 41

The 'Jowl tif rhl' <1 [an be n[~}rf rounded

b

TIiF]iim/ -<I 'ok< ,if/Ire c '"'''' be jin;lhed wili,

a Jwir/.if1f

-~

"'"--.,;. 2'

J

P Joi" Ihe lhird stroke

{ oj tlie c 10 thr ,£"11 ojll', mi"im

6 ""~r

]~

TI1f IjprJJtud .«(toke .. abo"f the i alld j (,m he substituted for" (I,ll di,""Olld .slro·k,

52

~.

2

f

~-,

-~

2~ 4/,

1 .~

12

-: -:

---rJ

TEXTURA @ADIUTA

t ----

. [ J\t~

- - -:"! ~-~--- -

2

['

,H"h sI"e tlta! a small spac« is I'fl betweer tacit.foOi oJ,ne m

6

-~

~ I'll

i-------------'".~~r-- ---~)'

I-------..~_,---- -----

9

-----~--

Ora)? 11,2 il1k

wi/h Ihe comer oflhe !lib 10 (Murie" till' spli: ,erifl at tlufal ~r leuers p and q

h Sk<lle tht IliIirl"ilt1'

, oj (he r witl: rhe comer oj lite "ib

Skare lI,e hairline if the s wi,h tIle corner of the nib

-- --~ f-; ---~--'n~'--;'~ss stroke

- ~4 oj/he t (~" b,

_finished wiln ____ ------'!..!"'i!~~IC __

3

~

Make sun: ,1,01

a small SPd(f I.' left b",,'wl ,I,e two dlaillolld heads of lasers U and v

;.l

12

_D

-- .. -..;:;o~-~'-- - ---.-----

3

Aloke sure thnt _,mall _.~ ... --

'pact_( are

le{i bnu'I'tII O'r three dialllMd heads oj tire \V

4

"--. 3

11----- ~--~-

3

O-r ligature

11)( nglil·/la"d

-~- boll' ofllic p (a;;be )"med ,,'"I" lill'/dl.halld

bow of tue e

Conjoined p and e

53

J

l I

I ,

TEXrUTVt PRHClSI)S

Textura Prescisus

USE OF THE TEXTURA PRE~CISUS (Textualis Prescissa, Black Letter) paralleled that of the Quadrata (pp. 50-5 I») both in its duration as a bookhand and in the development of its textural style. The two scripts even used the same Capitals and Versals (pp. 58-59). The chief difference between them is indicated by the adjunct to the Prescisus's name, vel sine pedibus, which translates as "with its feet cut off". This refers to the square-ended bases of the minims and descenders in the hand.

Tl-lE \Xii NlJ'\'1I U PSA1,TER

Tht" Windmill Psalter was written ill EIi>;bnd in sbour i29(). III {h,~ (olio frolll The JUdgt'lllCIH 'of Solomon, dl" lin,~ filigree work I, dOll" with ~ sharply pointed quill. The steep pe'n :.ngk used for rhe {ext produces ryp.icl.lly 3llgul~r letters wi Ih srrong diamond heads 3 no 11 a.ITOW minim strokes. Stroke width and inller-·le-Her spacing arc equal.

T H E 01<,,"1 f;SllY P'it\ L TER

The Ormesbv Psalter. written in East An"l",! i,l about 1300. reveals J more relaxed rOnTI of Prcscisus IhaJI tbat ll,~d in [he Luttrell Psalter.

THE LUTrll..EU. PSAJ.TEi"

The Luttrell Psalter, wrin en fClr a wc.rlrhv Lincolnshire landowner in about 132:'-35. l< Prcscisus wriling ,J.{ its tJnes{, The lines of rext are unirorru ~)\cI condensed, each srroko neat .md precise. The thickening of minims towards their base may indicate 3 {"lovi,a1J1g of the peo (pp. 56-57).

Thi? $(]riafi"-L~lrded P:re[ri~\·Jj.l _.Ii?", mN'm~1 IlI[{/; ,h,., diiJ 01 0 IJt.1 J'l' ~r rile QrUidnJM

T[XTUlt.'\ PI<ESCISUS ,\'/ The (],,[ fat of the Pn',risu> ~r~ I he' sor;p[ 's most characteristic f",1!1lf(",

BOTH THE QyADRADI and the Prcscisus evolved from the Early Gothic script (pp. 46-47) and date from the end of the 12th ccnturv,

I

Palaeographcrs arc uncertain which of

the two came first. It is possible that the Prescisus originated in southern England and spread to France, where scribes were inspired to develop the Quadrate. The arrival of the Prescisus v vas most likclv the result of a creative

.)

burst from a calligraphic virtuoso.

But, whatever its origins, the script rapidly became a more prestigious bookhand than the Earl" Gothic.

I

A precise hand

As a script, the Prescisus was a

tour de.force. J t was as precise as its name suggests and scribes needed a particular dexterity to use a "slanted" pen to produce the artificially constructed feet that imitated the work of a "straight" pen (pp, 56-57). The length of time it took to write the script meant that it could be used only for large, prestigious books. Use started to decline during the late Gothic period, and the introduction of printing saw its final demise.

In, h"!I r JJ "Jed w/,,;n The diamond hcad: oJ'minm" ,ITC DETAIL iOROM I I') E

~iiptanottiai"iiitim !quta rua

.....

GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Textura Prescisus

THE PRINCIPAL DIHERENCE between the Quadrata and Prescisus is the latter's absence of diamond feet on letters oJ, h, i, k, J, m, n, r, t, and u. The split ascenders on b, b, k, and / are reduced or flat-headed (square-ended) and, in the extreme form of the script, letters a, c, d, and e are even deprived of a baseline stroke. Prescisus has a more clearly delineated base than the Quadrata and interlinear spacing is approximately equal to the minim height.

The Ql1aJMla [cot 1-' diamond-shaped

Common elements

The Quadrata and Prescisus have a number of eleraerus in common. Both have J minim height of

Vot/t/im,

l/re_{t!(Jf by dra,,"'lIg along Ihe ba.'elhlf dlld !lp (0 joill _:J the stem

TIle Prestisus [oot is square-elided

approximately five pen widths and both are written with a "slanted" pen (square-cut nib). A pen angle of 450 is usual [or both Textura scripts.

llTWisl lire pw

W at ,/" b,,,,,,, if Ille stem

\ -=------;,

Filled feet

To make the square foot. draw tilt stern at an angle of 450, then add the outline of the. [001 by dragging the ink wi,th the comer of the nib. Tins is then filled in with ink.

Pen twist

A second method involves twisting the pen from 45° to [he horizontal in a shon,

swifi movement (above).

Alternatively, begin twisting at the top of the stem ('lbove nglll).

~\- .. /.~.-~

/

Flat-headed serifs

Like the square feet, {he flat-headed serifs .are created artificially wich a "Ibnte.d" pen. One method is to outline theserif with the comer of the

Jor u'tlrmg PrC.'ClSUS Ier/ITS, i"iluJi,'i tlte /Ted pM'

a Drag (he ,uk with tI,e

comer oj Ihe nib 10 2

_ tomplct« the foot if the a

nib before filling it in with ink (abOl'f lift). Ahernarively, add the serif by twisting the pen downwards from the horizontal of {he ascender line to the 45° angle of the stem stroke (abol'e).

---, - -.-

The split serif of Ihe b (all be replaced with rlie flal-headed rype

---

2

A hair/iM CAll bo' inc/"df:J 0)) lire,

T1lt h._iIJj~e oj Ihe e should lOur!. rile ",4.i" ilia/ll

The sixtH /Uld seventt: $ft~Jw of file g !ifll be

cOllibill~J

1[

~· __ .I - - ----wI "

Drag tlu: i.rk will!

Ihe comer <1 file nib (0 romplelf Ihe

squore fc«: (J[r/rt h . __

Use Ihe loma oj the. nib 10 mmpleu Ihe 5plil a.iil'llderyj the h

4

.1

/-'1 2..:

~2

/' ./'"

J-

AI(tmMive/y, afij/l di<lmond ca,1 be HUJ /0 dor tltc i aRd j

56

Complete tbe spHr serif of lbe k 1lJiu. (he

_ ___'I=.--" comer of lilt nib

4

il---1=------- [ __ I_·_"··-_·_2_~---,."". "'---_Th_e_I_,_O,,_.Id_Qi_le_"_IO_llve/Y

jearllTf al1 elongated

dialllondfMi

4 6

4

-,-- t~-~

TIle fOil r of the p

wllld_linisi1 5qllore. 2 ended

~~--_-_---

5

3

1 ~---

The final hOi.fli."f [L

stroke of (he r 2

is a "'iful 5pOl£"jiliff

- "----

->7

~

~~=------- ---- j!~l

7

t---~

u

~~ ---

TEXTURA PRESCISUS

Leave spare! bc(wecn (he heads of 11, v , ~) audy

5

11111 out Ihe tai! of Ihe x witl, tlu ,omer if the nib

TI'e hair/i.lt

3

III lids extreme fonH of Pnsasus, Ieue« lose rheir /"I>cli,,(. .strokes

Letters d Qlld 0 are alllOl1g the bowed Pmrull5 letter: (hal {arr be f.i1.Sily conjoined

-1---

Exrrerne forrn of Pres cis us

Two forms of half r

Conjoined Ii and 0

57

GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Gothic Capitals & Versals

THE PRINCIPAL DIFFERENCE between Gothic Capitals and Versals lies in their construction: Gothic Capitals are written with single strokes, whereas Ver sals are composed of several built-up strokes. A Versal is a single initial letter, drawn larger than the text script and used to indicate a title, chapter, or paragraph opening. The size of the Versa1 and the amount of gold and colour used to decorate it is directly proportional to the perceived status of the initial within the text. Although less impressive than Versals, the Gothic Capital is far from plain, with elaboration in the form of hairline verticals and diagonals.

IT WAS IN GOTHIC text that capital and minuscule letters of the same hand first appeared together. Gothic Capitals, which used the same ductus as the minuscules (pp. 50-57), were used ", .. ithin text script to begin a sentence or denote a proper noun.

In important sentences 01' verses, Gothic Capitals were frequently usurped by Versals. In its Simplest form, a Versa] can be an outline letter filled with a splash of colour. In more sophisticated forms, it can be historiated (see the Winchester Bible, P: 46), zoomorphic (see the Book of Kells, pp. 28-29), or floriated (see the Book of Hours,

P: 84). Alternatively, the decoration can be abstract, with spirals, frets, and interlaced knots (see the Lindisfarne Gospels; pp. 30-31).

I\ound.d bul8'" hu'" been added 10 Ihe <I.ms 10 8i,e extra empbasrs to tbe leuer

E» uberanl flOUT ishes of I his kind arc homed to Dpcmng letters or Imers on the lOp line oj II pa8e oj [txl

GOTHIC CAPITAL P Decoracive diagonal strokes and hairlines reduct' the amou nr of white space in the letter's counter and enhance itl status in a page of text. In this P, the thick diagonal is complemented

by hairlines above and below it.

~-.~ A··~·

\[)~ ~4;' ~ ~ F ~,

"'II1II ~. ..~ I

'1·11.~tl ~I~.~~ ~

~.~ $., 1i~~ ~ 1)' ~' '\! j~, ~ ,

The counter of web leuer hili been det:orawl ovilh v.weal and di080nal hairlines ---1l!f&-..,----.-.~

SAJVI ~LE ALPHAllET Two sets of Gothic Capitals have been drawn on chis incomplete sample alphabet. which dates from about 1400. Although {he letters are not the finest examples of Gothic Capitals. each stroke is clearly shown, mak i ng them useful

models (or {he modem calligrapher (0 (allow.

Note how the scribe has created extra weight on some bowed letters by addmg an extra stroke.

58

COTHIC CIPITiI/_S s: VC/\SMS

TI'JE ST, VAAST BIllLE Writtell in northern Frana in rhe early I It h century. the St. Vaast 13, ble i, a product of rh e Fr~ ncoSaxon school. wluch had been producing books

of the high C\I order si nee th" nud-mnrh century. At tim glance. the manuscript 100 ks ahead of us li me, so soph isncarcd is the page design. However, the plait and knot decoranon around the Vasal betrJY, the manuscript's $2"011 pedigree (PI'. 28-31),

+----"-f''I'i9ri'1''1-1'lIPn'''''''''''''HiI-.t- In this Fuocol. the initial I<,(crs E and T have been combineJ (lM,~ ("ombi'llarion 15 the ofi,qln 1" our tnoilcm ompcrSL1nd)

ModelsJor VersaIs

Over the centuries, Versa Is have been modelled on a varietv of letterforms.

j

During the Gothic period, they

were generally based on Lombardic Capitals (pp. 62-63). In both the Caroline and the Renaissance eras, Imperial Capitals were often used as models (pp. 108-) 09). Possibly the most ornate Versals ever drawn were those in the de luxe Northumbrian manuscripts of the early medieval period (pp. 28-31). These were derived from Roman, Greek,

and runic models.

Cadels

The other significant model for Versals was the Bastard Capital

(pp. 78-79). Enlarged and embellished by a series of interlacing strokes, this type of Versal is known as a Cadel (pp. 80-8/). Cadels were later revived for use with Italic (pp. 94-95) and Copperplate (pp. J 02-/ 03) scripts.

SIMPLE VERSALS These V crsals may be by the <tribe responsible (or rh(" sample alphabet (Op]JOSill). They have been rreely penned. with the letters drawn lim a nd lilt" decorau on added J fi erwa rds.

PATTERN BOOK

Designs for Versals were chosen by

! he patron from pauern boob such 3S {h,s one from rbe 12th century, This page show, a filial working pattern, ill

which the mrerrwirnng stems have been accurately worked alit.

[. r

L4'l

(

59

GOTH1C SCRlPTS

Gothic Capitals

GOTHIC CAPITALS USE the same ductus as the minuscules

(pp. 52- 53, 56-57) and are written with the same "slanted" pen. However, the capitals have a wider, rounder aspect than the rigidly formal minuscules, and the two forms contrast strikingly when used together. The number of calligraphic nourishes in each Gothic Capital make it an unsuitable script for writing a whole word or a full page of text. For this, Lombardic Capitals provide a less [larnbovant alternative (pp. 64-65).

2l

4

35°

~

Letter height

The letter height of the Gothic Capital is approximately seven peo widths, rwo higher chan the minuscule height.

Hairlines

The inner-letter space is reduced by the use of hairlines, drawn with the comer of (he nib. There are usually one or rwo vertical hairhnes, and a single diagonal hairline on either side of a thicker diagonal stroke.

Cna« ------.I .. llie bulges by weal!i"t tIle pe>1 ill a single dOIP)Jward ;rrokc

._.,....+""'""' TI,e poi1!ud beaks of tlie 114(I<I(s are drason with nJaggd d~w"ward stf1l/u

Bulges and hackles

The vertical strokes of Gothic Capitals cal) be given additional weight and interest i 0 (he form of bulges or hackles, which protrude to the lett of the stem. Use only one or the other and always make them consistent. Generally, calligraphers add three bulges or hackles.

Use a pen a!lgie oj abotu 35010 draw th« spiky /)Q{k/es

~~;;,;:~:

be .Ilrengthel1ed ",iliJ all nddilic11a/ .<rr~ke

2~

L~ 3, !t"~ j ,j h) For the mij4

L~ ~ tlte C, t",isl

the nib amidorl.>:wi,st'lmd drag th« i'lk

d(""1/wan!.'

The clI",e oj the E {lIll be s/fi"l1gtnmed

wia, aI! additional stroke

Alternative D

-.~

2

n"jir.<l strolee oj Ilu F extends be/ow fIle baseline

3

60

dow" wards

GOTHIC CIPI7iIL.s

The cun'e of lilt H (an be strengthened

11,11.11 an additiona!

~j I·· . $':;;;;

5 I~ 1 J tould hi·

. . dra WII from

~-----::;;oo;=-lJ - ngili/o lift, 3 filli$hing Will, lire 1IIIirlilie rHrl

~-2(~ :j

'-.. ~- 3

The foot ~r tire L ian be adapled /0 joit, 011 to the !OIlOlI,;lIg lene»

J

TIle mw! of th« N call be 5/rm.s;llltlled

with all dddi/ioltQI stroh«

........ 3

Irairlim'rorl

4 TIff bowl of l/ie ~ 0 orQlallbe .III .. \. srrmglhfJ/cd wi'th all addilional strokr

To drm .. tlu:

Q, a/M alai/ I" I/IrO

3~

Irmglhmed ,/';111 all addiliOllai strol:«

Tire howl oj lite T (an be 5lrNlj/lh('l1efl wi/It all additiona! stroke

2

Tlie curue of I"" V mil b,' mel1glhelled

lIn·,h al1 caditlMlal SltO/U

I

'cli1

1:2.

'PIII/Ihe 1"11 of tt« y below tbe bast/jne

4

2

6/

GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Lombardic Capitals

ALOMBARDIC CAPITAL is a built-up letter characterized bv curved stems and distinctive monoline serifs .

.J

Unlike Gothic Capitals (pp. 58-59), Lombardic letters

worked well in seguence and so were used for whole words and phrases. They were successful both in penned form as display capitals and carved form for monumental work. The script was increasingly prevalent by the mid- 11 th century, and finally ousted by the Humanist Capital in the 16th century (pp. 98-99). However, it enjoyed a resurgence, particularly as a monumental letter, during the 19th-century Gothic revival in England, under the influence of the architect and designer A.W N. Pugin.

THERE IS A RELUCTANCE among

some authorities to use the adjective "Lombardic' in relation to this

script, because the letters have little specifically to do with the northern Italian region of Lombardy. However, over the centuries, the term has

been widely used and accepted by calligraphers, typographers, and letterers, and has come to represent the particular combination of Imperial and Uncial elements that make up this distinctive hand of capital letters.

A simplified Imperial

Lomhardic Capitals can be seen as simplified, pen-drawn versions of the Roman Imperial Capital. The multiple strokes of the Imperial (pp. 110--/ /9) are reduced to a minimum, producing a letter that is relatively easv to execute

, 0

(pp. 64-65). The Lombardic script

usually includes Uncial forms of

A, D, E, ,11, and T (pp. 24--25).

DOJ S are u.\ed On . ~

IhCICltaN'0-JR ~

8il't the srrok« .' '._ '

cxrra 1('c)ghl

LOMUARIJIC CAPITAL /vf A square-rut mb 15 usee! to draw l.ombardic Capnals, with rhe pen held close to [he honzonral (pp. 64-li.'i).

Tht leli<'1 .'vi {an l1ltern.r.Hi ~'e{r aJnl!Te to (_J b~.fe.hnc e10S'S 51f(J~f, llIukingllw Tlfihl-}",nu stroke a mir,ror imiJse ~Ilnc Igi-h~lnd ont (pp, 64 6»

lvn((cn In a S

'''J.linc Eur~v . J(f)O·

(jol/')( sajpl \_) 1 . •

(PI'- 46 47) --------'>I-annO.t1lqumID.lTlqt1mTa mcnm.cum ron 1tnTlC-.dlO

c.apuumum l]Fm ftutl1um chobar :0.Vrro fun\; (;>U. d"-mdI tnttoncr dnln qumra mcnflf.1pfvdt ennur qunnur tra n fn !T_gran om f TtpJfl o ach rrn . ' fufunn dtucrbum dlll a.dv1tXhleL~(lU buzl raccrdoocm~lncc.rnl.d)aldc-.o1Um fecuf Rumcn

Tne test 1.<

THE WINCHESTEr<. Ul!3l~

The Visror: of Eukid, (rom the- W mchestcr

B,ble' (pp, 4(>-47). includes :I ,~ri~< or me nculouslv cr~(ted l.ombnrdic Capitals. III common with other works {roill the lIIid-12lh Cl'ntury, the scnbe has shown lutle concern about br,',killg words ~( die end of ~ line: Ior instance, H J?'iC1PIT

EZECHIEL': rc"d, .. 1.\/CIf'lT:EZE ICJ-IIEL ''. In the illununatcd inlli;li. Ezekiel is depicted ,lrCJllllnl; hy the River Chobar. The fOllr "'tnlocking wheels are symbolic of the fO\lT Evangdisls_

62

Built-up letters

Unlike most other capital scripts included in this book, the Lombardic letter is not the product of a natural movement of the hand. While each basic component of the Gothic Capital, for instance, is made

from a single stroke (pp. 60-6 J),

a Lombardic component is built

up from several composite strokes. The sides of the stems curve inwards, usually drawn with the pen held horizontally. The monoline serifs

are also the product of the horizontal pen; they are generally slightly concave and are not bracketed

to the main stem as they are in

the Roman Imperial Capital. Embellishments

'~'.Ji ~,. The Lombardic Capital forms the

,if-'"' 0 basis for many Versals (pp. 58-59),

J ·-<·~l r:n ~;1:liJ and the amount of embellishment

.~~_ :~~'~l ~IliV k~, '~d :;:: s:~~~~~t::a~~:~,~d(:n!~~y

- L l' However, the stone-cut Lornbardic

It 1-1 fY~" . ~, ,- 11:"; t 1 _'. ,r. letterform is often modified as a

'\,. • ,-.; . result of the nature of the surface -

1I.q 1'-· -.'-f' . C." o;3\.'

\ • ~. • I for instance, the fine serifs are either

91.H nof.'!< n-;-q'~r";(CI 0 n 11f! thickened or omitted altogether.

t1~. u:a rJUa,: ~r"C.-0-tA- The Lombardic has been used

1 extensively on other surfaces:

~IO~ t-~~r!¥~~.n,~,,~f*~d textiles, metals, glass, and ceramics,

'~o:r; '-fn.,~t:"T1l.q:u ~ u,m~ . \ .

/Jclow th. ririe capitols, t~. cbopier opemng has been Will/en in rvbricated Uncial leucrs (pp. 24-- 2;)

In tbis earJ_y example oj II nistDTlQ(4..a Ver501 (pp. 58- S9). the Y"SJn is shown in IneJorm of a capn al lctter I

These dnploy leiters read: "IN NM DiW NRIIHU PS INCPT LIB SACRAMTR". ThIs" an abbr.VJaLIon of "IN NOMINE DOMINI r./OSTR1 JESU CHRISTI. /i'.'ClPIT I.IBER SACRA MA TR/S"

. QrP]IJ . , '

4A ~.

LOMBARD/C CAPITALS

THE GELLONE SACRAMFNTARY

I n the title letters of this eighth-century text

(or Christmas Eve Mass, produced in northern France, we can discern (he crude beginnings

of l.ombardic Capi rals. The <cribe has used Imperial Capitals as Ius models, drawing the outlme of each letter in J single stroke with J narrow pen nib. I n the Ii rst three Jines. leners feltu re mrcrnal dccoranon. The words of [he [ide have been considerably abbreviated. On the second line the abbreviation of "DOMINI" as "DN'" has been indicated with J mermaid instead of with the traditional horizontal stroke .

. .

Below the cbapur 0pmIna. ,he It .. scrip' has ban pmncd in a Holf Unaol hand /pp, 18-39). rew8nitable by it; upriahr aJp<cr

63

GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Lombardic Capitals

THERE is NO HISTORICAL precedent for a full set of Lombardic Capitals and those shown here have been compiled from a varie!), of sources. Unlike Gothic Capitals (pp. 60-6 J ), they are used for writing complete words and phrases and so consistency is of great importance. Concentrate on making the weight of stroke, the level of compression or expansion, and the serif construction exactly the same in each letter you draw.

_R-

Waisted stems

Wal;ted seems cau be created by overlapping two broad, curved vertical makes and then adding th"halrline horizontals at rhe rop and bottom (abolic I~(I). A more precise method is to draw the whole outline With J narrow nib and [hen fill,t in with mk (a/w'ic (CI1(Yc).

Use a Mrrow peu "i/, /0 add (he ,!e{()'ali"e blobs at Ihe ella of the .<trift

Rounded letters Define the [orm of rounded leiters by draWing ei rhcr the outer or inner circle first. The latter often proves more pracucal (lee letter O. OppO.<llc).

Expanded and compressed letters To regulate the chosen level of expansion or compression, use rhe SpJ(CS enclosed With III dlJractl'fS JS guides. Compressed letter> have shorter ,eri[s (han expanded letters. Bows can be full\, rounded or pointed.

--+1

~--_'l

C""'prc.<S,d letter

Display capitals

Since the 12th century, the l.ombardic Capital has often been heavily elaborated when used as a display capull. Decoration on range from simple additional caselmcs [0 complex illustrations that arc g>ldcd and In colour.

Cnsehnc ami shadow

~ ..... ~~.___ Flora! decoration

__ ll

Eillrn of tticse /pwjon>l; oj A can be Used

-~

- Uncial

form of A

B

c

Uncial fonn of D

D

_F

1

[_~

-

8

Eitker oj III (Sf }'I'O [orm« ofD (all be used

1

IT }JW

- 2

3

64

LOM8ARDIC CAPITAH

1

Il ,o,~· - Ii '~L II--- -

I 3 J!1-n~2 S <s: ~

~ 1 ~

I{ '.~' ~ c -_ t ~l:_ _-

LJl ]1J5 u ttOOl._

2 7

m 'Ii 0 17 [ 01' VE~:,:;,v Jt\\: \\,]Vi.

~\ ~ ~ construction U" \Ji l

~ - -- -

J 2

~ 'l1~6 TIill_'

modern constnution

. 0 '0)2(0)' _8 ~ 7 ,,~tJ6 .

- -_-_- --_ :.;-- +- - -- -

2

n -Jl TIP·' ~_j ~}

2

Q llJaJl5 Z 'llfJkJ7 _.

6 4

65

GOTI-lIC SCRIPTS

Bastard Secretary

HISTORICALLY, THE MORE FORMAL a manuscript hand has become, the greater has been the need for a functional cursive script to complement it. Just as the Insular Majuscule spawned the Insular Minuscule in the eighth century (pp. 28-37), so the prestige Texturas of the 13th century (pp. 50---57) gave rise to parallel hands for the less prestigious work of the day. A series of complementary cursive scripts evolved both regionally and nationally, quickly developing into fully fledged hands in their own right. They arc classified under the generic title of "bastard" (bastarda) scripts,

the term denoting a mixed cursive and Textura parentage.

THE CURSIVE SCRJPT (pp. 34---35)

had probably been rediscovered for documentary use in England towards the end of the 12th century. Although speed "vas the most important consideration, the script was also designed to impress, as the loops and linking letters testify. The French form of cursive, called Secretary

or Chancery, was introduced into England and Germany at the end

of the 14th centurv, When Textura

.I

features were incorporated, it became

known as Bastard Secretary in English, Batarde in French (pp. 70-7 f).

Mr.orr.vnor:« ().\.

THI-: LiFJ" or CHIVST Tit is l1l~nuscri pi page shows (he translation

into Middle Engh,h by Nichobs Lo\V,' of ~ POPU.i:il- 13th -cenrury Linn work annbured 10 Sr. Bouaventu ra. One' of 49 vcrvions of the text k nown [0 <'XI st. II dares fro III about 1450. The script includes the Anglo-Saxon thorn sign. a character [hat

resembles ;1 J' and represents a "th" sound (pp. M 69). This sign rem.u ned ,11 lise u nul

the 161h century,

/h, .. -Ini/lo-Sa.von thorn ".q n bus hem wcd lhrLIu8hom ,ht.· tl~.'\t

Tbe !Op loop of t he \I' should not exceed minim he,she

BAST,\Rfl SECRETAr~ Y W The w reaches ascender h~igh t Jild is ide nucal m both minuscule and capi tal fonn.

The ,liummored border dud Versal IJT,-" cboraaensitc of 15Ih-an/UI)' Enlllifh mOllWY;r'rl work

In£' J6U"nwarJ jJU"k, [rom tbc ascenders is known ,.1.\ an "'dcphtJnJ '$ trunk" ---------.F.-:iiI~,.II,r."',,;.,,-,,'

The boriront a! <I IDk, ~('er I ht.· ampersand Jcnou:.! the abbreVUHlon ole word

-,

KANE MEDIEVAL MANUSCRII'T

Dating (ronl abour 1430, rlus earlier translation of St. Bonaventura'< Meditations (>II III,. Life of Christ v. also the work of Nicholas Lowe. In Ihi, version, the SCribe has made use of both rhe Anglo-Saxon thorn sib~l and the modem II! (or writing the word "rhe". Notice' ,,150 the senf';11 (he t<-ct

of tb ~ min ims. wh ieh are rurned upwards and not broken as they arc in the Bastard Secretary otrhe Adam and Eve text ((lI'J)(\_~it<')-

66

B/ISTARD SECR£7/IRY

1

.. - , . ~

.r

French and German Jeatures There are certain features that help identify a bastard script bv

• J

Its nationalitv, The French form

) ,

[01" instance, is most distinctive

for the calligraphic feast made of theJand long form of s (pp. 70-71). Early German cursive scripts were characterized by bold, expanded minims and tall ascenders and descenders. When they were contaminated with Textura features at the end of the 15th century the Frak tur and Schwabacher ha~ds emerged, featuring "broken" letterforms (pp. 74-75).

En81ish cha racteristics

In English models, it is the letter w that attracts the most attention - the same impressive, looped form is used for both minuscules and capitals (opposite). Another English feature is the long, downward terminating flick from ascenders, sometimes called an "elephant's trunk".

Generally, the English Bastard Secretary tends to be staid and prosaic, lacking the subtle shifts of pen angle that characterize its French counterpart. As a result, it was highly practical, and so had a long life as a document hand: it was used well into the 18th century"

AllAM AND EVE

Thrs text ofthe story of Adam and Eve was \VriUCIl III English III about 1415. A tine llpnflht aspen to [he letters suggestS that they were wnuen wuh on oblique-CUI nib. In the best English

,; Bastard script rradinons, {he '" is well pronounced and the "elephant's trunks" are boldly drawn,

67

GOTHIC SCRlPTS

Bastard Secretary

;\ S A FUNCTIONAL, CURSIVE script, the Bastard Secretary is

f\. written with as few pen lifts as possible, with letters linked wherever practical. Consequently, the hand can be penned far more quickly than the formal Gothic scripts, such as the Textura Quadrata (pp. 52-53), Ascenders are complemented by strong, downward diagonal strokes known as "elephant's trunks", drawn to the right of the stem at an angle of about 45°. These echo

the downward diagonal strokes of the minim feet.

Tbe augi, oj till' "elcplrant's mmks" '/lOrdd be (oll.Sislel1l th,oPlg/lOul IIIC text

TIre lail of tlu: h is "wally dragged 10 rile lift ~{ thr letter, almost ~I a parallel 10 tl« baseline

Key letter

The h IS a useful letter with which \0 SIan practising the Bastard Secretary.

It includes bot h the "elephant's trunk" (hat sweeps frOIll [he head of [he ascender almost (0 the headhne. and the characteristic downward pull of

(he pen at the foot

of [he stem.

Drawing an upward loop

W,th III sweepmg hairline loop, the

d IS one of d,e most disnnctive letters in the hand. Afrer drawing the bowl, create a large arc by pushing the pen upward, 1Il one swt"eping movement.

Adding a downward diagonal Without lifang the pen, make a strong down ward diagonal stroke. curving II to the left (0 jom [he bowl at its midway point. This stroke wiU echo the shape of the loop.

Basic elements The pen :lIIgle for the hand IS about 40-45° and a squar-e-cut nib is generally used. Minim hl'ight is four pen widths, with the ascender equal [0 a funher [our widths.

--i\

-13

. __ (b

TIll' e is dllllosl tircular I1nd rim ),dV~ tlu: appea,a"t' of a ieuer 0

--~~-

2

L

Fo, thefrrs! stroke ---:( oj lire f, g;~du~l/y , '.;1 twisl tI" pen I;

M ,', '<"i""~'f

Complete rlli _ ltoirline loop oj lire d III ~ sUlgle stroer

--s~

n'e tail oj tlte e could joiH lire second wok ..

1)

~ TIle ;({otld

4 ____,...-+~) woke of tlte f

1 retraces tile_fim

10 lire !read/me alrd CUlVe.< .,ilii/llly ___ 10 the nthl

(~~4

~ Make a ltairline

1 "I) slroi:ejrorrilire

(' the bcadlin«, Ixfo"

. 2 ;rarling ri,e jillal

dOlVnwa,d snoke alld /ail

The lettets i and J COli be dOlled

68

- The ba",1 and n'g/ltfi'QI oj In.' k are draWl! ill

_ . ~_ ~ a single. stroke

BASTARD SECRE1ARY

'_--t-

_n_l.-

Slighlly cxteJtd the fool oj Ihe I along thc baseline

TllJlSttilepell -i j)

to the verti((ll i/ I

10 produce /' j

II,e tapered < /

d(smlJer!/ - ---~

of Ihe p /

n- j~ ~ -t

FUlIr Half,

-0

Tuiis: tlte pm 10 the vertical

2 10 fillisll Ike

desande» oj Ihe q with a Hai,lillC

The ha if r is IIScd /0 jollow letters wilh a right.ha"d boll'

2 ,~

A ;Cl'aralf,fi.ft/1 moke i.> not "qui,dfo, tlte W If the sf(o"d 01 [ounl. siroke is (xlerlded

/

..

~-

__ t -ll

~-~

-~--_ ---- -_ --

71lflOP stroke o{ the v call

he omiued

~2r --- j-

f);

'1 J Drag lite haidine

1 Illil o/Ihe y wiiir

I he corner of I he

___ _ _ s= "I'b

2

Conjoined letters

Abbreviation of "that"

C"".ioilted letten drc less " jealIlII' o(fhe Bastard llJ the Quadralo, hut Ihis form oj p-p IIgalure is 'J,,;le {(>mmo/l

Y -t alld w-t {{e,lIl1rillg lite A",~lo-SIlXOII thorn ,/gil, p, 66j ,"ere commo" abb,fv,m;""s o{ Ihe words "tlMI" and "",/wl" ,e.'{!fcti"e1y

69

GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Batarde

THE B.ATARDE (Lettre BourBuignonne) is the French equivalent of the English Bastard Secretary (pp. 66-67). It was developed at the end of the 13th century and used until the mid-16th century, evolving from a lowlv cursive bastard hand into a formal, prestige script in its own right. Batarde achieved its most sophisticated appearance in the mid-15th century, an era when the popularity of the printed book was increasing among a whole new section of societv. In this de luxe form, it was the hand

./

favoured by Burgundian court circles) hence its alternative name.

By THE MID-15TH century. book illustration in France was moving away from medieval stvlization

./ ./

(pp. 54---55), becoming less intricate

and more naturalistic. The Batarde hand used for manuscript books was shedding its own Gothic ancestry - letters were lighter, seeming to dance on the page. This effect was achieved partly by making several changes of pen angle during the construction of each letter. In returning to the major key after each change-. the scri be could crea te a rhythmic harmony across a page of text. This is particularly noticeable in the Froissart Chronicle (opposite). However, in other Batarde scripts, such as that in the Book of Hours (ri8hl), the harmony of the text is achieved instead by the maintenance of one constant overall angle.

)'he lu}1 n(,/,,' p I, po}n<eJ and NJn be Jrou .... n' cnbcr UPY.i9h, Dr slIgh'~" '/anIeJ

BATAfU)E J-'

III consrructing the I:\~.t,,,(k p. :, series ot p(n liti.;; 'Illd angle chansel is required (pl" 72-73).

stroke ctJn he eNrolded H'hen ,he laic: />cBms 11 H'uru

~·"'.-~K' .~CmUbftt ~ulun tntl .. ·~-r

rhe. split (15ccnJa:, art ()f'l(' ~rS(~"'(}f(,d Cor tnc Test UfO ,"IClrl)(ItrlSl it! illlJ( !lore 'U!I'll'ed in tnl'S bastard 5cnpl

BOOK OF HOUH.S This P"S~ i, from J snull prayer-book written Cor rhe wealrhy Poligny family in about 1471)_ The script's Corhic origin_' ;1n~ "k~r: ([,(elldel> arc splir, cit-sec'nders 1110de~1. and minim strokes [erJ\\in.ICed with fc~t reminiscent of rhc Quarirata (;>1'_ 50-51).

The OV"'-311 rexru r,t! en;;C[ is cio,er to the dOl,,, ~ authorirv l)( th (' Go til ic T ex n: rJ scrip ts than ro

the' light hannonv of ~ true l3at~rdl~, such as [hat .Khievc'd ill the Froissart Chronicle ((.lPl'osilc).

70

BA7?IRDE

"'flt UUI~ 4r~'P.t II' ~~/('" ~~ lll[rr«-- .... ('lrlir.(f-r~.'iJ;jllljlrll:: 't'f'r;'I'I"I€trr1"_;,,"jl,:i~I1 ... tl'ljrlh""{:{ll-. ~~Vlll)o C~ 1]'11(<</('\'. nn LI~!~ h.}'tm: f.f\"· r~~I';1'-l\j ,:p.!.!t ,.' IJ (tt,,"Jl Do ~l~·(f?:.:. ott '~ '~I,I'f«r L~(fIL',otIi w- l.{t- till ~'n!'(- 'l:-I"~~' U !II.'"

tr_l f.~\." JI)J III ~~~ -fit. rL",,",.~!1If I.}l-r~ ~1'~'nl.~{~'6)~t" $jlt~t"n~

·-r-="i',j~'."'~'I,l·~rK-nrt fnrj~.t~ (~ut'('('C f~\J!1~1~a-fi1r\\II ..... )~lr tt-II, (1I1-\~1 ~~ l-r ~fi«In-.! I'm(tItt at.lf- ~ft F_! ~jll;'1' 911(' ~1U"~1 r~~~I~,i!m!f1it~tl~ .~~Ij~~_ ~.II'ft~~I''''' (LUVtllJ!rll f~ :;;:~ jI( 1'. !'iUI"'"tllfll"t~.l~ ~jJ,j"ru'

~'l;'((1C'lJ:ljl~ij"j-\'I'II'IIl ..... u'colli' ~ H; i r;}£tl~ "i'<' fT r IW'lvJl1- .;. tl q.n~ ,,.., ~'1 u:.rw\.'i-{M III I" ri., ~ ir .... n~ P~'J! fMn~ ~ 'du~· ~U ollll"'r~L.('!Ilrllll{rjI,fJ+~I<

---,;T.\o"j! 1;;liLI1IWf,j(Olt.\nl'rc. fl"i"if"Ibt"\':.~'.m:q'R1I_1cwtN.<'l:',· _~(. r.:\ll"l':' ~l U', .. I~ ~fi:dH..::r-'~'j I WI' I (f"hf:"~ fl;il"ll 11:'« ::x I~' (t~,tJ..IIII'" \:.t.f) 11 f,I,l"",U:$>-(lj --r'-JU~\-tII'I.I('" \NII' 1J.j~i1f('rtr'

nlH'1'- ,H.'If,("U{H1Httt- firlill.l' fn'{("fIJfjf:t .'~'f ~tI ( R'l"rjil"Ul_I",. (row ~l" ~nH;!~ I rfo.'. \~(I'-l>:~:.tt'" ~ut"'l-nl-I~f.UV:l~.-l" [1,1,'-"11,' \...:n~JI.H"'r.' 1""_-!JH~'1h' ,,-+oNI\ r-r. C'l-1I(Ut;..,f'C'e!-l1 i) Ct~ ~.'\I If' IJ II ()~~ p_ ... N(T,({rII,-.' ",III _".!_ ~

.: 11 I" ~lh'''I''U.(' l~V:.r-n-tl._

1 II alI1~~( IIi"!W'nf .t-~u;~~u It>

Tr"le: FRorSSI\RT CHRC'NICtT:-

This is .1 copy Q( rhe t-lrh-ceururv chronicle of [c.u: Froissnrt. A ddight(l,l book. it has

" l1-lOdcm J)l))("lr,u ice . ';~vi ng parr I y [0 the rl·b1.~OHSlllP OrIC'>:1 to il\;Hgin, ''''(\ partly to the: restraint shown in rill: derorai ion. The r~e[ ()f the I!lJ_njJ)I~ end wi thou r ."\J boration and th r

scripr i, gellcrCllly 11I0f~ cursive than d'<ll used to write the Book o( Hours (").'PO"iIC).

DETAIL mOM THf FROISSART CHRONICLE The initial Cis decorated with a Cadel (1'I" SO-81). "The horus on rhe letter g \.r"similar 10 rhose 01\ the X of another Gorhic scnpt, the Frakrur (pp." 7(,-7 i). Both the' half r alld full r forms arc> \1\~,11ll the re xt

"{he {or,,""rd leu" ~{Ih' lcner f IS one '?flhe most dsst mctirc (nariJCJCTISUO o[dl/; Bot anlc

VITA CI-IP.loTI r'i\(:E

ThiS PJge {rom LI III'JjgM)"I' tit' I" Mort IIIc5<1 ",dudes the ru bricarcd prologue to the 111 all1 text. which opens with a Versa!' The book dal'" Irolll 1479 and was wrirreu bv David Aubcr

of Ghent. scribe (0 Philip th; Good, f)like

or Burgu ndy. III tilt" illustrarion, we sec the

sr ribe present jl\g t he book to his patron.

Vita Christi

The scribe or the Vita Christi page from La kengeance de la Mort [hew (I~t) had arguably lesser skill~ than his (1,\'0 contemporaries featured here. He does not achieve the harmony of the Froissart Chronicle or Hook of Hours, his pen angles are inconsistent, and he is unable to return to any constant pen angle. Common features

In some examples of I3atardc, the I and long form of s lean forward at an angle. By keeping the angles of these two letters absolutely constant, the scribe can create a counterpoint to the main harmony. This textual effect - known as "hot spots" - is

a common feature of Batarde.

Other frequent characteristics

of Laue BO!IrgUl9nonne are the

over lapping strokes reminiscent

of Fraktur (pp. 74-75), and the delicate hairlines used to join strokes; these seem to add a further sense of movement to a page of rex t.

71

GOTHIC SCJl.JPTS

Batarde

To ACHIEVE THE most successful Batarde letters, the use o( a quill is recommended. A sharply cut oblique nib is required to produce the exquisitely fine hairline strokes. The dubbed J and lon.g s are frequently written more boldly than other letters and have a forward slant (the two letters have the same basic form, with 3 crossbar added for the j). This produces "hot spots" within the written text and makes for a distinctive textural pattern.

Prepare to add the (T(l.(.fbar to the f hy turning the 'lui/llo 100

Drawing the f and long s

The many change, of pen angle required to draw the .Bata.rde J and long .1 are typical of this sophisticated hand. Begin about half ~ minim above (he headline and gradually

rum the pen from 30° to the vertical as you pull the pen downwards, finishing with a hairline. Retrace the. first stroke, looping outwards to the right to create a thickened stroke. and return to the original angle of 300•

T7lc (Urued hairline stroke at the lap of the letter q WII be (ottti,IIIO", with the descender

Descenders The descenders of leuers l' and (1 are made by turning the nib anti-clockwise (rom the horizontal

to the vertical, finishing with a hairline. The descenders may altemarivelv slant to rh e left, echoing th'c [orward lean of

(he J (/lbIJlJe) and long s.

TIle h~ighl 4 the Bdtardi' minim ",

abo III Jow pt~ wid I /'$

Flat feet

Flat feet occur on all ICJciing straighr minims in rbe script, such 3S the stem of the t and the first leg of the II. In a more cursive version of Batarde, the minims may terminate with J flick at the end of the downward stroke, a, on the second leg of the II_

-6-

2

--

__.

Finish the Jim "".I lliird .lrrokes

Ill" the a witlt " hair/ilre J7irk

nil' WJW q( the c terminates lvitli <I Jlllir/illi:jlirk

TIle itair/iOlc SJmkl! of ,'U! e ;~( drm"'l at nil mlgl" 0.1" auoilt <f5°

Dra", Ihl' IJairlilli' 2 irossbm of ti,e f <II (HI ''''gie of '/00

The dllube,1 S/lf/PC "I" the r call be

A·hairlilli< at tile lOp dlld 1(111 of the leuer h is rI',lracle,i.'ti(

72

jonv(1rd n: ~ mort pronounced allgh /11<111 rhi, (pp. 70-il)

(

/

I

J

BAJitRDE

[

m

17.,,; >INI1 awi lemiingfi)Q/4 tlrt.k mil be

5

The flm ,/111< I COli be 11x/i'mlcd _'h~"il)'

1 M,

__ ~ll!~

2

5 I)

1\1

_J

2

X

TW.';I lire PC. n_ ]fI~

Ul a 1I('"(lr vertical

mlgir to tonn the Imir/illf desrendcr If

of rile p

~

!

t

Joined letters

TI,I' P a",/ h 'W III{ 0111)' Irller.< ",)1 }Llilled lIar j',). 11 I",irlil'lr .:'ir"ke

Tire sic III and [oo: (1 t/w l mn bi' dmfl'lI in (l sillgte _<ii'roke

l1>'

TIw lener Z Crill a/lemali~ely be dr,w~/ ill a .!i,,"~lc .<"Ir"ke

~"g",,, the //",,j;,, -; Y

lail 0{ tile x ",ifir d!e

"muitr 41ilf tlii!

DlI" righl 100[(1 oj thr h aPld Ihe Ie)/ bow cf (I,e o ((111 be {(~j~jL'J;m':tf

J,H'T" praaira', Buerde lell"rs fill! I", ,-,,,,,,,,,(,,,(

",il" /",irii//{' stroecs

73

Con-lie SCRIPT'>

Fraktur & Schvvabacher

FRAKTUR (GERMAN LETTER) is a marriage between German cursive scripts and Textura Quadrata (pp. 50-51). Manuscript examples of the hand date from about 1400 and it first appeared as a typeface about a century later. Early type versions of Fraktur, and its more cursive, vernacular cousin Schwabacher, remained dose to their pen-written origins. They were designed by the leading German calligraphers

of the day, including Johann Neudorffer the Elder. The two scripts continued to influence calligraphy and type design until the mid-20th century, and had a formative influence on the work of eminent practitioner Rudolf Koch (oppOSite).

F)\r\I(TUTZ A

The distinct; V~ spikes or ",all), Frakru r lerters

arc the product

or ovnlapping strokes (pp. 76-77)

TI](: FtllkrUl d II" r1}w(~n.(J .~}JJ8/{·-.florC) lcuo with 00 enclosed howl

THE DIFFERH'/cES between Fraktur and Schwabacher are difficult to define precisely. Both feature the swollen body and pointed tail of the Batarde.f and long c (pp. 70-7 J), as well as curved strokes on the bows of letters a, b, c, d, e, 8, h, 0, P» and q. Diamond strokes reminiscent of Texture letters are a distinctive feature of the hand, hut there is a tendency for terminal strokes to be curved. All letters have a rigidly upright aspect.

Generallv, the Schwabacher has a broader, more cursive form than the Fraktur, and does not have the forked ascenders and excessive elaboration of that hand. Some of the most striking versions of Schwabacher were penned, centuries after the script fkst appeared, by the calligrapher and designer Rudolf Koch (oppOSite).

'.-

Wl)I~KSII['ET

This portion of, \\,(\,.bh,'t·t. (.,b""c) j, po:;,;bl Y' I he oldest 'lll"'\,lll"; example of Fraktur-relurcd

ic'lt('n Ilf!:, It \\'J< wrutcr: ill about 141)11

by Jo ha lin es vom I-hgen. who refers to Ih", hand as ":\""//11/,, Tra[//1I'I1fI1I1I" ('"hrokeJl note,"). It is from th,s

tt'rIll [hat (1 .. : name "Frak tur" JS believed (0 h av .... beell dl"ri vcd

The .tlosuoueos and ---,i:-r-y;:.< l 'awls il'(."TC oJJcJ ~ter I/h' ,JH' test hd<.i l)ecn (omp/arJ

74

.<J<

.,,:, ·,t";i_

,~ .

FR..IKTIJR &_SUfH"llJilCflER

MATTI-I!l.US EV."._NGELIUM

In tili, Cerl11:Il] rcxt "f!he Gospel

o( SL Matthew Ir-Oll] 19::' I. Rudolf Kt)(h combine the reatures f Fraktur .H]d Texrura Qllalh'~!~ co the ulummc dc-gr.'" - the lines of text "ppear to IlrLV~ be<;n kuiued. KNh ci:Jssilied thi, sryle ,l~ a \'~,-.;i(\n of Sc!l\\,,·,b:tchlT. and explained: "The I':lgr ,hOIlI,\ seem to be S!~ckal with !il\lsh"d rOW5 of

liu <.> ... C\jlC('j all \' th " spJCt b"t ween wonk must 1I0t be' broader Ibn that bel ween lillt'S·.·' The Versals in\'<' iW(ll rrcated III JJl equally rohll,t ru.mncr. r"'llitil'lo; ill tWO b"3llt.ifuily oesig!l(:d p:.:ges of text.

\UIf-fJlft--_._- In Koch's text. tltl" jH1ulmcoGr _lpcJCC has '·Jmwlt",IJS~ppc"rcJ. ol/pn'lnS IWI w/ficll'nl whH,.jv, Ih,· <,1 e 'I' \"t"tin7 n.lonR lhe iUlC'J) hOfl~0i11Jr~·

. ~

tn punctptoZ""tlC Z fC~llpn~: ct itl ~ndltj(m{~mm~ctt. ?Ztt(dut((~ atit~'{{dut« (( p~~

ref>" vfQt (\~ fg)tu((gcffnt"nl; (t a f(ptu~gcHma tlf'Y atl ~. fd)a tltcttur· &tttlttut bont~

m:r'1ct(rtlC mOl,t(.~~tt"t0 rtum·~ht( tttatlagtml(( p{(:;

AA~ 90mtttuG ttcfi~ ~ucttla{

ria· , nf't'm~uG""","' ~-------";~-----7--""__ The,rua/anr. compressed

~ in if. mUd~ l't 11,~I'),:nc;_}""hch~mJf,~lfo .. F"

\;;:tlt",tp.l ,,( ., ~vO 1 .l 'IS 7"",,,,, ,>n,qln<: ,,,'en ,1>"

no: lubi(etttUG beo ~t(U ,;:'. loner I' 11~S ,Ill "PrIflllI form

fa,,: .: .. 5-J~ I'ltA YER-HO,lj(

,-t\,c 1'h,',,<, p;lgt·' tio,,\

. the pravcr-book of

nct" dU6 lt1 ne :ct ttl Emperor M~ximdi~n

.,' ( we I'" pu bl ish cd by

~ ., Sc\'nn,pc'rgc"r of Niirt'",bl'rg ill ISI~. The Frakrur type \\'0, <lC'signcrl by Johanll

clId(;ri1i:r rh,· Elder, latiwr or ,hret' f!('o{"Tatiol1' of olli,I,'TJph~rs. The border decoration is eqllJlly outstanding. lwill~ tlw work of Albrecht Diirer.

/" German Letter Bv the earl" 16th century a further

.I ; ;1

form of Frakrur and Schwabacher

hac! de\'c1oped that has since come to typify German scripts, It featured "broken" letters created bv the

J

overlapping of strokes (pp. 76-77).

Used only in German-speaking areas, this broken letter is frequently referred to as a "German Letter". The reiection afItalian scripts Fraktur and Schwabacher enjoyed longer lives than any other bastard script in Europe - in the carl} 20th centur)', half the hooks printed in Germany still featured Frakturbased typefaces. This longevity was a direct result of the German rejection of Italic and 1-1 umanist scripts (pp. 90- J 0 /). There were two important factors in this rejection: lIrstly, the Reformation caused Protestants in northern Germany to reject Italian hands as

a political gesture; secondly, it was widely believed that a Humanist script did not su it German t('XL

J) tT AI L 'I'()M M:\TTHi\u~ EV,\NCELIUM Til e controlled Ireedom or K Q( h 's It::ttcrfonn" 11'; ~J~(_"\'li

in tbi< CkLlil trom M.1!lil:ill$ EVUJlgdiulll ("h<JJIt). R,l die;!1 in rrs timc, such work g~ve new mean ill g to \11<'

cerrn ·'BLu:!.: Lctrcr"

(1'1'.50-51)-

. \'\1

75

GOTHIC SCRIPTS

Fraktur

THE UPRIGHT, CO,\,tPRESSED letters of Praktur are closer in appearance to the Gothic Textura scripts (pp. 50-57)

than either the Bastard Secretary (pp. 68-69) or U1e Batarde (pp. 72-73). The hairline spikes, such as those on letters b, B, h, and q, are a distinctive feature of Fraktur and do not tend to occur on the rounder Schwabacher letters. The pen angle of about. 40° is altered only for drawing the pointed descenders.

_=----------- The llmmder can (,c d",,,,,, willt tI .<,,,,,/1' rounded Slroke or wil.i'1 a spli! 1m)"

c--------- Tlte ,"ilrim hei,,!" is abou; five PO! Wili/irs, Jjiill, tl further IWO [or "'SW,d,,, and descender:

"H,C crossbar is a n>mmOf1 [eature (/Ihe tetter g ill 1>0//1 Frakrur

<md Sd"I'<lbar/lcr scriPt.,.~

Spike strokes

The distinctive Fraktur spikes are made by extending Oil" rroke over til e previous one .. The more pen lift.l there .are in a letter. the more spikes

are created,

71/1, tail '?f lire g can "";111 willi " slun: ~ hairline. " /,/,,[,. '''.

r' batklj)ard -,,,'eep; cl/le"lIlf1lillc/Y, it (,m be looped (.'ee g. righl)

The pm nib s!wuJd h·c square-cutfor drawing Fraktur /f'III"T.'

Rounded strokes Despite the Frakrur letter', upright aspect. many strokes are actually rounded. Here. the-ascender of 'the letter b has been drawn with a curve to echo the rounded stroke of the bowl. Whether you choose straight or rounded letters or split or poi ntcd ascenders,

it is important to be 'as consistent as possible throughout the text,

Alren1ilriuel)l, tire 1"",Ii"e tan be drawn a~( a continuation of the fi'.<1 stroke (see g. opposite)

The sptke st",le" ovnltlps th« /><'110'" of the rounded Stroke of tlie b6",/

--:i---- Fraktur deswulers arc restrained, e.'([epl Of! the /JoitOHJ line [~/ ,; pagt 4" text, where IJddiliOli<l/

.flo·wislw.< WI caur

I

- -- ._;t(;-

i~

Twi;f/ tire penjrom 40° r 10 near verlita/for !he II descender oj lire f

[ '~

--,t ~'

b

Either-of these II"" farlll! nf j (<III be u5eJ

Grlf/lhe nUCllder 41/" d back 10 lire right to avoid fire lOUT li/lilli 10 lire l<ji

'~

TIleJirsl and sl"corld .< trohcs of I he ( (ap; be dmum ,.1llro.11 lifting the pePI

,., nu' se(oud and third strokes of the g call . be draum i'l one

J {(l/lritmOI.I.'

nJOventtnl

76

FRAKTUA

{

m

n

Blher of these IWO [onns ,if 0 can be used

1 lo

21

..

J"..

TIn'p"al fool oj lire '1:1 [an terminate 1-dth tl {iimJZ(lnd _<trokc

The filM! JOM of the n {all ternunat« ""III a dWIHolld stroke

_1'1

FuU r Half r

a

Grad/wily (]j~'$1 tire pm _from 400 10 IIeM uertual fi'/ tlu: dcscender oj lire q

Beg"'! rI~-~'-

"n'IJr 411 'I

upuard stroke ;,

2~ -

4

7ilf W is WIIl'ln'lO'n/.fri.)m r! (.()J~ioilled U ,1.rld \I

4

5

~ 4({"

Usc the {omeT ~( th« "iv 10 lim", ,/1<' hairiinc tai! oj tlu: x

_l

lhc, lilt, corner a( the I'u'b to draur Ih~ lrail/i"Hf rail of the ;:

01'1 tire s, the seq/l"H{~ call bi' altered, untl: lire lOP stroke drawn second

r -~-

6

u

Alternative II

17" third ,t,oke

of (he 7. WIl a/tL'f/la/PI'B/y be penned HI two !epor,lIl' s"ok','.'

~,

\4

i' =11-' - - This "elephant's mink" WII be used on _j lmers b, h, k , nl1d 1

~V -~--

.2 !L.

TlIH (lIYi;lIg hairline \.,: ,ai/ (all be !lsed Oll

letters h, m, and ti

/

'r;-------

77

GOTHIC ,)'CRJI"7S

Bastard Capitals

BASTARD C'\Pll,\LS HAVE the same ductus as the minuscules that they accompany (pp. 68-77), and are penned \\ .. ith the same nib. ln most instances, they tend to be wide, expanded letters. The thick stem strokes are often supported by a thin vcr ucal slash to the right, and the addition of a diamond stroke in the centre or the counter is also common. Like the bastard minuscule hands, the capitals were subject to a range of individual and reoiona] variation. Because of this diversity, the

b J

alphabet shown here should be regarded only as a general gUide.

Draw the Jwi,!'"(:.' "'ilil 11r~ CMlf" ~f li,<, J,ib "

Connecting hairlines On lette-rs [-I. M, ;md ,\', hairline strokes arc often used (0 connect

[\\'0 main dowusrrokes, This h.iirlinc should spring Iroll' Ihe dgbt edge or the baseline serif

Spurs Wi L'ight cal) be added to vertical stems ill the [orm of diamondshaped spurs. bell spur on he ,harpened with a sbort hauhuc Ilick.

Limit J)Jl.t rUiJJfbcr ,~rdia"l!)"d'.'·""J'L'd SPU(.( '0 lrJJ(J or three

Basic elements TI!~ pen ,,"gle of

the l3altard Capital is about ,4£)0 or the same as t h ~ minuscule thaI

; taccompanies. The letter heighr i, doom six p~n widths, Tile characteristically wide letters. such as (he B. are :l direC! product

of downward and horizontal arced swecpi ng strokes.

"Elephant's trunks" The "elephant's trunk" so characrcrisric of the B:l'i~rd Secrt't:)ry (1'1', 68--69) also occurs all capir~<I letters H, K,

L. :md X. Dca w the diagq'''11 rruuk with th~ r"ll Width of the nib, finishing with

~ ,bon hai rl inc.

--~

171<' hail/il" "mini/oil lhl;'E lOti bt oJllillcd

4 ~---

78

BASIARD C>!l'lTALS

ti /:2.i4

f ' J

- ~ '-~-- -'_

2

f t

------=.... 2

Draw the

_~hairlil!_e stroke "-J /lreN witl: lire tonier ~r Ihe -nib

4

- _~- __ ~--

'\~

--- - ~

3

c:'>. -_-~ '~t~

-. -~,- -~-

1111' {Orner oj/he "ib 4

2

1

~_-~-_.~ ---

20 I J

~ 'i

5

Ampersand

4

3~. ~I~

2

or J( ~~ ____ ~~ \.i .t_

2

~- .. - --}J)'

_~_'L_. 2_

:t3J3

-Taper lI,t lail oj. tlrf X witlt the

edge <if!lw !lib

This altematiue form <ifh jealllreJ- ir r"ng hairlin« tail

-

Alternative H

{" this amprumtd the T is s/frsoed

Alternative ampersand

79

F

~---

('.. /"

.' . ,-,.I:~. I : f.~,

_6.

"

ClO£LS

Cadels

THE INVENTION Of the Cadel (Cadeaux) in the early 15th century is attributed to Jean Flamel, librarian to the prominent patron of the arts, the Duc de Berry. Flamel used these large, patterned capitals to inscribe the duke's name

in the front of each manuscript. By the mid-15th century, Cadels were widely used in northern Europe as single Versals (pp, 58-59), mainly in vernacular text written in the various bastard scripts (pp. 66-79). During the 16th century, they appeared in Italic text in increasingly elaborate forms.

~ \\fJI This Bastard C'pH<Ji

/ ~/ letter D. wilh Jr., looped

'r

..:, " ~ _~_{pp.78-79)

- l , : ~;~ ,t, / CADELS, CAPITALS,

~'* "I: ANI> MINU~CULES

~.. " These letters were

",~~ " • ,~"..s ~ I[ - ~

. ,;, "-..:: ,4 "l ~ {'C ~ .t .: .: ~ ~ ~ ~c 0 . pCO lied 111 the second

~ __ J[~;£.i!5 "-" li f; r J f f :$ f f I~ lit .,~ half of the 151h century. possibly by

rhe English sen be R1CHdus Franciscus. One basic element of (he Cadel concerned

1Il (he letter A is the le(1 foor, which has been constructed from I hree strokes I inked

by a series of shorter strokes. This linking $YStCIll IS the kev [0 more complex letters, such as the N (abo~c).

Fl..AME1:S CADELS

This page (rolll a Jllanuscript belonging 10 the Due de Berry \V:l.S wriucn by jean Flame! j n about [409. Although the baSIC suuc ture of the Cadcls is relari velv simple, the (3Ct thaI so many have been used 0)] the- same page creates an impressive Qva311 dl'.xc.

ENC.RA VEl) A LI'HAUET This alphabet of capitals was engraved by Thoma, W csron in 1682. Although Ihc main structure of (he leners follo\Vs that of Bastard Capitals (pp, 78--79), (he basic fonns have been embellished with typical Cadel scrolls and interlace"

CADEt H

Despite rhe apparent cornplexi ry of rh is 16thcentury Cadel, the 1lI.111l structu rc or the letter IS easily pennable (pp, 82-83). The tine internal decoration call be drawn wah a flexible steel nib,

By THE END OF the 16th century,

the Cadel was frequently appearing as a Versal in printed form, and the advent of copperplate engraving led to more fanciful elaboration than was achievable with a broad-edged pen. This paralleled the development of the various Italic and Copperplate hands (pp. 94-107), with which the Cadel was often incorporated.

Interlace patterning

The Cadel differs from other capitals used as Versals in that it is composed of interlacing strokes rather than built-up strokes (pp. 58-59). It is drawn with

a constant pen angle - this produces thick and thin strokes that create a pattern with a continuously changing direction of line, In this way, substance is added to an otherwise skeletal letter.

Interlaced strokes can also be used to embellish the ascenders on the top line of a page of text or the descenders on the bottom line.

CaJeJ,- iecrc ilonuQl/y u;cd ld,h BGSlGfJ =r= here, tbc mitvnsculcs resemble (J Gcrman cursive hand

(pp, 74 75)

81

GOTHIC SCIUPTS

Cadels

THE GREAT VAR!ETY of existing Cadel models makes it very difficult to assemble a complete alphabet. These examples have been selected to represent a few general principles. Although Cadels can look very daunting to accomplish, in practice they are often a great deal easier than you may think and, when used as Versals, they can look very impressive. The golden rule is to begin at the core of the Jetter and work outwards.

Letter spine

Always begin wirh the spine of the letter. Here. the spine

is composed of downward diamond stroke, and straight verticalstrokes. The pen angle for both types of strokes is between 35° and 45°,

Us< a ptllol for Ihe initia! pl.llf1i,,! of Jhf

tetter's SIn<II,,,e __

Diamond strokes A series of diamond strokes IS a common feature of the Cadel spine. Move the pen downwards in a

con trolled, zigzagging movement, without altering the pen angle. A pen angle of 450 will give symmetrical diamonds.

M.il1/ai" a pm al/gle ~f 45°fo'~ series of shon, nea! diamonds

82

1. Establish the basic strucrure or the Cadc1 in pencil before retracing the strokes in pen.

The Codel is decQro,(ed with delicate flower and leqfJomts

main strokes of rhe letter are penned, flourishes and decoration can be added.

Cataneo's Cadels

These letters Band C are based on the initials

of Bernardino Cataneo, writing master at the University of Siena. I taly, between 1544 and 1560. In their original form, they were used with text in Rotunda (pp. 8fr-87) and Ituic (pp. 9fr-97).

The ,kdRlo" B (OrIS,','" 4 a spin» and lUI() bowls

1. Begin the Hem of the B with

a double stroke. with the inner stroke leading into the stroke

of the top bowl.

Next add the single stroke of the lower bowl, leading into a L1u.

2. Build up the skeletal form wirh loops at the tOP of the

bowl and spurs to the left of the stem. Scrolls can be added as a final flounsh.

TIrc lOp oI lite bowl has been exrc"ded

L To begin (he C. draw rhe spine and

the top curve in a single stroke, The bouorn curve can be

drawn in the form of a root,

The inner !rdi,Ji"c strolees ond , sallops aft similar /0 ihos» _, _._ ,,,ed it< Gor/'it Capital;

,..,.",::;...- (pp. 6(}-.61)

2. Build up the Cadel with a system of linked diminishing strokes 10 create "boxes" (oppOJile),

CADELS

Drawing a Cadel A

This apparently complex A can be buill up quite quickly in tour stages. Diamond, have been drawn into the legs of the A, s-o keep

;} constant pen angle to ensure an even distribution of thick and thin strokes.

1. Begin by peuni ng the five basic components of the letter: (.he tWO legs. tWO feet and top stroke. Allow yourself ample space between strokes.

Siraight horizontal strolces lire ben a~ojdfd .. so. 1I.'e a,rved diilgollal:;Jor thefee: 0( lire A

2. Build up the legs

of rhe letter with two complementary uprighr strokes on either side of the core diamond strokes. As J general rule, the legs should. have more weight

(han the feet, '

~~

The I;H("; ~f the ;fr{f cdw tlto:« 4rllefal.

3. Keeping a

co nsra nt pe n an gle. build up (he (eet. Changes of line direction call now be introduced.

Changes t'f line dtrc(1toJ~ JI(W(

hem! introduced

FiNisii/lle Cadel by 11'rmi'I1"Ii'JPg the stroke, WilH IOQllS aJld

II airli: I es

4. Now add (he crossbar, breaking the

strokes as they cross the Jines of the legs, Finally, add the decorative loops and tlourishes.

Cadel ornamentation

r n order to build up (he weight of a main stroke or 10 create a change in Ii ne direction, various types of ornamentation can be used, The pattern, shown below have all been created with the pen at ~ consta-nt angle. Each involves a series of short strokes that move ~r 90° to each other in a series of thin and thick "boxes". This simple device em be adapted to form increasingly complex patterns.

Terminal "boxes"

In this pattern, (he

use of "boxes" allows strokes to be terminated in different directions.

Interlocking loops.

A series of interlocking but unjoined loops (all be adapted at a [cmlinaJ stroke or provide an infill.

-n,i.! par/em I\Hf,!ol~e$ a H,.,ifJ qf four smillJ "boxes ", .(cdlowed b),,, line oj lim:c '{boxesJ-

A constant pftl allgil: is (.'SUil/~-"J ~'PI the aeation {!i I'ho;,-" piltll'fI1_'1

Basic "boxed" srrokes "Box" steps

The ba5ic principle of the «boxed" stroke . In a principle similar to the

is rhat when [he pen moves sideways. a rh in basic "boxed" stroke (abo~'e line is produced. and when it moves upward, lUI). this patt.ern involve, the.

or downwards. a thick Ii ue is produced. "boxes" moving sideways in steps. This work, best 011 curved strokes and requ ires careful planning

Minot imag~ Tim paHe.miog is loosely based on a decorated descender from the 16th-century ., Alphabet" of MJry of Burgundy. The (WO halves of (he ornamenrarion suggest a mirror image. This decoration would work equally well from J top line of an ascender.

I I I

r

Srr1d1i ftm.i,Plrllocp; ;hould .lte draw,', complete; ,Ms is easier Ihall Iryillg

10 construct Ilaif a loop

1. Begin by folding d sheet of lighrweight layout paper in half - (he fold will represent the centre line of (he image. Fold the paper aglin ar a right a.ugle (0 the original fold - this ,,;i11 represent the ann. Unfold the p~per and work out the sequence, loops. and interlaces of half the pattern.

TIle balance of thicl: aud thin stroke.' ln the left arm will be lIle eXJ(1 reverse of those ill Iile right arm

2. Using the right angle fold ;\1 a centre. line, work OUt the. strokes tor tbe arm, When (his is complete, fold the paper over the centre line and repeat rhe pattern from rhe seethrough. image. Any flaws in the design .... ·ill become immediarcly obvious when t.he panern is reversed.

83

ITALIAN &_HU,A;fANIST SCRJPT5

THE GOTHIC INFLUENCE on western European scripts between the tenth and 13th centuries was largely resisted in one major country - Italy, The clarity of classical inscriptions, still evident throughout the land, the continued use of a wide, rounded hand called the Beneventan, and the retention of the Caroline Minuscule, were all factors in the emergence of

a formal script that differed from its Gothic contemporaries

in its round, open aspect. It was known as Rotunda,

Rotunda

By THf. 12TH CENTURY, the prestige Rotunda script had developed into an extremely formal and upright version of the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38-39), with slightly shorter ascenders and descenders than

its par'ent script. The hand

also embodied elements of the Beneventan , most notably in

/

the rounded strokes on many

letters. In contrast, straight strokes were square-cut and rigidly upright. A Jeaible hand

In general, the Rotunda was bolder than the Caroline Minuscule, but the rounded strokes and modest ascenders and descenders created

a dear, legible script that was used for handwritten work long after the introduction of printing, The simplicity of the letterforrns made the script equally popular as a model for typefaces, thriving in that form until as late as the 18th century.

The mony curved ",ok"" socb aJ .hlS on the letter 0, helped contmue the Italian tradition ~r open. roundeJ scripts

!he Jquare baseline JODt of Ihe Imct f IS a di;JinCli rc cboractalsuc of the RMunda

BOOK Of Houns This sm311 Book of Hours, produced in Bruges in about ! 480, shows the evenness and regul~riry of the Rotunda. The script differs from that used for the Verona Anriphoncr (oppclsi/t) in one significant respect - the upturned feet of the minims. Here, (hey are a continuation of the minim srrokes. which results III slightly more cursive Jetter, than was USUJJ.

The ngh. half if ,ne o ha, a smooth" SJ!mJ-(i1CuJO! ,,,"up than Ihclif! (pp.86·,87)

ROTUNDA 0 The roundness of (he <J IS (he key (0 Rotunda and is reflected I1l all the bowed letters.

~ 1..1 11, bH:crott Wlnln~l m C~,l (,l1n c ,t.111l.111.1 mnrrr tr1 pfttttt ptl'1ll t1 i' ll1.'1 turnnu rrqls ftn.tmi qtCutoliftlnt.l111Jm'o;phl 11011111J roruounomou r01n1"11111:1 m":1nnUI11 t:tl rr f P.~5 111 fC f~l'l:1n n lU 11 U} go .. 11 Ire p.ltttrMl.l\I'·g-o t _ .. 1Ut. rrlltrgo rOfrpJrtu · 16111Ifrt1rO~OICfon5 '

;1httt~ rr CIe, rone

84

Larqe-scale letters

As a manuscript hand, the Rotunda was written in a full range of sizes, from very small to very large, and was the chosen script for some of the largest known manuscri pt books in the world.

When wr it teri on a large scale, the letters can have a rigid formality

and the hairline strokes often seem disproportionately light.

Rotunda Capitals

Accompanying capitals are written

with the same pen as the minuscules (pp. 88-89). A double stroke can be used for the stem, with a dear gutter between strokes. In some historical instances, the Rotunda Capital was developed into a Versal. In others, Gothic or Lombardic Versals were used with Rotunda

text script.

A common feature of all Rotunda letters, both minuscule and capital,

is the sharpness of the cut of the nib, which gives clear, precise strokes and fine hairlines. ln larger versions,

the pen should be clearly lifted after

the completion of each stroke, while

in smaller versions, many strokes can be drawn in one continuous movement.

"~_!.__,.....- These ]ar81?~jtrlJ& AOU-lnda leiter: lCJr'-k any C'LlTSlycji..'dtures; nor c [·he anau]ant.y WH), which the ascenders arid stlcJianr minrm strokes ba n~ been drawn

Compare the unu5ual broken forl11s 'if tile strokes on capita}: A. C. QnJ E wit]:

I h, more common form (pp. 88-89 J

Tl"lE VERONA ANTIPHON£R

This Antiphoner (book 01" Ch:IIlL~ and anthems) was ·C.n- p. t,i·tb"ofi·t· 's a1n -:M;O Ifum rr- 'ft~ ture "01

written ill about 15()() [or (he monasteries of:::;S Nazro ~. I:, ~ '" , I" ..c:\ ~ .... 11 .~.V'" ". " ~. .

and Calio in Verona. ItJly'. This eypc- of book was ofien ,pbt.z rln, ~of+tn fUlnfrubt{~ne loca.", co, ri~

written in a large Iormat to enable several (hol istcrs, to ~ 1',- b b f'\h

read it ar the same rime Tbe Rotunda l"tten h~ve been ~U, §.qd Itt emp it eo·' ~tit" cm.,. .... ltbeo

drawn with considerable precision, with idiosyncrasies r. + ,... t· t I.,.," ~b·' " - :_

arising only ill the unusual broken fon» of the caPH3],,·. 116 grece ~ me lot'lt 0 wue.a Ultt,o (l em

Tnl.' CvrollneJormofdflalllIe5 /1 ft;~l1ta Q b~c ?'!~ ?cttdeba[:~ri~ qacclQct a" upngh! ,,,m end tU"cd 1·0".1 J re"1 mdtozc"(tatu t)(ducerer:~ fte-rtle ferrOe;

fedderct.poftf!B m Qtnitf UJ itS reb> (erralb> t finctuofl1Timtfempbttbeoti(Grt p~ff(:.,t 'cr~'Oe ture emJ)bi.l.t..in ';"tet. d2:empbttbc

~-"> one -fd Gmpb(tb'ott~' :>tnlctus· tlk quf m

.. ~ ~

ROTUNDA AS A TYPEFACE Tile type:- tiled in this dictionary was possibly from rhe lOll 11 1.< of [he V cuicc-basedCerman primer Erharri Rardol; {pp. 90-·9 J), who had punches cut for a RO!lJndil rype in 1486. This d<,~il 511011'5 tWO differt"nt fon»s of d: 111(, uncial form "!lei (he upright Caroline form - both em be ;<'1'''1 in [he III iddle of 1 he: six til lin e.

85

IT.,II,HN &_HUMAN1ST SCRIPTS

Rotunda

K· TUNDA IS A}; upright, open letter, which works well on

both a large and small scale. The characteristic straight stem strokes, such as those on letters b,l, and b, are constructed with the pen held at about 30°. The square foot is then added in one of two ways. The simplest method is to use the corner of the nib to outline the foot, before filling it in with ink. Alternatively,

the "dual ductus" technique can be used, which involves rurning the pen from 30° to the horizontal in one short movement. Although the latter may seem more complex, it is probably preferable when dr,l\ving large Rotunda letters.

.It -'pUt dS((.rldrr Cd'll br H.iCd £mrl?od ,'!f du" j],u-JJta,!rd ",,,ioy

0" /",)!,,·.«die R0Iw"l .. lcncrs, th« turvcd s/n,kt ts dmu»: S["P{/J'l1uly f"'''' tI.c ;I"'igll/ sIwke

Complete the _q[..'(;"tp Jl) the "l~eJu ill ?l liJl.~lf ~(n)h'

Sweeping strokes

On leuers in whicb tile' stern stroke ends in a right sweep, sue h 'II I (a/J(wr). rhe sweep is usu;(iiy completed in a jingk stroke, On larger beers, two separate strokes are used

(set b. I. and r. r(~/H).

Terminating flicks A, an alternative to the sweeping «rokc. letters "I, 1/, and 1/ can terminate with a Hick. These arc severe and rather 111", hanical: th,' stroke is simply executed wilh a pell angle ()(30° and wirhoor ;lny direct ional turn of the pen.

~ If lire "prW},1 .mv/':'· beg'''"

,If 30°. 111m Ihf pen (0 thr liorirontn! [0 orate a _/I(l( JOOl

Key Jetter

The 0 i< the key letter of rbe Rotunda. The bowls of b. d, .11. P, and 1 closely follow irs shape, and its open aspect is also echoed in the { aod 1'. The first stroke is only sl.ighl.Jy curved. do. ely following a vertical before sweepi ng vigorously 10 the rigiJt. The second stroke is much n;ore semi-circular t.han the first.

86

b TIl" flm-headed ''''CJ~dcr (!/ 1/" b (@ be '(cpiilced by ~ a ~l'1iJ tHCl'lltlo

c

J~

fAlternaCive

crossbar

g

__b TI,c!lal·/r£·"d .. d nl(' nder '1f tlu: il "lIP Ire rel'i"'mi b)' 11 _<pHI 'H,ttndtl

••

1~_

JJ"_(Ol!I.f Ihe 2 (oJlld a/Il'""tt1r>cly fini"h ",il/, a .<I~(cl' It!

liI'rig!.1

T'I'i;1 lilt pfl' 1(' tl« vatuo!

JOI the {nUS/HIT of Ihe f

2 --.

ROTUNDA

TIre flat-II tadtd ascflld~ of the k can he rryialcd by a splil ascmder

L __

TIlefilialfoot oflhe

m call fillish wi,h a flick

m~

Alternative foot

n

Alternative foot

p

Alternatively,

twisrftom 'he

_ _ diago/lallo 'he

Jiori20"tal for

. lilt sen! of the p

~ 2

TIle stUllid slroke

of Ihe k can he eXleTlded aTld the 2 tl! i rd om iued

/'--

3

Thr flat.headed ascend er of the I can be replaced by a spl,'1 ascender

-....... 7

171e second fool of the n could altemMively terminate wilh oj/ick

.......... 5

The second stroke of lilt 0 is mort semicircular ,ltau 'he firs,

3

2

r Alternative

crossbar

17" second leg of 'he

U lilJ1 finish wilh a flick

<, 3

Alternative foot

tV

T uns: I he pen 3 10 the Vf'f/ical 10 complete Ihe crossbar oj the t

~._---.- ----. -_

-,. ,.---

,~ ~2_-- _

---~1

-or

Drag the ink wilh tht comer of tht nib /0 make the tail of the x

1

------=zn~

-

3

The use of die half r is tommOIJ in Rotunda text

Conjoined d and e

Conjoined b and 0

Any,we lettet: wid, opposil'S bows (art be conJoined

Apart from conjoined letrers, Romuda lerurforms a'" dearly separated

Eath stroee oj the s hegins or

2 ends ou 'he cenlral hairl;!!e

_______,_..- __ '~ ~_~4._

5

Sequence of Rotunda letters

87

Rotunda Capitals

THE STRUCTURE 01' the Rotunda Capital is less clearly defined than the minuscule (pp. 86-87). Both single and double stem capitals can be used; historically, the), were often combined with Lombardic Capitals (pp. 64-65). The double stem capitals shown here have been taken from a number of sources and should be regarded only as guide for individual interpretations. As with the Rotunda minuscules, a "double ductus" applies, with all curved strokes and some upright strokes drawn with the pen at 30°, and the remaining strokes drawn with the pen at the horizontal.

:-""-=- S'i'CCPIllP curved suolics lietp l".'r~bli.<h d rn vtlun

Counters The round. open naru re of the k oumda Capita I tends to produce generous counters. The expanse of whirr space:

CJIl be broken by the addition of spurs. diamonds, double hairlines, or a combination of these clements.

·17,c [ect Ml' outlined a"d(illl'd i" ,,,if'" Ihf «'ilia o(lh,. "ib

Alternative form of M I" this loml of M. the dOllble

stroke is in the centre of the [etter and a hug,· sweeping stroke has ban incorporated. The volume of SpJ.ct in the counter ilJS been reduced by the double hairline.

The pm is hdd at 30° jur Ihe (Hnlcri 5Iro/;e.< of rh,· ROI"",I" Carilill

II .... 'Ig.le d'a",o"d .1iTllke reduces the

Square feet

I C the pen t5 at 30° at the tOP of the stem. the angle should be mainramcd (or the whole stroke, finishmg at (he baseline. To create the ""LIre (001. me the corner of the n: b to trace along the baseline and up to Jom the right side or the stein. Fill til tlus mallgle of whne space with Ink.

nrc j/II'/, uC/r./.'/;m the III''' Helll stroecs Jlr,,,,ld be .J/JDIj{ 1",>1/ a Jlm ,,,ililil

5

___.i__.

1&- --(1.

4

~

Diaflll"ol'",i,li,Pl'.' {ap! be

JEDM';

rJothal fwirfi)lr;' (ap! be added Iliroll~lrll" counter ~{ ,he B

The .,lfIJl of riJt F ,a" (Jlrrnlalf,'cI)' /Ie draw"u.tf:1t L1 dOllble -",oNe

4

"

J

Ha{kles (.J,I be "dded

.: 'l.. to tlie first .'1011 o( II,f I

4-"""_"

88

ROTU,."'DA CAPITALS

2

/ --

Tu",' tlre pell

fro"'/ile

I hon'zomil/ 10 , 3 300 to ,I,aw l],e fiPlal "TOke olJ/htU

--~~

7

"'f}. %;;~;::J01~1-2 l'A,,',"'~' . 4

horieontal to

draw the firs! 6

lIroke ' '"

ofd1e N' -" ~

5

l~

-x -----'-'''~

, Th« (10SS -",oke 1

011 II", X .qives

llir letter

," addiriollill "''''gil( "

~'

2

TII",d'e ~ ,~ , __ .. _ ~ _ __

P"" from, ' " 4 A hairlillc -

30° 10 IIC k b

hotirontal 112 1. ~3 , S~~e~ t:

", draw II,e n'g"1 of the

first slrolke" ; SlMl of ihe P

oflheP __ _ ~ ,

2"~--

ID Inierna! decoration can lah the form of hairline aoss Sirokes and diamonds

- ----

"'.~: ~4 Sai~~~o~;i:- ~, ",-- ,

3 righl q(dle

stem of tire R.

,,5 6

- ,-- - - - .. _ _.- ~ -

Alternative forms of 0

lRT""'lhe

pmJrom 30° 10 the 'ron'zonlal 10 draw Ihe

__ _ _ firsl stroke

ojille R

I 2

2

A"y Rotunda Capital call hr draun) wilh a si"Ele rather 'hall o double stem; ,his plainer jon" is bell for we ill text wilh """"s(,,16 (pp, 8&-87)

89

IfAUA ," &.. HUM:I NIS7 SCRIPTS

Humanist Minuscule

THE HUMAN!ST MINUSCULE (Littera Antiqua) and the Roman Imperial Capital (pp. 108-109) are the two historical scripts most influential in our modern society. Between them, they give us the basic constructions of our capital and lower-case letters, both in handwritten and typevvritten form. In the Humanist

M' I th d k f th G tho . Th(Serifi Iw!',

museu c, e ar er overtones 0 e 0 IC scnpts gave way been JrnU'n with

to the lighter style of the -.----..._, ---'/)-(p-.n-hdJvIJOO

Renaissance letter. It would be difficult to envisage a script better suited to the intellectual ideal; of the age.

All Humanist Minuscule letters have an upright JSptCt with clearly defined strokes

T HE HUj~/ANIST Minuscule was essentiallv a rediscoverv of the

./ ./

Caroline Minuscule (pp. 38-39),

As a clear, unambiguous hand, free from affectation, the Caroline was considered bv l+th-centurv scholars,

./ ./

including the Italian poet Petrarch,

to be in harmony with the ideals of the Renaissance,

Although the Humanist Minuscule was to have a profound and formative influence on modern Latin-based \\Titing, acceptance of it was initially slow. The widespread popularity of the script came only after manuscript books were superseded by printed works, and it was adapted as a mode! for text typefaces, notablv bv

, , I

Nicholas Jenson of Venice after 1470

(pp, 38-39). It gradua!Jy replaced the Rotunda in Italy (pp, 84-85) and the Gothic scripts of Britain and southern Europe as the principal model for typefaces,

qUIUn. crr r nam i -1) ,ngidomrnC-1 deus mCU5 In conLpecru ru.o u iarn me

'-c -n'

HL • .onurrrcrc, J ••

() In me 11(' m fU ron:' tu 0 ~,as me n c. C} 1 n Ira cu.t ('tnnpl,ls JllClilJl (~rcrr mel dominc qUOOl<lnl In{~nnu,,, (~lIn Clnd.. I

1 {-

nit rtommt: {tt,JOI l,l,Hl1 (' nnrurbara ' [lilt

om Old. ofCI ~(:' d .. llr r.lll r rna mca til r b~LLdt 1.I<,rd(.{~d ru dUDllllt (d~£j_ cr..l.O [Ion u('"rn:rc dornmc rt [npC"l lTI~lJl1 mr.un , Cd {I urn me. ftc proptr r j mdct'lcordlrlJ11 lUilllt..li1tlOTIldnl non ell-Tn rnurrr 'lUI mcrnor {jrna III lfer no, HI eCI 11 rll.H'~ co 11 h rc b I tu r rrln .. l1<1 b oru u: III e-)t:rlllr:tt mea I <-11l~1.6o pCI' i~n 0,,1.15 nur' Frs r dh.m, rncumlach7

13()()f{ OF /-10 UllS Thrs book of HOUr< \\';l~ wnuen HI [\()logtIJ III ahour 131111 (or Giovanni II B"IltI\'o~lio, Arguably. th .. SU,UPIIIOU, decorJcioll'"nd bn(,!lu colours of rhe Versals detract trorn the ,h~~I\{Y of I he text sc ript mel ( Th .. l1al <en t~ .1l the h~;1(ls ot the ascenders are rhc ILHu~l

product of a honzonrallv held pell (1'1" !f2-9.l),

90

HIJ,H"ll\'lST il11.VUSCIJJ.E

-"Lilt' I!ll" scrupulou« CJf).lI_\!cr.:f ~ l'Hh n"hJrn J /W_'C smC.!ll<.!IJ1pCltands h.:.: I'e h~cr} OUd t.anl [~CU\ n

Lit':llPt'I ~ht,'lu.Hh,'!,JI 111c test -I~-bc--.p!j~-------____.Q~~""_I~~-"'"

ch dflw ~C ldo_. m "I "i~ m ""'I,,,, [, "."" ¢~P>llS(iu .. d~"""n~~lI_'&tk O([JbW"'UlL h"pw;h...:tclJnqu.lI .. nlO pdftml &.~blL~ !u..m lI'X.ld b.t4iu,! Vl<"rr {~;&c..W11 duo 'j ... ~e ~;Sd~;r~flImr.om I>a:rna!""-"l .n .Lg:":~OIumdi(l)nl dlnfui NJ «elell~.,VllJ;utdr.nt" &, v'!3li~. v",lf"l"f<j!I, .. ~"nm fUol!>if,ultl'..p fum dih&,,"" ",><or.!\llm1 I.Im"'l mi

Ttvc 0.,0.1.: n~s />""0 !mrrr/WTIU"n llPJ H~I1J1m -H-f-h':ffllirl--;----

Tile' r~r_\iJh art'; btHt:J on ROW<1n and MI 1,'\lllb~rJI, ,1''''',/onm (pp, 58 59)

ST. P,~UL\ E"'I,ru" Written ,n about 15111), thi, trxt combines J ("lie ,,,,d I-lUI nan i 51 Mi'1ll<<"\lIc h,mci, 10 ,Ii-:lI11"I)( cfl;;'C'L ik<pi IC' the diminutive' siz« 01 Ih~ kltn', rt'rmducn! hert :lppro~_i\1 t:l!c+l lil L' ,J \l ie ,jzc .1, I h~)' "r~

written, ,'ad1 character rC<11;!IIlS di<ti"L( :ll\d clearlv I ~l2:jbk.A ( ,I ~latJ(:t'. ['ht, ;ml1llinipr mav bL' \lli,('lkcll lor :t pri\lted book

In ih» mrJrglrl dnrrnWl.F<1fi, Ih;_~ f'(Ir~1' iJ"{' ~fJll'(l'lJI nrj,:n~_':'(1l\ 1,; t'l·J,(ji!i'i[ I

1'1~IN lB' TEXT

F;fr~'~' Lit h - Ct'1 \'t \I rv rt'~f ryr)(:" \:\.:t~ do~dy lI'Iocklkd 0\\ tit"

I", u. \ \\'ritft-rl let rcrs of the period. Tilt' 5illllbritl~< bn\\'Cl'\I

t h t" t;:Pl·t:~«· (l_J(,/L\H!). pnll'1ni .0I1,'r l-4s6, .ond Ih t h'lnd\\'ritct'll

}-hl[n~n~,Y M]tl~l~nlk of St. 1\1\d', Epi<tlc

'n l"Qrn, «," .... ' ..,..br; .... (tt III" edu 'I;; ~U. fu,"" It'r.un, ~I Vii, p,.llIS no ~,. ~d i"""""di.m pmu"""",m.a,,,.. Ill.", r.d <du~lt ill", ''I) du.;,p'I!n~'" 1Xi""'P'lonNtom,n" S .... , "~""d,, "" n 's ".u"'l!~m(Um!b"ott ,'*' 1""-'0 n -rn t. Inpl ...... t~ a,..t" vdlri fl(U I d,' no,"", ... \d'lXl-llllmf~ui en t"'qni(i ho m', !lib"'p Ilia;,; I,a: ,ffd .... G ... u chn n, f,or-iJ"' .. ""'ttntlt.."d.i,Qc ~mm~oi bonO! vot.:.~,u .. f.""' en los "<"<.It d om,_ b1>""",,,n,'ho,,,,ni!tiu ,(4;1..,'6 'I""nlii. "l)u(~u&p-<julld""n'll':f ..... t iwwn. ~ '""'P' .... ~,dornrn".ltur:fuo«<.r,U" 1,{,q:,Bt VII$ domi n~ iwlm f."te i I lu "-'" 'tlj:n",rnr'''u '(ei<ilt1Qqui~ & rHo

1lI1n'~vdl ... d'aminll.l~m a.li!",. )""'" d •• ptilnUu-," ~""""df.rp .. <ldii. ' .,.j ~OI ~~h"'fr.It",,"o:mf"tUrnini'n,da

mlM. &; 'n~ti" VRtm. ..... UJ ,I" ,j""nw.~~ml'UI:iiI,m d'.:. vtp:rfl.it~~ nne .anufU!-U11i d iU d 1:d!oI i, 'I'Hi &.

nrunnon to n"bIJ,OI)t1 .. ~ti" .d'lU'

fusQrn~ oerilngnmrm,lhI olIDM!'

ti, I ~~,.1..11 •• ,.M .. " 1;j.I......_jjt~ ifllol~I'" 6

... '4Hm-----------. ... G"f"lr'1·A"ojloJ"'.r:m" ... r.·

~ .. " - "q" "". ~,1"rmi"JQ ,"1&.U~ \;!Ill.

Irr/l.flwll.d.lttilt /ifH(>$ Cl':d""""iJ;! .. (l/""_n",,~f,ffi;_IJII;" .. rr.nw ilk, «rJ momirJil,{ "(hI,P ",,,oWl' of. m'/t

" 'JQrn",ir. d.,p-",im_'i.:niC'tlU"

" . , m:v,m ..... crpyrn:E

I>b,rfh>JI'I1.<I:.",,"'Ill-orm: hm«,u';n

lI,ii o!:<d" •. pa'~n"b us v.i, 'n,dl!minQ~,HQI:'u!'l1)l1ln. o)tQ~~ ... rn tuum &mllmlI' t<!.am : "Ilt",,1 en nun !bLUm P" ".,,,,,

·to"fll' ........ P!L{~4 ~m ~fl'A"'.nn -!lli~ri~j

... ..-.11 ,"",. ' • .&.bJ.r't..J!I!,'J. "'~r ,~." 1:.1,1'.

TI-I1, I 'ANI)WR IT IN(: 01' PET RAI~ClI

The ,eript dt'wlopcd hv Franct',eo ['('1<:.'1',,11 \~:l' probablv rhe t't'il Hlllll~n;,r Minusr ul«.

This .mnotnt io n by

t he pO~1 to h i< ccpy oiSuctonius'< Lil.ltS ".l Cm:;~<lj"_". \\'~~ made in about L\711 .111d clearly

<kgrlT [() which

11" !1M! adoprcd Ihe Caroline M;\Jl,I:;(\\k 'L, a iuockl for his !J,\ll\L

j alcerano contingi&:.

;"I • - •

A small Jetter

Like the Caroline Minuscule, the Humanist Minuscule was an elegant hand that worked most successfully on a small scale, This is evident in the dim inut ivc letters of the Epistles text (abOle), In ltalv, the Rotunda (pp, g4·-8) continued to be used [or large-scale book work,

Versals and capitals

Ver sals, so popular with Gothic scribes, were also used with the Humanist Minuscule, but these were incrcasino lv modelled 011 Roman

e. 0

f or ms (pp, 108 -_ 1(9), The usc of

capitals for sentence openings \ya~ now universal. Also der ived from Roman forms, the Humanist Capitals were drawn with the same ductus as the minuscules and were the same height as the minuscule ascender trr 98-99). A rigid adherence to ascender and descendcr lines, along \\ ith clear line separation, helps giYC an ordered aspect (0 a page of text,

91

l1A_LlAN &....HU.'tHNIST SCRIPTS

Humanist Minuscule

THE HUMANIST MINUSCULE is a direct descendent of the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 40--41). Letters are dearly defined, separate, and open - very dose in form to modern letters, particularly those used as typefaces. There is no exaggeration

of ascenders and descenders in the script and interlinear spacing is clear and regular. Humanist Minuscule can be written with a square-cut "slanted" or an oblique-cut "straight" pen. The letters shown here have been written with a "straight" pen. In both cases, the letters are upright and usually small in scale, with

a minim height of about five pen widths.

"Slanted" pen

The "slanted" pen Humanist Minuscule

is based on the early hand of Poggio and relate> quire closely to the Carolme Minuscule. It is written with a pen angle 0(30-40°. The

d is a double-storey letter; this distinguishes it from the Italic a, which IS a single-storey

letter (pp. 96-97).

"Straight" pen

Duri ng the latter part of the l Sth century, there was an increasing tendency to wnre rhe Humanist Minuscule with a "'trlight" pen. The pen angle lor this is shallow - 5-15° - and a greater contrast berween rhick and chin strokes can be produced.

1 1

1

------!--

W(dg~ sc~r dral"'l

Serif types

The script features f\VO types of serifs: wedge-shaped and 11ll_ The wedge serif is created either in a single stroke or ill rwo separate strokes (ahove). The flat serifis created with

a single horizontal stroke. When using a "straight' pen, the Oat serif em also be used lO terminate upright min ims and descenders (see letters

j. ii, k, III, II, p, q. T, opposite).

FM! drau~1 lvilll

Minim feet

When usmg a "slanted" pen, the tendency is to create a turned foot. produced by rerminaring the minim stroke wirh a flick to [he right.

When using a "straight" pen. this (licking movement is more difficult. lnsread, use the Oat serif, or finish the stroke with a slight movement to the right along the baseline and then add a separate serif to the left.

a

TI,,' ,w_dgc SfnI of ! he

1Jb I~" be Tiplaced by

.<fI·!f

"

11,e ",ed>;e seriJ of Ihe d [all VI' uplnied by

o jlat sm]

TIie u!£dgc serff oJlhe h inn he replaad by a.pal seriJ

"

t

92

i{using a "slamd" pm, fhe bou4 oj I It ~ b ",ill have ~ Jiagotlal "-Xis

~J

-- 2

2

if l4.'i'lg a "slanted" pm, lilt bowl of Ihe d ",;/1 havi a d,agOilai ax I.'

...

11

Lkc rlre ROIII!ln, f, I.ltt H,""Ut,isl Milll4Sl11ir f do'! not hnvr d/dil

If using a "slallled" peu) Ille bLlId oj rirt s u,,11 hdVi'd didg,,,,.1 >lXu

TIlt h [0" le1J11U112lC wit}] a Illnled foot

~_'

HUMANIST MINUSCULE

TIle wedge serif oj Ihe k '"" be rep/Q{fd by tl flat wif

l TI,e Wfdte miJ of

Ihe I {all be rep/awl by "flal ,ui!

Pl/lllhe 'all of Ihe 1 alOllg rll~ baseline, 0' terminate IIII' strolee ,vill, a .1101 sen!

n -----1£

o

.,-e

If ltl"in;: a ",.JmlleJ" pen, ;11, hou4 oj lilt q will have a JiagOilal axis

_L

t

1j '''''lIg a "slanted" pen, the 0 ",ill/,ave

~:,~," .. -< - x

~ -~.- ~

If I/.Siflg a "slaltred" - PC", I be btlwl of 2 III" P will haw

a dia~Q .. al axis

u

I

TIle ,op of Ihe ( should rile M/Y _'II.s:blly aborr Ihe lIeodli"f

The firsl siroke of rile r can tertlliuau willi trlll",ed_/o<>1

v

3 5

)

-

3 --

, bas« jonll oj ,1", y , Ibe same as llie u, "Ib II" fOlmb )"/Tolu txlmJd illlo a Mil

----

2

Hnmonist Minuscule Inter, dfO/l~1 lvill, a "slanted" pePi can lean fonvord slig/Illy: '" this _foml the a, f. and g dijJl'1 _fro", tlu: IIII/i{ (pp_ 94-95) ill tha! tbey are wliinkcd

The lad of Jlle g dijJerr,J1iall'5 IIII' lcurr _fr",n in Ilali{ counterpan (pp. 9C>-97)

-

w

-

-y

z

1

r

"Slanted" letters

93

/TiIL/AN &..HUMArVIST SCRIPTS

Italic

IN ITS BASIC FORM, Italic script (Chancery Cursive, Cancellaresca Corsiva, Littera di Brevi) is a cursive offspring of the Humanist Minuscule (pp. 90-91). Over time, it became a distinctive

hand in its own right, spawning, in turn, the Copperplate

(pp. 102-103). The script was invented in 1420 by Niccolo Niccoli, an Italian scholar who found the Humanist Minuscule too slow to execute. By 1440, his new, less labour-intensive script had been adopted as the official hand of the Papal Chancery.

ITALIC .;

The II.afic r~ with its fully fonned bowl, is [he earliest ancestor of OUI modern [owercase letter a.

Lme1SgmerJllr jCJin at the rnrd,,\"o} pojnt b.ctI<'i!fD Ih, how1jn~ and ,rnt h'QJlinc

THE FOUR BASIC characteristics of Italic that were established bv

o

Niccoli tend to occur naturally when

the Humanist Minuscule is written rapidly and with the minimum number of pen lifts: there is a tendency for the hand to lean to

o

the right; circles become more oval;

many letters can be written in a single stroke; and letters are joined to each other with a connecting stroke. ChanBinB the a

The character altered most significantly by Niccoli was the a, which he transformed from a tall two-storey letter tp. 92) into a singlestorey letter of minim height (above right). His q also tended to follow this new form, resembling an 0 with a tail.

The terminals of Italic ascenders and descenders were drawn in one of two forms: the fonnata (semi-formal), in which they were horizontal or wedgeshaped and left-facing, or the corsiva, in which thev were rounded and

,

right-facing (pp. 96-97).

Agl! c.un c .ir<~)l"chl.~ C",l, ;1 U~H--~\ ! M Ie c

chi::ll·O cr b,.:I\,i~{II\ld (t BUUl·O h·d<.'~l,(r ~)~l!c, \

n (,1~\r0 L,eIItICI11!'" cr n cro r)U tTC 0 '111:1 I

I.TO P:l n~ u 1\ II COI:l I~· d 1((. ell L

,. , , ~ r " pH,· I >'1 /

('" /-

\~/_:~ {~::;

~GW

e.

TREA rise ot-: HA IV.KZ,\iG This page from a work by the Italian scholar Francesco Mcro was penned in abou t 1560-70 and consists nl"mly of alphabets and texts in dlflert'/l{ hands. At the top, in gold, are two lines ofCadcls (pp. 80-8/). Beneath the blue border art" [he Italics. fllily separated and generously spaced. The minuscule hand is J (onnan, idenn tioble by the wedge-shaped ascender s~riK.

Four li lies or T exrura Quadrara (pp. 50-51) !OlJOIV and, below the. gree·o border, [here are several lines of Humanist Minuscule (PI'. 90-9/).

94

J T!ol_IC

The long ascenders and descenders hose presenred a problem Jor ,he scribe 'lil""'e lhey clash in rhe Ineerlineor spa.cc

In thts IIQ/;(. texl. the calligrapher has included both Jormala and corsivo ascenders; ihu ] is the corsiva lype

PRINTING TYPE CATALOGUE

This design from ]990 is' by [he Norwegian calligrapher Christopher Haanes. H<: has achieved harmony between the capitals and minuscules by reducing the size of the capitals to JUS! above minim height.

The relati I·~ e:rudity oj J10TTis's capito! lcuers is probably owing to hi, usc rf a poinred pen nib rather ,han the morc suitable

broad-edBed m'b ---,,':.......,.~>M:'~·5'-l: ~,t 'T" 1/"''''ri'MH '''i''<'''''i''''~'i'r[;,I" f,,'JHT".

, - \ ... 1" rUtr.

Vll'lltU .(flt IhH\UI)o r"l~[ \.J' !

-IlthouBh clearly Qn Italic scrip', Morri;s 101'"" au

notiaabl), uprjBh, compared /' I (,...) ~

Itj,pil,{ it r- ~f~jJ~.,I\..:...-.I('I

lVj,h a classic lialtc ilith as

Proncesco J1orol~ (opposite.) --'-y;;~~~ft::P'iF''':J-.('''''' fl' C'J"f ,~ .. ,,,,., J""'"

\ 1001),((=J , '1 '_""~~'

'~j1 l'fnbJ'\.ljll r t~h~,nJ'~J·'!l"i'!.-p

1"!,"1' H"J;:. ~Ail.,I'r' '" H" .... ro I)

. \ ,J(t:~CJrJ (t"'rHr'rt ;'~I('.(l~d14c"

, ' I Q"rhM srl'<I~

I. A . .I .

', .lit'· fHt:l rrr-uc1'fi.ifj{h1( tUI..HH r"l.Jt4:HI

.... .i!,tPnJJHH r, fUf!fHt rd~"f'(~zf'J< Wrtr!'l. ,,;: ~. f/,,,,,/,, ... ,, ff,1""('I) CiXth,.,1 t,Hfi"'"

liut'..!-J't' "i'Hfna,IJ. '

q,~J'liCi"; .'(.'~«"" !,~f"{l I'".n,u. JaH~fl' r, 'j. (rH '~'H~'l~"'UHn' IIt;,D~·r"1J1 ~ tp~"~ Jt!df'e'-/f-l trrrzt·J \.~Jh.i"'I.f(~ rn~i tulr"r.1

WiLLIAM MORRlS Although Edward johnston is generally refr.u·ded as rhe 6ther of modem calligraphy V)p· 42-43), William Morris had been exploring the methods of medieval scribes two decades before him. This Illuminated work of'1874 is an arrernpr to realize the vision of the Am; and Crafts movement by :lchieving communion between craftsman and tool (PI'. 42-43). But

since a pointed nib rather than a broad-edged per: has been used [0 draw the capitals, the attempt ISO nl y partially su ccessfiil.

Sdn,fJVV,.IUA This fine Italic script was written by Ambrosius Theodosius MJCTObius in 1465. Each letter is clearly defined, reminisceut both of the H uruanist Minuscule. (yp. 90-91) and the earlier Caroline Minuscule (PI" 38-39). The capitals are "mil and restrained compared with those by Moro (0l'l'i.\.,ile).

The i rifIuence cif type

The changing. demands brought about by the developing printing industry of the 15th century had an important influence on the Italic script. In 1501, the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius commissioned goldsmith Francesco Griffo to design a small Italic type

(pp. 90-9]). in which most of the characters were clearly separated. From that point, calligrapbers began to follow the example of type by separating their penned letters. This led to a loss of some of the Italic's cursive quality and the script quickly reached its full maturity as a carefully crafted text hand. But by the 1550s, the complaint from scribes was that it had become too slow to write. From then, its decline was rapid, eventually being used only for text in parenthesis and for annotation.

Johnston's 0

For the modern calligrapher, Italic script remains a constant source

of inspiration. However, much new Italic can be traced back not to the 15th century but to the influence of the early 20th-century calligrapher Edward Johnston. The script was subtly modified by his introduction of two pulled strokes for the 0 and related letters, in place of the original Single stroke (pp. 42-43).

95

JUUAN &_HWUNlST 5ClUI'TS

Italic

THE trxuc HAND is written with a square-cut "slanted" pen, held at an angle of between 35 and 450• Letters should be written with the minimum number of pen lifts - most can be written w rith a single stroke. The two traditional examples shown here are formata and corsiva, Fermata letters are distinguished by the wedge serif to the left of the stem, corsiva by the swashes to the right of the stem. Ideally, the two different types should not be mixed. The o is the key letter of the script: it establishes the basic ductus of the hand, the curve of other letters, and the letter width (below),

Joining strokes Where strokes spring from the stem of ;J. letter, such as on h. "', and n, the Stroke should begin about two pen widths below the he-adline. The bottom curve of (he bowl of rhe d, g, and q meets rhe seem stroke about two widths above the baseline. All connecting

strokes foUow these basic rules.

TIII,tvcdgc smf, drau~1

'" Wm stroees, is. {Ommon in modern work

Step-by-step 0

1. To create the 0 in

a single stroke, me an angle of 40°. Begin just below the headline and push the pe n up wards to I h e h eadlin e, before curving down to the left.

96

_h,lH'J' U:-lll)T'-' hJ1.H~ J" fonvarti lean oj aboll!

1 () or j 5° _

~---

I

~

A .. scenden mtd descenao: mn be fhe same heighf as the minims or slightly shoner

corsiva serf aea re5 hold ascenders

Serifs

Serifs can be wedge-shaped and left-racing (forman) or right-facing (corsiva), On leuers b, d, h, k, and / in the alphabet (rigilt), both formara and corsiva rypes are shown.

Formata form ofb

Corsiva form of b

TJ.f.II';/i(,is .Iways a single.

Slo~IIIICI

ID·~2

- 'J1,e lOp loop ..

of the c {an be · . . . A rong"c call he

drawn llS a added IIIheu tile e U

I. al tlu end oj" It'"rd

__ __. separate strotee _ . _

Will,oultI,e crOSJbar, the f becomes Ihe IOllg form ~[!

A Irrrnnrivdy, rl,e dcscwJn oj II,e g w,

urminaie will, a swash (above len)

Aitelllatively, {he - slXo.l1t1f~M oft/II! 2 b (all terminate wilb ~jli(k ___ -'above lett)

•

J___.' _______J'~ -f~-'----'-.'-'-' ----

Formata form ofd

Corsiva Conn of d

2. Maintaining the

400 pen angl e. curve rhe stroke downwards towards the baseline, before moving along the baseline and beginning [0 curve upwards.

3, Push the pen towards the headline in an arc, meeting rhe cop curve just below che headline. Alternatively, draw the letter in rwo strokes (opposite).

Corsiva form ofil

Fonnata fonn ofl

Corsiva fonn ofl

2

TI'e legs of Ille m (all be dTtlll~1 <IS sep,mllc strokes

_l1'~11f;_-

A ltemativelv, the 0 (all be drall~1 in a single stroke (Opposile)

2

~'F

__________ ' i.'l__ _

ITALIC

-------;'-£)' ~---

The _fi", woke of

___ __ tI,e Y [all begi", __ . __ _

like Ihe U, will,

a wedge sel1f

like tlu: u, wilh a wedge uriJ

----::: --- - __ -

J2-,

---~~-2_

Allen,aljudy, the y '''', be construaed from lire basic

1 10m' 4 u, with Ihe addilioll

-.--=-~ ofg deg!_~4_,.,

.3(,:-'

Thejim aHd Ihird strokes of Ihe z {m. be replaad by a sillgle moke from righl 10 left

COl'lj<>il'led /fllers do not oppenr in ltalic script and JigalUft5 an> limited 10 tlu letters s and (

S-t ligature

Ampersand

97

IT:IILI N &.__HUALI NiST SCRll'lS

Humanist & Italic Capitals

HUMANIST CAPITALS AKE closely modelled on Roman Imperial Capitals (pp. 1/0-119) and can be used with the Caroline Minuscule (pp. 40-41) and Foundational Hand (pp. 44-45), as well as with Humanist Minuscules (pp. 92-93). A pen angle of 30° is most likely to produce letters with a similar stroke weight to the stone-cut Roman originals. Italic Capitals are based on

the Humanist letterforms but have a distinctive [orward lean. There are various possible serif formations (below). and any

of these can be used on either type of capital.

Humanist al1d ltalic Capllals ,/ioilid lIe-wr exceed Iht eqlli!laleut

oj IWO minims in height

II~/I( C.pilllis lean 10 tlu: n~/" or lire s~,J/(' allgle as rllt' "'''III"olles (pp. 9&-97)

Pen nibs

The "me peu nib should be used lor capuals as is used (or (he minuscules tint they accompany. The serifs on be drawn wnh rhc pen ~t .\ slightly shallower angle than (hal used lor the main stern srrokes.

Arm serifs

Draw (he anus of E and F and the top curves of C. C, and 5 in a Ilugle stroke and, ,( desired, build up the tWO serifs with the corner of the nib.

Alternative serifs

Ahcrnanvely. the top ld( serif can simply be the beginning of the stem stroke and the righr senf can be created with a slight tlick 10 (he left.

/

Basic foot serif

Create the basic foot sent by extcnding the stem

co the left and finishing w;th a baseline stroke.

Bracketed serif Alternatively, finish the Item stroke with a sweep to the right and add the Idt serit' separately.

Inner fillet

A third opcion is to draw (he basic (oot senf (left) and add the mner fillet with a short curve.

A

B

2

2

~c

c

T wi.<t (Il~ perl to Ihe 1'<711(0110 draw lire 1m] of the C [see left f~r aIINl,"Ii~t 1lI(lhocis)

D

-E~ IT

2 J

-

f

4

-

TII'ISI the 1"" to

the "erlil'/'"

~rn'" lire lOp leri}

oj Ihe G (lee left for allmlali",

J methods)

- -

2

G

2 5

l

J

IJ-l~

2* 2

11" lester J WI d/JJp belolll Ille bait/1m

98

HUMANIST &...ITALIC CAPITALS

L

- 2

3 ______._

-

2

TI,e 'op ann o( Iltr K lall b~ dlau~/ with a s,ralght moke

7 -

l Thesero,td

S /roke oj the M call bE .<rraight

The third stroia: of tire N can he st,aiglll

p

2

2

T

v

W[

--

2

2 --

5 -

n,e fi'" diagollal of ri,e V ("" be Q .<traiglll .</Toke

TIre})'" and rlri,d stroke:; of

theW tan bemo·,'glll

2

4 --

--_--

-'(--

I tali c Ca pi tals

2

---

2 ---

s

~-

Italic Capitals silO.dd be sliglilly shorter tlian r/,t ascender Ile'g/II of II.e III1J1Us(UIe

The firsl ahernativr E show; b,adwd s"'!'(s at the top and bottom of the leuer, and tlie second sl!~ a srraiglu stem "lid srraight anns

Two alternative

forms of E

99

!"J:'IU'I,I\i' &_HUMAi\i'IST SCRIPTS

Italic Swash Capitals

ASW.-\SH CAPITAL IS A flamboyant letter that traditionally served a similar function in Italic text to that of the coloured Versal in Gothic text (pp. 5S-59). It should never be used to write

a complete word, but can be combined with standard Italic Capitals (pp 98-99). The Swash Capital's characteristic showiness is created by the extension or stem strokes above or below the capital line and the extension of bowls and horizontal strokes to the left of the stem. These extended strokes terminate with a swash or, alternatively, can be looped like Copperplate Capitals (pp. 106-107).

The sto« bus hcm (Xlwile.! ,r[",1'( the bowl qf lire lcucr {,'.t'm" II swash

1+'1"" u swasli is added boti: 10 the lOp "nil tlu: lefl41he W"', tlu: leucr .qairrs a p~rtimlarly .i1ombo)'anl appc~TdlUC

71/1' surasl: to tlu: il'{i ,,{lire .<((111 i,e I' nntura! COlHlIWd/lOU of

Ifrr ,,'IIII/I,.d JU,'!.>C .if lire b,,,,,1

To d,all' IM/" Swash Capuals, lISe r/If '"",,: pm ,L' fOT ltal« minusmlc:

1£ft swashes

Wh~n [felling ,I ,\\'~sh rrou: the bowl of J lcuer, wch .11 Ch.1t of Ihe B or R, I( is unportant that Ihe swash is a narural extension of (he bowl stroke. with rhe pen pullcd rn J sweeping movement. The letters 111 the alphabet (nglll) show Ih" '1<'~,h~1 added as separate strokes.

{pp_ 96-97)

Top swashes

The stem call be extended

upwards and pulled 10 rhe right in (he manner of a corsiva ascender 011 {he lralic nunuscule (pp. 96-97).

Draw 1/" loop ill a .<'''gle IIWIJtmflll wirhofll aflrn'IIS 'he pm d1igle

Twisl tire pen from 30° 10 tlu: uenical,

"lOve doumurards ,Jig/Illy, and lift

Looped rerrninals

Th" dubbed, looped terminal can be used as ,HI alternative to (he swash ill tinishing (he stem stroke. It works parriculariv well on a lingle 5(el11 letter such as all I or P. Create (he loop by crossing back over the Item :md pulling (he make OUI (0 the righr.

Forrnal ann serifs

This formal type of serif provides In elegant contrast 10 the Ilourishcs. In construction, it closely imitates rhe brush-drawn Imperial Capital serif (pp. //0-119). On reaching the end of the arm, begin to rwist the pen (rofll 30° (Q the vertical.

c

lJIc C r5 draWl1 HI '11'0 .;eparalr Qj7Vcd str,lkl's

3

(an tcruwuue IPl a hOnZOllldl_f<1()1 (IC,. H, below,

2 --

100