CHAPTER 7: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
informed of events going on both inside and
Nervous system – master controlling and
communicating system of the body
3 overlapping functions:
1. Uses its sensory receptors to monitor changes
(stimuli) inside and outside the body. Sensory
input – gathered information
2. Processes and interprets the sensory input and
decides what should be done at each moment
(integration)
3. Effects a response by activating muscles or
glands via motor output
Structural Classification
2 subdivisions
1. Central nervous system
 Brain and spinal cord which occupy the
dorsal body cavity and act as the integrating
and command centers of the nervous
system
 Interpret incoming sensory information and
issue instructions based on past experience
and current conditions
2. Peripheral nervous system
 Outside the CNS; consists mainly of the
nerves that extend from the brain and
spinal cord
 Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from
the spinal cord; cranial nerves carry
impulses to and from the brain; these
nerves serve as communication lines and
link all parts of the body by carrying
impulses from the sensory receptors to the
CNS and from the CNS to the gland or
muscle
Functional Classification
 Concerned only with PNS structures; divides
them into 2 principal subdivisions
1. Sensory/afferent division – consists of nerves
that convey impulses TO the central nervous
system from sensory receptors
 Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the skin,
skeletal muscles, and joints are called somatic
sensory fibers; those transmitting impulses from
the visceral organs are called visceral sensory
fibers
 The sensory division keeps the CNS constantly
outside the body
2. Motor/efferent division – carries impulses
FROM the CNS to effector organs, the muscles,
and glands. These impulses activate muscles and
glands
1. 2 subdivisions: (1) somatic nervous system –
allows voluntarily control our skeletal muscles;
voluntary nervous system (2) autonomic
nervous system – regulates events that are
automatic, or involuntary, such as the activity of
smooth and cardiac muscles and glands;
involuntary nervous system (sympathetic &
parasympathetic)
NERVOUS TISSUE:
STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
Supporting Cells
 Neuroglia – “nerve glue”; includes many types
of cells that support, insulate, protect delicate
neurons; glia
The CNS glia include the ff:
1. Astrocytes
o abundant star-shaped cells that
account for nearly half of the neural
tissue
o form a living barrier between capillaries
and neurons and play a role in making
exchanges between the two
o help protect neurons from harmful
substances that might be in the blood;
help control the chemical environment
in the brain by “mopping up” leaked
potassium ions and recapturing
released neurotransmitters
2. Microglia
o Spiderlike phagocytes that dispose of
debris including dead brain cells and
bacteria
3. Ependymal cells
o Line the central cavities of the brain
and spinal cord
o The beating of their cilia helps to
circulate the cerebrospinal fluid that
fills those cavities and forms a
protective cushion around the CNS
4. Oligodendrocytes
o Produce fatty insulating coverings
called myelin sheaths
 Glia are not able to transmit nerve impulses; glia
never lose their ability to divide; most brain
tumors are gliomas, or tumors formed by glial
cells
Supporting cells of PNS
1. Schwann cells – form the myelin sheaths around
nerve fibers
2. Satellite cells – act as protective, cushioning
cells
Neurons
*ANATOMY
 Neurons – nerve cells; transmit messages from
one part of the body to another; all have a cell
body (which contains the nucleus and is the
metabolic center of the cell) and one or more
processes extending from the cell body
Cell Body
 Metabolic center of the neuron
 Its transparent nucleus contains a conspicuous
nucleolus
 The rough ER (Nissl substance) and neurofibrils
(intermediate filaments that are important in
maintaining cell shape) are particularly
abundant in the cell body
Processes
 Armlike; fibers
 Dendrites – neuron processes that convey
incoming messages TOWARD the cell body
 Axons – neuron processes that generate nerve
impulses and typically conduct them AWAY the
cell body
 Neurotransmitters – chemicals found in tiny
vesicles in terminals
 When impulses reach the axon terminals, they
stimulate the release of neurotransmitters into
extracellular space
 Synaptic cleft – tiny gaps from where each axon
terminal is separated; synapse – functional
junction; neurons never touch other neurons
Myelin Sheaths
 Myelin – most long nerve fibers are covered
with this whitish fatty material; waxy
appearance; protects and insulates the fibers
and increases the transmission rate of nerve
impulses
 Myelin sheath – tight coil of wrapped
membranes; encloses the axon
 Neurilemma – part of the Schwann cell external
to the myelin sheath
 Myelin sheaths have gaps of indentions (nodes
of ranvier)
 Although the myelin sheaths formed by the
oligodendrocytes and those by Schwann cells
are similar, the CNS sheaths lack a neurilemma
which plays an important role in fiber
regeneration
 (*) Multiple sclerosis – the myelin sheaths
around the fibers are gradually destroyed,
converted to hardened sheaths called scleroses;
electric current is short-circuited; lose the ability
to control muscles; autoimmune disease in
which a protein component of the sheath is
attacked
Terminology
 cell bodies are found in the CNS clusters called
nuclei (essential to the well-being of nervous
system)
 ganglia – small collections of cell bodies; found
in a few sites outside the CNS in the PNS
 tracts – bundles of nerve fibers running through
CNS
 nerves – bundles of nerve fibers running
through PNS
 White matter – consists of dense collections of
myelinated fibers
 Gray matter – contains mostly unmyelinated
fibers and cell bodies
*CLASSIFICATION
Functional classification
 Groups neurons according to the direction the
nerve impulse is traveling relative to CNS
 Sensory/afferent neurons – neurons carrying
impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS;
keep us informed about what is happening
inside and outside the body; outside the CNS
 The dendrite endings of the sensory neurons are
usually associated with specialized receptors
that are activated by specific changes occurring
nearby; cutaneous sense organs – sensory
receptors seen in the skin; proprioceptors –
sensory receptors found in muscles and
tendons; detect amount of stretch/tension in
skeletal muscles, their tendons, joints; send
information to the brain to maintain balance
and normal posture
 The pain receptors are the least specialized of
the cutaneous receptors; most numerous
 because pain warns us that some type of body
damage is occurring or about to occur
 Motor/efferent neurons – neurons carrying
impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or
muscles and glands; always located IN the CNS
 Interneurons/association neurons – connect
the motor and sensory neurons in neural
pathways; IN the CNS
Structural Classification
 Basaed on the number of processes extending
from cell body
 Multipolar neuron – several processes
extending; motor and association neurons are
multipolar
 Bipolar neurons – neuron with 2 processes
(axon & dendrite); rare in adults, found only in
some special sense organs (eyes, nose)
 Unipolar neurons – single process emerging
from the cell body; very short and divides
almost immediately into proximal and distal
processes; only the small branches at the end of
the peripheral processes are dendrites; the
remainder of the peripheral process & the
central process function as axons
 Axon conducts nerve impulses both toward and
away from the cell body; sensory neurons found
in PNS ganglia are unipolar
*PHYSIOLOGY
Nerve impulses
 Irritability – ability to respond to a stimulus and
convert it into a nerve impulse
 Conductivity – ability to transmit the impulse to
other neurons, muscles, glands
a) Resting membrane electrical conditions
b) Stimulus initiates local depolarization
c) Depolarization and generation of an action
potential
d) Propagation of the action potential
e) Repolarization
f) Initial ionic conditions restored
Reflexes
 Reflexes – rapid, predictable and involuntary
responses to stimuli; one-way, same direction
 Reflex arcs – neutral pathways where reflexes
occur
 Somatic reflexes – reflexes that stimulate the
skeletal muscles
 Autonomic reflexes – regulate the activity of
smooth muscles, the heart, and glands;
secretion of saliva (salivary reflex) and changes
in size of pupil (papillary reflex); regulate
digestion, elimination, blood pressure, sweating
 Reflex arcs have 5 elements: sensory receptors,
effector organ, sensory neurons, motor neurons,
CNS integration center
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Functional anatomy of the brain
1. CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
 Collectively called cerebrum; most superior part
of the brain
 The entire surface of the cerebral hemispheres
exhibits elevated ridges of tissue called gyri
(twisters), separated by shallow grooves called
sulci (furrows)
 Fissures – less numerous, deeper grooves;
separate large regions of the brain
 Cerebral hemispheres are separated by a single
deep fissure, the longitudinal fissure
Cerebral Cortex
 Functions: Speech, memory, logical, and
emotional response, consciousness,
interpretation of sensation, voluntary
movement
 Primary somatic sensory area – located in the
parietal lobe posterior to the central sulcus;
Impulses traveling from the body’s sensory
receptors are localized and interpreted in this
area of the brain; allows you to recognize pain,
coldness, light touch
 Occipital lobe – where visual area is located
(posterior), temporal lobe – auditory area,
bordering the lateral salcus, deep inside the
temporal lobe is the olfactory lobe
 Primary motor area – allows us to consciously
move our skeletal muscles; anterior to the
central sulcus is the frontal lobe
 The body is represented upside down and the
pathways are crossed
 Broca’s area – involved in our ability to speak;
found at the base of the precentral gyrus
 Areas involved in higher intellectual reasoning
and socially acceptable behavior are believed to
be in the anterior part of the frontal lobes;
complex memories appear to be stored in the
temporal and frontal lobes
 The cell bodies of neurons involved in the
cerebral hemisphere functions named above are
found only in the outermost gray matter of the
cerebrum, the cerebral cortex
Cerebral white matter
 Composed of fiber tracts carrying impulses to,
from, or within the cortex
 Corpus callosum – large fiber tract; connects the
cerebral hemispheres
Basal Nuclei
 Islands of gray matter; basal ganglia
 Buried deep within the white matter of the
cerebral hemispheres
 Help regulate voluntary motor activities by
modifying instructions sent to the skeletal
muscles by the primary motor cortex
 (*) Huntington’s disease & Parkinson’s disease
– problem with basal nuclei; unable to walk
normally or carry out other voluntary
movements in the usual normal way
2. DIENCEPHALON
 Interbrain; sits atop the brain stem and is
enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
 Thalamus – encloses the shallow 3rd ventricle of
the brain; relay station for sensory impulses
passing upward to the sensory cortex; we have
crude recognition of whether the sensation we
are about to have is pleasant or unpleasant
 Hypothalamus – floor of the diencephalon;
plays a role in regulation of body temperature,
water balance, metabolism; center of many
drives and emotions; regulates pituitary gland;
Thirst, appetite, sex, pain, pleasure centers
 Epithalamus – forms the roof of the 3 rd
ventricle; important parts are the pineal body
(part of endocrine system) and the choroid
plexus (knots of capillaries within each ventricle
that form the cerebrospinal fluid) of the 3rd
ventricle
3. BRAIN STEM
 Provides a pathway for ascending and
descending tracts; has many small gray matter
areas; associated with cranial nerves and control
vital activities such as breathing and blood
pressure
Midbrain
 Extends from the mammillary bodies to the
pons inferiorly
 Cerebral aqueduct – tiny canal that travels
through the midbrain and connects the 3 rd
ventricle of the diencephalon to the 4 th ventricle
below; anteriorly, the midbrain is composed
primarily of 2 bulging fiber tracts (cerebral
penduncles)
 Dorsally located are 4 rounded protrusions
called corpora quadrigemina; these bulging
nuclei are reflex centers involved with vision and
hearing
Pons
 Rounded structure that protrudes below the
midbrain; bridge; mostly fiber tracts; has an
important nuclei involved in the control of
breathing
Medulla Oblongata
 Most inferior part of the brain stem; important
fiber tract area; contains many nuclei that
regulate vital visceral activities; contains centers
that control heart rate, blood pressure,
breathing, swallowing, vomiting
 4th ventricle lies posterior to the pons and
medulla and anterior to the cerebellum
Reticular formation
 The neurons of the reticular formation are
involved in motor control of the visceral organs
 Reticular activating system – plays a role in
consciousness and the awake/sleep cycles;
damage to this area can result in permanent
unconsciousness
4. CEREBELLUM
 Large cauliflower-like; projects dorsally from
under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum
 Has 2 hemispheres and a convoluted surface;
has an outer cortex made up of gray matter and
an inner region of white matter
 Provides the precise timing for skeletal muscle
activity and controls our balance and
equilibrium; body movements are smooth and
coordinated
Protection of the CNS
Meninges
 3 connective tissue membrances covering and
protecting the CNS structures
 Dura mater – outermost layer, leathery, tough
or hard mother; double-layered membrane
where it surrounds the brain
 Arachnoid mater – middle meningeal layer,
weblike; threadlike extensions span the
subarchanoid space to attach it to the innermost
membrane called pia mater (clings tightly to the
surface of the brain and spinal cord)
 (*) Meningitis – inflammation of the meninges
Cerebrospinal fluid
 Continually formed from blood by the choroid
plexuses; the CSF in and around the brain and
cord forms a watery cushion that protects the
fragile nervous tissue from blows and other
trauma
 It circulates from the 2 lateral ventricles (in the
cerebral hemispheres) into the 3rd ventricle (in
the diencephalon) and then through the
cerebral aqueduct of the midbrain into the 4 th
ventricle dorsal to the pons and medulla
oblongata
 (*) Hydrocephalus – if something obstructs its
drainage, CFS begins to accumulate and exert
pressure on the brain
Blood-brain barrier
 Composed of the least permeable capillaries in
the whole body
 Of water-soluble substances, only water,
glucose, and essential amino acids pass easily
through the walls of these capillaries; metabolic
wastes (urea, toxins, proteins, most drugs) are
prevented from entering the brain tissue;
Nonessential amino acids and potassium ions
not only are prevented from entering the brain
 Blood-brain barrier is virtually useless against
fats, respiratory gases, and other fat-soluble
molecules that diffuse easily through all plasma
membranes
Spinal cord
 Approximately 17in
 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the cord and
exit from the vertebral column to serve the
body area close by
 Cauda equina – collection of spinal nerves at the
inferior end of the vertebral canal; looks so
much like a horse’s tail
Gray matter of the spinal cord & spinal roots
 Butterfly; letter H in a cross section
 2 posterior projections: dorsal/posterior horns;
2 anterior projections: ventral/anterior horns
 Gray matter surrounds the central canal
 If the dorsal root or its ganglion is damaged,
sensation from the body area served will be lost
 The ventral horns of the gray matter contain cell
bodies of motor neurons of the somatic nervous
system, which send their axons out the ventral
root of the cord; the dorsal and ventral roots
fuse to form the spinal nerves
White matter of the spinal cord
 Composed of myelinated fiber tracts
 Divided into 3 regions: Dorsal, lateral, and
ventral columns; each of the columns contains a
number of fiber tracts made up of axons with
the same destination and function
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Consists of nerves and scattered groups of
neuronal cell bodies from outside the CNS
Structure of a Nerve
 Nerve – bundle of neuron fibers found outside
the CNS
 Endoneurium – delicate connective tissue
sheath that surrounds each fiber; Perineurium –
coarser connective tissue wrapping that bounds
groups of fibers to form fiber bundles called
fascicles; Epineurium – tough fibrous sheath
that bounds all fascicles together to form a
cordlike nerve
 Mixed nerves – nerves carrying both sensory
and motor fibers (all spinal nerves);
Sensory/afferent nerves – nerves that carry
impulses toward the CNS only; motor/efferent
nerves – only carry motor fibers
Cranial Nerves
 12 pairs; serve the head and neck; only one pair
(vagus nerves) extends to the thoracic and
abdominal cavities
 All are mixed nerves except OPTIC, OLFACTORY,
and VESTIBULAR NERVES (sensory nerves)
 “Oh, oh, oh, to touch and feel very good velvet,
ah”
I. Olfactory – purely sensory; sense of smell
II. Optic – purely sensory; vision
III. Oculomotor – supplies fibers to 4 muscles
(superior, inferior, medial rectus, inferior
oblique) that direct to the eyeball, eyelid,
internal eye muscles controlling lens shape
and pupil size
IV. Trochlear – supplies motor fibers for one
external eye muscle (superior oblique)
V. Trigeminal – conducts sensory impulses
from the skin to the face and mucosa of the
nose and mouth; contains motor fibers that
activate the chewing muscle
VI. Abducens – supplies motor fibers to the
lateral rectus muscle; rolls the eye laterally
VII. Facial – activates muscles of facial
expression and the lacrimal and salivary
glands; varies sensory impulses from the
taste buds
VIII. Vestibulocochlear – purely sensory
transmits impulses for the sense of balance
(vesticular branch); transmits impulses for
the sense of hearing (cochlear)
IX. Glossopharyngeal – supplies motor fibers
to the pharynx that promote swallowing
and saliva production; carries sensory
impulses from the taste buds of the
posterior tongue and from pressure
receptors of the carotid artery
X. Vagus – fibers carry impulses from & motor
impulses to the pharynx, larynx, and
abdominal and thoracic viscerals
XI. Accessory – mostly motor fibers that
activate the sternocleidomastoid &
trapezius muscles
XII. Hypoglossal – motor fibers control tongue
movement; sensory fibers carry impulses
from the tongue
Spinal Nerve and Nerve Plexuses
 31 pairs of spinal nerves; each spinal nerve
divides into dorsal and ventral rami; ½ inch long
 Damage to a spinal nerve or either of its rami
results both in loss of sensation and flaccid
paralysis of the area of the body served
 The ventral rami of all other spinal nerves from
complex networks of nerves called plexuses,
which serve the motor and sensory needs of the
limbs
I. Cervical – phrenic nerves
II. Brachial – axiallary, radial, median,
musculocutaneous, ulnar nerves
III. Lumbar – femoral, obturator nerves
IV. Sacral – sciatic, superior and inferior gluteal
nerves
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
 Motor subdivision of the PNS that controls body
activities automatically
 Make adjustments to best support body
activities
 Involuntary nervous system
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Compared
 Patterns of their motor pathways differ; In the
SOMATIC DIVISION the cell bodies of the motor
neurons are inside the CNS and their axons
extend all the way to the skeletal muscles; In the
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM has a chain of 2
motor neurons – preganglionic axon,
postganglionic axon
 2 arms: sympathetic division – mobilizes the
body during extreme situations (fear, exercise,
rage); parasympathetic division – allows us to
unwind and conserve energy
Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
 Craniosacral division
 Form pelvic nerves
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
 Thoracolumbar division
Autonomic Functioning
 Cholinergic fibers – release acetylcholine
(parasympathetic)
 Adrenergic fibers – release norepinephrine
(sympathetic)
1. Sympathetic division
o Fight or flight system
o Excited, emergency, threatening
situations
 o Signs: pounding heart, rapid/deep
breathing, cold/sweaty skin, prickly
scalp, dilated eye pupils
o Increases heart rate, blood pressure,
blood sugar levels

2. Parasympathetic division
o Most active when body is at rest
o Resting and digesting system
o Promoting normal digestion,
conserving body energy