I propose to present to the graduate student involved in research for academic purposesthe opportunity to appreciate the research process in both quantitative and qualitative datacollection and analysis. I will do so by presenting the information under five major subheadings:the significance of theory, methodology in research and collating the final project report,guidelines for quantitative research and guidelines for qualitative research. I proffer that there arethree major phases in the research process for each type of research. These are pre-datacollection, data collection and post data collection.
Creswell (2009) offers the student an excellent opportunity to learn about researchdesign from the two major traditions: quantitative and qualitative. Great use can also be madeof the information about research design in Denzins (2009) book. The good graduate studentshould at least be familiar with the ideas about both these since they provide great insights intothe organizing and execution of research projects. Pajares (2006) suggests an excellentexposition of the elements of proposal writing which all should read and practice. The issue of ethics in research has been adequately covered in the literature, however much can be learntabout this issue by examining the work of Bogdan and Biklen (1992).However, despite the plethora of information about designing and conducting researchmany graduate students continue to struggle with these process. It is hope that this articlewillgo a long way towards clarifying many of the issues that challenge students as they dstrivecompleting their graduate degrees and diplomas.The Significance of Theory in ResearchTheory is the driving force behind the research process. If social scientific research is toof much value then it must provide new knowledge based on old theories as well as newknowledge based on original and creative enterprise. There is no algorithm or magic formulaguiding the use of theory in research. In fact its role is relative and contextual. According toCresswell there is a distinct role for theory in quantitative research. This can be summed up asfollows:
³In quantitative studies, one uses theory deductively and places it toward the beginning of the plan for a study. The objective is to test or verify theory. One thus begins the study advancing atheory, collects data to test it, and reflects on whether the theory was confirmed or disconfirmed by the results in the study. The theory becomes a framework for the entire study, an organizingmodel for the research questions or hypotheses for the data collection procedure´ (Creswell,1994, pp. 87-88)
On the other hand, its role in qualitative research varies according to the research design.For case studies, ethnography, biographical and phenomenology theory usually influences thechoice of method and research questions. However, this is not the case in grounded theorywhere the intention is to inductively arrive at theory. Pajares supports this claim in this way:
In qualitative inquiry, the use of theory and of a line of inquiry depends on the nature of theinvestigation. In studies aiming at ³grounded theory,´ for example, theory and theoretical tenetsemerge from findings. Much qualitative inquiry, however, also aims to test or verify theory,hence in these cases the theoretical framework, as in quantitative efforts, should be identified anddiscussed early on. (Pajares 2007 p1)
Methodology in ResearchIt is important that students appreciate that research designs are significantly differentfor quantitative and qualitative studies. Most quantitative studies rely upon surveys whichmake use of questionnaires and/or structured interviews to collect the data. Alternativelyqualitative studies use either case study, ethnographic, biographical, phenomenological orgrounded theory as the mechanism for organization data collection and analysis.Collating the Final Project ReportStudents often experience difficulty in putting the report together. It is advisable thatthey adopt an approach similar to the backward design model of Mc Tigue and Wiggins ( ).They should have a clear idea of what they want to accomplish and then take all the essentialsteps for reaching it/them. The introduction which usually contains the statement of theproblem, objectives and general aims should be the last written chapter since these may haveto be refined as the study unfolds. Of course the student should have a clear idea of theseperquisites before initiating data collection.Guidelines for Quantitative ResearchPre Data Collection Phase1.
Be certain about the level of measurement for your study. This will inform the framingof the hypotheses and research questions.2.
Consult with a good statistician who should be able to advise you about the feasibility of the measures for the study and the amount of data necessary for maximum efficiency.(It may also be your academic supervisor or advisor)3.
Select a suitable related theory from within or outside the discipline (of study) for theresearch that will guide your approach. (Know the main features of the theory i.e. thewhat, how, why etc)4.
Frame the problem statement in association with the main features of the theory or theliterature.5.
Use the theory (as far as possible) to determine the research questions and/orobjectives. This can be referred to as working within the theory.6.
Ensure that you understand the main components or processes or the survey design-usually associated with quantitative analysis. (Quasi-experimental designs which involvepre and post testing to determine the effects of a treatment on a single group of subjects can also be executed using the survey if necessary)7.
Your research questions are clearly stated, measurable and finite i.e. answers to themcan be easily ascertained by the survey.8.
Clarify the delimitations of the study i.e. what the study will focus on and what it will notbe studying or measuring.9.
Be clear about the studys limitations that may arise as a result of the use of surveys. Forinstance in what way will the data collection process be restricted by the use of questionnaires or structured interviews? Are there any limits to the use of the particulartheory?
10.
Be sure to employ scientific measures in selecting the sample. Purposive and convenientsampling may not be the best type but some form of systematic random sampling maybe more appropriate.11.
The best way to determine sample size is by use of a formula which takes intoconsideration the standard error, sampling error, confidence intervals etc.12.
Consider the ethics of the research. For example is there any potential harm to therespondents?13.
Determine the implications of this research for the practice of the discipline or field of study such as sociology, psychology or economics. (policy prescriptions too)14.
If you intend to construct your own data collection instrument you can conduct a smallnumber of unstructured interviews and identify the main themes from them. This willadd to the level of reliability of the scales used for measuring the concepts. (See Foddy1993 for more details of structured interview construction)15.
Construct the questionnaire/structured interview or data collection instrument byoperationalizing- this ensures the main topic is deconstructed a number of related sub-themes, topics or issues that will then be used to frame the questions. Remember thatinterviewing beforehand can provide a number of themes and subthemes that may beuseful when operationalizing the topic.16.
When framing the questions the level of measurement should be taken intoconsideration. For instance you make need to use Likert scale type questions formeasuring correlations.17.
Pilot test the data collection instrument by using a smaller sample of respondentssimilar to those being targeted for the actual survey before carrying it out. This will tellwhether or not the wording is unambiguous and the questions appropriate for the typeof data to be used.18.
Never ask for demographics such as age, religion, income and other personal data if they will play no part in the analysis of findings. Avoid wasting data and wastingrespondents time.19.
Clarify the survey administration beforehand. Ask yourself questions such as: will theyinstrument be administered via telephone, house-to-house, mail, internet or someother appropriate means? In this way you will be able to gauge the return rate sincethey affect the quantity and quality of data being collected.20.
Determine if any funding is necessary for the research and who or what agency will beproviding it. Funding obtained from specific agencies may result in changes being madeto the data collect instrument particularly if the funder wishes to have a particularobjective realized.21.
Consult your academic supervisor/advisor any additional measure you may need to takebefore collecting the data.Data Collection Phase1.
Administer the survey using the predetermined means.2.
Ensure that participants are sufficiently apprised of the purpose of the research and arewilling subjects.
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A Graduate Student Guide to Academic Research
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