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AMA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY instructional modules in ENGLO3
Lesson 1
THE NATURE OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
I. Learning Objectives:
After completing the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. describe the nature of oral communication;

2. explain the importance of communication; and
3. demonstrate different non-verbal cues.
II. Introduction:
The Nature of Oral Communication
At its most basic level, oral communication is the spoken interaction between two or
more people. However, what we intend to teach you is that the interaction is far more
complex than it seems. Oral communication is composed of multiple elements which, when
taken as a whole, result in the success or failure of the interaction. Communication is the
process of sharing our ideas, thoughts, and feelings with other people and having those
ideas, thoughts, and feelings understood by the people we are talking with. When we
communicate we speak, listen, and observe. Not everyone is an effective communicator.
The way we communicate is a learned style. As children we learn from watching our
parents and other adults communicate. As an adult we can learn to improve the way we
communicate by observing others who communicate effectively, learning new skills, and
practicing those skills.
In order to function successfully academically and professionally, you need to learn

effective oral communication skills. For many, conversational speech comes naturally.
However, in more formal speech, effective communication skills are essential. A poorly
conducted interview, sales presentation, or legal argument could have ramifications that
affect many more people than yourself.
By becoming an effective communicator you will be able to conduct yourself in a

variety of personal, professional, and academic environments with confidence. Oral
communication is a unique and learned rhetorical skill that requires you to understand what
you say and how you say it. Unlike conversational speech, speech in more formal
environments does not come naturally. What you will learn is how to critically think about
how you present yourself as a speaker in all occasions and then how to function in a variety
of speaking environments.
The ability to effectively communicate at work, home, and in life is probably one of
the most important sets of skills a person needs. What would our life and world be like
without communication? We cannot get along without it. It is also not easy, and we all have
probably had experiences where our communication failed or ran into a barrier. So, if we can
understand the communication process better and improve it, we will become a more
effective and successful communicator.
III. Discussion:
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A. What is Communication?
Communication is a learned skill. Most people are born with the physical ability to
talk, but we must learn to speak well and communicate effectively. Speaking, listening, and
our ability to understand verbal and nonverbal meanings are skills we develop in various
ways. We learn basic communication skills by observing other people and modeling our
behaviors based on what we see. We also are taught some communication skills directly
through education, and by practicing those skills and having them evaluated.
Communication as an academic discipline relates to all the ways we communicate,
so it embraces a large body of study and knowledge. The communication discipline includes
both verbal and nonverbal messages. The field of communication focuses on how people
use messages to generate meanings within and across various contexts, cultures, channels,
and media. The field promotes the effective and ethical practice of human communication.
B. Why is Communication Important?
Oral communication has long been our main method for communicating with one
another. It is estimated that 75% of a person’s day is spent communicating in some way. A
majority of your communication time may be spent speaking and listening, while a minority
of that time is spent reading and writing. These communication actions reflect skills which
foster personal, academic, and professional success.
Employers have ranked communication abilities first among the desirable personal
qualities of future employees (1998). In a report on fastest growing careers, the U.S.
Department of Labor states that communication skills will be in demand across occupations
well into the next century. In a national survey of 1000 human resource managers, oral
communication skills are identified as valuable for both obtaining employment and
successful job performance. Executives with Fortune 500 companies indicate that college
students need better communication skills, as well as the ability to work in teams and with
people from diverse backgrounds. Case studies of high-wage companies also state that
essential skills for future workers include problem solving, working in groups, and the ability
to communicate effectively. When 1000 faculty members from a cross section of disciplines
were asked to identify basic competencies for every college graduate, skills in
communicating topped the list. Even an economics professor states that, “. . . we are living
in a communications revolution comparable to the invention of printing . . . In an age of
increasing talk, it is wiser talk we need most. Communication studies might well be central to
colleges and universities in the 21st century.”
Today, communication and its study are especially relevant. In the 21st century,
contemporary society is increasingly diverse and communication is more complex. Many
also are stressing the role of communication and citizenship in a civil and democratic
society. Frequently, the communication discipline is referred to as the “engaged discipline,”
as a result of teachers’ and students’ participation in service learning projects and
researchers concern for community-based research on critical social issues.
What was once seen as the field of speech and rhetoric is now the discipline of
communication that includes communication in the workplace, in families, in mass media,
and in advertising, to name a few. Contemporary students of communication draw on
theories and practices common in the fields of anthropology, psychology, sociology,
linguistics, semiotics, and rhetoric. Students in broadcast communication make use of work
in computer engineering for web development and streaming audio and video.
Communication as a discipline now includes interpersonal, small group, organizational,
intercultural and international, public, mass, and mediated communication. The study of
communication considers how people communicate as individuals, in society, and in various
cultures.
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C. Types of Communication
Read on to find out about the different types of communication...
If I am to speak ten minutes, I need a week for preparation; if fifteen minutes, three days; if
half an hour, two days; if an hour, I am ready now. ~ Woodrow Wilson
Communication is a process that involves exchange of information, thoughts, ideas

and emotions. Communication is a process that involves a sender who encodes and sends
the message, which is then carried via the communication channel to the receiver where the
receiver decodes the message, processes the information and sends an appropriate reply
via the same communication channel.
Types of Communication
Communication can occur via various processes and methods, channel used and the style
of communication there can be various types of communication.
Types of Communication Based on Communication Channels
Based on the channels used for communicating, the process of communication can be
broadly classified as verbal communication and non-verbal communication. Verbal
communication includes written and oral communication whereas the non-verbal
communication includes body language, facial expressions and visuals diagrams or pictures
used for communication.
• Verbal Communication
Verbal communication is further divided into written and oral communication. The
oral communication refers to the spoken words in the communication process. Oral
communication can either be face-to-face communication or a conversation over the
phone or on the voice chat over the Internet. Spoken conversations or dialogs are
influenced by voice modulation, pitch, volume and even the speed and clarity of
speaking. The other type of verbal communication is written communication. Written
communication can be either via snail mail, or email. The effectiveness of written
communication depends on the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarity
and precision of language.
• Nonverbal Communication
Non-verbal communication includes the overall body language of the person who is
speaking, which will include the body posture, the hand gestures, and overall body
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movements. The facial expressions also play a major role while communication since
the expressions on a person’s face say a lot about his/her mood. On the other hand
gestures like a handshake, a smile or a hug can independently convey emotions.
Non verbal communication can also be in the form of pictorial representations,
signboards, or even photographs, sketches and paintings.
Types of Communication Based on Style and Purpose
Based on the style of communication, there can be two broad categories of communication,
which are formal and informal communication that have their own set of characteristic
features.
• Formal Communication
Formal communication includes all the instances where communication has to occur
in a set formal format. Typically this can include all sorts of business communication
or corporate communication. The style of communication in this form is very formal
and official. Official conferences, meetings and written memos and corporate letters
are used for communication. Formal communication can also occur between two
strangers when they meet for the first time. Hence formal communication is
straightforward, official and always precise and has a stringent and rigid tone to it.
• Informal Communication
Informal communication includes instances of free unrestrained communication

between people who share a casual rapport with each other. Informal communication
requires two people to have a similar wavelength and hence occurs between friends
and family. Informal communication does not have any rigid rules and guidelines.
Informal conversations need not necessarily have boundaries of time, place or even
subjects for that matter since we all know that friendly chats with our loved ones can
simply go on and on.
Types of Nonverbal Communication

According to experts, a substantial portion of our communication is nonverbal. Every day, we
respond to thousands on nonverbal cues and behaviors including postures, facial
expression, eye gaze, gestures, and tone of voice. From our handshakes to our hairstyles,
nonverbal details reveal who we are and impact how we relate to other people.
Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior began with the 1872
publication of Charles Darwin’s The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Since
that time, there has been an abundance of research on the types, effects, and expression of
unspoken communication and behavior. While these signals are often so subtle that we are
not consciously aware of them, research has identified several different types of nonverbal
communication.
1. Facial Expression
Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication.

Consider how much information can be conveyed with a smile or a frown. While nonverbal
communication and behavior can vary dramatically between cultures, the facial expressions
for happiness, sadness, anger, and fear are similar throughout the world.
2. Gestures
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Deliberate movements and signals are an important way to communicate meaning without
words. Common gestures include waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate number
amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary and related to culture.
3. Para-linguistics
Para-linguistics refers to vocal communication that is separate from actual language. This
includes factors such as tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch. Consider the powerful
effect that tone of voice can have on the meaning of a sentence. When said in a strong tone
of voice, listeners might interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same words said in a
hesitant tone of voice might convey disapproval and a lack of interest.
4. Body Language and Posture
Posture and movement can also convey a great deal on information. Research on body
language has grown significantly since the 1970’s, but popular media have focused on the
over-interpretation of defensive postures, arm-crossing, and leg-crossing, especially after
the publication of Julius Fast’s book Body Language. While these nonverbal behaviors can
indicate feelings and attitudes, research suggests that body language is far more subtle and
less definitive that previously believed.
5. Proxemics
People often refer to their need for “personal space,” which is also an important type of
nonverbal communication. The amount of distance we need and the amount of space we
perceive as belonging to us is influenced by a number of factors including social norms,
situational factors, personality characteristics, and level of familiarity. For example, the
amount of personal space needed when having a casual conversation with another person
usually varies between 18 inches to four feet. On the other hand, the personal distance
needed when speaking to a crowd of people is around 10 to 12 feet.
6. Eye Gaze
Looking, staring, and blinking can also be important nonverbal behaviors. When people
encounter people or things that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils dilate.
Looking at another person can indicate a range of emotions, including hostility, interest, and
attraction.
7.Haptics
Communicating through touch is another important nonverbal behavior. There has been a
substantial amount of research on the importance of touch in infancy and early childhood.
Harry Harlow’s classic monkey study demonstrated how the deprivation of touch and contact
impedes development. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers experienced permanent
deficits in behavior and social interaction.
8. Dress and Appearance

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Our choice of color, clothing, hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are also
considered a means of nonverbal communication. Research on color psychology has
demonstrated that different colors can invoke different moods. Appearance can also alter
physiological reactions, judgment, and interpretations.
IV. Exercises:
Group students into four and let each student introduce himself to the group. Each
student takes note of how they use eye contact, body language, style and register combined
with the other types of nonverbal communications as they communicate orally.
V. References/Additional Readings
1. Tan, Arsenia B. Public Speaking and Speech Improvement for Filipinos

(National Book Store, Inc. 1997)
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Lesson 2
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
1. describe the different stages in the process of oral communication;
2. identify the elements of communication involved in the process; and
3. explain the communication process via a model.
I. Introduction
Effective Communication: A good working definition for effective communication is to

share meaning and understanding between the person sending the message and the
person receiving the message. The key element is “understanding” .
Lead-off Question: How have you had a communication problem or failure to

communicate?
Anticipated Responses: — Students will offer a variety of personal experiences that

illustrate difficulty in communicating.
Follow-up Question: Was there a miscommunication because of a lack of

understanding?
Anticipated Responses: — Yes, explore the student’s responses.

Teaching Tip: Develop the student responses and connect them to the lesson objective. So
in order to be an effective communicator, we must first and foremost be understood in our
various communications.
II. DISCUSSION
A. Steps in the Communication Process
The communication process is a simple model that demonstrates all the factors that
can affect communication. Communication is effective if the message that is received is the
same one that is sent.
Communication Process and the Key Elements: Tell students to look at the
communication loop. Explain that the Communication Process breaks down
effective communication into the following steps:
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1. SENDER – The communicator or sender is the person who is sending the

message. There are two factors that will determine how effective the
communicator will be. The first factor is the communicator’s attitude. It
must be positive. The second factor is the communicator’s selection of
meaningful symbols, or selecting the right symbols depending on your
audience and the right environment. Talk about a few wrong examples.
Question: Name some of the ways we communicate.
Anticipated Responses: —Talking, speaking —Writing —Pictures,
symbols, diagrams, charts, etc.
2. MESSAGE – A communication in writing, in speech, or by signals
3. RECEIVER – The receiver is simply the person receiving the message,

making sense of it, or understanding and translating it into meaning.
Now think about this for a moment: the receiver is also a communicator.
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How can that be? (When receiver responds, he is then the

communicator.) Communication is only successful when the reaction of
the receiver is that which the communicator intended. Effective
communication takes place with shared meaning and understanding.
4. FEEDBACK – Feedback is that reaction I just mentioned. It can be a verbal

or nonverbal reaction or response. It can be external feedback
(something we see) or internal feedback (something we can’t see), like
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Teaching Tip: Students will sometimes forget to mention nonverbal communication.

A learning styles inventory could help students identify how they receive or learn information
in a certain way: verbal, visual, kinesthetic/tactile self-examination. It’s the feedback that
allows the communicator to adjust his message and be more effective. Without feedback,
there would be no way of knowing if meaning had been shared or if understanding had taken
place. Discuss that communication is a two-way process. The information goes out to a
person on the other end. There is a sender and a receiver. Simply put, effective
communication is getting your message across to the receiver. It is the sender’s
responsibility to make sure that the receiver gets the message and that the message
received is the one sent. Communicating is not an isolated series of one skill, it involves
several skills. For example, speaking involves not only getting your message across but also
being able to listen and understand what others are saying (active listening) and observing
the verbal and nonverbal clues in order to monitor the effectiveness of your message.
IV. Exercises:
Present to the students a sample dialogue. Let them identify the elements involved in
the communication and the specific stages used in the given sample.

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Lesson No.3
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
AT THE END OF THE TOPIC, THE STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
1. IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS OF SPEAKING;
2. IDENTIFY THE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS OF LISTENING; AND
3. CITE SOME INSTANCES TO SHOW THE APPLICATION OF THE ELEMENTS IN ACTUAL SPEAKING AND
LISTENING SITUATIONS.
II. INTRODUCTION
Whatever communication task you undertake asking these six simple questions
before you start will give your communication a better chance of success and make the task
easier.
1. Why? (Purpose)
2. Who? (Receiver)
3. Where and When? (Place and Context)
4. What? (Subject)
5. How? (Tone and Style)
III. DISCUSSION
A. Elements of Speaking:
• Body language
• Voice quality
• Intention
• Manner: directness, sincerity
• Dress and clothing (style, color, appropriateness for situation)
• Visual aids, animation
• Eye contact
• Emotional content, energy, strength
• Self-concept
• Concept of others
• Listening, hearing the underlying message
• Speaking from the heart
• Energy
• Setting, time, place, timing
• How the messenger holds the message
• Sensitivity
• Rhythm and pacing
• Attitude and confidence
• Rapport
• Agenda
• Purpose of communication - knowing what you want to communicate
• Clarity
• Silence, centering, looking
B. Elements of Listening:
• Attentiveness to speaker
• Eye contact
• Intention be fully awake and aware
• Openness: to other person and your own
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• Paying attention
• Listening to yourself
• Feedback
• Body language
• Change in pattern
• Expectations about person speaking, about their message, about their
agenda
III. EXERCISES
1. What is non-verbal communication? Give examples.
2. List 11 techniques for improving your listening skills. Discuss each.
3. Analyze your own listening habits. What are your strengths and
weaknesses? Decide on a plan for improving your listening skills. Write a
memo or email message to your professor including your analysis and
improvement plan.
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Lesson No.4
BARRIERS TO GOOD COMMUNICATION
I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the topic, the students should be able to:
1. identify the different barriers to good communication;
2. give some situations that show how the different barriers can affect communication;
3. tell experiences where they personally experienced the different barriers and how
they overcome them.
II. INTRODUCTION
Have you ever been talking to someone and they misunderstand what you were
saying? Why do you think that happens? (Give learners the opportunity to share their
experiences.) At any point in the communication process a barrier can occur. Barriers keep
us from understanding other’s ideas and thoughts. Barriers can appear at any point of the
communication loop.
There are two types of barriers—internal and external. Examples of internal barriers
are fatigue, poor listening skills, attitude toward the sender or the information, lack of interest
in the message, fear, mistrust, past experiences, negative attitude, problems at home, lack
of common experiences, and emotions. Examples of external barriers include noise,
distractions, e-mail not working, bad phone connections, time of day, sender used too many
technical words for the audience, and environment. Barriers keep the message from getting
through.
When communicating, watch out for barriers. Monitor the actions of the receiver.
Watch her body language; check to make sure the message the receiver received is the one
sent—ask questions and listen.
III. DISCUSSION
Here are the 7 top barriers.
A. Physical barriers
Physical barriers in the workplace include:
• marked out territories, empires and fiefdoms into which strangers are
not allowed
• closed office doors, barrier screens, separate areas for people of
different status
• large working areas or working in one unit that is physically separate
from others.
Research shows that one of the most important factors in building cohesive
teams is proximity. As long as people still have a personal space that they can call
their own, nearness to others aids communication because it helps us get to know
one another.
B. Perceptual barriers
The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world
differently. If we didn't, we would have no need to communicate: something like
extrasensory perception would take its place.
The following anecdote is a reminder of how our thoughts, assumptions and
perceptions shape our own realities:
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A traveler was walking down a road when he met a man from the next town.
"Excuse me," he said. "I am hoping to stay in the next town tonight. Can you tell me
what the townspeople are like?"
"Well," said the townsman, "how did you find the people in the last town you
visited?"
"Oh, they were an irascible bunch. Kept to themselves . Took me for a fool.
Over-charged me for what I got. Gave me very poor service" .
"Well, then," said the townsman, "you'll find them pretty much the same here."
C. Emotional barriers
One of the chief barriers to open and free communications is the emotional barrier. It
is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust and suspicion. The roots of our emotional mistrust of
others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful what we said to
others.
"Mind your P's and Q's"; "Don't speak until you're spoken to"; "Children should be
seen and not heard". As a result many people hold back from communicating their thoughts
and feelings to others.
They feel vulnerable. While some caution may be wise in certain relationships,
excessive fear of what others might think of us can stunt our development as effective
communicators and our ability to form meaningful relationships.
D. Cultural barriers
When we join a group and wish to remain in it, sooner or later we need to adopt the
behavior patterns of the group. These are the behaviors that the group accepts as signs of
belonging.
The group rewards such behavior through acts of recognition, approval and
inclusion. In groups which are happy to accept you, and where you are happy to conform,
there is a mutuality of interest and a high level of win-win contact.
Where, however, there are barriers to your membership of a group, a high level of
game-playing replaces good communication.
Controlling Ethno-centrism and Stereotyping: The process of understanding and
accepting other people from other cultures is often hampered by two barriers -- Ethno-
centrism and Stereotyping. These two barriers are overcome by developing tolerance, a
powerful and effective aid to communication.
Ethno-centrism: The belief in the superiority of ones culture is knows as ethno-
centrism. It causes us to judge others by our own values.
Stereotypes: Our perceptions of other cultures sometimes cause us to form

stereotypes about groups of peoples. A stereotype is an oversimplified perception of a
behavioral pattern or characteristics applied to entire groups. For example, the Swiss are
hardworking; Germans are formal and reserved; Americans loud and impatient; Asians
humble and inscrutable.
E. Language barriers
Language that describes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to
others who are not familiar with our expressions, buzz-words and jargon. When we couch
our communication in such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global market
place the greatest compliment we can pay another person is to talk in their language.
One of the more chilling memories of the Cold War was the threat by the Soviet
leader Nikita Khruschev saying to the Americans at the United Nations: "We will bury you!"
This was taken to mean a threat of nuclear annihilation.
However, a more accurate reading of Khruschev's words would have been: "We will
overtake you!" meaning economic superiority. It was not just the language, but the fear and
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suspicion that the West had of the Soviet Union that led to the more alarmist and sinister
interpretation.
F. Gender barriers
There are distinct differences between the speech patterns in a man and those in a
woman. A woman speaks between 22,000 and 25,000 words a day whereas a man speaks
between 7,000 and 10,000. In childhood, girls speak earlier than boys and at the age of
three, have a vocabulary twice that of boys.
The reason for this lies in the wiring of a man's and woman's brains. When a man
talks, his speech is located in the left side of the brain but in no specific area. When a
woman talks, the speech is located in both hemispheres and in two specific locations.
This means that a man talks in a linear, logical and compartmentalized way, features
of left-brain thinking; whereas a woman talks more freely mixing logic and emotion, features
of both sides of the brain. It also explains why women talk for much longer than men each
day.
G. Interpersonal barriers
How we order the space around us tells us something about ourselves and our
objectives. There are four space zones for social interaction.
1. Intimate Zone – 1 to 1.5 feet.
2. Personal Zone – 1.5 to 4 feet.
3. Social Zone – 4 to 12 feet.
4. Public Zone – 12 or more feet.
There are six levels at which people can distance themselves from one another:
1. Withdrawal is an absence of interpersonal contact. It is both
refusals to be in touch and time alone.
2. Rituals are meaningless, repetitive routines devoid of real
contact.
3. Pastimes fill up time with others in social but superficial
activities.
4. Working activities are those tasks which follow the rules and
procedures of contact but no more.
5. Games are subtle, manipulative interactions which are about
winning and losing. They include "rackets" and "stamps".
6. Closeness is the aim of interpersonal contact where there is a
high level of honesty and acceptance of yourself and others.
Working on improving your communications is a broad-brush activity. You have to

change your thoughts, your feelings, and your physical connections. That way, you can
break down the barriers that get in your way and start building relationships that really work.
IV. EXERCIES
1. Recall a time when you experienced a problem as a result of poor communication.

What were the causes of and possible remedies for the problem?
2. Give an example of the “language barrier” you faced recently.
3. Name some common stereo-types about your culture.
4. How can technical jargon or faulty translations effect communication.
5. Give definitions of the following words:
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(a) ethno-centrism
(b) listening barrier
(c) stereotyping
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LESSON 5
THE SPEAKING PROCESS
Given a series of demonstrations, the students should be able to:
1. identify the articulators or body parts involved in the speaking process;
2. describe how the articulators or body organs of speech function in the speaking
process;
3. produce sounds in proper manner and place of articulation and gain conscious
control over the organs of speech to improve speaking habits.
II. Introduction
The voice has a very significant role in communicating thought. How often have you
heard or uttered comments after listening to a speaker? “Her voice was shrill and rasping I
wanted to leave the room in the middle of her speech.” “She seemed shy. She hardly
opened her mouth when she talked. Did you understand what she was saying?”
Such characteristics of voices make it different for the speakers to convey their thoughts to
the listeners. However, much can be done to improve their own ability to produce pleasant
vocal tones.
III. Discussion:
THE ORGANS OF SPEECH
There are no speech organs per se. The organs used in speech are used primarily for
breathing and eating. When man learned to talk, these organs became easily adapted to a
secondary function- speaking.
Organs of Speech
LL Lips
TT Teeth
Alveolar ridge, convex part of the mouth,
TR
immediately behind the teeth
Hard palate, concave part of the roof of the
H
mouth
S Soft palate in lowered position
U Uvula, the loose hanging end of the soft palate
P Pharynx
Blade of the tongue, including the tip, the part
BL
opposite the teeth ridge
Front of the tongue, the part opposite the hard
F
palate
Back of the tongue, the part opposite the soft
B
palate
Epiglottis; this is drawn over the windpipe when
E
swallowing
W Windpipe
FP Food passage
V Vocal cords or vocal lips
Larynx The upper extremity of the windpipe (Adam’s
apple) which contains and protects the vocal
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cords
During the speaking process, the organs of speech are coordinately and integratedly
involved in breathing, phonation, resonation, and articulation.
There are four stages of speech mechanism.
1. BREATHING STAGE
This stage is primarily concerned with maintaining life, is secondarily a force
assisting in vocalization. It consists of two phases: inhalation and exhalation. The principal
bodily structures involved in the breathing process are the LUNGS and DIAPRHAGM.
The lungs serve as the reservoir of air. As you inhale, you fill the lungs and as you
exhale, the air is going out.
The diaphragm is a large sheet of muscle separating the chest cavity from the
abdomen, forms the floor of the chest and the roof of the abdomen. As you inhale, the lungs
increase in volume; at the same time, the diaphragm contracts and flatten. In exhalation, the
chest and the abdomen return to their original positions.
THE HUMAN LUNGS

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THE HUMAN DIAPRHAGM
2. PHONATION STAGE
This takes place when voice is produced in speaking as the expiratory air stream
from the lungs goes up through the trachea or windpipe to the larynx. The larynx which is the
principal organ of phonation is found at the top of the trachea; its protuberance is known as
the “ADAM’S APPLE.’’
Attached to the walls of the larynx are the vocal cords, a pair of bundles of muscles
and cartilages, which open and close at various degrees. In silent breathing, these vocal
cords open wide and let air in and out without hindrance. In whispering, they open partly, let
out large amounts of air, and produce only frictional sounds. In speech, the vocal cords
come together under tension and the controlled air pressure from the lungs cause them to
vibrate. These vocal cords make possible the voiceless and voiced sounds of vowels and
consonants and the various pitches of the voice in speaking and singing.
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THE HUMAN LARYNX
Put your fingertips lightly on your throat (where the vocal cords are), then say
“ahhhhhhhh,” “mmmmmmmm,” “ffffffffff,” and “sssssssss.” Which sounds are voiced (caused
the vocal cords to vibrate)? Which sounds are voiceless (do not cause the vocal cords to
vibrate)? You will have noticed that “ahhhhhhhh,” and “mmmmmmmm,” are voiced while
“ffffffffff,” and “sssssssss” are voiceless.
3. RESONATION STAGE
The voice produced in the process of phonation is weak. It becomes strong and rich
only when amplified and modified by the human resonators-the upper part of the larynx, the
pharynx, the nasal cavity, and the oral cavity. This process of voice amplification and
modification is called resonation.
The pharynx is the common passage way for air and food. It is located behind the
nose and mouth and includes the cavity at the back of the tongue
The nose consists of the external and internal portions. It helps in sustaining our
breath while we talk.
The mouth serves as an important resonator as well as the center for formation of
specific speech sounds. It is composed of the tongue, lips, teeth, gums, palates and jaws.
The efficient use of the resonators together with the force of the expiratory air stream
will enrich and reinforce the voice produced by the vocal cords.
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4. ARTICULATION STAGE
This occurs when the tone produced at the larynx is changed into specific sounds
such as [g], [l], [o], [u]. This is the result of the movement of the articulators. The articulators
are the lower jaw, the tongue, the lower lip, the velum, the uvula. The points of articulation
are the upper lip, the upper teeth, the upper alveolar ridge, the hard palate, and the velum or
sift palate.
The opening and closing of the mouth is made by the combined movements of the
lips and the jaw
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LESSON 6
The Speech Sounds (VOWEL & CONSONANTS SOUNDS OF ENGLISH)
After completing the lesson, the students should be able:
1. identify the distinctive features of vowels and consonants;

2. describe vowels and consonants according to their characteristic features and the
conditions necessary for their production;
3. use the IPA, the vowel triangle and the consonant table to facilitate clear and
accurate production of vowels and consonants; and
4. produce vowel sounds, diphthongs and consonant sounds clearly and accurately in
isolation and in context.
II. Introduction:
Speech sounds are those of vowels and consonants. A vowel sound is a speech
sound that is produced through an open throat and mouth passage without any hindrance or
obstruction. A consonant sound is one that is pronounced with a certain degree of
obstruction and restriction at the lips, inside the mouth and in the throat.
General American English is classified into three namely:
1. vowels (11 English vowels)

2. Diphthongs, and (3)
3. Consonants (25)
III. Discussion:
The English Vowels

A vowel is a permanent element in a syllable. It is formed by allowing the passage of
air from the lungs through the mouth acting as a resonator without any obstruction. This
passing air causes the opening of the vocal bands, called the glottis, to vibrate. Vowels are,
therefore, those sounds which are produced with the vibration of air in the oral cavity.
The relationships of the vowels to one another are known by the device known as the
Victor Triangle. The purpose of this triangle is to show the differences among the vowel
sounds in English and their relative positions on the tongue.
Describing Vowels
Vowels are produced with a mostly open oral tract, so place/manner of articulation (a
la consonants) is not useful in describing them.
In English, all vowels are usually voiced.

1. Tongue height: high = near the roof of mouth
Opening of mouth coincides more or less with tongue height.
– High: [i, I, u, U] leak, lick, luke, look

– Mid: [e, E, @, 2, O, o] bait, bet, sofa, but, bought, boat
– Low: [æ, a] cat, cot
2. Tongue advancement: tongue further forward or back in mouth
– Front: [i, I, e, E, æ] seek, sick, sake, sec, sack

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– Back: [u, U, o, O, a] ooze, look, road, paw, dot

– Central: [@, 2] sofa, but
3. Lip rounding:
– rounded: [u, U, o, O] food, put, road, caught
– unrounded: the rest
4. Tenseness: Tongue positions of the lax vowels are less extreme.

– Tense – [i] (deed), [u] (loose)
– Lax – [I] (did), [U] (put)
5. Tense vowels are longer than their lax counterparts – deed vs. did.
DIPHTHONG– a complex sound consisting of two vowel sounds.
[aI] (right), [oI] (boy), [eI] (they), [aU] (laud), [oU] – (go)
Note: English [e] occurs only in [eI] and [o] only in [oU]. Therefore the glide is often omitted
in simplified transcriptions, because you know it is always there.
The following table shows most of the vowel symbols defined in the current version
of the International Phonetic Alphabet. This table represents the vowels symbols that you
will need to know for this course. In this table the "vowel quadrilateral" roughly represents
tongue position, with positions to the left of the diagram representing vowels produced with
the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth and with positions to the right of the
diagram representing vowels produced with the tongue moved towards the back of the
mouth. Similarly, high positions on the table represent vowels produced with a high tongue
position and low positions on the table represent vowels produced with a low tongue
position. The third dimension on this table (represented implicitly by the paired vowels)
represents lip posture (spread versus rounded lips).
24
I. Complete the sentence by filling the blank. Write only the answer.
1. We took a _____ (sail, sale) around Hawar Island.

2. Fatima responded to Ahmed’s _____ (suit, suite, sweet) by agreeing to marry him.
3. I love the (knight, night) in the story I have read.
4. I like some (serial, cereal) for my breakfast.
5. Don’t (steal, still, steel) for you to be punished.
6. I’d like you to (meat, meet) my parents.
7. My body has so many (cells, sells).
8. There are a lot of (heard, herd) of cattle in the farm.
9. You have to study for the coming (board, bored) exam in Engineering.
10. If I (where, were) you, I will stop talking.
II. Use the following words in a sentence. Underline these words in the sentence.
1. rain
2. reign
3. cent
4. sent
5. read( past tense-read)
6. week
7. weak
8. knew
9. new
10. know
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IV. Exercises:
Read the following words observing the correct formulation of the vowel sounds
indicated in the brackets:
[iy] beat , me, key, seed, chief
Beginning Middle End

Even mean three
Equal reason knee
Easy season agree
Eastern leave tea
Evil seed sea
Evening bead key
Evans deep free
Eatery people bee
Eton green degree
Eve least filigree
[I] sit, give, rid, pick, live
It kiss
Ill live
Image give
Improve fill
Illegal big
Immanent bit
Impure chip
Introvert fit
Contrasting the IY and I (iy) sounds
Seat - sit lead - lid week – wick seek – sick

Peach – pitch leave – live deal – dill feat – fit
Cheap – chip deed – did keen – kin peel – pill
Feel – fill peak – pick sheep – ship teak – tick
The English Consonants:

Describing Consonants
A consonant is a speech sound used with a vowel or diphthongs to constitute
a syllable. Consonant sounds are those sounds which are produced with the partial or
complete obstruction of the air column by some parts of the speech apparatus.
Three-part description of consonants:

1. Voicing – do vocal folds vibrate?
– voiced – vocal folds vibrate
[b], [d], [g] [m], [n], [N], [z], [Z], etc.
– voiceless – vocal folds are open and do no vibrate
[p], [t], [k], [s], [S], etc.
2. Place of Articulation – where the main obstruction is made (lips, teeth, velum, etc.)
– Bilabial (bi – 2, labium – lip): the lips are close together or touching.
[p], [b], [m], [w] (a few people have also voiceless [w] – which [w] vs. witch
[w])
– Labiodental (dental – teeth): the lower lip up is against the upper front teeth.
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[f], [v]
– Interdental (inter – between): the tip of the tongue is between the front teeth
[T] (theta, thick, thigh), [D] (delta, then, thy)
– Alveolar: the tip of the tongue is at the alveolar ridge (the ridge just behind the
teeth)
[t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r], [R] (flap, vitamin)
– Palatal: the tongue is near the hard palate (hard part of the roof of the mouth).
[S] (ship), [Z] (visual), [j] (yes).
Also affricates: [tS] (change), [dZ] (journal ) (alveolar stop + palatal fricative)
– Velar: the tongue approaches the velum (soft part of the roof of the mouth)
[k], [g], [N] (walking)
– Glottal: the glottis is the point of constriction.
[h], [P] (glottal stop)
Nouns Adjectives
Lips Labial/
• the place of obstruction of air at some Bilabial
points in the vocal cords.
• used to classify consonants Teeth Dental
• each place of articulation has an
adjective applied to a consonant Alveolar Alveolar
ridge
Hard Palatal
palate
Soft Velar
palate
Uvula Uvular
Pharynx Pharyngeal
Tip Apical
Blade Laminal
Front Dorsal
Back Dorsal
3. Manner of Articulation – degree of the obstruction (narrowing, closure) & closure release
type
(sudden, slow), etc.
– Stops: made by completely obstructing (“stopping”) the flow of air
[p, t, k, ph, th, kh, b, d, g]
Voiceless stops are either aspirated (pit [phIt]) or non-aspirated (spit [spIt])
--Fricatives: made by forming a very narrow constriction and forcing air through,
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producing a hissing turbulent sound because of the friction between the air
and the sides of the constriction.
[f, v, T, D, s, S, z, Z]
– Affricates: stop immediately followed by a fricative.
[tS, dZ]
– Nasals: the velum is lowered, air passes also through the nose.
[m, n, N] (All other English consonants are oral)
– Liquids: narrow passage, but not narrow enough to cause friction (a la fricatives).
[l, r, R]
– Glides: almost a vowel, but slightly more constricted. The least constricted type of
consonant.
[j, w, w°]
DESCRIPTION OF CONSONANTS
Consonants Place
/p/ Bilabial
/b/ Bilabial
/t/ Tip-alveolar
/d/ Tip-alveolar
/k/ Back-velar
/g/ Back-velar
Blade/front –
/ /
palato-alveolar
Blade/front –
/ /
palato-alveolar
/m/ Bilabial
/n/ Tip-alveolar
/ / Back-velar
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/f/ Labio-dental
/v/ Labio-dental
/ / Tip-dental
/ / Tip-dental
/s/ Blade-alveolar
/z/ Blade-alveolar
Blade/front –palato-
/ /
alveolar
Blade/front –palato-
/ /
alveolar
/h/ Glottal
/l/ Tip-alveolar
/r/ Blade-postalveolar
/w/ Bilabial back-velar
/j/ Front-palatal
Since liquids and nasals are produced with a relatively open passage of air flow, they
can be syllabic: bird [br"d], simple [sImpl"], reason [rizn"],
29
In the production of these sounds, there are three dimensions of variation to be

considered;
A. Voicing:
Consonant may be voiced or voiceless. Voiced sounds are those sounds which are
pronounced with the vibration of the vocal cords. Voiceless sounds are those sounds which
are pronounced without the vibration of the vocal cords. If you place your fingers on your
larynx or Adam’s apple as you pronounce voiced consonants, you will feel the vocal cords
vibrating. If you pronounce voiceless, consonants, there will be no vibration.
The following are the consonant sounds in English. They are classified according to
voicing.
Voiceless Voiced
P pen B Ben n neck
t ten D den ng bring
k cod G good l let
f fine V vine r right
th thigh Dh thy y you
s sue Z zoo w water
sh mission Zh vision hw what
ch chew J Jew
h hot M men
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IV. ACTIVITY:
The students will be given set of words. They will practice pronouncing the words by
adapting the correct production of the sound using the International Phonetic Alphabet.
V. REFERENCES:
2. Flores, Carmelita et.al., Effective Speech Communication, Revised Edition.
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LESSON 7
BLENDING, INTONATION PATTERNS AND PHRASING
• Blend groups of words to show correct rhythm of English;

• develop a good sense of intonation in speaking or reading English sentence
patterns by putting the correct intonation pattern;
• Phrase a given statement correctly by putting the signal in correct position and
for them to read properly applying correct juncture.
II. Introduction:
Blending
In blending, at times called linking, words flow along – one word seeming to blend to the
next. Thus, in connected speech, words and syllables are not pronounced as separate units
within thought groups. One says, Cup of tea / kpbv ti:/ as if it were one word instead of three;
Does he know her? /dezinoer/ instead of four.
Read the following, observing proper blending:
A hall hat rack

A tall candle
An ardent actor
One or two
Do or die
Cream or lemon
A calm answer
An army action
A tall man
Close the door
Has the ticket
Thank the author
Bread n butter
Rice n fish
Ham n eggs
At the party
At the door
At eight o’clock
Look at the moon.

I’m in for a change.
Tell me now.
Serves him right.
In a month’s time.
Take it or leave it.
Hand in your papers.
What of it?
Does it show?
Call her up
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III. Discussion:
Intonation Patterns
In English, intonation patterns consist of the pitch levels and the changes in these
levels within an utterance. Through the changes in pitch and voice quality, we can determine
the emotional state or nature of utterance of a speaker.
Successful communicators speak in a variety of tunes. Their voices rise and fall on
certain syllables. For instance, most native speakers of Standard American English would
say “How are you?” with the same rise and fall of the voice at approximately the same
syllables. The rise and fall is called intonation. Intonation is also the combination of tunes on
which we pronounce the syllables that make up our speech. Speaking, just like singing has a
tune too, except that there are fewer tunes in speaking than in singing.
There are four tunes used in speaking. They are (1) low, (2) normal, (3) high, and (4)
extra high. The first three are the most commonly used tunes and the intonation patterns of
Standard American English are the combination of these three tunes.
English intonation patterns have these essential elements.
Pitch levels – these consist of low, mid or normal, high, and extra high tone of voice.
Terminal contours – these are the characteristics of the voice tone during utterance of units
of thought in complete or incomplete forms. The terminal contours, also called clause
terminals, are used in conjunction with the four pitch levels and they are made up of rising,
falling, or sustained pitch of voice.
Given a mathematical equivalence, the mid or normal pitch is 2, high pitch is 3, and low pitch
is 1.
Common intonation patterns in English are:
High-low falling intonation (3-1) or (2-3-1)
This is a hot day.
Please see me in my office.
Rising intonation (2-3)
Did you go to the party last night?
Are you going home now?
The Basic Intonation Patterns

1. The 2-3-1 or Rising-falling Intonation
The rising-falling intonation or 2-3-1 pattern begins on the normal(2) tune and ends
by raising the voice to high(3) on the last stressed syllable of the sentence, then
making it fall to low(1). This intonation pattern can be illustrated in the following linear
representations:
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a.
b.
The first linear presentation is used when the last word in the sentence has 2 or more
syllables. This is called SHIFT. The second, on the other hand is used for words with one
syllable only. It is called GLIDE.
Uses:
A. Simple statements of fact
Examples:1. You’re up early.
2. Dan had been working for six hours.
3. She is studying.
4. Bahrain is small country.
5. The traffic jam made him late.
6. We drove to the lake.
7. She is a professor in English.
8. Francis is living for Honolulu tomorrow.
9. This is an excellent play.
10. Bernie is interested in anthropology.
B. Commands and Requests
1. Sit down at the table.
2. Look at that boy.
3. Make yourself at home.
4. Clean up your room.
5. Please erase the board.
6. Go to your room.
7. Stand up.
8. Stop that machine.
9. Clean the syringe.
10. Drink this water.
C. Information Question
1. What would you like for breakfast?
2. What is your name?
3. What is your wish?
4. How old are you?
5. Which do you prefer?
6. Who is your friend?
7. Where are you going?
8. When will you see John?
9. Why is she sulking?
10. How many are going?
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1. The 2-3-3 or Rising Intonation

In the rising intonation, the voice begins on the normal (2) tune and ends on a high
(3) tune on the last stressed word of the sentence. The syllables which follow the rise
are pronounced on the high note, too, with the last syllable slightly higher than the
rest. In English, the rising intonation is normally used at the end of questions that are
answered by “yes” or “no”. Observe the lines in the following examples and let your
voice rise as the lines do.
Examples:
1. Did you sleep well?
2. Is he in school?
3. Are you sure you’ve got enough paper?
4. Have you been to may places this year?
5. Can you drive?
3. The 2 – 3 – 2 intonation pattern is used in three common situations

The non-final intonation is used in that part of the sentence which precedes the last
stressed word. It suggests incompleteness of thought and it signals that the speaker still has
something to say. Although the use of this intonation may vary from speaker to speaker with
little corresponding variation in meaning, the student should realize that in any sentence, we
may pronounce on a note higher than normal, the stressed syllable of any word or words to
which we want to call the special attention of the listener.
In the non-final intonation, the voice begins on normal(2) then rises to pitch level 3 on
the stressed word, and returns to normal level or tune(2). This is done when the speaker
wishes to suggest that what follows is connected with what he has just said. This intonation
pattern may be used in the following situations in combination with the rising-falling (2-3-1)
or rising (2-3-3) intonation patterns.
A. In specially stressed function words or content words that precede the last stressed words
as in:
Are you ready to leave? (note you)
They should be here on time.
B. In contrasts and comparisons as in:
I’m looking for a shoebrush not a hair brush.
Dan runs faster than Francis does.

35
C. In sentences where two or more thought groups are divided by short pauses as in:
He’d like to get it,but he can’t.
If you leave now, we have to go with you.
Keep watch,while I run to the station for help.
The intonation Patterns for Specific Structures

The 2-3, 2-3-1 intonation pattern is used for sentences having alternatives with or
and series with and, direct address and tag questions. Variations in the pattern may occur
especially in tag questions.
A. Series with and/Alternatives with or

This intonation pattern (2-3, 2-3-1) is sometimes called the choice question tune. A
rising intonation is used on all parts of the alternatives or series except the last, which is
given the rising-falling pattern (2-3-1). For alternatives with or, the speaker emphasizes the
contrast between or among the various possible choices; for series with and, the speaker
emphasizes the last word of the series.
For example:
He will arrive on Thursday or Saturday.
Would you like to play golf,tennis, or bowling. (note the word tennis)
These are my friends: Maryam,Zainab,and Ehra.
She’d like to buy a bottle of shampoo and lipstick.
Notice the words tennis, Maryam and Zainab, although stressed on the first
syllable, still follow the intonation pattern of the above sentence constructions. The following
sentences have the series with and/ alternatives with or intonation patterns.
1. You can wait or go to another booth.

2. Where would you like to go: to a disco or a café?
3. She’ll find the letters, numbers, or punctuation marks in it.
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4. Is this what you want or what he wants?

5. The clerks prepare invoices, bills, and receipts?
B. Direct Address
Direct address refers to the name or word substituted for a name, such as dear, or
darling, addressed directly to the person to whom one is speaking. This may come at the
end of the sentence or elsewhere, and it does not affect the intonation pattern of the rest of
the sentence.
For example:
You’re very kind, my dear.
Anna, will you please come to Ward No. 10.
But, Sir, I really must attend to this lady.
Note that whatever the direct address is placed, the 2-3 pattern is used.
C. Tag Questions
Tag questions are spoken in two types of intonation patterns. If the tag question is
said as a statement of fact and the speaker is definite that the listener will agree with him,
the tag question is spoken with the rising-falling intonation. For example:?
It’s painful, isn’ t it?
If the sentence is said as real question and the speaker is not sure of the listener’s
answer, the tag question is spoken with the rising pattern. For example:
It’s painful, isn’ t it?
The 2 – 3 – 2 – 3 or 2 – 3 – 2 as the alternate form of the 2 – 3 in grammatical units that

denote incompleteness of ideas or that the speaker has more to say.
For the most part of our lesson…
She’s a lovely girl, (but)…
Under the circumstances,
In the room where the patient is …
Pinky is willing to come…

37
Variation of intonation patterns as dictated by the meaning the speaker wishes to

communicate:
a. Noun of address – 3 – 2; 2 – 3 – 2; or 2 – 3 –1
Dominic, come here.
Mrs. Reyes, this is Dr. Torres.
Thank you for your help, Marcia.
Don’t work too hard, Rey.
Mr. Tan, here’s the bill of lading.
Compound elements – 2 – 3 –1 or 3 –1
Beautiful sunset
a white house
green leaves
airforce
housekeeper
Mark Twain
lighthouse
notebook
News Watch
Enumeration of series of things or statements indicating alternatives or choices

– 2 – 3 – 2 – 3. – 3 – 2 – 3 – 1.
She likes to eat oranges, pies, hotcakes, and sizzling steaks.
These are my children, Johnny, Betty, Nicky, and Kathy.
Will you see Dr. Cruz, Mrs. Luce, and Sister Ana?
Lunch will be served at twelve or at twelve-thirty.
Would you like coffee or tea?
Rate of Speech
Speaking is characterized by variations in speed. Slow speech projects such
personality characteristics as calmness, acceptance of others, and formality. However, if the
rate is too slow, it may project an image of dullness, listlessness, apathy, laziness, and
sometimes lack of intelligence. Rapid speech, on the other hand, projects animation,
enthusiasm, excitement and informality. But to speak too fast may also suggest
nervousness, tension, anxiety, or flighty personality. Slow speech may result in the
38
distortion of vowel sounds, while rapid speech may result in the omission or slighting of
consonants.
It is very important to vary your rate of speaking to avoid monotony. Some kinds of
statements must be spoken slowly, while others must be said fast.
Generally, the rate or speed in speech depends on the thought you are expressing.
Word and Phrase Junctures

Phrase is the length of time spent in silence between words and particularly between
phrases. It may range from a slight hesitation. In writing, it is marked by punctuation signs,
such as commas, colons, and dashes. However, not every comma calls for a pause, nor the
absence of a comma indicates that no pause is required. In long compound-complex
sentences, writers usually omit commas so you have to pause between thought groups and
meaningful units in order to put emphasis and meaning to your sentences.
IV. Exercises
39
Exercise II: Read the following selection using varieties in voice quality, speech level,
intensity and rate of speaking.
FOOTPRINTS IN THE SAND

One night a man had a dream. He dreamed he was walking along the beach with the
Lord. Across the sky flashed scenes from his life. For each scene, he noticed two sets of
footprints in the sand; one belonging to him and the other to the Lord.
When the last scene of his life flashed before him, he looked back at the footprints in
the sand. He noticed that many times along his path of hi life there was only one set of
footprints. He also noticed that it happened at the very lowest and saddest times in his life.
This really bothered him and he questioned the Lord about it. “Lord, you said that
once I decided to follow you, you’d walk with e all the way, but I have noticed that during the
most troublesome times in my life, there is only one set of footprints. I don’t understand why
when I needed you most, you would leave me.”
The Lord replied, “My precious child, I love you and I would never leave you. During
your times of trial and suffering, when you see only set of footprints, it was then when I
carried you.“
1. Flores, Carmelita et.al., Effective Speech Communication, Revised Edition.


40
LESSON 8
HESITATION FILLERS
At the end of the topic, the students should be able to:
1. speak without hesitation fillers;
2. note the importance of speaking without any hesitation filler;
3. identify the different hesitation fillers where we are accustomed to use; and
4. suggest some ways on how to avoid hesitation fillers when speaking to attain
spontaneity.
II. Introduction:
Public speaking skills can be acquired. All of us have the potential to live, relate and
connect with each other better through public communication and leadership. One member
of Toastmaster- a group of professionals whose main goal is to develop their speaking
prowess shares the experiences that everyday is a day that we can become better
communicators.
Human speech is peppered with ums and uhs, among other signs of hesitation in the
planning process. But are these so-called fillers (or filled pauses) intentionally uttered by
speakers, or are they side-effects of difficulties in the planning process? And how do
listeners respond to them? In the present paper we review evidence concerning the
production and comprehension of fillers such as um and uh, in an attempt to determine
whether they can be said to be “words” with “meanings” that are understood by listeners. We
conclude that, whereas listeners are highly sensitive to hesitation dissiliences in speech,
there is little evidence to suggest that they are intentionally produced, or should be
considered to be words in the conventional sense.
Unless you are a robot or a very well-trained speaker, you will realise that as you are
speaking during conversations, there will be "ers, erm, ah, ok, all-rights, lahs" in our speech.
This is normal. This is common. This is what toastmasters refer to as "Pause Fillers".
III. Discussion:
p
What are Pause Fillers?
Nature abhors vacuums and when you are speaking naturally, there will be times
when there are pauses in your speech as you take a breath or as you think about something
you are going to say before you say it. In this short few seconds or even mili-seconds; your
voice utters a sound or sounds to fill in the emptiness that lies between our previous
utterance and the next.
An example:
"I had always been an avid toastmaster for the last five years, because...er...yah, I enjoy
speaking in front of audiences and..and.. therefore going to a toastmaster meeting thrills
me..."
41
The "er..yah" (erms and ahs) in red and the "and...and" (repetition) are pause fillers. They
add nothing to your speech except to make it less fluent and seem cluttered with
unnecessary sounds.
We will consider four kinds of fillers: filled pauses, discourse markers, explicit
editing terms and asides/parentheticals. None of these filler types alters the propositional
content of the material into which they are inserted, and their insertion does not depend on
the word identities of the surrounding material. Annotating fillers consists of identifying the
token(s) that act as a filler, and labelling the filler with the appropriate type. Clean-up of
these phenomena is equivalent to removing the entire word or phrase that constitutes the
filler.
Chains of Fillers
In order to save time during annotation, long strings of contiguous filled pauses may
be labelled as a single multi-word filler rather than a series of separate filled pauses.
(Example: I {um uh oh uh} think I'll have a burger.)
On the other hand, however, the same rule does not apply to discourse markers.
Long strings of contiguous DMs should be labelled individually. (Example: {you know} {I
mean} {uh uh uh} {you know} I just wanted some candy.)
End-of-turn fillers
End-of-turn fillers of ANY kind (in addition to being labelled with the proper filler type) should
be followed by an incomplete SU:
DISCOURSE MARKER ...and I went to the store [/.] you know [/-]
FILLED PAUSE ...and I went to the store [/.] um [/-]
The same applies to final conjunctions:
CONJUNCTION ...and I went to the store [/.] but [/-]
What is a hesitation particle?
Sometimes known as filled pauses, they often precede a dispreferred response in a

conversation. Instead of refusing or declining an offer right away, one usually throws in a
filler word and/or a small pause (could be 0.5 seconds or more).
Hesitation particles are common in everyday speech, but often times speakers are not
aware that they are using these words themselves.
Be careful of overusing them, as too many hesitation particles can make one sound less
powerful or less credible. This is especially true when one is doing a presentation or public
speech to a large audience. In normal conversations, these usually cannot be avoided
completely and we have gotten accustomed using them often.
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Here's a list of hesitation particles in English:

hmmm
oh
eh
uhm
um
er
ah
mmm
Here's a list of filler words to go along with them:

kinda
sorta
like
y'know
perhaps
so
actually
maybe
Filler Type: Filled Pause (FP)
What is a Filled Pause?
Filled pauses are hesitation sounds that speakers employ to indicate uncertainty or
to maintain control of a conversation while thinking of what to say next. Filled pauses do not
add any new information to the conversation (other than to indicate the speaker's hesitation)
and they do not alter the meaning of what is uttered. For instance,
Um I do uh some uh woodworking myself.
Filled pauses can occur anywhere in the stream of speech. In English, the set of
filled pauses includes the following five words:
ah uh
eh um
er
Other sounds or non-lexemes can occasionally be used as a filled pause, and some
speakers may adopt an idiosyncratic filled pause noise that does not appear on the above
list. For the purposes of Simple MDE annotation, we limit ourselves to the filled pauses listed
above.
Other FP functions
Be aware that some tokens that can be used as FPs may have other functions, like
question responses, elsewhere in the discourse. Label tokens as filled pauses only when
they indicate a speaker's hesitation.
Look out for filled pauses that are actually mistranscribed backchannels. For
example, a speaker says "mhm" but the transcription is "uh", with automatic filled pause
annotation. In this case, "uh" is a would-be backchannel.
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FPs occupying a whole speaker turn
Sometimes a speaker's turn consists solely of a filled pause. You should annotate
this as an incomplete SU:
A: I love mowing the lawn [/.]

B: {Um} [/-]
A: Being outdoors is great [/.]
FPs at the end of a speaker turn
Said at the end of the discourse.
Strings of FPs
In order to save time, long strings of contiguous filled pauses may be labeled as a
single multi-word filler rather than a series of separate filled pauses.
The {uh, um, uh uh} oh, what's it called, the {uh, uh} the Chrysler Building.
These will be separated into individual filled pause tokens as an automatic post-
processing step. However, fillers of different types that occur in sequence should be
annotated separately according to their type. For instance,
{Um, uh} {well} {you see} {uh} it's not that simple.
Annotation: FPause Disc.Marker FPause
Upon post-processing, this example will be rendered as follows:
{Um} {uh} {well} {you see} {uh} it's not that simple.
Post-process: FP FP DM DM FP
Filler Type : Discourse Marker (DM)
What is a Discourse Marker?
A DM is a word or phrase that functions primarily as a structuring unit of spoken language.

DMs frequently appear at the beginning or end of an SU. To the listener, a DM signals the
speaker's intention to mark a boundary in discourse, such as a change in the speaker, the
beginning of a new topic or the expression of a response:
That gets on my nerves, too. Anyway, tell me about your new job.
DMs can also serve to indicate the speaker's attitude or orientation toward the discourse; for
instance, a speaker may introduce a discourse marker to indicate a contradictory stance
toward what the other speaker has stated:
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A: I think he's done a terrible job in that position. If it were up to me I'd fire him.
B: See, I don't know if I'd go that far.
Because of the many uses of DMs in speech, and the resulting complexity of defining and
identifying them, we will annotate only a limited set of discourse markers that are used in
clearly recognizable ways. The following words and phrases will be annotated as discourse
markers when they are used to structure the discourse and do not carry separate meaning.
actually* now
anyway* see
basically* well
I mean you know
let's see (now) you see
like so
Unlike strings of filled pauses, strings of multiple DMs must be annotated as separate units
rather than as one multi-DM unit:
{Like}, {you see}, that's a hard question.
NOT
{Like, you see}, that's a hard question.
Many words and phrases used as discourse markers also have other literal meanings:
Do you know how many minutes we're supposed to talk for?

The situation right now is that we're moving in three weeks.
We will label only those instances that function as discourse markers.
*In the case of "actually," "anyway," and "basically," they primarily function as discourse
markers when they occur sentence-initially. Rarely, though occasionally, they do function as
discourse markers sentence-terminally, usually at the end of a turn.
So in these examples, "actually" is serving as a DM:
Actually, I've been involved in recycling for long before it was fashionable.
TI had sent me to Taiwan actually.
...that's not necessarily the fault of immigration, but just the way the world is going to
you know where in a hand basket anyway.
Whereas in this example, "actually" is not:
So they may actually have about three passes at this collection.
It can sometimes be difficult to distinguish when a word or phrase is functioning as a

discourse marker and when it is acting as a content word. In cases of uncertainty,
annotators should leave the word or phrase un-annotated.
You know as a generalizer

45
One example of such an ambiguous case is "you know" as a generalizer that refers to
something external to the sentence. We annotate these as DMs:
It's not like Boston, NY, Philly/. Or you know /-

If the stress is really on she'll break down/. and you know /-
Why do we utter pause fillers?
Pause fillers come in because we tend to be uncomfortable with silence, even as it is for a
very short 1 or 2 seconds or less. Thus, the tendency for speakers is to fill that with sounds
that do not value-add anything to the neither content nor form of your speech.
My personal experience with my own pause fillers started out even before I became a
toastmaster. I remember doing a presentation of my social committee's proposal to organise
the annual dinner and dance as I was the Chairman of this committee. There I was, bringing
the senior management meeting through the proposal when the CEO cut me off saying,
"Stop the lors and the lahs!"
I was both nervous in front of this senior group of people in my organisation as a junior staff
just starting out my career in the organisation plus I was not a trained toastmaster then.
Hence, I was having a lah or ler in my presentation which sounded Singlish and also was
jarring to the CEO's ears.
That experience lingered in my mind until today and I can say confidently now that I speak
better now than I did then because I am more aware of what my pause fillers do to my public
communication.
Negative impact of pause fillers
If you are serious about being a better public speaker either on a one-to-many or
one-to-one situation, you have to be very conscious of pause-fillers because they can cause
the following impact on your audience's perception of you:
1) Lacks confidence and appears unconvincing- If you are confident, your audience
expects you to say what you want to say in a steady and coherent manner. The steadiness
comes from choosing your words carefully and communicating them confidently to the
audience without hesitation, unnecessary pauses and unnecessary pause fillers.
2) Appears unpolished and poorly prepared- Well prepared public speakers shouldn't be
thinking of what they want to say. It should be at their fingertips (metaphorically) as pause
fillers signify you are still thinking of what to say.
3) Jarring on the audience's ears- I don't know about you but pause fillers really make my
skin crawl... Especially when THEY ARE MINE! :-(
4) Appears untrustworthy- Some people associate pause fillers as those who are shifty
and their views and opinions bend with the wind even as their words are not sure nor steady.
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How to overcome pause fillers
1) Recognise that you have them- In order for you to overcome pause fillers, you need to
first recognise that you do use them in your daily speech. In a typical toastmasters meeting,
there will be a person taking up the role of an "ah-counter". The "ah-counter" is someone
who will count your pause fillers so that you are made aware of how many you make in the
course of the meeting. I recall during my very first few toastmasters meeting, I made easily
20-30 pause fillers during the course of doing a 4 to 6 or 5 to 7 minute speech. It was only
later when I became aware of the number of pause fillers in my speech.
2) Getting comfortable with pauses- The way to reduce your pause fillers is to be
comfortable with short pauses in your speech. If you listen to speeches of important men
and women, you will realise that many of them speak with gravity and with deliberate pace,
pausing before major utterances to lend credibility to their spoken words. If you want to be
like them, get comfortable with the natural pauses in your own speech.
3) Be well prepared- One of the other ways to overcome pause fillers is to be well
prepared. When you are well prepared you will be confident enough with your material to
field questions deliver your speech and convince the audience of your message.
Let's overcome pause fillers by recognising it, getting comfortable with pauses and to be
always well prepared for speaking opportunities.
Speak well and to live well.
IV. ACTIVITIES:
Each student is given a situation or issue to talk about for a 3-5 minutes. The goal of
the activity is for each to speak with spontaneity by avoiding the use of any hesitation filler.
The lesser number of hesitation fillers while talking or none at all will be given the [perfect
mark.
Activity 2:
The teacher prepares tongue twisters. Each student will be given a tongue to deliver
with accuracy and speed.
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LESSON 9
PLANNING THE SPEECH
ESSENTIAL STEPS IN SPEECH PREPARATION
I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After completing this lesson, the student should be able
to:
1. Discuss the five essential Questions in Speech Preparation;

2. Make a speech outline;
3. write a speech adapting the correct parts
II. INTRODUCTION
In your imagination you may see yourself delivering a speech, hear yourself being
stunning, the audience clapping wildly then rising to their feet, to give you a standing
ovation. Realizing that dream is not impossible. Follow the steps of speech preparation,
begin at the beginning: planning your speech. And then deliver it with all your might later!
There is nothing called ‘a shortcut’ or ‘a magic formula’ for a good speech.
Planning your speech is where the fun begins!
III. DISCUSSION
The Five Essential Questions
Brainstorm to start planning your speech

On a piece of paper or in a word document on your computer write these headings with
enough space between them for notes:
1. WHO- Write down as much as you know about the audience. This will give you ideas of
what they will want to hear and be interested in. It will also be your guide when it comes to
shaping your material. Make notes covering: number, age group, gender, ethnicity (if
appropriate), common or uniting factors and specific interests they may have (if you know
them).
The notes may read like this: Approximately 25 people
• Mostly mid to late 30’s

• All women
• Mixed ethnic background but all speak English
• City dwellers
Mostly work inside the home.
2. WHAT - Check how, what you know or have been asked to talk about can be specifically
shaped to meet and serve the interests of your audience.
Let’s look at an example.
Meet Martha Brown. She’s been asked to give a motivational speech to the group
identified above. The organizer wants her to share her life story as a guide or inspiration.
Martha’s background is similar to many of the women she will be speaking to. She came
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from a family who struggled financially and is one of the few amongst her relatives who has
maintained a good marriage, raised children and now runs a successful business. She
developed a small catering firm specializing in delivering beautifully presented gourmet
meals and finger food on demand. Martha is conscious of her good fortune but also knows
the starting point, or the seed, lay within her. She desired the change of circumstances so
much she enabled them to happen
Her notes may look like this:
• Speech Title:
How to win a future for your family when the kids need feeding and the bills
want paying.
• I am like you – I get too busy to plan ahead, I have a tendency to deal with whatever
squeals loudest, I get tired…
• Before and after – life before I made the decision to start my own business – life after
I made the decision. Comparisons – several examples.
• The hardest part of making the decision and acting on it was… Examples.
• The best part of making the decision…Examples. People who inspired me to act.
• What I’ve learnt in the process about my family, others and myself…Examples.
• How I keep myself inspired…goal setting, listening and learning from others
• The future – the way forward for you, the women in the audience listening.
3. HOW- There are two important ‘hows’.

The first is how long the speech is to be. The time given you will determine what you put
into your speech and what you will leave out. If you have a relatively short time (3-5
minutes), you will need to either focus on one major topic with examples to illustrate or settle
for covering a maximum of three lightly.
The second how relates to the method of presentation. For example: Will this be a speech
told with humor? Will you have a ‘show and tell’?
When you consider this ‘how’ bear in mind the different needs of your audience. Most people
have a preferred mode for receiving information. Some people understand well through
listening. They are called ‘auditory’. Some people get most of their understanding through
looking. They are called ‘visual’. Others receive and understand information best when they
can touch, feel or do what is being explained to them. These are the ‘kinesthetics'. A
considerate and effective speaker tries to include all three modes in their speech.
Martha’s Notes:
How long?
Time available = 10 minutes. (Maybe some more but that depends on the rest of the agenda
of the meeting and how well it flows.( Could be some space for questions from the audience
and answer.)
How to present?
With humor! Also take some flyers, business cards and samples of finger food along. These
49
can be available for people to pick up at the end of the presentation.
4. WHEN- The time and day of the speech have an impact on what you do and say. Be
conscious of presenting challenging material when people are either both tired and hungry
(just before lunch or dinner) or when they’ve just eaten! Concentration spans are not at their
best in either situation.
Martha’s Notes: 2.45pm, Wednesday, 2nd August
5.WHERE- The environment you are to speak in can have a huge part to play in shaping the
final presentation of your speech. Points to consider are:
 Where will I be in relation to the audience?
 Will they see me easily?
 Will they hear me easily?
 Do I need a microphone?
 Is there a place to put my notes if I’m using some?
 Are there power points if I want to use any electronic devices?
 Do I have to provide everything I want to use (e.g.: computer, screen…)?
Many fully prepared, beautifully rehearsed speeches fail because insufficient thought has
gone into where they are to take place.
Martha’s Notes: Multi Purpose Hall. It can seat everybody comfortably and there’s room for
a table to put out a display of flyers and trays of food, paper napkins etc. Arrange the chairs
in a horseshoe or semi-circle so everybody can see clearly.
Outlining and research
1. Outlining – according to ideas.
Now mix ‘n match and re-write until the outline is clear. After you’ve completed this part of
planning your speech you’ll be ready to do any research required and then you’re on to the
task of writing your speech.
Martha’s Finished Outline:
Speech length: 10 minutes
Speech title: How to win a future for your family when the kids need feeding and the
bills want paying
Introduction (1minute):
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Thanks for coming today …Summer heat, we’d all rather be at beach reading a book
under a sun umbrella….etc. But I’ve got something for you that’ll more than make up
for it. I look around the hall and I see a lot of women just like me: women, who work
hard, love their families, etc…want the best for them. (Insert anecdotal humor,
perhaps a small personal story about the checkbook…The only way I could manage it
was to banish it the bottom drawer of the filing cabinet. Likewise I used my credit
cards to test how sharp my scissors were.)
Main Idea 1 (3 minutes):

Introduce business and what it is. Explain how it functions on a daily basis. Briefly
outline long-term goals. (Quick show-and-tell with flyers and food. Invite people to
sample at end
and ask questions.)
Main idea 2 (2 minutes):

My life before the business (tie to women in audience). My life after business started.
What I have achieved. The hardest part about starting, staying in business. The best
part about starting, staying in business. People who have inspired me.
Main idea 3 (3 minutes):

What I’ve learnt in the process about my family, others and myself…Examples. How I
keep myself inspired…goal setting, listening and learning from others
Summary: (1minute):
Very quick round up of principal points. The future – the way forward for you, the
women in the audience listening. Invite questions if time. Remind them about the
flyers and the food! Thank organizers.
2) 0utlining according to structure
The outline will help clarify what you want to say as well as help organise your material.
The process is broken down into 4 steps:
STEP 1: Preparation:
Deciding on your topic, considering the audience, refining your topic to suit them,
deciding on the purpose of the speech and the organisational method you will use
Sample Speech Outline - Step One - Preparation
1. Topic - decide what you are going to talk about
2. Audience - consider who will be listening to you and what aspects of your topic
are best suited to meet their needs
3. Refine or Limit Topic - reframe in view of your audience -decide on the angle
you will take and whether or not you need to limit the scope
4. Define Purpose - Is it, for example, to persuade, inform, demonstrate, entertain,

or welcome? Is it a combination of these?
51
5. Organisational Pattern or Method - There are 6 basic organisational patterns

or methods of arranging the body of your material. Choose the one most
appropriate for your need.
A. Cause - Effect Because event A happened, event B occurred.

B. Problem - Solution -The problem is X. The solution is Y.
C. Logical- This pattern suits a broad topic which is broken down into
naturally occurring sub-topics.
Example:- Broad topic: Vocal Variety Sub-topics: rate of speech, use
of pausing, voice tone, volume, articulation...
D. Spatial or Geographic - Topics dealing with physical space.
Example:- The popular tourism areas in New Zealand
E. Time or Chronological Historical- topics dealing with the sequence of
events or demonstration speeches, for example, how to bake a cake
F. Advantage – Disadvantage- For examining the range of positive and
negative aspects to an idea or event
STEP 2: INTRODUCTION
Introduction:- opening greeting and attention getter, defining your thesis

statement (a summary of what your speech is about) establishing your credibility, an
overview and the benefit to the audience
Sample Speech Outline - Step Two - Introduction
1. Greeting - Attention Getter - How are you going to greet your audience,
grab their attention and compel them to listen?
2. Thesis Statement - A one sentence summary of your speech topic and your
point of view or angle.
Example:- Green politics is no longer a fanciful, fringe fad. It is a neccessity.
3. Credibility - Establishes your right to speak on the topic, cites your

qualification or expertise
4. Summative overview - Brief outline of the main points to be covered
5. Benefit - What's in your speech for your audience? Why will they want to
hear what you've got to tell them?
STEP 3: BODY
Body:- transition or link between introduction and body, main ideas with
supporting ideas, examples and details
Sample Speech Outline - Step Three - Body
Transition - the link between your introduction and the main body of your
speech.
52
A. Main Idea 1 - Supporting ideas - Details and examples - Visuals or props -
Transition to...
B. Main Idea 2 - Supporting ideas - Details and examples - Visuals or props -
Transition to...
C. Main Idea 3 - Supporting ideas - Details and examples - Visuals or props -
Transition to...
STEP 4: CONCLUSION
Conclusion:- summary of main points and closer or call to action
Sample Speech Outline - Step Four - Conclusion
Summary of main ideas - from body of speech
Re-statement of thesis statement - from introduction
Re-statement of benefit to audience - from introduction
Closer, Clincher or Call to Action - final sentence
IV. EXERCISES: Given the speech outline frame, fill in with information to outline
your intended speech.
Sample Speech Outline
Step One – Preparation
A. Topic:-
B. Audience:-
C. Title of Speech:-
D. Purpose of Speech:-
E. Method of Organization:-
Step Two – Introduction
A. Greeting:-
B. Attention Getter:-
C. Thesis Statement:-
D. Credibility:-
53
E. Summative Overview:-
F. Benefit:-
Step Three – Body
A. Transition (signals moving from introduction to body) :-
B. Main Idea 1:-
■ Supporting Ideas:-
■ Details/Examples:-
■ Visuals/Props:-
C. Transition:-
D. Main Idea 2:-
■ Visuals/Props:-
E. Transition:-
F. Main Idea 3:-
■ Visuals/Props:-
G. Transition (signals moving from body to conclusion) :-
Step Four – Conclusion
A. Summary of Main Points:- 1, 2 & 3
B. Re-statement of Thesis:-
C. Re-statement of Benefit:-
D. Closer, Clincher & Call to Action:-
V. ACTIVITY:
The student will write a personal speech about issues that concern their own
field of interest containing the different parts of speech.
54
LESSON 10
SELECTING METHOD OF DELIVERY
I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
After completing this lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Discuss the three methods of delivery namely, Manuscript Speaking,

Memorized Speaking, Extemporaneous Speaking.
II. INTRODUCTION
When it comes time to present your speech, there are several methods of
delivery to choose from. In most cases, your subject matter will be the main criteria for
deciding whether to read verbatim, memorize your script, or work from cue cards. In the
case of a scholarly presentation with an extensive amount of detail, you may choose to
write out your speech and deliver it as written. If your goal is to persuade your audience
through high-energy speaking and eloquent prose, you may choose to script and
memorize your argument. When introducing an informal topic with which you are
familiar, you may find that index cards and an outline will suffice. No matter which way
you choose to present your speech, you need to be prepared!
III. DISCUSSION
Manuscript Speaking
Writing the content of your speech out word for word may be appropriate for certain
situations. For instance, when you are presenting critical facts or statistics, having the data
at your fingertips helps to prevent errors. While misquoting information might sound like a
minor offense, under certain circumstances it can have grave repercussions, such as being
sued for slander. Though in most cases incorrect information will only confuse your listeners
and embarrass you, it's good to remember that such mistakes won't be tolerated in many
professions, including law and politics.
The drawback to a scripted speech is that the audience will almost certainly know
that you are reading word for word. This has several drawbacks, including decreased eye
contact and stilted delivery, both of which leech power away from your presentation and tend
to create a feeling of disconnect between the listeners and the speaker.
If giving a manuscript speech is necessary, practice is the best way to avoid a bad
presentation. By reading your speech aloud several times, you will become more
comfortable with the rhythm and inflections of your writing. Make sure that you are thinking
about where and when you can make eye contact with your audience to underscore your
points and add emphasis to important parts of your speech.
B. Memorized Speaking
When a presenter memorizes a speech, it's basically a manuscript speech minus the
paper. Memorizing a speech can improve eye contact with an audience. Body language may
also improve because the speaker has more freedom to move about the area, since
papers/notes will not be used. A problem posed by memorizing a speech arises when the
55
presenter forgets the speech. This can cause an embarrassing, awkward situation and make
the speaker appear inept. Plus, the speaker's tone tends to sound artificial and rehearsed.
C. Extemporaneous Speaking
An extemporaneous speech (extemp speech) is delivered from a prepared outline or note

cards. The outline and/or note cards include the main ideas and arguments of the speech.
The only information that is typically copied word for word are quotes. Outlines and note
cards should be used for keeping the presentation organized and for reminding the
presenter what information needs to be provided.
Extemporaneous speaking has many advantages compared to the other methods of

delivery.
For one, an extemporaneous speech sounds spontaneous because the presenter is not
reading word for word. Glancing at an outline or a note card that has key ideas listed allows
the presenter to add detail and personality to the information being presented.
Second, similar to with memorized speaking, eye contact and body language can increase.
The speaker’s head is not down, buried in a manuscript.
Third, the speaker is able to take in audience feedback and respond to it as it occurs. An
audience tends to change moment by moment, and a good speaker can tell when more or
less detail is needed for different parts of the presentation.
In order to ensure an extemporaneous speech’s strength, it is important to practice

presenting with the outline or note cards being used. Inexperienced speakers tend to worry
that they will forget important information if they do not write it out on their outline/note card.
Practicing your speech, even if it's just to your pet or mirror will help increase your
confidence level in both delivery and knowledge of the subject
IV. ACTIVITY:
The students will deliver a speech in any of the methods of delivery discussed
in class.
56
LESSON 11
VOICE AND GESTURES
THE EFFECTIVE SPEAKING VOICE
I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After completing this lesson, the student should be

able to:
1. Identify and discuss the elements of voice;

2. use various types of voice qualities in conversation and in reading;
3. use various levels of pitch, degrees of intensity and rate in communicating
meanings, moods, feelings effectively in various speaking situations; and
4. discuss the importance of correct voice tone.
II. INTRODUCTION
You have written a brilliant speech with convincing arguments and key
facts and statistics. You have even included a perfect story to illustrate the human
factor involved in your topic. You’re vocabulary is mature and your grammar is
impeccable. You have three things for your audience to do, expressive action words,
neat notes, and a good joke.
But that’s just 7% of the way to capturing your audiences’ attention and
inspiring them to action…
Your ability to influence and inspire your audience comes not just from the
words you say, but from how you say them and how you look when you say them.
Modes of Effect on audience attention,

Communication learning and inspiration
Verbal 7%
(the words you say)
Vocal 38 %
(how you say them)
Non-verbal 55 %
(facial expression
and body language)
III. DISCUSSION
Most of the communicating sales professionals do are wordless. The
moment you enter the presence of another person you start communicating. Your
physique, your clothing, jewelry, voice qualities, facial expressions, posture and
many other factors pass along important information. They give information or clues
as to social, marital and financial status, your sex, and personal taste.
When you speak, your voice speaks in ways that go beyond words. Your
accent may give away your national or regional origin. Your tone of voice will tell
people whether you feel elated or sad, excited or bored.
57
Through verbal communication, people learn about your thoughts, ideas,

products, and services. Through non-verbal communication, they learn about your
feelings.
When George Bush ran for president in 1988, he hired a voice coach to help
him lower his voice an octave. Why? Because the candidate's high-pitched voice
had helped saddle him with the "wimp" image, even though Bush had proved his
valor as a Navy combat pilot during World War II.
We convey feelings, moods and attitudes through a variety of voice qualities,

which are sometimes called paralanguage. Among these qualities are volume, pace,
intonation, stress and juncture.
A. VOICE QUALITY
Voice is the production of sound while speech is the combination of sounds
so that they become symbols that represent meanings to both the speaker and the
listener. The human voice consists of sound made by a human being using the vocal
folds for talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, etc. Human voice is specifically
that part of human sound production in which the vocal folds (vocal cords) are the
primary sound source.
Voice is said to be PLEASANT or UNPLEASANT. This is often called the
“TMBRE” or “TONE COLOR” and it results from the weight exerted on the vocal
cords by the resonators in the process of speaking. Our individual voice quality has
been determined for us by nature- the size of the larynx, pharynx, mouth, resonators-
but we can change and improve the quality of our voice through the correct use of
the speech organs.
Any discussion on voice quality needs a relative dichotomy between a good
voice and unpleasant voice. For a voice to be considered good it should be clear,
pleasant, varied and understandable; it should be free from tension in the throat,
inadequate breath control, or inadequate use of resonating cavities because these
produced irritating characteristics such as harshness, or hollowness.
1. The Normal Voice

In conversation, you speak naturally showing little or no emotion. The
speaker talks without any tension at all.
Example: reading a passage from the Holy Book
2. The Breathy voice

When you want to create an atmosphere of secrecy and mystery, you use
this voice. This breathy whispered type of the tone is an “ASPIRATE” quality of the
voice best heard in the “STAGE WHISPER” in which the sound of rushing air present
in the real whisper is sustained by a partial vibration of the vocal cords.
3. The Full Voice

In many forms of public speaking when the voice must be projected to a
greater distance, or when an occasion is formal and dignified, you use the full, deep
quality of your voice. Also known as “OROTUND” (round mouth) quality, it is
produced by opening the mouth somewhat wider and by increasing the oral and
nasal resonance so that the voice acquires a more ringing tone.
4. The Chesty Voice

This is a deep hollow voice as if coming from a deep empty cave. Its voice
quality has less nasal resonance and it is accompanied by a vibration in the bony
58
structure of the upper chest, thus making it a chesty voice with a “PECTORAL”
quality.
5. The Thin Voice

This voice quality is thin and high-pitched, the high pitch being its chief
characteristic. This “FALSETTO” quality occurs only in extreme fatigue, weakening,
old age, ill-health or in extreme excitement.
The use of these voice qualities will always depend on your mood and the
speaking situation. In ordinary conversation and in public speaking, the normal and
full qualities are desirable but for acting, oral interpretation, and role delineation the
thin, chesty, and breathy qualities are useful.
B. Volume and Pace
Volume and pace should be used in a careful, controlled way. These

qualities can work in unison to achieve powerful effects, especially when selling and
persuading from the public platform. You can let your voice rise to a crescendo, the
pace and volume quickening until you reach a peak of excitement. Or you can drop
to a dramatic whisper.
Volume should always be great enough that you can be heard by everyone
you're trying to reach with your voice. When addressing a group through a
microphone, that generally presents no problem for you. When speaking without a
microphone, keep checking the people farthest from you for signs that they're
straining to hear, or indications that their attention is straying.
Pace should be adapted to the message. Some simple but telling points can
be made effectively in rapid-fire sequence. Others can be made by slowly drawing
out the words or by long pauses to let the points sink in.
Speed
 You will always be faster than you think you are because everyone gets
nervous when they are speaking
 If you are angry, frustrated, happy or saying something really exciting
speed up just a little bit to get people more into the pace of the emotion.
 If you are trying to convey something a little sadder, slow down a little
more so that every word sinks in.
C. Pauses
 Let your audience absorb what you said

 Give yourself time to remember the next line and breadth
 Pauses help you stay calm and when properly employed, can give you an air
of confidence, professionalism and thoughtfulness
 Pauses reduce the “umms” and awkward stammering
 After you ask a question or say something shocking have a pause
 Pause for water only during 2 and 3 second pauses if possible
IV. EXERCISES
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Q1. Practice the following six steps for a better speaking voice
1. Control Your Breathing

Breath control is essential for healthy and effective speaking. Breathing from your
diaphragm allows for you to:
 relax
 deliver emotional content
 improve the quality of your delivery.
2. Master Your Volume

Volume should be at a reasonable level. If you are:
 Too loud: tone down.
 Too soft: use breath support -- focus tone in front of you and
articulate.
3. Establish a Comfortable Rate

A comfortable rate (or speed) of speaking is approximately 150 words per
minute. If you speak too fast, slow down-pauses are very powerful. If you
speak too slowly, practice developing a faster pace.
4. Vary Your Musical Pitch

Using your entire vocal range through variance in pitch adds interest and
personality to your voice. To improve your pitch, practice "siren sounds." Start
on a different note each time you do them.
5. Articulate
Articulation is necessary so that your words can be understood regardless of
your speed or forcefulness. Exercises to improve articulation include: use of
the facial muscles, dropping the jaw, emphasizing vowels, and emphasizing
consonants at the ends of your words.
6. Practice Excellent Voice Quality

Voice Quality is how pleasing your voice is to listen to. Proper breathing and
use of the resonators will add richness to your voice. To improve your quality,
place the sound in your inner mouth area, not your throat or nose. Also, hum
with you mouth closed, teeth apart, to feel the buzz in the front of your face.
Q2. Voice Coaching – Practice voice coaching by working with a partner
The voice naturally gains power, resonance and clarity by releasing and
focusing physical, emotional and mental energy.
Explore the process of making vocal sound, and release the expressive
potential of your speaking voice.
You will discover methods of freeing your voice through simple relaxation,
breathing, sound and movement exercises.
Added Benefits:
• Improved self esteem
• A fuller and richer sounding voice
• Greater vocal variety and range
• Greater emotional and physical vitality
• Improved posture
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• Mental and physical relaxation

• Fewer neck and headaches
LESSON 13
HAND AND BODY MOVEMENTS

able to:
1. discuss the importance of appropriate hand and body movements;

2. learn to adopt a comfortable speaking posture;
3. discuss the importance of projecting total self confidence;
4. use body language to power up his speech
II. INTRODUCTION
“What the heck do I do with my hands?” is one of the most common

questions asked during public speaking skills training programs. The answer is
usually, “nothing.” Instead, it’s better not to do anything with your hands. When you
become more comfortable speaking in front of groups of people, you feel and act
more natural, and your hands will do whatever they want and will fit right in with your
presentation. However, you need to know what to do until then, don’t you?
What not to do: Do not put your hands in your pockets, do not put your
hands in your pockets and jingle your change, do not clasp your hands in front, do
not hold one arm with your other hand, do not lean on the lectern, and do not tap the
lectern. In other words, do not fidget with your hands. Fidgeting doesn’t just happen
with the hands, it also happens with the entire body. Have you ever seen anyone
speak who appears drunk because of all the swaying they are doing, or someone
who appears as if they’ve had too much caffeine because of the quick pacing back
and forth, or the person who stands frozen stiff afraid to move in case someone
notices them? You want people to notice you! But of course you want them to notice
you as a confident, engaging, and professional presenter!
III. DISCUSSION
Just because you may be nervous doesn’t mean you have to show it.
It’s no one’s business. Have your body language do two things:
A. Project total self confidence, control, and command of the room
Stand tall with good posture. Think confident and you will look confident.
Move around, but in a controlled manner, not a nervous pacing manner. For
example: walk a little to the left, stop and talk, walk towards the middle, stop and talk,
walk towards the right, stop and talk. Let your hands be natural by your side, or waist
height in front talking with your hands a little bit, or make a gesture when you say
something where you want to add some emphasis.
B. Enhance your speech to be more engaging.

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Have your body movements match what you say. If you are telling a story
about a time you were driving in the car, act out the motion of being behind the
steering wheel and driving. If you mention swerving around a curve, motion and
exaggerate the movement of swerving. If you crash, show them the crash and what
your body did. Exaggeration is always good for effect, entertainment, and keeping
your audience’s attention. The larger the audience, the larger the exaggeration.
Believe it or not, most communication is done through body language. Think

of your pet, a cat in your back yard, or any other kind of animal. How much do they
communicate verbally and how much do they communicate with their bodies? The
answer is obvious. We are no different. The words you say don’t matter as much as
what your body says. What is your body saying when you present in front of others
and/or when you interact with others? Start paying attention to your posture, your
nervous fidgeting, and your body movements. If you find that they do not portray
confidence, if they do not portray control, and if they do not enhance your
communication where you are more engaging in a group setting or one on one,
change your body language and watch how your confidence increases, your
interactions improve, and how your results become more positive.
In any speech or presentation, your body language adds power to the

message. It support what your words are saying. The operative word here is, of
course, “support”. Body language must be in tune with the message. And the
corollary is that body language must also not distract or detract from the message. If
they are denying each other, then your presentation will fail.
C. Confidence and sincerity
They are the absolute basis for this process. If your body is declaring that
you are not sincere in what you are saying then your credibility decreases and there
is no way your message will have the impact it should have.
Think about the tone of your message. Is it relaxed, conversational? Then

make your body language relaxed. Is it passionate, strong and powerful, then create
body language that conveys that power. Is it alert and enthusiastic, then your body
language will be upright and reflecting that enthusiasm.
D. Gestures
You also need to be aware that your gestures can support or detract from
your message. Learn to become aware of what your hands are doing while you
speak. If necessary, make yourself hold them still. Many people have habits that are
terribly distracting and yet they aren’t aware of what they are doing. They click or
twiddle a pen, play with their hair or their clothes, hold a microphone with fingers
unconsciously making a rude gesture, take glasses on and off, put hands in pockets
and take them out. All of these things are not necessarily detrimental in themselves,
if the audience is absolutely focused on the speaker and the message. But if there is
any reason for the audience’s attention to stray (and we all have short attention
spans) then they will become fascinated, at best, and possibly annoyed at whatever
it is that the speaker is doing with their hands.
If, on the other hand, (my pun!!), those hands are working to support the
speech, they will bring the attention back to the message. They will also give power
to the impact of the message.
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Natural gestures are basically the aim. If you are not a natural gesturer, your
body will support your message. It is necessary to be aware that you are not
repeating the same gesture many times. It may add emphasis the first time, but after
that it will distract as much as the others mentioned earlier. Watch television
journalists and sooner or later you will notice this.
You can also practice gestures. Join a public speaking club where you can
practice in a supportive environment until you are comfortable, and confident that
your gestures are not detracting from your message.
Of course, there are many books and websites with information about body
language and gestures. Basically:
• Gestures above shoulder level support messages about things that are
spiritual or uplifting (a preacher in a mosque will raise his hands in blessing).
• Ordinary messages are supported by gestures at the middle level of your
body.
• Things that are despicable or degrading or debilitating are supported by
gestures below the waist.
You can use your palms. Held out, palm upwards, they support supplication,
requesting a response, or openness. They can be used to indicate division if held
vertically with the little finger down.
Using a fist is a very powerful gesture. It indicates strong power and passion,
and may also be used as a threat. Be careful with that. Take care, too, with pointing
with a finger. People don’t respond well to accusation or to being singled out, so be
sure your gesture supports your message.
E. Clothes
Your clothes, too, can distract attention from your message. If you have a
very bright or unusual item of clothing, if your scarf or tie flaps in a breeze, if your
earrings dangle or click, or your necklace or tie pin clicks on a microphone, the
audience will be distracted from your message. Again, unless your message is
absolutely riveting, your clothes will become the centre of attention just as gestures
can, and your message will lose its impact.
F. Standing and Walking
How you stand and walk works in just the same way. If you are a passionate
speaker who simply cannot stand still, then hopefully you will support the passion of
your message. Try to use standing still to give the same sort of impact that a pause
in the middle of rapid speech would give. If you choose to move or change position
just to provide relief because you think your speech is boring; be careful. It may be
that your movement will have more impact than your massage. Timing can help so
that you change position with a new idea or with a new visual support. Try to make
all of your body language work with the movement. So, for example, if you want to
walk to give the impression of thinking of a new idea, then set your hand up to your
face to indicate thoughtfulness, and speak slowly or stop speaking altogether.
IV. EXERCISES
Q1. Which of the following are common faults of inexperienced speakers?

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1. Gripping or leaning on the lectern

2. Finger tapping
3. Lip biting or licking
4. Toying with coins or jewelry
5. Frowning
6. Adjusting hair or clothing
7. Head wagging
8. Making eye contact
9. Standing straight
10. Using hand movements for conveying emotions
Q2. Videotape yourself. Deliver a speech. Eliminate any superfluous behavior

which did not help you to deliver an effective speech. Note down the points as
in:
1. Posture
2. Gestures
3. Body movement
Q3. Review your tape a second time with the picture turned off and listen only
to your voice. Become accustomed to listening to your voice. Note what you
like and what you don’t like. Pay attention to speed, volume and tone of your
voice.
IV. ACTIVITY:
The students will deliver a speech and demonstrate the use of an
appropriate hand gestures while speaking.
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Lesson No. 13
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS

able to:
1. discuss the importance of facial expressions;

2. learn to convey our feelings and emotions through correct eye contact;
3. describe communication through physical appearance;
II. INTRODUCTION
Many people say, "I'm okay in a small group, but when I get in front of a
larger group I freeze." The only difference between speaking to a small informal
group and to a sizable audience is the number of listeners. To compensate for
this, you need only to amplify your natural behavior. Be authentically yourself, but
amplify your movements and expressions just enough so that the audience can
see them. Speak from the heart and to the soul through your facial expression.
III. DISCUSSION
Leave that deadpan expression to poker players. A speaker realizes that

appropriate facial
A. Facial Expressions
Expressions are an important part of effective communication. In fact,

facial expressions are often the key determinant of the meaning behind the
message. People watch a speaker's face during a presentation. When you
speak, your face-more clearly than any other part of your body-communicates to
others your attitudes, feelings, and emotions.
Remove expressions that don't belong on your face.
Inappropriate expressions include distracting mannerisms or unconscious

expressions not rooted in your feelings, attitudes and emotions. In much the
same way that some speakers perform random, distracting gestures and body
movements, nervous speakers often release excess energy and tension by
unconsciously moving their facial muscles (e.g., licking lips, tightening the jaw).
One type of unconscious facial movement which is less apt to be read

clearly by an audience is involuntary frowning. This type of frowning occurs when
a speaker attempts to deliver a memorized speech. There are no rules governing
the use of specific expressions. If you relax your inhibitions and allow yourself to
respond naturally to your thoughts, attitudes and emotions, your facial
65
expressions will be appropriate and will project sincerity, conviction, and

credibility.
B. Eye Contact
Eye contact is the cement that binds together speakers and their
audiences. When you speak, your eyes involve your listeners in your
presentation. There is no surer way to break a communication bond between you
and the audience than by failing to look at your listeners. No matter how large
your audience may be, each listener wants to feel that you are talking to him or
her.
The adage, "The eyes are the mirror of the soul," underlines the need for
you to convince people with your eyes, as well as your words. Only by looking at
your listeners as individuals can you convince them that you are sincere and are
interested in them, and that you care whether they accept your message. When
you speak, your eyes also function as a control device you can use to assure
your listeners' attentiveness and concentration.
Eye contact can also help you to overcome nervousness by making your
audience a known quantity. Effective eye contact is an important feedback device
that makes the speaking situation a two-way communication process. By looking
at your audience, you can determine how they are reacting. When you develop
the ability to gauge the audience's reactions and adjust your presentation
accordingly, you will be a much more effective speaker.
How To Use Your Eyes Effectively
1. Know your material. Know it so well that you don't have to devote your mental
energy to the task of remembering the sequence of ideas and words.
You should prepare well (remember to use the 9 P's) and rehearse
enough so that you don't have to depend heavily on notes. Many speakers, no
matter how well prepared, need at least a few notes to deliver their message.
If you can speak effectively without notes, by all means do so. But if you
must use notes, that's fine. Just don't let them be a substitute for preparation and
rehearsal.
Even many experienced speakers use notes. Often, they take advantage
of such natural pauses as audience laughter or the aftermath of an important
point to glance briefly at their notes. To make this technique work, keep your
notes brief. (See Chapter 6 for more on this topic.)
2. Establish a personal bond with listeners. How do you do this? Begin by

selecting one person and talking to him or her personally. Maintain eye contact
with that person long enough to establish a visual bond (about 5 to 10 seconds).
This is usually the equivalent of a sentence or a thought. Then shift your gaze to
another person.
In a small group, this is relatively easy to do. But, if you're addressing

hundreds or thousands of people, it's impossible. What you can do is pick out
one or two individuals in each section of the room and establish personal bonds
66
with them. Then each listener will get the impression you're talking directly to him
or her.
3. Monitor visual feedback. While you are talking, your listeners are responding
with their own non-verbal messages. Use your eyes to actively seek out this
valuable feedback. If individuals aren't looking at you, they may not be listening
either. Their reasons may include one or more of these factors:
They may not be able to hear you.

Solution: If you are not using a microphone, speak louder and note if that
works.
They may be bored.

Solution: Use some humor, increase your vocal variety or add powerful
gestures or body movements.
They may be puzzled.

Solution: Repeat and/or rephrase what you have just said.
They seem to be fidgeting nervously.

Solution: You may be using distracting mannerisms. Maybe you have food on
your clothes (or worse, maybe your blouse is unbuttoned or your fly isn't closed).
Make sure you are aware of these embarrassing possibilities before and during
your speech. If necessary, try to correct them without bringing more attention to
them. On the other hand, if your listeners' faces indicate pleasure, interest and
close attention, don't change a thing. You're doing a great job!
C. Your Appearance
If your listeners will have on suits and dresses, wear your best suit or
dress - the outfit that brings you the most compliments. Make sure that every
item of clothing is clean and well tailored.
Don't wear jewelry that might glitter or jingle when you move or gesture.
This might divert attention from your speech. For the same reason, empty your
pockets of bulky items and anything that makes noise when you move.
Part of the first impression you give occurs even before you are
introduced to deliver your speech. As the audience arrives, your preparation
should be concluded. You shouldn't have to study your speech. Instead, mingle
with the audience, and project that same friendly, confident attitude that will make
your speech a success.
When you speak-especially if you aren't well known to the audience-the

most crucial part of your presentation is the first few minutes. During that initial
segment, the audience will be making critical judgments about you. Your listeners
will decide whether you are confident, sincere, friendly, eager to address them
and worthy of their attention. In large measure, they will base this decision on
what they see.
After your introduction, walk purposefully and confidently to the speaking
position.
D. Walking Patterns
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Why move in the first place?
Moving forces people to focus and follow you. The way you walk from
your seat to the speaker's position is very important. When you are introduced,
you should appear eager to speak. Too many speakers look as though they are
heading toward execution.
Walk confidently from your seat to the lectern. Pause there for a few
seconds, then move out from behind the lectern. As discussed before, it is wise
to use the lectern as a point of departure, and not a barrier to hide behind.
Smile before you say your first words. Be careful not to stand too close to,
nor move beyond, the people in the front row. Be careful not to walk too much.
Doing so will work against you. Continuous pacing is distracting. Walking can be
an effective way to stress an important idea. It is essential that your walk be
purposeful and intentional, not just a random shift of position. Taking about three
steps, moving at a shallow angle, usually works best.
When employing visual aids, use three positions. One position is your
"home" position and should be front and center. The other two positions should
be relatively near the "home" position. Never stand in front of any visual aid.
When you practice your speaking, make sure you also practice your
walking patterns. Try walking to and from your three positions. These positions
should be planned just as your hand gestures are.
When standing still, remember to maintain good posture. Stand up

straight.
Remember it's not what you say- it's how you say it and your body does
speak very loudly.
IV. EXERCISES
Q1. Mark as true or false.

1. Expressions are an insignificant part of effective communication.
2. People watch a speaker's face during a presentation.
3. Always remove expressions that don't belong on your face.
4. Inappropriate expressions include distracting mannerisms or unconscious
expressions.
5. Licking lips and tightening the jaw exudes confidence.
6. One type of unconscious facial movement which is less apt to be read clearly
by an audience is involuntary frowning.
7. It is not easy to speak and smile at the same time.
8. Making eye contact with the audience is usually frightening for every speaker.
9. In some cultures direct eye contact is inappropriate.
10. A head shake from the audience will tell you who agrees or disagrees with
you.
Q2. Remember and practice.
1. Be yourself. - Don't try to copy the facial expression style of someone else. For
example, just because your favorite professional speaker starts his or her
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presentations by telling a story using exaggerated facial expressions doesn't mean

it will work for you.
2. Don't overdo it. - Some people intentionally try to control their facial
expressions by forcing themselves to smile or use another expression that isn't
natural to them. Watch out for "fake" facial expressions that have a negative
impact on your speech or compromise your sincerity.
3. Practice in front of a mirror. - Notice what expressions you use while

speaking. Study how to control your facial expressions. Ask yourself, Do they
match my words?
4. Create different moods. - While practicing in front of the mirror, see if your
facial expressions convey the mood you want to create. If your face isn't showing
any emotion, stop, refocus, and try again.
5. Think about what you are saying. - Focus on your message and
communicating with your audience, and your facial expressions will follow.
6. Smile before you begin. - As I've said before, the one true international non-
verbal expression understood by all is the smile. A warm smile before you begin to
speak warms up an audience quickly, and ending with a smile puts your audience
at ease with what they've just learned.
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LESSON 15
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION CRITERIA
I. Learning objectives:
II. Introduction:
III. Discussion:
70
LESSON 16
PREPARING AND MANAGING VISUAL AIDS
TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF VISUAL AIDS

able to:
1. discuss general guidelines for use of visual aids.

2. discuss the types and functions of visual aids
II. INTRODUCTION
One way to increase the effectiveness of a presentation is to supplement it

with visual aids. Not only do they give people something new to focus on, a chance
to change their seating position and lean forward a bit, anticipating what interesting
thing you're about to share with them, but they give you another channel through
which you can communicate. You see, it's great for people to hear what you have to
say but even better if they both hear and see your information.
III. DISCUSSION
A. General Guidelines for Use of Visual Aids
• Visual aids should always supplement, rather than replace, words in a speech. If
you simply show a poster of words and then read what it says to the audience,
the visual aid is unnecessary. If, however, words are less clear or have less
impact than a picture, a graph, or an object, then a visual aid would enhance the
speech and should be used. Often an audience will judge a person who allows
the visual aid to take over the speech as unprepared because they will think the
visual is doing all the work. Avoid this impression.
• Be sure all punctuation and spelling is perfect.
• Be sure the details in a visual aid can be easily seen from the back of the room.
This may mean you must enlarge photographs, for example. If this can't be done,
don't show the visual aid, rather than to show one which is inferior. Lettering
should also be large and sharp. Generally, letters one inch in size can be seen
from about 30 feet.
• Always speak with your back to the visual aid and your eyes on the audience,
rather than speaking to the visual aid. Of course, you may glance at the visual aid
now and again to be sure you are pointing correctly.
• Practice with your visual aid so that you are used to using it and can iron out any
problems ahead of time.
• Conceal the visual aid whenever you are not speaking directly about it.
Otherwise, the attention of your audience will be on the visual aid rather than on
you.
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• Use a pointer, rather than your finger, to direct the audience's attention to a
particular place. Electronic or wooden pointers are effective. Rulers are
unprofessional.
• Lay everything out before you glue anything down.
• Use glue, not tape.
• Matt pictures to make them stand out and look finished. Dark colors work best.
• Mounting tape raises pictures above the matt and gives your visual depth.
• Balance words and images in your layout.
B. Types and functions of Visual Aids
1. Posters.
Posters can take many different forms. They can be pictures mounted on
heavy paper, for example, or diagrams, charts or graphs you draw yourself.
Charts or graphs are especially useful when you want to show your audience
numbers or statistics in comparative ways. The visual display of these numbers
can have a stronger impact on your audience than mere words. Here is an
example of a bar graph:
Perhaps a bar graph like this one might compare, say, various
nutrients a vegetarian would eat compared to those same nutrients
consumed by a non-vegetarian. You can see how a visual image of this
comparison would be more effective than just reading the numbers to your
audience.
Special Recommendations:
1. Be sure information, especially if you've made a graph, is accurate.

2. Information compiled by you in graph form is more impressive than a
graph copied from published materials.
3. Don't hold posters up with your hands. Use an easel to display them,
never a chalkboard tray. Put all posters in order on the easel before the
presentation begins. Place a solid colored blank poster of the same size
on top to conceal the visual aids when not speaking about them.
4. As you refer to a poster, remove the cover poster and carefully slip it
behind all the other posters on the easel. NEVER put a poster on the floor
or on a table. Continue moving posters behind all the others as you move
through them. Replace the cover poster on top when you are finished.
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5. If there is a lengthy time of speaking between posters, pull the cover

poster from the back and place it carefully in front so the audience returns
their attention to you and remove it again when you are ready to resume.
6. Posters should be colorful but not garish.
7. All printing should be neat and in a block style. Producing lettering on a
computer is a good idea. Never cross mistakes out. Redo the poster
instead.
8. The background should be light and lettering and pictures dark. Light
pictures stand out more if placed on dark colored construction paper first
and trimmed to make a dark border before being attached to the light
background.
9. Consider placing border tape or a dark band of ink from a marker around
the outside of the entire poster to add a professional look.
10. Consider a three dimensional look to posters by gluing on items with
texture.
11. If posters must be transported, place them in a large garbage bag or other
covering to keep them clean and dry.
2. Photographs or slides.
Photographs are one of the most tempting types of visual aids to use but
one of the most difficult because they are designed for individual, rather than
group, viewing. Also, photos are fun to look at but that doesn't mean they really
enhance a speech. Slides are much better suited to large group presentations
but they can quickly overtake a speech and also must be used in a darkened
room.
1. Be sure the details in a photograph can be easily seen from the back of
the room. Most of the time, this means you will have to enlarge it and find
an attractive way to display it. You might consider using an opaque
projector (these are hard to find these days but allow you to put the
photograph or a page from a book directly under a light which is then
projected onto a screen or white wall), turning the photo into a slide, or
turning the photo into an overhead transparency.
2. Don't pass a photograph around. It will distract listeners either during your
own speech or the speech following yours and, most likely, the audience
will be looking at the picture at the wrong time.
3. Mount photographs onto poster paper and conceal and reveal them as
described above.
4. If you use slides, keep the number of slides shown small so that they
don't become more of a focus in the speech than you are.
5. If you must darken the room, be sure you have practiced that ahead of
time so that you know where light switches and outlets are and be sure
you aren't asking your audience to read or take notes in a room too dark
to do so.
6. Be sure you have set up a slide projector ahead of time and have set the
focus and distance before the presentation begins.
3.Objects or models.
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Sometimes, showing your audience the actual object you are talking
about is the best idea. Models are simply three dimensional, scaled-down
replicas of something you are talking about (like a building, a car, and so on)
and are handled like objects in a presentation. Objects or models have the
advantage of being very interesting. However, some objects or models can
be difficult for everyone to see; others are too big or inappropriate to bring
into a presentation room. For example, it might be most useful, if
demonstrating how to mount a horse properly, to have an actual horse handy
but it is hardly appropriate to bring one into a school room
1. Conceal objects or models with a cloth or a bag or some other

covering until you are ready to talk about them. Consider setting more
than one object or model up ahead of time on a table and then placing
a sheet or cloth over the entire table.
2. If the object or model is too difficult for everyone to see, don't use it.
Otherwise, be sure you hold the object or model up high and in such a
way that parts of your hand or body don't block the view of it.
4. Videos.
A short clip from a video can be an effective visual aid. Of course, the
presentation room must be equipped with a monitor mounted for group viewing
and you must be able to easily attached the video player to it if this is not already
done.
1. Be sure the video is cued to the exact spot you want to show before your
presentation begins.
2. Be especially careful to keep viewing segments short, as a video can
quickly overtake the presentation.
3. If you plan to show more than one segment, view the material ahead of
time with a counter and know just exactly where each spot is before the
presentation so that you can fast forward quickly to the spot you wish to
show. The player you use will need to be equipped with a counter as well.
4. Practice showing a clip on the exact player and monitor you will use
during your presentation so that you are familiar with the equipment and
viewing environment ahead of time.
5. Consider how the audience is seated in relationship to the viewing place.
If you must ask the audience to reposition themselves, consider ahead of
time what you will say and how this will be accomplished quickly.
Remember, the audience may also need to be returned to an earlier
seating arrangement at the end of the showing.
5. Yourself or others.
Using yourself or others as a visual aid can be a lot of fun and is most
useful if you are demonstrating something. There is the added advantage of
immediacy and surprise with people as visual aids.
74
1. Avoid using yourself as a visual aid when it is a last minute decision

because you need a visual and didn't take the time to develop one earlier.
Few people are fooled by such a strategy and doing this only reinforces
your lack of preparation.
2. Be sure any movements are large enough to be seen from the back of the
room.
3. If you use others as visual aids, be sure to practice often ahead of time
with them. They must be very comfortable with what is expected of them if
this sort of visual aid is to be effective.
6. Presentation software.
Many software programs now exist which allow a speaker to use a

computer and a viewing screen to help present information. Most often, the
"frames" are like slides created on a computer and contain textual reminders
of the outline of main ideas in the speech and sound effects to go with those.
Using such presentation software is exciting because it is still considered
leading edge. Also, becoming comfortable with using such tools helps to
prepare you for a future which, likely, will rely much more heavily on materials
something like what is available today. Members of your audience may see
you as motivated and skilled if you make the effort to keep up with newer
technology.
1. Of course, you must have access to a computer, the software, and the
viewing equipment necessary to show your work to a large group. This
equipment may be quite expensive. Also, you must have access to these
materials for extended periods of time because you will need to compose,
practice, and present with the equipment.
2. Be sure you take the time to learn the software well and to be very
familiar with the hardware. Nothing looks more incompetent than a
presenter who bumbles about during the presentation with equipment or
software he or she does not understand. Remember, too, that surprise
errors can happen when using computers. You need to know how to get
out of unanticipated problems easily.
3. Limit the amount of information on a frame to one idea each.
4. Using sound effects and fade-in/fade-out effects can be attention getting
but they can easily be overdone. Restrict the special effects to a limited
number and try to match the effect with the message.
5. Like posters, the color of the text, graphics and background should be
designed for easy viewing. Keep things simple and keep viewing ease,
rather than fancy showing off, as your guiding principal in your choice of
colors and fonts.
7. Handouts.
Handouts are materials on paper which you give out to each person
in the audience to take away with them. Some presenters like to use give out
an outline of their own speech or key ideas so that audience members do not
feel they have to take notes during the presentation. Another use for
75
handouts is to give the audience a chance to examine things more closely

which you refer to in your speech (say, a letter you wrote to a business
person or to the editor) but don't want to talk about or read in detail.
1. Handouts must be professional looking. Pay close attention to

conventions. Use a simple, standard-sized, block-style font.
2. Be sure you have enough for each person in the audience to get one. If
you aren't sure of your audience size, overestimate rather than
underestimate.
3. Think about how and when you will pass around the handouts. You want
them handed out as quickly as possible with as little interruption to your
speech as possible. Few people will be listening to what you say if things
are being passed around the room, so you may want several volunteers,
chosen ahead of time, to be ready to help you. It is probably best to give
materials out when you mention them rather than before the speech
begins or else people will read your handout rather than listen to what you
say. Of course, they may do this in the middle of the speech also. You
may want to invite your audience to take just a moment to glance at the
handout when they receive it but to look in greater depth later. If you hand
them out at the end of your presentation, they may interrupt someone
else's presentation or be irrelevant at that time.
IV. ACTIVITY:
Based on the written speech in class, the student will choose an appropriate
visual to back him up when he will deliver his speech.

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1

AMA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY instructional modules in ENGLO3

1. describe the nature of oral communication;

The Nature of Oral Communication

In order to function successfully academically and professionally, you need to learn

By becoming an effective communicator you will be able to conduct yourself in a

B. Why is Communication Important?

Communication is a process that involves exchange of information, thoughts, ideas

Types of Communication Based on Communication Channels

Types of Communication Based on Style and Purpose

Informal communication includes instances of free unrestrained communication

Types of Nonverbal Communication

Facial expressions are responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal communication.

4. Body Language and Posture

8. Dress and Appearance

1. Tan, Arsenia B. Public Speaking and Speech Improvement for Filipinos

Effective Communication: A good working definition for effective communication is to

Lead-off Question: How have you had a communication problem or failure to

Anticipated Responses: — Students will offer a variety of personal experiences that

Follow-up Question: Was there a miscommunication because of a lack of

Anticipated Responses: — Yes, explore the student’s responses.

1. SENDER – The communicator or sender is the person who is sending the

2. MESSAGE – A communication in writing, in speech, or by signals

3. RECEIVER – The receiver is simply the person receiving the message,

How can that be? (When receiver responds, he is then the

4. FEEDBACK – Feedback is that reaction I just mentioned. It can be a verbal

Teaching Tip: Students will sometimes forget to mention nonverbal communication.

1. Tan, Arsenia B. Public Speaking and Speech Improvement for Filipinos

1. What is non-verbal communication? Give examples.

2. List 11 techniques for improving your listening skills. Discuss each.

Stereotypes: Our perceptions of other cultures sometimes cause us to form

Working on improving your communications is a broad-brush activity. You have to

1. Recall a time when you experienced a problem as a result of poor communication.

There are four stages of speech mechanism.

THE HUMAN LUNGS

THE HUMAN DIAPRHAGM

THE HUMAN LARYNX

1. identify the distinctive features of vowels and consonants;

General American English is classified into three namely:

1. vowels (11 English vowels)

The English Vowels

In English, all vowels are usually voiced.

– High: [i, I, u, U] leak, lick, luke, look

2. Tongue advancement: tongue further forward or back in mouth

– Front: [i, I, e, E, æ] seek, sick, sake, sec, sack

– Back: [u, U, o, O, a] ooze, look, road, paw, dot

4. Tenseness: Tongue positions of the lax vowels are less extreme.

DIPHTHONG– a complex sound consisting of two vowel sounds.

1. We took a _____ (sail, sale) around Hawar Island.

Beginning Middle End

[I] sit, give, rid, pick, live

Contrasting the IY and I (iy) sounds

Seat - sit lead - lid week – wick seek – sick

The English Consonants:

Three-part description of consonants:

/w/ Bilabial back-velar

In the production of these sounds, there are three dimensions of variation to be

• Blend groups of words to show correct rhythm of English;

Read the following, observing proper blending:

A hall hat rack

Look at the moon.

English intonation patterns have these essential elements.

Common intonation patterns in English are: