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INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS

TOPICS
• Blackbody Radiation & Plank’s Hypothesis
• The Photoelectric Effect
• The Compton Effect
• Photons and Electromagnetic Waves
• The Quantum Particle
• The Double-Slit Experiment revisited
• The Uncertainty Principle

Text Book:
PHYSICS for Scientists and Engineers
with Modern Physics (6th ed)
By Serway & Jewett
MIT- MANIPAL 1
INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION

Failure of classical mechanics

Brief summary of chapter 40 of the text book

2
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

INTRODUCTION

Origin of thermal radiation – the classical


view point

Concept of oscillators

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 3


BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

Definition of a Black-Body
Black-Body Radation Laws
1- The Stefan-Boltzmann Law
2- The Wien‘s Displacement Law
3- The Rayleigh-Jeans Law
4- The Planck Law
Application for Black Body
Conclusion
Summary
4
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

A body which absorbs all the


electromagnetic radiation falling on it is
called a black body.

Black body’s are good absorbers of radiation


are also good emitters.

A blackbody is one whose absorptivity is


100%.

A black body will emit radiation at the fastest


rate. A black body has maximum emissive
power at a particular temperature.
Blackbodies absorb and re-emit radiation in a characteristic pattern
called a spectrum.
Lamp black surface may be considered as perfectly black for all
practical purposes.
Fery designed a black body

FIGURE 28.1 The opening to the cavity


inside a hollow object is a good
approximation of a black body.

It consists of a double walled hollow metallic sphere with a


narrow opening and lamp-blacked.

When the radiation enters into the body through the hole, it
suffers multiple reflections inside the sphere and is
completely absorbed.

This causes a heating of the cavity walls.


BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

The oscillators in the cavity walls vibrate and cavity


walls re-radiate at wavelengths corresponding to the
temperature of the cavity, producing standing waves in
the cavity.

Some of the energy from these standing waves can


leave through the opening.

The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the black


body is called black-body radiation.

7
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

1. The black body is an ideal absorber of incident


radaition.

2. The emitted "thermal" radiation from a black


body characterizes the equilibrium temperature
of the black-body.

3. Emitted radiation from a blackbody does not


depend on the material of which the walls are
made.

MIT- MANIPAL 8
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
General characteristics of
curves
1. At the given temperature the
intensity of radiation
increases along with the
wavelength and reaches the
maximum value at a
particular value of
wavelength λmax. Then it
decreases along with the
increase of the wavelength.
Figure shows Intensity of 2. At a given temperature, the
blackbody radiation versus intensity is not uniformly
wavelength at three distributed in the radiation
temperatures. spectrum of a black body. 9
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
General characteristics of
curves

3. The wavelength λmax at the


maximum emission of intensity
shifts towards the shorter
wavelength as the temperature
increases.

λmaxT= a constant
This represents Wien’s
displacement law.

MIT-MANIPAL 10
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
General characteristics of
curves
4. For all wavelengths the energy
emission increases along with the
temperature.

5. The area under the each curve


gives the amount of energy
emitted at a given temperature.
At room temperature, black
bodies emit mostly infrared
wavelengths, but as the
temperature increases past a few
hundred degrees Celsius, black
bodies start to emit visible
wavelengths, appearing red,
orange, yellow, white, and blue
with increasing temperature.

By the time an object is white, it


is emitting substantial ultraviolet
radiation.
12
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

Basic Laws of Radiation

1) All objects emit radiant energy.

2) Hotter objects emit more energy than colder objects


(per unit area). The total power of the emitted radiation
increases with temperature.
This is Stefan-Boltzmann Law.

3) The peak of the wavelength distribution shifts to


shorter wavelengths as the black body temperature
increases.
This
MIT- MANIPAL
is Wien’s Law.
BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11
13
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
Black-Body Radiation Laws (1)
 Stefan Boltzmann Law.

Stefan’s states that the power of the emitted radiation is


directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute
temperature.
Thus
P α T4

P = σ A e T4
P- power in watts radiated from the surface of an object
σ- is a constant called Stefan’s constant. σ= 5.670 x 10-8 W/m2.K4
A- the surface area of the object in square meters.
e – the emissivity of the surface
T – the surface temperature in Kelvins.
We know,

I= P/A is the definition of intensity.

For a black body e=1 exactly.

So we can write, Stefan’s law in the form:

I= σ T4

Failed to predict the shapes of the curve and the shift


of the peak with temperature described by Wien’s
displacement law.
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

Black-Body Radiation Laws (2)


 Wien’s Displacement Law.
The peak of the wavelength distribution shifts to shorter
wavelengths as the temperature increases.
lm T = constant = 2.898 × 10-3 m- K, or lm  T-1

Where λm - peak of the wavelength


distribution in the black body emission
spectrum.
T- is the absolute temperature of the
surface of the object emitting the
radiation. 16
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

SJ: P-SE 40.1 Thermal radiation from Different Objects.

Find the peak wavelength of the blackbody radiation


emitted by each of the following.

A. The human body when the skin temperature is 35°C

Solution:
T=273+35=308 K

lm T = constant = 2.898 × 10-3 m- K


lm = 2.898 × 10-3/T
lm = 9.4 μm

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 17


B. The tungsten filament of a light bulb, which operates
at 2000 K.

Solution:
lm = 2.898 × 10-3 /T
lm = 2.898 × 10-3/2000

lm = 1.4 μm

C. The Sun, which has a surface temperature of about


5800 K.

lm = 2.898 × 10-3/5800=0.5 μm
18
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

Black-Body Radiation Laws (3)


 The Rayleigh-Jeans Law.
The Rayleigh-Jeans law gives a distribution of energy for a
particular wavelength λ as
2 πck BT
I (λ , T ) =
λ4
Where kB – Boltzmann's
constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K).
T object temperature in
kelvins.
c- velocity of light. 19
To describe the distribution of energy from a black body, it
is useful to define I(λ,T)dλ to be the intensity, or power per
unit area, emitted in the wavelength interval dλ.

2ck B T
I (, T) d  d
4

Where
I (,T) d is the intensity or power per unit area emitted in
the wavelength interval d from a blackbody.
I (,T) d=P/A

Where λ=(λ1+ λ2)/2

d= 1~λ2 20
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

It agrees with experimental Rayleigh-Jeans Law


measurements for long
wavelengths.

It predicts an energy output that


diverges towards infinity as
wavelengths grow smaller.

Limitation: It was found that Rayleigh-Jeans law holds good


in the region of longer wavelength but not for shorter
wavelengths.

Thus Wien’s law as well as Rayleigh-Jeans law do not agree


with the experimental results throughout its spectrum. 21
Ultraviolet catastrophe
The failure has become known as the ultraviolet
catastrophe.
According to the equation:
2 πckBT When λ approaches zero, the function
I (λ , T ) = 4 I(λ,T) approaches infinity.
λ In contrast to this prediction, the
experimental data plotted shows that as
€€
λ approaches zero, the function I(λ,T)
approaches zero.
This mismatch of theory and
experiment was called Ultraviolet
catastrophe.
(This ‘‘catastrophe“ – infinite energy-occurs as the wavelength
approaches zero – ‘ultraviolet‘ was applied because ultaviolet
wavelengths are short). 22
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
Black-Body Radiation Laws (4)
 The Planck Law
The distribution of energy from a black body at a particular
wavelength λ is given as
2 π hc 2 1
I(λ, T) =
λ5 hc
λk B T
e - 1
Where kB – Boltzmann's constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K).
T- object temperature in Kelvins.
c- velocity of light
h- Planck’s constant=6.626 x 10-34 J.s
Only the extra quantity (compared to the Rayleigh-Jeans Law)
coming here is the constant known as Plank’s constant (h)
introduced by Max Planck in this revolutionary theory. 23
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
The results of Planck's law

For very small λ,


• The denominator [exp(hc/λkBT)] tends to infinity
faster than the numerator (λ-5), thus resolving the
catastrophe.

i.e. I (l, T)  0 as l  0.

24
SJ: Section 40.1 P-10.
For very large λ:
Show that at longer wavelengths, Planck’s radiation law reduces
to the Rayleigh-Jeans law.
2 π hc 2 1
I(λ, T) =
λ5 hc
λk B T
e - 1
hc
Take x 
k B T
x2 x3
Use e  1 x 
x
  .........  1  x
2! 3!
(  l arg e x  small, higher order terms  neglected

25
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

The Planck Law gives a distribution that peaks at a


certain wavelength, the peak shifts to shorter
wavelengths for higher temperatures, and the area
under the curve grows rapidly with increasing
temperature. In short, the law fitted the experimental
data for all wavelength regions and at all
temperatures. Planck’s Assumptions
Planck assumed that the cavity radiation came from atomic
oscillations in the cavity walls.
He made two bold and controversial assumptions
concerning the nature of the oscillators in the cavity walls. 26
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS
1) The energy of an oscillator can have only
certain discrete values E Quantized Energy Levels
of a Harmonic Oscillator

E n = nhf

where n is a positive integer


called a quantum number,
f is the frequency of oscillation, and
h is a constant called Planck’s constant.
• Energy of the oscillator is quantized.
• Each discrete energy value corresponds to a
different quantum state, represented by the
quantum number n.
27
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S S HYPOTHESIS
2) The oscillators emit or absorb energy only when
making a transition from one quantum state to
another.
• Difference in energy will be integral multiples of hf.
• If it remains in one quantum state, no energy is
emitted or absorbed. Quantized Energy Levels
of a Harmonic Oscillator

Figure shows allowed energy


levels for an oscillator with
frequency f, and the allowed
transitions.

28
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS
SJ: P-SE 40.2 The Quantized Oscillator
A 2.0- kg block is attached to a spring that has a force
constant of k = 25 N/m. The spring is stretched 0.40 m from
its equilibrium position and released.
A. Find the total energy of the system and the frequency of
oscillation according to classical calculations.
Solution: The total energy of a simple harmonic
oscillator having an amplitude ‘A’ is given by

E= ½ k A2=1/2( 25 N/m) (0.4m)2= 2.0 J

1 k
f   0.56 Hz
2 m 29
B. Assuming that the energy is quantized, find the quantum
number n for the system oscillating with this amplitude.

E n = nhf

n= E n /hf = (2 J)/ (6.626 x 10 -34 ) (0.56)

n = 5.4 x 10 33

30
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANCK’S HYPOTHESIS

SJ: P-SE 40.2 The Quantized Oscillator contd.

Suppose in the previous problem, oscillator makes a


transition from the n = 5.4 x 1033 state to the state
corresponding to n = 5.4 x 1033 -1.

By how much does the energy of the oscillator change in this


one-quantum change.

Solution: E= En-En-1= hf= 3.7 x 10-34 J

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 31


BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS
SJ: Section 40.1 P-5 The radius of
our Sun is 6.96 x 108 m, and its total
power output s 3.77 x 1026 W. (a) Sun
Assuming that the Sun’s surface emits as a
black body, calculate its surface
temperature. (b) Using the result, find max Area=A=(4πR2)
for the Sun. (Sphere)
(a ) P  eA T
1/ 4
4
1/ 4
 P   3.77 x 10 W 26

T   4 
 eA   8 2 8 2
1( 4 ( 6. 96 x10 m ) (5. 67 x10 W / m .K )
T  5.75 x 103 K

2.898 x 10 3
( b)  max  3
 504 nm
5.75 x 10 K

32
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS

SJ: Section 40.1 P-9. An FM radio transmitter has a


power output of 150 kW and operates at a frequency
of 99.7 MHz. How many photons per second does the
transmitter emit?

P  nE  nhf ,
Where n  no.of photons emitted per sec ond
P P 150 x 103
n   34
 2 .27 x10 30
photons / s
E hf (6.672 x10 ) x (99.7 x 10 )
6

33
SJ: Section 40.1 P-6.
A sodium-vapor lamp has a power output of 10.0 W. Using
589.3 nm as the average wavelength of this source, calculate
the number of photons emitted per second.

P  nE  nhf ,
Where n  no.of photons emitted per sec ond
P P P P 150 x 103
n      2 .96 x1019
photons/ s
c
E hf h ( ) hc (6.672 x10 ) x (99.7 x 10 )
34 6

34
BLACKBODY RADIATION & PLANK’S HYPOTHESIS

SJ: Section 40.1 P-1

The human eye is most sensitive to 560 nm light. What is


the temperature of a black body that would radiate most
intensely at this wavelength?

Solution:
T=constant/λm= 2.898 x 10-3/560 nm
= 5.18 x 103 K

35
SJ: Section 40.1 P-3 A blackbody at 7500 K consists of
an opening of diameter 0.050 mm, looking into an oven. Find
the number of photons per second escaping the hole and
having wavelengths between 500 nm and 501 nm.

Take: λ2= 501 nm, λ1= 500 nm, So λ=500.5 nm


dλ= 501-500 = 1nm
T= 7500 K
kB= 1.38 x 10-23, h=6.627 x 10-34, c=3 x 108, d=0.050 x 10-3
m
Solution: Planck’s law gives intensity per wavelength.
Taking E to be photon energy and n to be the number of
photons emitted per second, we multiply by area and
wavelength range to have energy per time leaving the hole.
36
2hc 2 1
I (, T ) d  d  P / A Hole
5
hc

e k B T
1 (circle)
d 2
2hc 2 A 1 2hc ( ) (  2  1 )
2

P d   4
5   
hc 2 hc

e k T  1
B
( 1 2 5
) e (   ) k T  1
1 2 B

2 Area=A=(πd2/4)
  2
where   1 & d   2  1
2

Then P=10.32 x 10-4 Watts


c 2c
P  nE  nhf , E  hf  h ( )  h ( )  7.94 x10 19
 1   2
Where n  no.of photons emitted per sec ond
P
n   1.3 x 10 / s
15

E 37
SJ: Section 40.1 P-7 Calculate the energy in electron
volts, of a photon whose frequency is (a) 620 THz, (b)
3.10 GHz, (c) 46.0 MHz (d) Determine the
corresponding wavelengths for these photons and state
the classification of each on the electromagnetic
spectrum.
(6.627 x 10 34 J.s) x (620 x1012 Hz)
(a ) E  hf   2.57eV
(1.6 x10 J ) 19

( b) Similarly f  3.10 GHz  3.10 x 109 Hz, E  1.28 x 10 5 eV

(c) f  46MHz  46 x 106 Hz E  1.91 x10 7 eV


c
(d ) Use  
f
3 x 108
(a )    484 nm ( visible, blue color)
(620 x 10 Hz)
12

( b)   9.68 cm ( radio wave)


(c)   6.52 nm ( radio wave)
38
SJ: Section 40.1 P-10.
A simple pendulum has a length of 1.00 m and a mass of 1.00
kg. The amplitude of oscillations of the pendulum is 3.00 cm.
Estimate the quantum number for the pendulum.

arc 3 x102 m
Take     0.03 radian
radius 1m
The simple pendulum' s total energy : E  mgh  mg(L  L cos )
E  (1.0 kg) (9.8ms )(1.00  0.9995)
2

E  4.41x103 J
1 g
Frequency of oscillation :f   0.498 Hz
2 L
Now, E  nhf
E
So, n   1.34 x1031
hf

39
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

1. Introduction
1. What is Photoelectric Effect?
2. Apparatus for studying Photoelectric Effect
3. Experimental Observations
4. Classical Predictions
5. Clash between Classical predictions
6. & Observed Experimental results
7. Einstein’s model of the Photoelectric Effect
8. Explanation for the observed features of PE
1. Application
2. Conclusion
3. Summary
MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 40
The Photoelectric Effect
Light of frequency (f)

Emission of electrons
(Photoelectrons)

(Photosensitive Photo electric current


metal)
Photoelectric effect

The emission of electrons from a metal plate when


illuminated by light (electromagnetic radiation) of suitable
wavelength (or frequency) is called photoelectric effect.
The emitted electrons are called as ‘photoelectrons’.
Photoelectric Effect Schematic
An evacuated glass/quartz tube
When light (an appropriate
wavelength) strikes Emitter (E),
photoelectrons are emitted.

Electrons collected at Collector


(C) and passing through the
ammeter (A) are a current in
the circuit.

E & C: two electrodes in an evacuated quartz tube)


E-Emitter: metal (photosensitive material) connected negative
terminal of the battery.
C- Collector plate C connected to the positive terminal of the
battery.
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
Laws of Photoelectric
Emission
1. The number of electrons
emitted per second i.e.
i photoelectric current is directly
I proportional to the intensity of
incident light.

Photoelectric current (i) α Intensity of incident light


(I)
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
2.For a given material, there exists a certain
minimum frequency (fc) of incident light so that
photo-electrons can be ejected from metal surface.
This minimum frequency is known as threshold
/cutoff frequency ( fc).

Light of frequency (f = fc)

If f = fc
Photoelectric current
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
3. If the frequency (f) is more than this frequency (fc)
electrons escape from the metal surface and move with
certain amount of “kinetic energy” (K.E. =1/2 mv2).
Light of frequency (f > fc)

photoelectric current
If f > fc
& electrons have KE

KE of photoelectrons is directly proportional to frequency of


incident light. KE  f
1
mv  f
2

2
v f
2
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Laws of Photoelectric Emission

i.e. Maximum kinetic energy of the


photoelectrons increases with increasing light
frequency.

4. Electrons are emitted from the surface of the


emitter almost instantaneously.

46
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
5. The minimum value of the retarding potential to prevent
the electron emission is called the stopping potential.
In such a case the

Kmax = e ΔVs

Where Kmax- maximum KE of the


Photoelectric current electrons
versus applied potential
difference for two light e- electron charge (1.6 x 10-19 C)
intensities.
ΔVs- stopping potential
47
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Einstein’s Interpretation of em radiation
(A new theory of light)
1. Electromagnetic waves carry discrete energy
packets (light quanta called photons now).

2. The energy E, per packet depends on frequency f.


E = hf.

3. More intense light corresponds to more photons, not

higher energy photons.

4. Each photon of energy E moves in vacuum at the


speed of light c, where c = 3x 108 m/s.
48
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Einstein’s model of the photoelectric effect


6. A photon of the incident light gives all its energy
hf to a single electron (Absorption of energy by the
electrons is not a continuous process as envisioned
in the wave model) and

Kmax = hf - 

Einstein's photoelectric equation


f is called the work function of the metal.
f It is the minimum energy with which an electron
is bound in the metal. 49
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
All the observed features of photoelectric effect could
be explained by Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

Observed features:
1. Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light
intensity:
Kmax is independent of the light intensity.
Kmax+φ = hf: Equation shows that Kmax depends only on
frequency of the incident light.
Kmax increases with increase in frequency.

2. Time interval between incidence of light and electron of


photoelectrons
Almost instantaneous emission of photoelectrons due to
one -to –one interaction between photons and electrons. 50
3. Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency.
Failure to observe the photoelectric effect below a
certain cutoff frequency follows from the fact that
photons should have energy greater than the work
function  in order to eject an electron.

The cutoff frequency fc( the minimum frequency light


needed to just to liberate electrons) is related to the work
function  (minimum energy needed to just to liberate
electrons ) by

fc =  /h.
If the incident frequency f is less than fc , no emission of
photoelectrons. 51
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

4.Dependence of photoelectron
kinetic energy on light
frequency:
Einstein predicted that a
graph of the maximum kinetic
energy Kmax Vs frequency f
would be a straight line, A plot of Kmax of
given by the linear relation, photoelectrons versus
Kmax = hf -  frequency of incident light in
a typical photoelectric effect
and indeed such a linear
experiment.
relationship was observed.
And this work won Einstein his Nobel Prize in 1921 52
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Classical Predictions versus Experimental results
Predictions made by a classical approach (wave nature
of light) with experimental results (particle nature).
1. Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light intensity:

(a) Classical predictions:


As the intensity of light is increased (made it brighter and hence
classically, a more energetic wave), kinetic energy of the emitted
electrons should increase.

(b) Experimental results:


The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is independent of light
intensity.
It depends directly on the frequency of the incident light.
53
Classical Predictions versus Experimental results

2. Time interval between incidence of light and ejection


of photoelectrons:

(a)Classical predictions: If light is really a wave, there


should be a measurable/ larger time interval between
incidence of light and ejection of photoelectrons is
required.

(b) Experimental results:


Electrons are emitted from the surface of the metal almost
instantaneously, even at very low light intensities.

54
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Classical Predictions versus Experimental results

3. Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency:


(a) Classical predictions: Ejection of photoelectron
should not depend on light frequency.

(b) Experimental results:


No electrons are emitted if the incident light frequency
falls below some cutoff frequency fc, whose value is
characteristic of the material being illuminated.

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 55


Classical Predictions versus Experimental results
4.Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light
frequency:
(a) Classical predictions: Photoelectron kinetic energy should
not depend upon the frequency of the incident light.

(b) Experimental results:


The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases
with increasing light frequency.

NOTE: In short, all experimental results (photoelectric


effect) contradict all four classical predictions, supporting
particle nature of light when it interacts with matter.
56
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Application of photoelectric effect


Explain the device, theory, and its working
Photomultiplier tube

57
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Summary

Einstein successfully extended Plank’s quantum


hypothesis to explain photoelectric effect.

In Einstein’s model, light is viewed as a stream of


particles, or photons, each having energy E = hf , where
h is Plank’s constant and f is the frequency.

The maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the ejected


photoelectron is
Kmax = hf - 

Where  is the work function of the photocathode.

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 58


SJ: P-SE 40.3 The Photoelectric Effect for Sodium

A sodium surface is illuminated with light having a


wavelength of 300 nm. The work function for sodium
metal is 2.46 eV. Find
A. The maximum kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectrons and
B. The cutoff wavelength for sodium.

Solution: (A) The energy (in eV) of each photon in the


illuminating light beam is

E=hf=h(c/λ)=[(6.627 x 10-34) (3 x 108)]/[(1.6 x10-19) (300nm)


E= 4.13 eV
59
Kmax = hf - =4.13 eV-2,46 eV
Kmax= 1.67 eV

(B)
Work function= φ= h fc = h(c/λc)

λc = hc/φ=
[(6.627 x 10-34) (3 x 108)]/[(2.46 x 1.6 x10-
19
V)

λc=(504 nm)
MIT-MANIPAL 60
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

SJ: Section 40.2 P-13. Molybdenum has a work


function of 4.2eV.
(a) Find the cut off wavelength and cut off frequency for
the photoelectric effect.
(b) What is the stopping potential if the incident light
has wavelength of 180 nm?
(a) Cut off wavelength λc = hc/φ= )=
[(6.627 x 10-34) (3 x 108)]/[(4.2 x 1.6 x10-19V)

λc=(296 nm)
Cut off frequency fc= c/λc

f 1.01 x 1015 Hz 61
Einstein’s Photoelectric effect

E= φ + Kmax
h(c/λ)= φ+ e Vs

Vs=[h(c/λ)- φ]/e=

[Where φ= [4.20 eV)/1.6 x 10-19]

Stopping potential= Vs= 2.71 V

MIT-MANIPAL 62
SJ: Section 40.2 P-14. Electrons are ejected from a
metallic surface with speeds up to 4.60 x 105 m/s when light
with a wavelength of 625 nm is used. (a) What is the work
function of the surface? (b) What is the cut-off frequency for
this surface?

(a )   E  K max

hc (6.627 x10 )(3x10 ) 34 8

E   1.982 eV
 (625nm) x1.6 x10 19

So,   1.982  0.602  1.38 eV

 1.38 x (1.6 x10 ) 19

( b) f   
h 6.627 x10
c 34

63
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
SJ: Section 40.2 P-16. The stopping potential for
photoelectrons released from a metal 1 is 1.48 V larger
compared to that in metal 2. If the threshold frequency
for the metal 1 is 40.0 % smaller than for the metal 2,
determine the work function for each metal.
Given:
ΔVs1=ΔVs2+1.48 V
fc2= 60% fc1=0.6 fc1 implies φ2=0.4 φ2.....(1)
(because hfc=φ)

From Einstein's photoelectric equation:


hf=φ1+e ΔVs1 and hf=φ2+e ΔVs2 gives φ1- φ2=1.48 eV …..(2)
64
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
SJ: Section 40.2 P-17. Two light sources are used in a
photoelectric experiment to determine the work function for a
metal surface. When green light from a mercury lamp ( =
546.1 nm) is used, a stopping potential of 0.376 V reduces the
photocurrent to zero. (a) Based on this what is the work
function of this metal? (b) What stopping potential would be
observed when using the yellow light from a helium discharge
tube ( = 587.5 nm)?
hc (6.627 x10 ) x (3x10 )
34 8

(a )   E  e V   eV   0.376eV
 (546.1 x10 ) x1.6 x10
s s 9 19

  1.9eV
(6.627 x10 ) x (3x10 ) 8

(b) eVs  E     34
 1.9 eV  0.216 eV
(587.5x10 ) x1.6 x10
9 19

Vs  0.216V
65
SJ: Section 40.2 P-15.
Lithium. Beryllium, and mercury have work functions of
2.30 eV, 3.90 eV and 4.50 eV, respectively.
Light with a wavelength of 400 nm is incident on each
of these metals. Determine (a) which metals exhibit the
photoelectric effect and (b) the maximum kinetic
energy for the photoelectrons in each case.

hc (6.627 x10 ) x (3x10 )


34 8

(a ) For Lithium :     540nm


 ( 2.3 eV) x1.6 x10
c 19

Similarly for beryllium(  3.9eV) :   318nm


c

For mercury(  4.5 eV) :   276 nm


c

Incident light: λ=400 nm. Only Lithium has λ < λc i.e f > fc
So, only Lithium exhibits photoelectric effect.
66
67
THE COMPTON EFFECT

• Introduction
• What is Compton Effect
• Schematic diagram of Compton’s apparatus
• Experimental Observations
• Classical Predictions
• Explanation for Compton Effect
• Derivation of the Compton Shift Equation.
• Conclusion
• Summary

68
SUMMARY OF PHOTON PROPERTIES

Relation between particle and wave properties of light

Energy, frequency, and wavelength, E = hf = hc / 

Also we have relation between momentum and wavelength of a


photon as follows

For photon (light), m = 0,  E= pc . Also c= f

E hf h
p = = =
c λf λ
69
Compton Effect
A.H.Compton gave direct confirmation
of the existence of the particle nature
of electromagnetic waves.

In 1923, he discovered that when a


monochromatic beam of a high
frequency radiation such in X-rays,
gamma rays is scattered by a
substance, the scattered radiation
(scattering of X-rays from electrons)
contains two components:
(a) one having high wavelength λ’ (or low frequency or low
energy) known as modified radiation.
(b) and the other having the same wavelength as the original λ0
one known as unmodified radiation.
THE COMPTON EFFECT

What is Compton Effect ?

Incident photon
Compton (1923) measured
(X-ray photon) intensity of scattered X-rays as
function of wavelength for
different angles.

In such a scattering, a
Scattered beam of X ray
wavelength shift (λ’-λ0) in
wavelength for the scattered X-
rays takes place, which is known
as Compton shift.

This phenomenon is known as


Compton effect.
Compton shift 71
Photons
Photons interacting
interacting with
with electrons:
electrons:

Classical Predictions

According to classical theory, electromagnetic waves of


frequency f0 incident on electrons should have two effects.

(1) Radiation pressure should cause the electrons to accelerate


in the direction of propagation of the waves.
Classical Predictions

(2) The oscillating electric field of the


incident radiation should set the electrons
into oscillation at the apparent frequency f’.
This apparent frequency f’ is different from
the frequency f0 of the incident radiation
because of the Doppler effect.

Each electron first absorbs em radiation as a


moving particle and then re-radiates em
waves as a moving particle, thereby
exhibiting two Doppler shifts in the
frequency of radiation.
73
Contrary to the classical predictions (where X-rays are
treated as waves), in Compton experiment, at a given
angle, only one frequency for scattered radiation is seen.

Thus, Classical theory failed to explain the scattering of x rays


from electrons. On the basis of quantum theory, Compton
explained satisfactorily the modified radiation.

MIT-MANIPAL 74
Experimental Observations and Results

λ0- wavelength of the incident radiation


λ’- wavelength of the scattered radiation.
From the experimental observation it was found that
1. The difference (λ’-λ0), which indicates the enhancement
in the wavelength, is called Compton shift. Compton
shift (Δλ) is independent of the wavelength of the
Experimental Observations and Results
2. Δλ is independent of the nature of the scatterer as it is
same for all scatterer. Compton made measurement by
replacing graphite with other materials, and found that λ’ is
independent of the target material.

3. Δλ depends only on the scattering angle θ as the scattering


angle is increased Δλ also increases. Scattered x-ray intensity
versus wavelength for Compton scattering at  = 0°, 45°, 90°,
and 135°.

Δλ is maximum for θ=1800 & Δλ =0 for θ=00 77


Experimental Observations and Results
4. The incident X-ray photon with energy (E0=hc/λ0), when
collides with the electron, it gives some of its energy to
(a) the electron which recoils with a velocity (v) in the
direction making an angle (φ) with the direction of the
incident photon.
and remaining energy to
(b) the photon with reduced energy (E’=hc/λ’) scattered in
the direction θ with the original direction.
Where
E 0  E ' KE of electron
hc hc
  Ke
 0 '
Where, h  is the Planck' s cons tan t ,
c  is the speed of light
 0 &  ' wavelengths of the incident & scattered photons respectively.
Experimental Observations and Results
5. From the law of conservation of energy
and conservation of momentum, Compton
derived an equation for the change in
wavelength Δλ (known as Compton shift) of
the X-rays, which is given follows.

h
Compton shift    (   ) 
1
(1  cos )
mc
0
e

Where m  mass of the electron  9.11x10 kg


e
 31

This exp ression is known as the Compton shift equation ,


h
The factor  the Compton wavelength of the electron.
mce

h
 0.00243 nm
mce

Prediction were in excellent agreement with the experimental results.


THE COMPTON EFFECT
General Information
A relativistic particle is a particle which moves with a
relativistic speed; that is, a speed comparable to the
speed of light (v˜c)
The total energy ‘E’ relativistic particle is given by

E  p c m c
2 2 2 2 4

Here p and m are the momentum and mass of the


particle: c is the speed of light.

But, photon mass m=0,


So, the relativistic energy of a photon: E2=p2c2
80
When a subatomic particle like electron travels with a
speed comparable with the speed of light (v~c):

Its relativistic energy :

Ee2=pe2c2+m2c4

Where
pe=  mv (Relativistic momentum of electron)
1
Where Lorentz factor γ
v 2

1 -
c 2

v = speed of the electron & c = speed of light in vacuum,


m is the mass of the electron. 81
NOTE: A non relativistic particle (Newtonian
Mechanics) is a particle which moves with a speed
very small compared to the speed of light (v<<c).

For non relativistic particle: =1.


So, p=mv
Newtonian definition of momentum is valid at low
speeds. 82
THE COMPTON EFFECT
Derivation of the Compton Shift Equation
Figure shows an X-ray incident photon is treated as a particle
having energy E = hf0 = hc/0 and zero rest energy.

They collide elastically with free electrons initially at rest as


shown in figure.

0- wavelength of the


incident X-ray photon.
incident photon ’- wavelength of the
scattered X-ray photon
m- rest mass of the
electron
scattered photon h- Planck’s constant
& c-speed of photon
83
The incident X-ray photon with energy (E0=hc/λ0), when
collides with the electron, it gives some of its energy to
1. the electron which recoils with a relativistic velocity (v)
in the direction making an angle (φ) with the direction
of the incident photon.

The relativistic energy of the scattered electron of mass


‘m’:
Ee2=pe2c2+m2c4…………..(1)
Where pe=  mv (relativistic momentum of electron)
and
(b) remaining energy to the photon with reduced energy
(E’=hc/λ’) scattered in the direction θ with the original
direction. 84
In the scattering process, the total energy and total linear
momentum of the system must be conserved.

y  mv sinφ
Scattered electron
with relativistic
momentum (pe=  mv)

Energy=E0=hc/λ0
φ x
Incident photon θ (h/λ’ cosθ+  mv cosφ)
En
e rg
Momentum=p0=h/λ0 yE
’= Scattered photon
hc


(Momentum=p’=h/λ’)
h/λ’ sinθ 85
THE COMPTON EFFECT

Applying law of conservation of momentum to this collision, both


in x and y components of momentum are conserved
independently.
h h
x component : = cos θ +  m v cos φ
λ λ'
0
h
y component : 0= sin θ -  m v sin φ
λ'

Where h/0 = p0 is the momentum of the incident photon


h/’ = p’ is the momentum of the scattered photon
1
Lorentz factor γ 
v 2

1 -
c 2

86
THE COMPTON EFFECT
Rewriting the above equations as

x component : p - p ' cos θ  p cos φ


0 e
y component : p ' sin θ  p sin φ
e
Squaring and adding the above equations give
2 2 2
p - 2 p p' cos θ + p' = p
0 0 e
h 2
h h 2 2

2 cos    p .......... ......( A)


2

  ' '
2 2 e

0 0

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 87


Applying the law of conservation of energy to the
process gives
ENERGY BEFORE COLLISION:

(Energy of the incident photon+ rest mass energy


of the electron) = E0 + mc2

ENERGY AFTER COLLISION

(Energy of the scattered photon + energy of the


recoiled electron)= E’+Ee

ENERGY BEFORE COLLISION=ENERGY AFTER COLLISION


88
Rewrite as: E0- (E’-mc2)=Ee
Squaring both sides by taking [(a=E0 & b=(E’-mc2)]

[E0-(E’-mc2)]2=Ee2

E02+(E’-mc2)2-2E0(E’-mc2)=Ee2

E02 + E’2 + m2c4 - 2E’mc2 - 2E0E’ + 2E0mc2 = pe2 c2+m2c4


h c
2
h c 2
hc
2
h c 2hc
2 2 2

 + m c  2 mc  2  mc  p c  m c
2 4 2 2 2 2 2 4

λ λ' '  ' 


2 2 e

0 0 0

MIT-MANIPAL 89
h h
2
hc h c 2hc
2 2 2

 2 m2  mc  p c 2 2 2

λ λ' '  ' 


2 2 e

0 0 0

Divide both sides by hc 2

h h mc h 2mc
 2 2  p
2

λ λ' '  ' 


2 2 e

0 0 0

Substitute Eqn (A) for p


2

h h mc h 2mc h h 2h
 2 2     cos 
λ λ' '  '   '  '
2 2 2 2

0 0 0 0 0

MIT-MANIPAL 90
mc h 2mc 2h
2 2    cos 
'  '
0
 0
 ' 0

Multiply by   ' we get


0

 2 mc  2h  2 ' mc  2h cos 


0

2( ' ) mc  2h (1  cos )


0

h
Gives ( ' )  (1  cos )
mc
0

91
THE COMPTON EFFECT
Summary
X-rays are scattered at various angles by electrons in a
target. In such a scattering, a shift in wavelength is observed
for the scattered X-rays and the phenomenon is known as
Compton Effect. Classical physics does not predict the correct
behaviour in this effect. If x-ray is treated as a photon,
conservation of energy and linear momentum applied to the
photon-electron collisions yields for the Compton shift:

h
λ' - λ 0  (1 - cos θ)
mec

Where me is the mass of the electron, c is the speed of light,


and  is the scattering angle.
92
THE COMPTON EFFECT

SJ: P-SE 40.4 Compton scattering at 45°


X-rays of wavelength 0 = 0.20 nm are scattered from a block of
material. The scattered X-rays are observed at an angle of 45°
to the incident beam.
(a) Calculate their wavelength.
(b) What if we move the detector so that scattered x-rays are
detected at an angle larger than 45°? Does the wavelength of
the scattered x-rays increase or decrease as the angle 
increase?
(a ) The shift in wavelengthof the scatted X  rays is given by :
h
' -  0  (1 - cos )
mec

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 93


The wavelength of the scatted X  rays is given by :
h
'   0  (1 - cos )
mec
34
6.627 x 10
 0.2 x10 9  (1  cos 45)
(9.1x10 )(3x10 )
-31 8

 '  0.200710nm

(b) When θ increases larger than 450, cos θ value decreases and
(1-cosθ) increases.

As the Compton shift is directly proportional to the term (1-cosθ),


the shift also increases.

MIT-MANIPAL 94
SJ: Section 40.3 P-21Calculate the energy and
momentum of a photon of wavelength 700 nm.

hc (6.627x10 ) x (3x10 )
34 8

E   2.84x10 J  1.78eV
19

 700x10 9

h 6.627x10 34

p   9.47 x10 kg.m / s  28

 700nm

MIT-MANIPAL 95
SJ: Section 40.3 P-22X rays having energy of 300
keV undergo Compton scattering from a target. The
scattered rays are detected at 37.00 relative to the
incident rays. Find (a) the Compton shift at this angle
(b) The energy of the scattered x-rays and © the
energy of the recoiling electron.

(a )The shift in wavelength of the scatted X  rays is given by :


h
 ' -  0    (1 - cos )  4.88x10 13 m
mec

96
hc
( b) E '  '   0  
'
hc hc (6.627 x10 34 )(3x108 )
To find  0 : E 0   0    4 . 14 x10 12
m
0 300 x10 3
E0
( )
1.6 x10 19

'  4.14 x10  4.88x10 13  4.63x10 12 m


12

hc
E'   268 keV
'

(c) K e  E 0  E'  300keV  268keV  32 keV

MIT-MANIPAL 97
THE COMPTON EFFECT
SJ: Section 40.3 P-23. A 0.00160 nm photon scatters
from a free electron. For what photon scattering angle
does the recoiling electron have kinetic energy equal to
the energy of the scattered photon?

The shift in wavelength of the scattered X  rays is given by :


h
 ' -   2 -   (1 - cos )
mc
0 0 0

h mc
  (1  cos )  cos   1  0 e

mc h
0

gives   70 0

98
SJ: Section 40.3 P-25. A 0.880 MeV photon is scattered by
a free electron initially at rest such that the scattering angle of
the scattered electron is equal to that of the scattered photon
( = ). (a) Determine the angles  & . (b) Determine the
energy and momentum of the scattered electron and photon.
Given :   
(a ) Conservation of momentum :
x component : p = p ' cos θ + p cos φ
0 e
Since  h h
= ( + p ) cos ......(1)
0 ' e

y component : p ' sin θ  p sin φ


e

Since   
h
p' sin   p sin gives p'  p  ...( 2)
 ' 99
e e
MIT-MANIPAL
hc
E 
0 
0
hc
substitute  
E
0

solve for     43 0

100
hc hc
( b ) use eqn : E '    602 keV
'  ( 2 cos  )
0
E'
Then p'   3.21 x10 kg.m / s  22

c
(c) from eqn 3 : pe  p'  3.22 x10 kg.m / s  22

K  E  E '  278 keV


0

BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO
MIT-MANIPAL 101
QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11
SJ: Section 40.3 P-24. A 0.110 nm photon collides with a
stationary electron. After the collision, the electron moves
forward and the photon recoils backward. Find the momentum
and the kinetic energy of the electron.
Given: λ0=0.110 nm

hc
Use eqn : E   11.3 keV
0 
0
h
  (1  cos ) where   180 0

mc
  4.86 x10 m 12

hc
 '      0.115 nm gives E '   10.8 keV
'
0

MIT-MANIPAL 102
Momentum

No need to resolve into components:


p’
p0= pe + (-p’) pe
p0

=117.86 x10-25 kg.m/s

Ke  E  E '  478eV
0

103
THE COMPTON EFFECT

Assignment: Try to answer the questions in page no.


1313, chapter 40 of the reference book.

10
PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Photons and Electromagnetic Waves


Evidence for wave-nature of light
• Diffraction
• Interference

Evidence for particle-nature of


light
• Photoelectric effect
• Compton effect

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 10


PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

•Light exhibits diffraction and interference phenomena


that are only explicable in terms of wave properties.

• Photoelectric effect and Compton effect can only be


explained taking light as photons/ particle

• This means true nature of light is not describable in


terms of any single classical picture.

•In short, the particle model and the wave model of light
compliment each other.
MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 10
PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
De Broglie
The Wave Properties of Particles
de Broglie Hypothesis

We have seen that light comes in discrete units


(photons) with particle properties (energy and
momentum) that are related to the wave-like
properties of frequency and wavelength.

He found that the wavelength of a photon can be expressed


as

h Planck’s constant
 h  6.63  1034 Js
de Broglie wavelength p
momentum 10
The wave Properties of Particles
In 1924, Louis de Broglie postulated that like photons,
perhaps all forms of matter (electrons/protons) have wave
and particle properties.
Thus, the waves associated with material particles (like
electrons , protons) are called matter waves or De-Broglie
waves.
De Broglie suggested that material particles of mass ‘m’
momentum p (=mv) have a characteristic wavelength (λ)
that is given by the same expression:
Planck ' s cons tan t h h
Wavelength   
Momentum p mv
108
Furthermore, in analogy with photons, particles obey the
Einstein relation E=hf, where E is the total energy of the
particle.
Then the frequency of the particles is

f= E Energy of the particle

h
frequency of the particle Planck’s constant

The electron accelerated through a potential difference of V has


a non relativistic kinetic energy
1
2
m v2  e V Where m = mass, v = velocity
p=mv = 2me V
109
SJ: P-SE 40.5 -2
Calculate the de Broglive wavelength for an electron (m e= 9.11
x 10-31 kg) moving at 1.00 x 107 m/s .

h h
 

p m v

6.63 x 10  34 J . s

( 9.11 x 10  31 kg )( 1 x 107 )
 11
 7.28 x 10 m

SJ: P-SE 40.5-33


Calculate the de Broglive wavelength for an proton
(mp= 1.67 x 10-27 kg) moving at 1.00 x 106 m/s .
(Answer: 3.97 x 10-13 m) 110
SJ: P-SE 40.6 A rock of mass 50 g is thrown with a
speed of 40 m/s. What is its de Broglie wavelength?

h h
 

p mv
6.63 x 10  34 J . s  34
  3.32 x 10 m
( 50 x 10  3 kg )( 40 m / s )

111
SJ: P-SE 40.7 An Accelerated Charged Particle
A particle of charge q and mass m has been accelerated from
rest to a nonrelativistic speed through a potential difference of
V. Find an expression for its de Broglie wavelength.

When a charged particle is accelerated from rest through a


potential difference ΔV, its gain in kinetic energy ½ mv2 must
equal the loss in potential energy q ΔV of the charge-field
system:
1
2
m v 2
 q V
p2
 qV, p  mv  momentum
2m
p  2mqV
h h
 
p 2mqV
MIT-MANIPAL 112
Assignment:
SJ: Section 40.5 P-34

Calculate the de Broglie wavelength for an electron


that has kinetic energy (a) 50.0 eV and (b) 50 keV

Answers: (a) λ=0.174 nm (b) λ=5.49 x 10-12 m

MIT-MANIPAL 113
SJ: Section 40.5 P-35 (a) An electron has a kinetic
energy of 3.0 eV. Find its wavelength. (b) Also find the
wavelength of a photon having the same energy.

MIT-MANIPAL 114
PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Davisson -Germer experiment

&
Electron Diffraction pattern
(Go through the details of the experiments)

These two experiments confirmed de- Broglie relationship


p = h /.

Subsequently it was found that atomic beams, and


beams of neutrons, also exhibit diffraction when
reflected from regular crystals. Thus de Broglie's
formula seems to apply to any kind of matter.

MIT- MANIPAL 11
Davisson and Germer experiment
This is an experiment on diffraction of accelerated electrons by
crystals to establish the wave nature of electrons.

The regular spacing of the atoms in a crystal act as a grating for an


electron beam producing a diffraction pattern by electron scattering.

The result of this experiment resembles the result of the x ray


diffraction giving an experimental evidence for de Broglie hypothesis.

  Electron
  Gun

Detector
 
 
Nickel Crystal
 
 
Experimental set up
A beam of electrons from a heated filament accelerated to a
potential V is collimated and allowed to strike a single crystal
of nickel.
Electrons are scattered in all directions by the atoms in the
crystal. The intensity of the scattered electron beam is
measured by a detector which can be moved to any angle 
relative to the incident beam.
The most intense reflection of electron beam at an angle  =
50, for an accelerating potential 54 V is observed.
117
An electron of mass m accelerated to a potential V has
1
kinetic energy
2
m v  ewhere
2
V ,v= velocity.

Momentum,
p  mv  2 m e V
 de Broglie wavelength h h h
  
p mv 2me V
Substituting V=54V, we get the experimental value for the de
Broglie wavelength as  = 0.167nm.
PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The theoretical value for the de Broglie wavelength can be


calculated from the Bragg equation

a sin   n
Bragg’s Equation
a-lattice spacing

Now the dual nature of matter and radiation is an


accepted fact. And it is stated in the principle of
complementarity. This states that wave and particle
models of either matter or radiation compliment each
other.
11
PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

SJ: Section 40.5 P-38


In the Davisson-Germer
experiment, 54.0 eV
electrons were diffracted
from a nickel lattice. If the
first maximum in the
diffraction pattern was
observed at = 50.0°, what
was the lattice spacing a
between the vertical rows of
atoms in the figure?

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 12


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THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

• What is a Quantum Particle?

• How to represent a quantum particle?

• Wave packet
• Phase velocity
• Group velocity

• Double Slit Experiment

• Conclusion
• Summary

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 12


THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

What is a Quantum Particle?

Quantum particle is a model by which particles


having dual nature are represented.

We must choose one appropriate behavior for the


quantum particle (particle or wave) in order to
understand a particular behavior.

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 12


THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
How to represent a quantum particle?
Wave packet
To represent a quantum particle, we have to combine
the essential features of both an ideal particle and an
ideal wave.
An essential feature of a particle is that it is localized
in space.
“Localized” - definite position, momentum, confined in
space

But an ideal wave is infinitely long (unlocalized) as


shown in figure below. 12
THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
Wave packet

Now, to build a localized entity from an infinitely long


wave, waves of same amplitude, but slightly different
frequencies are superposed. The result of
superposition of two such waves are shown below.

12
THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

If we add up large number of waves in a similar way,


the small localized region of space where constructive
interference takes place is called a wavepacket, which
represents a particle.

In the figure, large


number of waves are
combined. The result is a
wave packet, which
represents a particle.

The small region of constructive interference is called wave


packet.
A wave packet is localized – a good representation for a
particle! 12
Wave packet

This is a localized region of space that is different from all


other regions.

This location of the wave packet can be considered as a


particle and it corresponds to the position of the particle.

This localized region (wave packet) can represent the


particle and let us show that the wave packet has another
characteristic of a particle.
THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
Mathematical Representation of a wave packet

Superposition of two waves of equal amplitude, but with


slightly different frequencies, f1 & f2 and wavelengths, traveling
in the same direction are considered. The waves are written as

(
y = A cos k 1x - ω 1 t
1
) and (
y 2 = A cos k 2 x - ω 2 t )
w- angular frequency (ω) which is given by: ω = 2πf

k- the wavenumber or propagation constant given by


k = 2π/ λ

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 12


The resultant wave is, y = y 1 + y2
Δk Δω k1 + k2 ω1 + ω2
[ (
y = 2A cos
2
x-
2
t )] cos( 2
x-
2
)
t

Amplitude varies with t and x


Where k = k1 – k2 and  = 1 – 2.
The resulting wave oscillates with the average frequency,
and its amplitude envelope (in square brackets, shown by the
blue dotted curve in figure) varies according to the
difference frequency.

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QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11
Wave velocity (or phase velocity): vp

The red dot moves with the phase velocity


.

Individual wave inside the wave packet travels with


different velocity called wave velocity or Phase
velocity (vp).
The rate of advance of a crest on a single wave,
which is a point of fixed phase is called Wave
velocity Phase velocity (v ).
Expression for vp: The individual wave (plane
progressive wave) travelling in the positive
direction of x-axis is given by

y = A cos (kx-wt)

w- angular frequency =2πf,

k- the wave number: k = 2π/ λ


131
(kx-wt)- is the phase of wave motion and is equal to
a constant .

i.e. (kx-wt)= a constant

Differentiating w.r.t .t. we get

k dx/dt -w=0

Wave velocity /phase velocity: vp = dx/dt, is given


by

v ω/k
Group velocity (vg)
Group velocity is the velocity with which the envelope
enclosing a wave group- called wave packet formed due
to superimposition of two or more travelling waves of
slightly different wavelengths, is transported.
It is the velocity with which the energy transmission
occurs in a wave.
  k w 
For the superposition of two waves, the factor2A cos  2 x  2 t 
 

is of the form of a wave, so it moves with a speed given


by:
coeff . of time var iable t (w / 2) w dw
v    
coeff . of space var iable x (k / 2) k dk
g

Group velocity: is the rate at which the envelope of


the wave packet propagates.

This wavepacket (envelope) can travel through


space with a different speed than the individual 134
THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
NOTE:
A wave (one of finite extent in space) is characterized by two
different speeds. The phase speed, the speed with which wave
crest moves, which is given by

vp = ω / k =fλ
(w=2πf (angular frequency) and k=2π/λ (wave number)

The group speed, the speed with which the envelope (energy)
moves. This is given by

For a superposition of a very large number of waves to form


a wave packet, this ratio becomes a derivative.
In general these two speeds are not the same. 13
THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

Relation between group speed )(vg) and phase speed


(vp)
ω
we have, υphase = = f λ
k Where
i.e., ω = k υphase = k υp w=2πf-angular frequency

K=2π/λ- wave number


dω d ( kv p ) dp
But υ = = k  p
dk dk dk
g

f- wavelength
λ -wavelength
Substituting for k in terms of , we get
dυp
g = p – 

MIT- MANIPAL 13
Relation between group speed(vg) and particle speed
(u) group speed, the speed with which the envelope (energy) moves.
The
This is given by
dw
v  ..............(1)
dk
g

E
We know : Angular frequency :   2 f  2
h
2π 2π 2π p
Wave number : k = = =
λ h p h

w E
 where E  enegry of the wave
k p
p  momentum
dω dE
Therefore eqn (1) : v =  ........( 2)
dk dp
g

For a classical particle moving with speed u, the kinetic


energy E is given by
1 p 2
2 p dp
E  mu  2
and dE =
2 2m 2m
dE p
or = = u ....(3)
dp m
( p  mu)

i.e., From (2) & (3)


dω dE
Group velocity : g    u, the particle velocity
dk dp 138
THE QUANTUM PARTICLE

ie., we should identify the group speed with the


particle speed, speed with which the energy moves.

To represent a realistic wave packet, confined to a


finite region in space, we need the superposition of
large number of harmonic waves with a range of k
values.

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 13


THE QUANTUM PARTICLE
SJ: Section 40.6 P-43 Consider a freely moving
quantum particle with mass m and speed u. Its energy is
E= K= mu2/2. Determine the phase speed of the
quantum wave representing the particle and show that it
is different from the speed at which the particle
transports mass and energy.
Given v  u........(1)
1 h
g

E mu 2  hf and  =
2 mu
mu h u2

or v = f  ( )x  ......(2)
2h mu 2
phase

v
From (1) & ( 2) : v  g

2
phase

14
The double-Slit Revisited
This experiment crystallize our
ideas about the electron’s wave-
particle duality.

A parallel beam of mono-


energetic electrons is incident on
a double slit as shown in figure.

We assume the slit widths are


Electrons
detector small compared to the electron
wavelength, so that no need to
worry about diffraction maxima
and minima.
An electron detector is positioned far from the slits
at a distance much greater than d (the separation
distance of the slits. D>>d.

A typical wave interference pattern for the counts per


minute was detected by the detector which is
evidence for wave nature of matter particles like
electrons.
THE DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED

Photograph of a double-slit
interference pattern produced by
electrons.

Maximum intensity occurs at:


d sinθ=mλ
m=0,1,2……………………….
The minimum intensity occurs when the path
difference between at the points A and B is half a
wavelength, or when
d sinθ=(m+1/2)λ
m=0, 1, 2,………………… 14
THE DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED
This experiment proves the dual nature of electrons. The
electrons are detected as particles at a localized spot at some
instant of time, but the probability of arrival at that spot is
determined by finding the intensity of two interfering waves.
If slit 2 is blocked half the time,
keeping slit 1 open, and slit 1
blocked for remaining half the time,
keeping 2 open, the accumulated
pattern of counts/ min is shown by
blue curve.
That is interference pattern is lost
and the result is simply the sum of
the individual results.
14
THE DOUBLE–SLIT EXPERIMENT REVISITED

Results of the two-slit


electron diffraction The result with both slits
experiment with each slit open (interference pattern)
closed half the time is shown in brown.
(blue). 14
SJ: Section 40.7 P-46 Electrons are incident on a pair
of narrow slits 0.060 m apart. The ‘bright bands’ in
the interference pattern are separated by 0.40 mm on
a ‘screen’ 20.0 cm from the slits. Determine the
potential difference through which the electrons were
accelerated to give this pattern.

So, θ=tanθ-1(y/D)=tan-1(0.40 mm/20) cm


d=0.060 m θ=0.1145 rad
y=0.40 mm

D=20 cm

MIT- MANIPAL 14
Condition for maximum: d sinθ=mλ
m=1 d sinθ=λ=
h h h
  gives p 
p mv 
1 p 2

K  mv  2
 eV
2 2m h 2

 eV
2m 2

h 2

gives V   105 V
2em 2

MIT-MANIPAL 147
SJ: Section 40.7 P-45
Neutrons traveling at 0.400 m/s are directed through a pair of slits
having a 1.00 mm separation. An array of detectors is placed 10.0 m
from the slits.
(a) What de Broglie wavelength of the neutrons?
(b) How far off axis is the first zero-intensity point on the director
array?

tanθ=y/D gives y=D tanθ=4.96 mm


148
THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

Quantum theory predicts that, it is fundamentally


impossible to make simultaneous measurements of a
particle’s position & momentum with infinite
accuracy. This is known as Heisenberg uncertainty
principle. The uncertainties arise from the quantum
structure of matter.

14
For a particle represented by a single wavelength wave
existing throughout space,  is precisely known, and
according to de- Broglie hypothesis, its p is also known
accurately. But the position of the particle in this case
becomes uncertain.

MIT-MANIPAL 150
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QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11
Based on this argument Werner Heisenberg, a German
physicist, enunciated the principle of uncertainty which says
that “It is fundamentally impossible to make both
simultaneous measurements of a particle’s position and
momentum with infinite accuracy. The more precisely known
the value of one, the less precise is the other.

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle:


Statement: If a measurement of the position of a particle is
made with uncertainty Δx and a simultaneous measurement
of its x component of momentum is made with uncertainty
Δpx, the product of the two uncertainties can never be
smaller than  / 2

Where x p x 
2
h 6.61 x10 34 J.s
   1.05 x 10 34 J.s
2 2 x 3.142
THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

This means  = 0, p =0; but x = 

In contrast, if a particle whose momentum is uncertain


(combination/ a range of wavelengths are taken to form a
wavepacket ), so that x is small, but  is large. If x is
made zero, , & thereby p will become .


( x )( p ) 
2h
( x ) ( p ) 
4

MIT- MANIPAL BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11 15


Another case of uncertainty principle relates energy and time:


( E )( t ) 
2h
( E ) ( t ) 
4
Where, E is the uncertainty in the energy emitted in the form
of an electromagnetic wave in a de-excitation process and ∆t is
the uncertainty in the time measurement.

This form of uncertainty principle suggests that energy


conservation can appear to be violated by an amount ΔE as long
as it is only for a short time interval Δt .
SJ: P-SE 40.8Locating an electron
The speed of an electron is measured to be 5.00 x 10 3 m/s to an
accuracy of 0.0030%. Find the minimum uncertainty in
determining the position of this electron.
Solution:
Assuming that the electron is moving along the x axis, the x
component of the momentum of the electron is:

px=mvx= (9.11 x10-31 kg) x (5.00 x 105 m/s)


= 4.56 x 10-27 kg.m/s

The uncertainty in px is 0.00300%=0.0000300


Δpx= (0.0000300) (4.56 x 10-25 kg.m/s)
= 1.37 x 10-31 kg.m/s
Minimum uncertainty in position:

34
 1.05 x 10 J.s
x   31
2p x 2(1.37 x 10 kg.m / s)
 0.383 mm

156
SJ: P-SE 40.9 The Line Width of Atomic Emissions
The lifetime of an excited atom is given as 1.0 x 10-8 s. Using
the uncertainty principle, compute the line width f produced
by this finite lifetime?


( E )( t ) 
2
( hf ) t   / 2
E  1 1
f    
h 2ht 4t 4(1.0 x10 8 s)
f  8.0 x 10 6 Hz
157
THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
SJ: Section 40.8 P-51Use the uncertainty principle to
show that if an electron were confined inside an atomic
nucleus of diameter 2x 10-15 m, it would have to be
moving relativistically, while a proton confined to the
same nucleus can be moving nonrelativistically.

Δx= 2x 10-15 m 
p   2.6 x 10 kg.m / s
 20

2x
For an electron non relativistic approximation
p=mev gives v=2.8 x 1010 m/s

Whole ‘v’ can not be greater than c


15
Another solution from relativistic approximation for electron:

From non relativistic approximation for a proton:


v=p/m gives v=1.55 x 107 m/s less than one-tenth the
speed of light.

MIT-MANIPAL 159
SJ: Section 40.8 P-52Find the minimum kinetic
energy of a proton confined within a nucleus having a
diameter of 1.0 x 10-15 m.

Minimum uncertainty in the position


=Δx= 1.0 x 10-15 m

p 
2x
p2
p2
 2
h 2

K   
2m 2m 2m(4x ) 32 (x ) m
2 2 2

K  8.33 x 10 J  5.21MeV
13

160
SJ: Section 40.8 P-49
An electron (me=9.11 x 10-31 kg) and a bullet (m=0.0200
kg) each have a velocity of magnitude of 500 m/s, accurate
to within 0.0100%.
Within what limits could we determine the position of the
objects along the direction of the velocity?

MIT-MANIPAL 161
INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS
QUESTIONS
1. Explain (a) Stefan’s law (b) Wien’s displacement law
(c) Rayleigh-Jeans law. [1 EACH]
2. Sketch schematically the graph of wavelength vs intensity of
radiation from a blackbody. [1]
3. Explain Planck’s radiation law. [2]
4. Write the assumptions made in Planck’s hypothesis of
blackbody radiation. [2]
5. Explain photoelectric effect. [1]
6. What are the observations in the experiment on photoelectric
effect? [5]
7. What are the classical predictions about the photoelectric
effect? [3]
8. Explain Einstein’s photoelectric equation. [2]

162
INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS
QUESTIONS
10. Which are the features of photoelectric effect-experiment
explained by Einstein’s photoelectric equation? [2]
11. Sketch schematically the following graphs with reference to
the photoelectric effect: (a) photoelectric current vs applied
voltage (b) kinetic energy of most-energetic electron vs
frequency of incident light. [1EACH]
12. Explain Compton effect. [2]
13. Explain the experiment on compton effect. [5]
14. Derive the Compton shift equation. [5]
15. Explain the wave properties of the particles. [2]
16. Explain a wavepacket and represent it schematically. [2]
17. Explain (a) group speed (b) phase speed, of a wavepacket.
[1+1]

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INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM PHYSICS
QUESTIONS
20. Show that the group speed of a wavepacket is equal to the
particle speed. [2]
21. Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle. [1]
22. Write the equations for uncertainty in (a) position and
momentum (b) energy and time. [1]

BE-PHYSICS-INTRODUCTION TO
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QUANTUM PHYSICS-2010-11

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