Notes On History Of

Architecture For indian

Institute Of Architects
EXamination Part-2)
Collection By Atul Saxena

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Contents
Articles
Chandigarh 1
Laurie Baker 11
Louis Kahn 16
Frank Lloyd Wright 24
Bauhaus 45
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 55
Le Corbusier 67
Hafeez Contractor 80
Antoni Gaudí 82
Achyut Kanvinde 87
Joseph Allen Stein 88
Raj Rewal 90
Philip Johnson 92
B. V. Doshi 99
Anant Raje 101
Walter Gropius 102
Modern architecture 107
Crystal Palace, London 112
Eiffel Tower 118
Woolworth Building 136

References
Article Sources and Contributors 141
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 145

Article Licenses
License 149
Chandigarh 1

Chandigarh
Chandigarh
ਚੰਡੀਗੜ੍ਹ
चण्डीगढ़
City Beautiful

—  Union territory  —

Seal

Chandigarh
Location of Chandigarh
ਚੰਡੀਗੜ੍ਹ
चण्डीगढ़
Coordinates 30.75°N 76.78°E

Country  India

District(s) 1

Established 1953

Capital Chandigarh

Largest city Chandigarh

Population [1]
900635  (29)
• Density • 7900 /km2 (20461 /sq mi)

HDI ▲
0.860 (high) (1st)

Literacy 81.9%

Official languages Punjabi, Hindi and English

Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)

Area 114 km2 (44 sq mi)
• Elevation • 350 metres (1150 ft)

ISO 3166-2 IN-CH

Chandigarh 2

Website [2]
chandigarh.nic.in/

Chandigarh (Punjabi: ਚੰਡੀਗੜ੍ਹ, Hindi: चण्डीगढ़) is a union territory of India, that serves as the capital of two states,
Punjab and Haryana. The name Chandigarh translates as "The Fort of Chandi". The name was coined from an
ancient temple called Chandi Mandir, devoted to the Hindu Goddess Chandi, present in the city's vicinity.[3] It is
occasionally referred to as The City Beautiful. Chandigarh Capital Region (CCR) including Mohali, Panchkula and
Zirakpur had a combined population of 1,165,111 (1.16 million) as per the 2001 census. Earlier the Chandigarh
Capital region was also called 'Tricity' because of Panchkula and Mohali as adjacent cities but with mushrooming of
other towns like Zirakpur, Kharar etc. with considerable population it is better called 'Chandigarh Capital Region'.
As the first planned city of India, Chandigarh is known internationally for its architecture and urban planning.[4]
Chandigarh is home to numerous architectural projects of Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret, Matthew Nowicki, and
Albert Mayer. The city tops the list of Indian States and Union Territories with the highest per capita income in the
country at Rs.99,262 at current prices and Rs.70,361 at constant prices (2006–2007).[5] As per a study conducted by
Ministry of Urban Development, Chandigarh has emerged as the cleanest city in India.[6]

History
After the partition of British India into the two nations of India and Pakistan in 1947, the region of Punjab was also
split between India and Pakistan. The Indian state of Punjab required a new capital city to replace Lahore, which
became part of Pakistan during the partition. After several plans to make additions to existing cities were found to be
infeasible for various reasons, the decision to construct a new and planned city was undertaken.
Of all the new town schemes in independent India, the Chandigarh project quickly assumed prime significance,
because of the city's strategic location as well as the personal interest of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of
independent India. Commissioned by Nehru to reflect the new nation's modern, progressive outlook, Nehru famously
proclaimed Chandigarh to be "unfettered by the traditions of the past, a symbol of the nation's faith in the future."
Several buildings and layouts in Chandigarh were designed by the French (born Swiss) architect and urban planner,
Le Corbusier, in the 1950s. Le Corbusier was in fact the second architect of the city, after the initial master plan was
prepared by the American architect-planner Albert Mayer who was working with the Poland-born architect Matthew
Nowicki. It was only after Nowicki's death in 1950 that Le Corbusier was pulled into the project.
On 1 November 1966, the newly-formed Indian state of Haryana was carved out of the eastern portion of the Punjab,
in order to create Haryana as a majority Hindi speaking state, while the western portion of Punjab retained a mostly
Punjabi language-speaking majority and remained as the current day Punjab. However, the city of Chandigarh was
on the border, and was thus created into a union territory to serve as capital of both these states. It was the capital of
Punjab alone from 1952 to 1966.[7] Chandigarh was due to be transferred to Punjab in 1986, in accordance with an
agreement signed in August 1985 by Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, with Sant Harchand Singh
Longowal of the Akali Dal. This was to be accompanied by the creation of a new capital for Haryana, but the
transfer had been delayed. There is currently a discussion about which villages in southern districts of Punjab should
be transferred to Haryana, and about which Punjabi-speaking villages should be transferred to Punjab. But analysts
believe that now it is not possible as none of the State governments would like to give up their claim and Chandigarh
would remain to be the capital of both states and a union territory.
On 15 July 2007, Chandigarh became the first Indian city to go smoke-free. Smoking at public places was strictly
prohibited and considered as a punishable act by Chandigarh Administration but, according to public opinion and a
secret survey done by several prominent citizens of the U.T., smoking still exists in Chandigarh, which is not
completely smoke-free zone due to delays in the construction of smoking zones promised to by the administration.
Recent developments also showed that Chandigarh had become the hub of drugs and a very spoiled part of northern
India. The police are recognised as the most effective police in the region, mostly free from corruption with
high-spirited officers first taking the cause to make Chandigarh drug-free, but they failed to do so. The roots of drugs
Chandigarh 3

lie deep and the area is becoming degraded as modernisation, the term used to cover the decaying values and
manners for which the area was once famous. That was followed up by a complete ban on polythene bags with effect
from 2 October (the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi) in the year 2008.[8] [9] .

Geography and climate

Chandigarh is located near the foothills of the Shivalik range of the
Himalayas in Northwest India. It covers an area of approximately 44
sq mi or 114 km². and shares its borders with the states of Haryana in
the east and Punjab in the north, west and south. The exact
cartographic co-ordinates of Chandigarh are 30°44′N 76°47′E.[10] It
has an average elevation of 321 metres (1053 ft).

The surrounding districts are of Mohali, Patiala and Roopnagar in

Punjab and Panchkula and Ambala in Haryana. The boundary of the
state of Himachal Pradesh is also minutes away from its north border. Sukhna Lake
Chandigarh has a humid subtropical climate characterized by a
seasonal rhythm: very hot summers, mild winters, unreliable rainfall and great variation in temperature (-1 °C to 41.2
°C). In winter, pieces of snow sometimes occurs during December and January. The average annual rainfall is
1110.7 mm [11]. The city also receives occasional winter rains from the west.

Average temperature
• Spring: The climate remains quite pleasant during the spring season (from mid-February to mid-March and then
from mid-September to mid-October). Temperatures vary between (max) 16 °C to 25 °C and (min) 9 °C to 18 °C.
• Autumn: In autumn (from Mid-March to April), the temperature may rise to a maximum of 36 °C. Temperatures
usually remain between 16° to 27° in autumn. The minimum temperature is around 11 °C.
• Summer: The temperature in summer (from Mid-May to Mid-June) may rise to a maximum of 45 °C (rarely).
Temperatures generally remain between 35 °C to 40 °C.
• Monsoon: During monsoon(from mid-June to mid-September), Chandigarh receives moderate to heavy rainfall
and sometimes heavy to very heavy rainfall (generally during the month of August or September). Usually, the
rain bearing monsoon winds blow from south-west/ south-east. Mostly, the city receives heavy rain from south
(which is mainly a persistent rain) but it generally receives most of its rain during monsoon either from
North-west or North-east. Maximum amount of rain received by the city of Chandigrah during monsoon season is
195.5 mm in a single day.
• Winter: Winters (November to Mid-March) are mild but it can sometimes get quite chilly in Chandigarh.
Average temperatures in the winter remain at (max) 7 °C to 15 °C and (min) -3 °C to 5 °C. Rain usually comes
from the west during winters and it is usually a persistent rain for 2–3 days with sometimes hail-storms.
Chandigarh 4

Flora and fauna

Most of Chandigarh is covered by dense Banyan and Eucalyptus
plantations. Asoka, Cassia, Mulberry and other trees flourish in the
forested ecosystem.The city has forests surrounding it which sustain
many animal and plant species. Deers, Sambars, Barking Deers,
Parrots, Woodpeckers and Peacocks inhabit the protected forests.
Sukhna Lake hosts a variety of ducks and geese, and attracts migratory
birds from parts of Siberia and Japan in the winter season.

A parrot sanctuary located in the city is home to a variety of bird

Sambar in a forest
species.

Architecture and urban planning

Taking over from Albert Mayer, Le Corbusier produced a plan for
Chandigarh that conformed to the modern city planning principles of
Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne CIAM, in terms of
division of urban functions, an anthropomorphic plan form, and a
hierarchy of road and pedestrian networks. This vision of Chandigarh,
contained in the innumerable conceptual maps on the drawing board Chandigarh Secretariat Building
together with notes and sketches had to be translated into brick and
mortar. Le Corbusier retained many of the seminal ideas of Mayer and Nowicki, like the basic framework of the
master plan and its components: The Capitol, City Center, besides the University, Industrial area, and linear
parkland. Even the neighborhood unit was retained as the basic module of planning. However, the curving outline of
Mayer and Nowicki was reorganized into a mesh of rectangles, and the buildings were characterized by an "honesty
of materials". Exposed brick and boulder stone masonry in its rough form produced unfinished concrete surfaces, in
geometrical structures. This became the architectural form characteristic of Chandigarh, set amidst landscaped
gardens and parks.

The initial plan had two phases: the first for a population of 150,000
and the second taking the total population to 500,000. Le Corbusier
divided the city into units called "sectors", each representing a
theoretically self-sufficient entity with space for living, working and
leisure. The sectors were linked to each other by a road and path
network developed along the line of the 7 Vs, or a hierarchy of seven
types of circulation patterns. At the highest point in this network was
the V1, the highways connecting the city to others, and at the lowest
were the V7s, the streets leading to individual houses. Later a V8 was
added: cycle and pedestrian paths. The Palace Assembly, designed by
Le Corbusier The city plan is laid down in a grid pattern. The whole
city has been divided into rectangular patterns, forming identical
looking sectors, each sector measures 800 m x 1200 m. The sectors
were to act as self-sufficient neighbourhoods, each with its own
The Open Hand Monument
market, places of worship, schools and colleges - all within 10 minutes
walking distance from within the sector. The original two phases of the
plan delineated sectors from 1 to 47, with the exception of 13 (Number 13 is considered unlucky). The Assembly,
the secretariat and the high court, all located in Sector - 1 are the three monumental buildings designed by Le
Chandigarh 5

Corbusier in which he showcased his architectural genius to the maximum. The city was to be surrounded by a 16
kilometer wide greenbelt that was to ensure that no development could take place in the immediate vicinity of the
town, thus checking suburbs and urban sprawl; hence is famous for its greenness too.
While leaving the bulk of the city's architecture to other members of his team, Le Corbusier took responsibility for
the overall master plan of the city, and the design of some of the major public buildings including the High Court,
Assembly, Secretariat, the Museum and Art Gallery, School of Art and the Lake Club. Le Corbusier's most
prominent building, the Court House, consists of the High court, which is literally higher than the other, eight lower
courts. Most of the other housing was done by Le Corbusier's cousin Pierre Jeanneret, the English husband and wife
team of Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, along with a team of nine Indian architects. The city in its final form, while not
resembling his previous city projects like the Ville Contemporaine or the Ville Radieuse, was an important and
iconic landmark in the history of town planning. It continues to be an object of interest for architects, planners,
historians and social scientists. Chandigarh has two satellite cities: Panchkula and Mohali. Sometimes, the triangle of
these three cities is collectively called the Chandigarh Tricity.

Chandigarh administration
Chandigarh Administration is under the control of the Administrator who is appointed under the provisions of Art
239 of the Constitution. The administrative control of Chandigarh is under the Ministry of Home Affairs. The
Adviser to the Administrator, a very senior officer equivalent to the Chief Secretary of a state, belonging to one of
the All India Services, is second in command after the Administrator. He generally belongs to the AGMU cadre of
the Indian Administrative Service.
• The Deputy Commissioner, an officer belonging to the Indian
Administrative Service, is the in-charge of the General
Administration in the Chandigarh UT.
• The Senior Superintendent of Police, an officer belonging to the
Indian Police Service, is responsible for maintaining Law & Order
and related issues in the Chandigarh UT.
• The Deputy Conservator of Forests, an officer belonging to the
Indian Forest Service, is responsible for the management of the
Forests, Environment, Wild-Life and Pollution Control in the
Chandigarh High Court
Chandigarh UT.
The above three officers are generally from AGMU cadre and can also be from Punjab or Haryana cadres of the All
India Services.

Demographics
As of 2001 India census,[13] Chandigarh had a population of 900,635, making for a density of about 7900 persons
per square kilometre. Males constitute 56% of the population and females 44%. The sex ratio is 777 females for
every 1,000 males–which is the lowest in the country. Chandigarh has an average literacy rate of 81.9%, higher than
the national average of 64.8%; with male literacy of 86.1% and female literacy of 76.5%. About 12% of the
population is under 6 years of age. The main religions in Chandigarh are Hinduism(78.60%), Sikhism (16.1%), Islam
(3.9%), and Christianity (0.8%).[14] Hindi and Punjabi and are the main languages spoken in Chandigarh, although
these days English is quite popular. A significant percentage of the population of Chandigarh consists of people who
had moved here from the neighboring states of Haryana and Punjab to fill up the large number of vacancies in
various government departments that were established in Chandigarh.
Chandigarh 6

Culture
The culture of Chandigarh is an amalgamation of cultures neighboring states with an urban tinge. Still it is mostly
influenced by Punjabi culture, followed by Haryanavi, Himachali, UP and Bihar. North indian food is popular in the
city. Weddings in the region prefer a long lavish menu[15] .
Trousers and shirts are mostly popular for gents. Older ladies prefer Punjabi suits and salwars. Young girls and boys
are mostly seen in Jeans and T Shirts.

Economy
The government is a major employer in Chandigarh with three
governments having their base here. A significant percentage of
Chandigarh’s population therefore consists of people who are either
working for one of these governments or have retired from government
service. For this reason, Chandigarh is often called a “Pensioner's
Paradise”. There are about 15 medium to large industrial including two
in the Public sector. In addition Chandigarh has over 2500 units are
registered under small scale sector. The important industries are paper
manufacturing, basic metals and alloys and machinery. Other
A Shopping mall in the city.
industries are relating to food products, sanitary ware, auto parts,
machine tools, pharmaceuticals and electrical appliances. Yet, with a
Per capita income (PCI) of 99,262, Chandigarh is the richest city in India.[16] Chandigarh's gross state domestic
product for 2004 is estimated at $2.2 billion in current prices.

Chandigarh has a well developed market and banking infrastructure. Nearly all the major banks in the country have
registered their presence in Chandigarh. Most banks with a pan India presence have their zonal/regional offices
present in Chandigarh. The Bank Square in Sector 17 in Chandigarh has a large presence of such offices all in one
section of the commercial sector.
Three major trade promotion organizations have their offices in Chandigarh. These are: Federation of Indian
Chambers of Commerce & Industry, (FICCI) the PHD Chamber of Commerce and Industry (PHDCCI) and the
Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) which has its regional headquarters at Sector 31, Chandigarh.
The defence forces have a significant presence in Chandigarh, apart from the Indian Airforce base in Sector 31 and
the nearby Cantonment in Chandimandir, the city is the base for sourcing supplies for the Leh - Laddakh and
Siachen region of defence operations.
Chandigarh IT Park (also Chandigarh Technology Park) is the city's attempt to break into the IT world. Chandigarh's
infrastructure, proximity to Delhi, Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, and the IT talent pool attracts IT
businesses looking for office space in the area. Major Indian firms and multinational corporations to the like of
Quark, Infosys, Dell have set up base in the city and its suburbs. According to a recent Global Services Survey
conducted by Cyber Media, Chandigarh is ranked 9th in the top 50 cities identified globally as ‘emerging
outsourcing and IT services destinations.’[17]
Chandigarh 7

Education
Chandigarh is known for its quality school education. The schools are
affiliated to different types of school curricula. The prominent colleges
in Chandigarh include GGDSD College, Punjab Engineering College,
Chandigarh College Of Engineering & Technology(CCET), University
Institute Of Engineering & Technology (UIET), DAV College, MCM
DAV College, Government College for Girls and Boys and
Government Teacher Training College. There are model schools set up
by the government in various sectors, originally aimed to cater the
needs of each sector. It is a major study hub for students all over Gandhi Bhavan built by Pierre Jeanneret for
Punjab University
Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Punjab, Bihar, Uttaranchal, and also
for students from South-East Asia.

Transport
Chandigarh has the largest number of vehicles per capita.[18] Wide,
well maintained roads and ample parking space all over the city, make
it convenient to use private vehicles for local transport.
Public buses run by the Chandigarh Transport Undertaking (CTU), an
undertaking of the Chandigarh Administration, provide local transport
as well as inter-state transport services.[19]
The Chandigarh Traffic Police oversees the implementation of the
traffic rules, and is widely credited for a fairly orderly traffic system.
The Traffic Park in Sector 23 introduces children, rickshaw-pullers and The new "Green Bus" introduced by the CTU
new drivers to traffic safety.[20] runs throughout Chandigarh

Rickshaws are common for traveling short distances, especially by school-going children, housewives and the
elderly. Auto-rickshaws are limited, and most often ply to and from the ISBT. Most heavy traffic roads now have
rickshaw lanes, which the rickshaw-pullers must adhere to compulsorily. The city also boasts of a well established
network of modern radio cabs .
Chandigarh is well connected by road. The two main National Highways (NH) connecting Chandigarh with the rest
of the country are: NH 22 (Ambala - Kalka - Shimla - Kinnaur) and NH 21 (Chandigarh - Leh). Chandigarh has two
Inter-State Bus Terminus (ISBT), one for the North, East and South located in Sector 17, which is the biggest depot
of Haryana Roadways and has regular bus services to most major cites in Haryana,and the national capital Delhi,
which is about 240 km away. And a second in Sector 43 for the Western section, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, and
Uttarakhandand Jammu and Kashmir.
Chandigarh has a railway station located about 10 km. away from the ISBT. Regular train connections are available
to the national capital New Delhi and to some other junctions like Ambala, Amritsar, Bhiwani, Chennai, Howrah,
Kalka, Lucknow, Mumbai, Patna, Sri Ganganagar and Trivandrum.
Chandigarh also has a domestic airport located nearly 12 kilometers from the ISBT. Its name is Chandigarh Airport.
Air India, Jet Airways, JetLite and Kingfisher Airlines operate regular flights from Chandigarh to New Delhi and
Mumbai. The airport is under process of becoming an international airport and is negotiating with several airlines
including Kingfisher and SilkAir for international flights to Bangkok and Singapore, among other South East Asian
countries [21]
Chandigarh 8

In the near future, the city will also see a Metro Rail,[22] and an international airport. They are both approved by the
governments, and are now at the design step to finalize the project design.

Sporting venues and gardens

Chandigarh is home to numerous inter state sporting teams in
tournaments like PHL and IPL. The city has built upon this
achievements a network of sound infrastructure ranging from stadium
to training camps. This include the entire gamut from cricket stadiums,
swimming pools, shooting ranges to skating rinks and hockey
stadiums. Chandigarh also has gardens across the entire city.
Chandigarh is home to world famous Rock Garden,built from waste
things. The most famous being the Rose Garden. Other gardens are
Garden of Annuals, Fragrance Garden, Hibiscus Garden,
The popular Sector-42 Hockey Stadium
Chrysanthemum Garden, Botanical Garden and Shanti Kunj

Notable residents
• G.S.Virk:Owner bristol hotel and resorts.
• Abhinav Bindra, 2008 Olympic Gold Medalist, Men's 10m Air Rifle
• Ashok Malhotra,Former Indian Cricketer
• Harmohan Dhawan, Former minister of Civil Aviation
• Jaspal Bhatti, Renowned comedian
• Jeev Milkha Singh, The first Indian golfer to become a member of the European Tour, ranked as Asia's best golfer
• Kanwardeep Singh ,Member of Rajya Sabha, Business Tycoon(Owner Of Alchemist Group).
• Kapil Dev, Former Captain of the Indian cricket team
• Milkha Singh, Athlete
• Nek Chand, Artist, famous for designing The Rock Garden
• Pawan Kumar Bansal, Member of 15th Lok Sabha & Union
Minister.R
• Poonam Dhillon, Hindi Film Actress
• Rajeev Bedi[23] , Cancer Specialist, Oncologist, Best cancer
researcher in 2002 by Dr A.P.J Abdul Kalam - the then President of
India
• Rajpal Singh, Captain of Indian National Hockey Team.
• Ramesh Kumar Nibhoria, Winner of Ashden Award also known as
Green Oscar
• Dr.Rati Ram Sharma, Former Head of Deptt, BioPhysics & Nuclear
Waterfall at Rock Garden, Chandigarh
Medicine,received the 1989 Albert Schweitzer Prize and in 1996
was nominated for a Nobel Prize in Medicine.
• Satya Pal Jain, former Lok Sabha Member, Senior Advocate and Politician
• Yograj Singh, former Indian cricketer, Punjabi movie actor
• Yuvraj Singh, Member of the Indian national cricket team, son of Yograj Singh
Chandigarh 9

See also
• Chandigarh Capital region
• Mohali
• Panchkula
• Rock Garden
• Zirakpur

Academic works
• Evenson, Norma. Chandigarh. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1966.
• Joshi, Kiran. Documenting Chandigarh: The Indian Architecture of Pierre Jeanneret, Edwin Maxwell Fry and
Jane Drew. Ahmedabad: Mapin Publishing in association with Chandigarh College of Architecture, 1999. ISBN
1-890206-13-X
• Kalia, Ravi. Chandigarh: The Making of an Indian City. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.
• Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew. Chandigarh and Planning Development in India, London: Journal of the Royal
Society of Arts, No.4948, 1 April 1955, Vol.CIII, pages 315-333. I. The Plan, by E. Maxwell Fry, II. Housing, by
Jane B. Drew.
• Nangia, Ashish. Re-locating Modernism: Chandigarh, Le Corbusier and the Global Postcolonial. PhD
Dissertation, University of Washington, 2008.
• Perera, Nihal. "Contesting Visions: Hybridity, Liminality and Authorship of the Chandigarh Plan" Planning
Perspectives 19 (2004): 175-199
• Prakash, Vikramaditya. Chandigarh’s Le Corbusier: The Struggle for Modernity in Postcolonial India. Seattle:
University of Washington Press, 2002.
• Sarin, Madhu. Urban Planning in the Third World: The Chandigarh Experience. London: Mansell Publishing,
1982.

References
[1] Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ )
[2] http:/ / chandigarh. nic. in/
[3] The Official Government Website (http:/ / chandigarh. gov. in/ knowchd_general. htm)
[4] Business Portal of India (http:/ / business. gov. in/ investment_incentives/ chandigarh. php)
[5] "Front Page News : Monday, July 26, 2010" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2008/ 09/ 17/ stories/ 2008091755600800. htm). The Hindu. .
Retrieved 2010-07-26.
[6] "India's cleanest: Where does your city stand?: Rediff.com News" (http:/ / news. rediff. com/ slide-show/ 2010/ may/ 11/
slide-show-1-chandigarh-cleanest-of-all. htm). News.rediff.com. 2010-05-13. . Retrieved 2010-07-26.
[7] "Official Website of Chandigarh Administration" (http:/ / chandigarh. gov. in/ admn_index. htm). Chandigarh.gov.in. . Retrieved 2010-07-26.
[8] TNN, Oct 2, 2008, 04.09am IST (2008-10-02). "Smoke out smoking violations - Chandigarh - City - The Times of India" (http:/ /
timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Cities/ Chandigarh/ Smoke_out_smoking_violations_/ articleshow/ 3551323. cms).
Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-26.
[9] "Chandigarh Administration" (http:/ / chandigarh. nic. in/ WriteReadData\notification\not_env684_300708. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved
2010-07-26.
[10] Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Chandigarh (http:/ / www. fallingrain. com/ world/ IN/ 5/ Chandigarh. html)
[11] http:/ / chandigarh. nic. in/ knowchd_general. htm
[12] "Census population" (http:/ / sampark. chd. nic. in/ images/ State_2006/ StatisticalAbstract2004/ Areapopulation/ area_pop_tab2. 1. pdf)
(PDF). Census of India. http:/ / sampark. chd. nic. in. . Retrieved 2008-06-04.
[13] "Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20040616075334/ http:/ / www. censusindia. net/ results/ town. php?stad=A& state5=999). Census Commission of India. Archived from the
original (http:/ / www. censusindia. net/ results/ town. php?stad=A& state5=999) on 2004-06-16. . Retrieved 2008-11-01.
[14] Indian Census (http:/ / censusindia. gov. in/ Dist_File/ datasheet-0401. pdf)
[15] http:/ / tastytouch. co. in/ menus/ make-my-menu/
[16] Chandigarh's the richest of 'em all (http:/ / www. ibnlive. com/ news/ chandigarhs-the-richest-of-em-all/ 12571-3. html)
[17] The Hindu Business Line (http:/ / www. thehindubusinessline. com/ 2007/ 10/ 03/ stories/ 2007100351450400. htm)
Chandigarh 10

[18] (http:/ / www. deccanherald. com/ deccanherald/ jun132006/ national181232006612. asp)

[19] CITCO (http:/ / www. citcochandigarh. com/ how_to_reach/ index. php)
[20] Chandigarh traffic police, promoting road safety, traffic safety, India road signs & rules, safe responsible driving, first aid India (http:/ /
www. chandigarhtrafficpolice. org/ )
[21] City Beautiful to get its first international flight in August - ExpressIndia.Com (http:/ / www. expressindia. com/ latest-news/
City-Beautiful-to-get-its-first-international-flight-in-August/ 297421/ )
[22] Deccan Herald - Metro comes to Chandigarh (http:/ / www. deccanherald. com/ Content/ Jan182008/ national2008011747237. asp)
[23] Dr Rajeev Bedi, Oncologist - Official Website (http:/ / www. drrajeevbedi. com)

External links
• Chandigarh travel guide from Wikitravel
• Chandigarh Administration Official Site (http://chandigarh.gov.in/)
Laurie Baker 11

Laurie Baker
Laurence Wilfred Baker
Personal information

Nationality British-origin, Indian

Born March 2, 1917Birmingham, England

Died April 1, 2007 (aged 90)Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

Work

Buildings Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum), Literacy Village (Lucknow), Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and
Natural History (SACON) (Coimbatore), Chitralekha Film Studio (Aakulam), The Indian Coffee House (Trivandrum),
Attapadi Hill Area Development Society (Attapadi), Dakshina Chitra (Chennai), Chengalchoola Slum dwelling units
(Trivandrum), Nirmithi Kendra (Aakulam), Tourist Centre (Ponmudi), Mitraniketan (Vellanad)

Awards Padma Shri, MBE

Laurence Wilfred "Laurie" Baker (March 2, 1917 – April 1, 2007) was an award-winning British-born Indian
architect, renowned for his initiatives in cost-effective energy-efficient architecture and for his unique space
utilisation and simple but beautiful aesthetic sensibility. In time he made a name for himself both in sustainable
architecture as well as in organic architecture.
He went to India in 1945 in part as a missionary and since then lived and worked in India for over 50 years. He
obtained Indian citizenship in 1989 and resided in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum), Kerala, since 1970 , where he
later set up an organization called COSTFORD (Centre of Science and Technology for Rural Development), for
spreading awareness for low cost housing.
In 1990, the Government of India awarded him with the Padma Shri in recognition of his meritorious service in the
field of architecture.

Education and missionary work

Baker was born into a staunch Methodist family, the youngest son of Birmingham Gas Distribution Authority's chief
accountant, Wilfred Baker and Emiley.[1] His elder brothers, Leonard and Norman, were both studying law, and had
a married sister, Edna. In his teens Baker began to question what religion meant to him and decided to become a
Quaker since it was closer to what he believed in. Baker studied architecture at Birmingham Institute of Art and
Design, Birmingham and graduated in 1937, aged 20, in a period of political unrest for Europe.
During the Second World War, he served in the Friends Ambulance Unit in China and Burma.[2]
His initial commitment to India had him working as an architect for World Leprosy Mission, an international and
interdenominational Mission dedicated to the care of those suffering from leprosy in 1945.[3] As new medicines for
the treatment of the disease were becoming more prevalent, his responsibilities were focused on converting or
replacing asylums once used to house the ostracized sufferers of the disease - "lepers". Finding his English
construction education to be inadequate for the types of issues and materials he was faced with: termites and the
yearly monsoon, as well as laterite, cow dung, and mud walls, respectively, Baker had no choice but to observe and
learn from the methods and practices of the vernacular architecture. He soon learned that the indigenous architecture
and methods of these places were in fact the only viable means to deal with his once daunting problems.
Inspired by his discoveries (which he modestly admitted were 'discoveries' only for him, and mere common
knowledge to those who developed the practices he observed), he began to turn his style of architecture towards one
that respected the actual culture and needs of those who would actually use his buildings, rather than just playing to
the more "Modern-istic" tunes of his paying clients.
Laurie Baker 12

Gandhian encouragement and initial work

After he came to India Laurie had a chance encounter with Mahatma Gandhi which was to have a lasting impact on
his ideology and also his work and building philosophy.[4] After India gained her independence and Mahatma
Gandhi was assassinated, Baker lived in Kerala with Doctor P.J. Chandy, from whom he received great
encouragement and whose sister he would later wed in 1948.[5] Herself a doctor, Elizabeth Jacob and Laurie were
married and moved to Pithoragarh, a small village in Uttarakhand, where they lived and worked for the next 16
years. Elizabeth's medical training was put to use aiding the afflicted in the village while Laurie continued his
architectural work and research accommodating the medical needs of the community through his constructions of
various hospitals and clinics. It is here that Baker would acquire and hone those skills from the local building
community which had so fascinated him during his missionary work. In 1966, Baker moved south and worked with
the tribals of Peerumed, Kerala, and in 1970 moved to Thiruvananthapuram.[6]
Baker sought to enrich the culture in which he participated by promoting simplicity and home-grown quality in his
buildings. Seeing so many people living in poverty in the region and throughout India served also to amplify his
emphasis on cost-conscious construction, one that encouraged local participation in development and craftsmanship -
an ideal that the Mahatma expressed as the only means to revitalize and liberate an impoverished India. This drive
for simplicity also stemmed from his Quaker faith, one that saw indulging in a deceitful facade as a way to fool the
'Creator' as quite pointless. Instead, Baker sought to provide the 'right' space for his clients and to avoid anything
pretentious.
Eventually, he was drawn back to work in India as more and more people began commissioning work from him in
the area. The first client being Welthy Honsinger Fisher, an elderly American woman concerned with adult illiteracy
throughout India, who sought to set up a 'Literacy Village' in which she intended to use puppetry, music and art as
teaching methods to help illiterate and newly-literate adults add to their skills.[7] [8] [9] An aging woman who risked
her health to visit Laurie, refused to leave until she received plans for the village. More and more hospital
commissions were received as medical professionals realized that the surroundings for their patients were as much a
part of the healing process as any other form of treatment, and that Baker seemed the only architect who cared
enough to become familiarized with how to build what made Indian patients comfortable with those surroundings.
His presence would also soon be required on-site at Ms. Fisher's "Village," and he became well known for his
constant presence on the construction sites of all his projects, often finalizing designs through hand-drawn
instructions to masons and laborers on how to achieve certain design solutions.
Laurie Baker 13

Architectural style
Throughout his practice, Baker became well known for designing and
building low cost, high quality, beautiful homes, with a great portion of his
work suited to or built for lower-middle to lower class clients. His buildings
tend to emphasize prolific - at times virtuosic - masonry construction,
instilling privacy and evoking history with brick jali walls, a perforated brick
screen which invites a natural air flow to cool the buildings' interior, in
addition to creating intricate patterns of light and shadow. Another significant
Baker feature is irregular, pyramid-like structures on roofs, with one side left
open and tilting into the wind. Baker's designs invariably have traditional
Indian sloping roofs and terracotta Mangalore tile shingling with gables and
vents allowing rising hot air to escape. Curved walls enter Baker's
architectural vocabulary as a means to enclose more volume at lower material
cost than straight walls, and for Laurie, "building [became] more fun with the
The Indian Coffee House in
circle." A testament to his frugality, Baker was often seen rummaging through Thiruvananthapuram, which was
salvage heaps looking for suitable building materials, door and window designed by Laurie Baker
frames, sometimes hitting a stroke of luck as evidenced by the intricately
carved entry to the Chitralekha Film Studio (Aakulam, Trivandrum, 1974–76): a capricious architectural element
found in a junk heap.

Baker's architectural method is one of improvisation, in which initial

drawings have only an idealistic link to the final construction, with
most of the accommodations and design choices being made on-site by
the architect himself. Compartments for milk bottles near the doorstep,
windowsills that double as bench surfaces, and a heavy emphasis on
taking cues from the natural condition of the site are just some
examples. His Quaker-instilled respect for nature lead him to let the
idiosyncrasies of a site inform his architectural improvisations, rarely
is a topography line marred or a tree uprooted. This saves construction
cost as well, since working around difficult site conditions is much
more cost-effective than clear-cutting. ("I think it's a waste of money to
level a well-moulded site") Resistant to "high-technology" that
addresses building environment issues by ignoring natural
environment, at the Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum,
Baker's works, such as this house, blend
seamlessly into the natural settings. 1971) Baker created a cooling system by placing a high, latticed, brick
wall near a pond that uses air pressure differences to draw cool air
through the building. Various features of his work such as using recycled material, natural environment control and
frugality of design may be seen as sustainable architecture or green building with its emphasis on sustainability. His
responsiveness to never-identical site conditions quite obviously allowed for the variegation that permeates his work.
Laurie Baker 14

Death
Laurie Baker died at 7:30 am on April 1, 2007, aged 90, he is survived
by wife Elizabeth, son Tilak and daughters Vidya and Heidi. Until the
end, he continued to work in and around his home in Trivandrum,
though health concerns had kept his famous on-site physical presence
to a minimum. His designing and writing were done mostly at his
home. His approach to architecture steadily gained appreciation as
architectural sentiment creaks towards place-making over modernizing
or stylizing. As a result of this more widespread acceptance, however,
the "Baker Style" home is gaining popularity, much to Baker's own
The Hamlet at Nalanchira near
chagrin, since he felt that the 'style' being commoditised is merely the
Thiruvananthapuram, which was home to Baker
inevitable manifestation of the cultural and economic imperatives of and his wife since 1970. The house, which resides
the region in which he worked, not a solution that could be applied on a hill top, was constructed by Baker.
whole-cloth to any outside situation. Laurie Baker's architecture
focused on retaining a site's natural character, and economically minded indigenous construction, and the seamless
integration of local culture that has been very inspirational.

Many of Laurie Baker's writings were published and are available through COSTFORD (the Center Of Science and
Technology For Rural Development) the voluntary organisation which carried out many of his later projects, at
which he was the Master Architect. COSTFORD is carrying on working towards the ideals that Laurie Baker
espoused throughout his life.

Awards
• 1981: D.Litt. conferred by the Royal University of Netherlands for outstanding work in the developing countries.
• 1983: Order of the British Empire, MBE
• 1987: Received the first Indian National Habitat Award
• 1988: Received Indian Citizenship
• 1989: Indian Institute of Architects Outstanding Architect of the Year
• 1990: Received the Padma Sri
• 1990: Great Master Architect of the Year
• 1992: UNO Habitat Award & UN Roll of Honour
• 1993: International Union of Architects (IUA) Award
• 1993: Sir Robert Matthew Prize for Improvement of Human Settlements
• 1994: People of the Year Award
• 1995: Awarded Doctorate from the University of Central England
• 1998: Awarded Doctorate from Sri Venkateshwara University
• 2001: Coinpar MR Kurup Endowment Award
• 2003: Basheer Puraskaram
• 2003: D.Litt. from the Kerala University
• 2005: Kerala Government Certificate of Appreciation
• 2006: L-Ramp Award of Excellence
• 2006: Nominated for the Pritzker Prize (considered the Nobel Prize in Architecture)
Laurie Baker 15

Further reading
• Bhatia, Gautam, Laurie Baker, Life, Work, Writings, Viking Press, 1991. ISBN 0-670-83991-4
• Bhatia, Gautam, Laurie Baker, Life, Work, Writings, New Delhi, India, Penguin Books, 1994. ISBN
0-14-015460-4
• The Other Side of Laurie Baker: Memoirs, by Elizabeth Baker. ISBN 81-264-1462-6.
• Voluntary Agencies and Housing: A Report on Some Voluntary Agencies Working in the Field of Housing in
India, by Madhao Achwal. Published by UNICEF, 1979. Chapter 3:Laurie Baker.

References
[1] Laurie Baker's creative journey (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ fline/ fl2005/ stories/ 20030314000906400. htm) Frontline, Volume 20 -
Issue 05, March 01 - 14, 2003.
[2] Obituary in The Friend by Pat Knowles: "Laurie Baker: pioneering architect", May 18, 2007 pp.18-19
[3] Obituary (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2007/ 04/ 02/ stories/ 2007040203471300. htm) The Hindu, April 2, 2007.
[4] The last Quaker in India (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ thehindu/ mag/ 2007/ 04/ 15/ stories/ 2007041500060300. htm) The Hindu, April
15, 2007.
[5] The other side of Laurie Baker (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2004/ 02/ 15/ stories/ 2004021508980300. htm) The Hindu, February 15, 2004.
[6] Mud by Laurie Baker - Introduction (http:/ / www. nitc. ac. in/ nitc/ static_files/ arch/ Mud-Laurie_Baker. pdf)
[7] Citation for The 1964 Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding: Dr. Fisher (http:/ / www. rmaf. org. ph/ Awardees/ Citation/
CitationFisherWel. htm)
[8] Ms Fisher was the author of To Light a Candle New York, McGraw-Hill. 1962, an autobiography.
[9] World Education website: Our founder page (http:/ / www. worlded. org/ WEIInternet/ aboutus/ founder. cfm) (extract from Sally Swenson
Welthy Honsinger Fisher: Signals of a Century, 1988.) (accessed 13 February 2008)

External links
• Official Website of Architect Laurie Baker (http://www.lauriebaker.net)
• Laurie Baker, Homepage (http://59.92.116.99/website/RDC/docsweb/Booklet-Laurie Baker/
1stpg-laurie-baker-main.php) at Centre for Education and Documentation (CED).
Articles
• Laurie Baker: The man we will never forget (http://specials.rediff.com/news/2007/apr/04sld1.htm)
Rediff.com
• Master mason by G. SHANKAR (http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2407/stories/20070420004012600.htm).
• Of Architectural Truths and Lies (http://www.hinduonnet.com/folio/fo9908/99080300.htm)
• ARCHIPLANET article: Includes fuller list of buildings designed by Laurie Baker (http://www.archiplanet.
org/wiki/Laurie_Baker)
• "Here was a Baker"- a tribute (http://vidyaonline.org/arvindgupta/bakertribute.pdf)
• Laurie Baker Building Center, New Delhi (http://www.archinomy.com/blog/
a-visit-to-laurie-baker-building-centre-new-delhi.html)
Louis Kahn 16

Louis Kahn
Louis I. Kahn
Personal information

Nationality American

Born February 20, 1901Kuressaare, Governorate of Estonia, Russian Empire

Died March 17, 1974 (aged 73)New York City

Work

Buildings Yale University Art Gallery

Salk Institute
Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban
Phillips Exeter Academy Library
Kimbell Art Museum

Projects Center of Philadelphia,Urban and Traffic Study

Louis Isadore Kahn (born Itze-Leib Schmuilowsky) (February 20, 1901 or 1902 – March 17, 1974) was a
world-renowned American architect of Estonian Jewish origin,[1] based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States.
After working in various capacities for several firms in Philadelphia, he founded his own atelier in 1935. While
continuing his private practice, he served as a design critic and professor of architecture at Yale School of
Architecture from 1947 to 1957. From 1957 until his death, he was a professor of architecture at the School of
Design at the University of Pennsylvania. Influenced by ancient ruins, Kahn's style tends to the monumental and
monolithic; his heavy buildings do not hide their weight, their materials, or the way they are assembled.

Biography

Early life
Louis Kahn, whose original name was Itze-Leib (Leiser-Itze)
Schmuilowsky (Schmalowski), was born into a poor Jewish family in
Pärnu and spent the rest of his early childhood in Kuressaare on the
Estonian island of Saaremaa, then part of the Russian Empire. At age
3, he was badly burned on his face and hands in an accident involving
a coal fire, while jumping over the bonfire on St John's Day;[2] he
carried these scars for the rest of his life.[3]

In 1906, his family immigrated to the United States, fearing that his
father would be recalled into the military during the Russo-Japanese
War. His actual birth year may have been inaccurately recorded in the
process of immigration. According to his son's documentary film in
2003[4] the family couldn't afford pencils but made their own charcoal
sticks from burnt twigs so that Louis could earn a little money from
drawings and later by playing piano to accompany silent movies. He
became a naturalized citizen on May 15, 1914. His father changed their
name in 1915. Jesse Oser House, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania
(1940)
Louis Kahn 17

Career
He trained in a rigorous Beaux-Arts tradition, with its emphasis on drawing, at the University of Pennsylvania. After
completing his Bachelor of Architecture in 1924, Kahn worked as senior draftsman in the office of City Architect
John Molitor. In this capacity, he worked on the design for the 1926 Sesquicentennial Exposition.[5]
In 1928, Kahn made a European tour and took a particular interest in the medieval walled city of Carcassonne,
France and the castles of Scotland rather than any of the strongholds of classicism or modernism.[6] After returning
to the States in 1929, Kahn worked in the offices of Paul Philippe Cret, his former studio critic at the University of
Pennsylvania, and in the offices of Zantzinger, Borie and Medary in Philadelphia.[5] In 1932, Kahn and Dominique
Berninger founded the Architectural Research Group, whose members were interested in the populist social agenda
and new aesthetics of the European avant-gardes. Among the projects Kahn worked on during this collaboration are
unbuilt schemes for public housing that had originally been presented to the Public Works Administration.[5]
Among the more important of Kahn's early collaborations was with George Howe.[7] Kahn worked with Howe in
late 1930s on projects for the Philadelphia Housing Authority and again in 1940, along with German-born architect
Oscar Stonorov for the design of housing developments in other parts of Pennsylvania.[8]
Kahn did not find his distinctive architectural style until he was in
his fifties. Initially working in a fairly orthodox version of the
International Style, a stay at the American Academy in Rome in
the early 1950s marked a turning point in Kahn's career. The
back-to-the-basics approach he adopted after visiting the ruins of
ancient buildings in Italy, Greece, and Egypt helped him to
develop his own style of architecture influenced by earlier modern
movements but not limited by their sometimes dogmatic
ideologies.

In 1961 he received a grant from the Graham Foundation for The National Assembly Building (Jatiyo Sangshad
Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts to study traffic movement[9] [10] Bhaban) of Bangladesh

in Philadelphia and create a proposal for a viaduct system. He

describes this proposal at a lecture given in 1962 at the International Design Conference in Aspen, Colorado:
In the center of town the streets should become buildings. This should be interplayed with a sense of
movement which does not tax local streets for non-local traffic. There should be a system of viaducts
which encase an area which can reclaim the local streets for their own use, and it should be made so this
viaduct has a ground floor of shops and usable area. A model which I did for the Graham Foundation
recently, and which I presented to Mr. Entenza, showed the scheme.[11]
Kahn's teaching career began at Yale University in 1947, and he was eventually named Albert F. Bemis Professor of
Architecture and Planning at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1962 and Paul Philippe Cret Professor of
Architecture at the University of Pennsylvania in 1966 and was also a Visiting Lecturer at Princeton University from
1961 to 1967. Kahn was elected a Fellow in the American Institute of Architects (AIA) in 1953. He was made a
member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1964. He was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal in 1964.
He was made a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1968 and awarded the AIA Gold Medal,
the highest award given by the AIA, in 1971[12] and the Royal Gold Medal by the RIBA in 1972.
Louis Kahn 18

Death
In 1974, Kahn died of a heart attack in a men's restroom in Pennsylvania Station in New York.[13] He went
unidentified for three days because he had crossed out the home address on his passport. He had just returned from a
work trip to Bangladesh, and despite his long career, he was deeply in debt when he died.

Personal life
Kahn had three different families with three different women: his wife, Esther, whom he married in 1930; Anne
Tyng, who began her working collaboration and personal relationship with Kahn in 1945; and Harriet Pattison. His
obituary in the New York Times, written by Paul Goldberger, mentions only Esther and his daughter by her as
survivors. But in 2003, Kahn's son with Pattison, Nathaniel Kahn, released an Oscar-nominated biographical
documentary about his father, titled My Architect: A Son's Journey, which gives glimpses of the architecture while
focusing on talking to the people who knew him: family, friends, and colleagues. It includes interviews with
renowned architect contemporaries such as B. V. Doshi, Frank Gehry, Ed Bacon, Philip Johnson, I. M. Pei, and
Robert A. M. Stern, but also an insider's view of Kahn's unusual family arrangements. The unusual manner of his
death is used as a point of departure and a metaphor for Kahn's "nomadic" life in the film.

Important works
• Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven,
Connecticut,(1951–1953), the first significant commission of
Louis Kahn and his first masterpiece, replete with technical
innovations. For example, he designed a hollow concrete
tetrahedral space-frame that did away with the need for
ductwork and reduced the floor-to-floor height by channeling
air through the structure itself. Like many of Kahn's buildings,
the Art Gallery makes subtle references to its context while
overtly rejecting any historical style.
Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas (1966-72)
• Richards Medical Research Laboratories, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, (1957–1965),[14] regarding which Kahn said, “No space you can devise
can satisfy these requirements. I thought what they should have was a corner for thought, in a word, a studio
instead of slices of space.”
• The Salk Institute, La Jolla, California, (1959–1965), was to be a campus composed of three main clusters:
meeting and conference areas, living quarters, and laboratories. Only the laboratory cluster, consisting of two
parallel blocks enclosing a water garden, was actually built. The two laboratory blocks frame an exquisite view of
the Pacific Ocean, accentuated by a thin linear fountain that seems to reach for the horizon.
• First Unitarian Church, Rochester, New York (1959–1969), named as one of the greatest religious structures of
the 20th century by Paul Goldberger, Pulitzer Prize-winning architectural critic.[15] Tall, narrow window recesses
create an irregular rhythm of shadows on the exterior while four light towers flood the sanctuary walls with
indirect natural light.
• Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, in Ahmedabad, India (1962).
• Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (National Assembly Building) in Dhaka, Bangladesh (1962–1974), considered to be his
masterpiece and one of the great monuments of International Modernism.
• Phillips Exeter Academy Library, Exeter, New Hampshire, (1965–1972), awarded the Twenty-five Year Award
by the American Institute of Architects in 1997. It is famous for its dramatic atrium with enormous circular
openings into the book stacks.
• Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas, (1967–1972), features repeated bays of cycloid-shaped barrel vaults
with light slits along the apex, which bathe the artwork on display in an ever-changing diffuse light.
Louis Kahn 19

• Yale Center for British Art, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, (1969–1974).
• Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park, Roosevelt Island, New York, (1972–1974), unbuilt.

Timeline of works
All dates refer to the year project commenced
• 1935 – Jersey Homesteads Cooperative Development, Hightstown,
New Jersey
• 1940 – Jesse Oser House, 628 Stetson Road, Elkins Park,
Pennsylvania
• 1947 – Phillip Q. Roche House, 2101 Harts Lane, Conshohocken,
Pennsylvania
• 1951 – Yale University Art Gallery, 1111 Chapel Street, New
Haven, Connecticut
• 1952 – City Tower Project, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (unbuilt)
• 1954 – Jewish Community Center (aka Trenton Bath House), 999
Lower Ferry Road, Ewing, New Jersey
• 1956 – Wharton Esherick Studio, 1520 Horseshoe Trail, Malvern,
Pennsylvania (designed with Wharton Esherick)
• 1957 – Richards Medical Research Laboratories, University of
Pennsylvania, 3700 Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
• 1957 – Fred Clever House [16], 417 Sherry Way, Cherry Hill, New Interior of Phillips Exeter Academy Library,
Jersey Exeter, New Hampshire (1965-72)

• 1959 – Margaret Esherick House, 204 Sunrise Lane, Chestnut Hill,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania[17]
• 1958 – Tribune Review Printing Press, 622 Cabin Hill Drive, Greensburg, Pennsylvania
• 1959 – Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California
• 1959 – First Unitarian Church, 220 South Winton Road, Rochester, New York
• 1960 – Erdman Hall Dormitories, Bryn Mawr College, Morris Avenue, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania
• 1960 – Norman Fisher House, 197 East Mill Road, Hatboro, Pennsylvania
• 1962 – Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, India
• 1962 – National Assembly Building, Dhaka, Bangladesh
• 1963 – President's Estate, Islamabad, Pakistan (unbuilt)
• 1965 – Phillips Exeter Academy Library, Front Street, Exeter, New Hampshire
• 1966 – Kimbell Art Museum, 3333 Camp Bowie Boulevard, Fort Worth, Texas
• 1966 – Olivetti-Underwood Factory, Valley Road, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
• 1968 – Hurva Synagogue, Jerusalem, Israel (unbuilt)
• 1969 – Yale Center for British Art, Yale University, 1080 Chapel Street, New Haven, Connecticut
• 1971 – Steven Korman House, Sheaff Lane, Fort Washington, Pennsylvania
• 1972 – Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park, Roosevelt Island, New York City, New York (unbuilt)[18]
• 1973 - The Arts United Center,(Formerly known as the Fine Arts Foundation Civic Center) Fort Wayne, Indiana
[19]
Louis Kahn 20

Legacy

360° panorama in the courtyard of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California (1959–65).
Louis Kahn's work infused the International style with a fastidious,
highly personal taste, a poetry of light. His few projects reflect his deep
personal involvement with each. Isamu Noguchi called him "a
philosopher among architects." He was known for his ability to create
monumental architecture that responded to the human scale. He was
also concerned with creating strong formal distinctions between served
spaces and servant spaces. What he meant by servant spaces was not
spaces for servants, but rather spaces that serve other spaces, such as
stairwells, corridors, restrooms, or any other back-of-house function
Louis Kahn Memorial Park, 11th & Pine Streets,
like storage space or mechanical rooms. His palette of materials tended
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
toward heavily textured brick and bare concrete, the textures often
reinforced by juxtaposition to highly refined surfaces such as travertine
marble.

While widely known for his spaces' poetic sensibilities, Kahn also worked closely with engineers and contractors on
his buildings. The results were often technically innovative and highly refined. In addition to the influence Kahn's
more well-known work has on contemporary architects (such as Mazharul Islam, Tadao Ando), some of his work
(especially the unbuilt City Tower Project) became very influential among the high-tech architects of the late 20th
century (such as Renzo Piano, who worked in Kahn's office, Richard Rogers and Norman Foster). His prominent
apprentices include Mazharul Islam, Moshe Safdie, Robert Venturi, Jack Diamond.

Many years after his death, Kahn continues to inspire controversy. Interest is growing in a plan to build a
Kahn-designed Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park at the southern tip of Roosevelt Island.[20] A New York
Times editorial opined:
There's a magic to the project. That the task is daunting makes it worthy of the man it honors, who
guided the nation through the Depression, the New Deal and a world war. As for Mr. Kahn, he died in
1974, as he passed alone through New York's Penn Station. In his briefcase were renderings of the
memorial, his last completed plan.[21]
The editorial describes Kahn's plan as:
...simple and elegant. Drawing inspiration from Roosevelt's defense of the Four Freedoms – of speech
and religion, and from want and fear – he designed an open 'room and a garden' at the bottom of the
island. Trees on either side form a 'V' defining a green space, and leading to a two-walled stone room at
the water's edge that frames the United Nations and the rest of the skyline.
Critics note that the panoramic view of Manhattan and the UN are actually blocked by the walls of that room and by
the trees.[22] Other as-yet-unanswered critics have argued more broadly that not enough thought has been given to
Louis Kahn 21

what visitors to the memorial would actually be able to do at the site.[23] The proposed project is opposed by a
majority of island residents who were surveyed by the Trust for Public Land, a national land conservation group
currently working extensively on the island.[24]
The movement for the memorial, which was conceived by Kahn's firm almost 35 years ago, needed to raise $40
million by the end of 2007; as of July 20, it had collected $5.1 million.[25] There is a merest hint in Architectural
Record about the often-heard argument that it must be built because it was literally Kahn's last project;[26] and this is
rebutted by those who've said the plans aren't enough like Kahn's other work for it to be touted as a memorial to
Kahn as well as FDR.[27]

Gallery

Yale University Coffered ceiling in Yale Stairwell in Yale Reconstructed model (2008) of
Art Gallery, New University Art Gallery University Art Gallery Trenton Bath House, Ewing,
Haven, (1951–53). (1951–53). New Jersey (1954).
Connecticut
(1951–53).

Wharton Esherick Studio,
1520 Horseshoe Trail,
Malvern, Pennsylvania
(1956). Designed with
Wharton Esherick.
Richards Medical Research Interior of First Unitarian Indian Institute of Management,
Laboratories, University of Church, Rochester, New Ahmedabad, India (1962).
Pennsylvania, 3700 York (1959)
Hamilton Walk,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
(1957-65).

Yale Center for British Art, Yale

University, New Haven,
Connecticut (1969–74).
Louis Kahn 22

See also
• Louis Kahn buildings

Notes
[1] Voolen, Edward (2006). Jewish art and culture (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?client=firefox-a& um=1& q="The+ Estonian-born+
architect+ Kahn+ (1901-1974),+ who+ immigrated+ with+ his+ family+ to+ Philadelphia+ in+ 1906"& btnG=Search+ Books). Prestel. p. 138.
. "The Estonian-born architect Kahn (1901–1974), who immigrated with his family to Philadelphia in 1906"
[2] "Kus sündis Louis Kahn?" (http:/ / paber. ekspress. ee/ viewdoc/ 48EBEEC2DFC8B555C22571F1003A8A93) (in Estonian). Eesti Ekspress
(http:/ / www. ekspress. ee). . Retrieved 2006-09-28.
[3] Commstock, Paul. "An Interview with Louis Kahn Biographer Carter Wiseman," (http:/ / calitreview. com/ 224) California Literary Review.
June 15, 2007.
[4] SBS Hot Docs Jan 15, 2008 My architect: A son's journey (http:/ / www20. sbs. com. au/ whatson/ ?date=2008-01-15& channelID=1)
[5] Louis Isadore Kahn (1901–1974) – Philadelphia Architects and Buildings (http:/ / www. philadelphiabuildings. org/ pab/ app/ ar_display.
cfm/ 21829)
[6] Johnson, Eugene J. "A Drawing of the Cathedral of Albi by Louis I. Kahn," (http:/ / links. jstor. org/
sici?sici=0016-920X(1986)25:1<159:ADOTCO>2. 0. CO;2-K& size=LARGE& origin=JSTOR-enlargePage) Gesta, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp.
159–165.
[7] Howe, George (1886–1955) – Philadelphia Architects and Buildings (http:/ / www. philadelphiabuildings. org/ pab/ app/ ar_display. cfm/
25206)
[8] Stonorov, Oskar Gregory (1905–1970) – Philadelphia Architects and Buildings (http:/ / www. philadelphiabuildings. org/ pab/ app/
ar_display. cfm/ 21630)
[9] Philadelphia City Planning: Market Street East Project Page (http:/ / www. design. upenn. edu/ archives/ majorcollections/ kahn/ likpcpmark.
html)
[10] MoMA.org | The Collection | Louis I. Kahn. Traffic Study, project, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Plan of proposed traffic-movement pattern.
1952 (http:/ / www. moma. org/ collection/ browse_results. php?criteria=O:AD:E:2964& page_number=1& template_id=1& sort_order=1)
[11] Kahn, Louis I.; Robert C. Twombly. Louis Kahn: Essential Texts. W. W. Norton & Company. pp.  158 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=UEZo6XU324MC& pg=PA158& lpg=PA158& dq=louis+ kahn+ graham+ foundation& source=web& ots=ERjS-TanGd&
sig=KkA3cUxVRRTqkdW5lYUzigSnb_c). ISBN 0393731138.
[12] AIA150 – The 150th Anniversary of the American Institute of Architects (http:/ / www. aia150. org/ aw_gm_1971. php)
[13] Goldberger, Paul (March 20, 1974). "Louis I. Kahn Dies; Architect was 73." The New York Times, p 1.
[14] Richards Medical Building (http:/ / www. american-architecture. info/ USA/ USA-Northeast/ NT-015. htm) from World Architecture
Images.
[15] Goldberger, Paul (Dec 26, 1982). "Housing for the Spirit" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1982/ 12/ 26/ books/ housing-for-the-spirit. html?&
pagewanted=all). New York Times. .
[16] http:/ / www. design. upenn. edu/ archives/ majorcollections/ kahn/ likclever. html
[17] Margaret Esherick House (http:/ / www. flickr. com/ photos/ jpmm/ 258737493/ ) from Flickr.
[18] Saffron, Inga. "Changing Skyline: One more masterpiece by Kahn nears reality." (http:/ / www. philly. com/ inquirer/ columnists/
inga_saffron/ 20090823_Changing_Skyline__One_more_masterpiece_by_Kahn_nears_reality. html) Philadelphia Inquirer. August 23, 2009.
[19] http:/ / www. artsunited. org/ auc_hisarcfacility. php
[20] Press Releases from the Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute (http:/ / www. feri. org/ news/ news_detail. cfm?QID=3332)
[21] "A Roosevelt for Roosevelt Island," New York Times. November 5, 2007.
[22] COMING TO LIGHT: The Louis I. Kahn Monument to Franklin D. Roosevelt (http:/ / archweb. cooper. edu/ exhibitions/ kahn/ index. html)
[23] Huxtable, Ada Louise. "Roosevelt Memorial Design Hits Snags; Skillful Blend Museum Idea Dropped Must Look Beautiful," New York
Times. May 1, 1973.
[24] New York City, Southpoint Park Plan Complete for Roosevelt Island: The Trust for Public Land (http:/ / www. tpl. org/ tier3_cd.
cfm?content_item_id=19000& folder_id=631)
[25] Dunlap, David W., "A Campaign to Build a Long-Delayed F.D.R. Memorial," New York Times. October 26, 2007; "Roosevelt Island May
Soon See FDR Memorial," New York Sun. October 26, 2007. Link for New York Times photographs of project site (http:/ / cityroom. blogs.
nytimes. com/ 2007/ 10/ 26/ a-campaign-to-build-a-long-delayed-fdr-memorial)
[26] Is Kahn’s FDR Memorial Back on Track? | News | Architectural Record (http:/ / archrecord. construction. com/ news/ daily/ archives/
070709fdr. asp)
[27] Braudy, Susan. "The Architectural Metaphysic of Louis Kahn; 'Is the center of a column filled with hope?' 'What is a wall?' 'What does this
space want to be?'" New York Times Magazine. November 15, 1970.
Louis Kahn 23

References
• Curtis, William. Modern Architecture Since 1900 (2nd Ed. ed.). Prentice-Hall. pp. 309–316. ISBN 0135866944.
• Kahn, Louis I.. Louis I.Kahn: Complete Work 1935–1974 (2nd Rev. and Enl. Ed edition ed.). Birkhauser Verlag
AG. pp. 437. ISBN 3764313471.
• Leslie, Thomas.. Louis I.Kahn: Building Art, Building Science. New York: George Braziller. ISBN 0807615404.
• McCarter, Robert. Louis I. Kahn. Phaidon Press Ltd. pp. 512. ISBN 0714840459.
• Wiseman, Carter. Louis I. Kahn: Beyond Time and Style: A Life in Architecture (1st Ed. ed.). New York: W.W.
Norton (http://books.wwnorton.com/books/detail.aspx?ID=9780). ISBN 0393731650.
• Larson, Kent. Louis I. Kahn: Unbuilt Masterworks. New York: Monacelli Press. pp. 232. ISBN 1-58093-014-X.
• Rosa, Joseph. Peter Gossel. ed. Louis I.Kahn: Enlightened space. Germany: Taschen GmbH. pp. 96.
ISBN 3822836419.

Further reading
• Louis Kahn: Essential Texts (http://books.wwnorton.com/books/detail.aspx?ID=9704), edited by Robert
Twombly, WW Norton & Company, 2003.

External links
• Louis I. Kahn – Philadelphia Architects and Buildings Project (http://www.philadelphiabuildings.org/pab/app/
ar_display.cfm/21829)
• The Louis I. Kahn Collection – The Architectural Archives of the University of Pennsylvania (http://www.
design.upenn.edu/archives/majorcollections/kahn/likidxdate.html)
• Exhibition at the University of Pennsylvania on Louis I. Kahn Interiors (http://www.arthistory.upenn.edu/
themakingofaroom/)
• Great Buildings Online – Louis I. Kahn (http://www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Louis_I._Kahn.html)
• The Works of Louis I. Kahn (http://www.naquib.com/kahnpics), a personal collection of photographs taken at
various Kahn buildings.
• Honoring Louis Kahn's Legacy on the 100th Anniversary of His Birth (http://www.upenn.edu/almanac/v47/
n22/Kahn100.html)
• My Architect (http://www.myarchitectfilm.com/), biographical movie ( IMDb (http://www.imdb.com/title/
tt0373175/), 2003)
• Yale University Art Gallery – Louis I. Kahn building (http://artgallery.yale.edu/pages/collection/buildings/
build_renovation.html), information from the Yale University Art Gallery on the renovation effort.
• The Trenton Bath House of Louis Kahn (http://home.mindspring.com/~kahnpage/bathhouse/index.html)
• Friends Of The Trenton Bath House (http://www.kahnbathhouse.org)
• Louis Kahn buildings (http://members.tripod.com/~freshness/links.html)
• Redefining the Basemap (http://www.intelligentagent.com/archive/Vol6_No2_interactive_city_sant.htm)
• Louis Kahn traffic studies (http://www.flickr.com/photos/21525853@N00/575838737/)
• Kahn Project Amherst College (http://www.amherst.edu/~kahn/)
• Aerial image of the Olivetti-Underwood factory, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (http://maps.live.com/default.
aspx?v=2&FORM=LMLTCP&cp=qqhs408kx1np&style=o&lvl=1&tilt=-90&dir=0&alt=-1000&
scene=22801538&phx=0&phy=0&phscl=1&encType=1)
• Louis Kahn (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=561) at Find a Grave
• Una nuova fabbrica in America: lo stabilimento di Harrisburg (Italian only, several exterior and interior photos of
the Olivetti factory in Harrisburg, PA) (http://www.storiaolivetti.it/percorso.asp?idPercorso=623)
Frank Lloyd Wright 24

Frank Lloyd Wright

Frank Lloyd Wright

Personal information

Nationality American

Born June 8, 1867Richland Center, Wisconsin

Died April 9, 1959 (aged 91)Phoenix, Arizona

Work

Buildings Robie House

Price Tower
Fallingwater
Johnson Wax Building
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum
Taliesin

Projects Florida Southern College

Frank Lloyd Wright (born Frank Lincoln Wright, June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect,
interior designer, writer and educator, who designed more than 1,000 projects, which resulted in more than 500
completed works.[1] Wright promoted organic architecture (exemplified by Fallingwater), was a leader of the Prairie
School movement of architecture (exemplified by the Robie House, the Westcott House, and the Darwin D. Martin
House), and developed the concept of the Usonian home (exemplified by the Rosenbaum House). His work includes
original and innovative examples of many different building types, including offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers,
hotels, and museums. Wright also often designed many of the interior elements of his buildings, such as the furniture
and stained glass.
Wright authored 20 books and many articles, and was a popular lecturer in the United States and in Europe. His
colorful personal life often made headlines, most notably for the 1914 fire and murders at his Taliesin studio.
Already well-known during his lifetime, Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as
"the greatest American architect of all time".[1]
Frank Lloyd Wright 25

Early years
Frank Lloyd Wright was born in the farming town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, United States, in 1867. Originally
named Frank Lincoln Wright, he changed his name after his parents' divorce to honor his mother's Welsh family, the
Lloyd Joneses. His father, William Carey Wright (1825–1904) was a locally admired orator, music teacher,
occasional lawyer and itinerant minister. William Wright had met and married Anna Lloyd Jones (1838/39 – 1923),
a county school teacher, the previous year when he was employed as the superintendent of schools for Richland
County. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister but he later joined his wife's
family in the Unitarian faith. Anna was a member of the large, prosperous and well-known Lloyd Jones family of
Unitarians, who had emigrated from Wales to Spring Green, Wisconsin. One of Anna's brothers was Jenkin Lloyd
Jones, who would become an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Western United States. Both
of Wright's parents were strong-willed individuals with idiosyncratic interests that they passed on to him. In his
biography his mother declared, when she was expecting her first child, that he would grow up to build beautiful
buildings. She decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage the
infant's ambition. The family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts in 1870 for William to minister a small
congregation. In 1876, Anna visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia and saw an exhibit of educational
blocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. The blocks, known as Froebel Gifts, were the foundation of his
innovative kindergarten curriculum. A trained teacher, Anna was excited by the program and bought a set of blocks
for her family. Young Wright spent much time playing with the blocks. These were geometrically shaped and could
be assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions. Wright's autobiography talks about
the influence of these exercises on his approach to design. Many of his buildings are notable for the geometrical
clarity they exhibit.
The Wright family struggled financially in Weymouth and returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin, where the
supportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison, where William taught
music lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society. Although William was a distant
parent, he shared his love of music, especially the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, with his children.
Soon after Wright turned 14 his parents separated. Anna had been unhappy for some time with William's inability to
provide for his family and asked him to leave. The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack of
physical affection. William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again.[2] At
this time Wright's middle name was changed from Lincoln to Lloyd. As the only male left in the family, Wright
assumed financial responsibility for his mother and two sisters.

Education and work for Silsbee (1885-1888)

Wright attended a Madison high school but there is no evidence he ever graduated.[3] He was admitted to the
University of Wisconsin–Madison as a special student in 1886. There he joined Phi Delta Theta fraternity,[4] took
classes part-time for two semesters, and worked with a professor of civil engineering, Allan D. Conover.[5] In 1887,
Wright left the school without taking a degree (although he was granted an honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from the
University in 1955).
In 1887, Wright arrived in Chicago in search of employment. Resulting from the devastating Great Chicago Fire of
1871 and recent population boom, new development was plentiful in the city. He later recalled that his first
impressions of Chicago were that of grimy neighborhoods, crowded streets and disappointing architecture, yet he
was determined to find work. Within days, and after interviews with several prominent firms, he was hired as a
draftsman with the architectural firm of Joseph Lyman Silsbee.[6] Wright previously collaborated with Silsbee —
accredited as the draftsman and the construction supervisor — on the 1886 Unity Chapel for Wright’s family in
Spring Green, Wisconsin.[7] While with the firm, he also worked on two other family projects: the All Souls Church
in Chicago for uncle, Jenkin Lloyd Jones, and the Hillside Home School I in Spring Green for two of his aunts.[8]
Other draftsmen that also worked for Silsbee in 1887 included future architects, Cecil Corwin, George W. Maher,
Frank Lloyd Wright 26

and George G. Elmslie. Wright soon befriended Corwin, with whom he lived until he found a permanent home.
In his autobiography, Wright accounts that he also had a short stint in another Chicago architecture office. Feeling
that he was underpaid for the quality of his work for Silsbee (at $8.00 a week), the young draftsman quit and found
work as a designer at the firm of Beers, Clay, and Dutton. However, Wright soon realized that he was not ready to
handle building design by himself; he left his new job to return to Joseph Silsbee – this time with a raise in salary.[9]
Although Silsbee adhered mainly to Victorian and revivalist architecture, Wright found his work to be more
"gracefully picturesque" than the other "brutalities" of the period.[10] Still, Wright aspired for more progressive work.
After less than a year had passed in Silsbee’s office, Wright learned that Adler & Sullivan, the forerunning firm in
Chicago, were "looking for someone to make the finish drawings for the interior of the Auditorium [Building]."[11]
Wright demonstrated that he was a competent impressionist of Louis Sullivan’s ornamental designs and two short
interviews later, was an official apprentice in the firm.[12]

Adler & Sullivan (1888-1893)

Wright did not get along well with Sullivan’s other draftsmen; he wrote that several violent altercations occurred
between them during the first years of his apprenticeship. For that matter, Sullivan showed very little respect for his
employees as well.[13] In spite of this, "Sullivan took [Wright] under his wing and gave him great design
responsibility." As a show of respect, Wright would later refer to Sullivan as Lieber Meister (German for "Dear
Master").[14] Wright also formed a bond with office foreman, Paul Mueller. Wright would later engage Mueller to
build several of his public and commercial buildings between 1903 and 1923.[15]
On June 1, 1889, Wright married his first wife, Catherine Lee "Kitty"
Tobin (1871–1959). The two had met around a year earlier during
activities at All Souls Church. Sullivan did his part to facilitate the
financial success of the young couple by granting Wright a five year
employment contract. Wright made one more request: "Mr. Sullivan, if
you want me to work for you as long as five years, couldn't you lend
me enough money to build a little house?"[16] With Sullivan’s $5000
loan, Wright purchased a lot at the corner of Chicago and Forest
Avenues in the suburb of Oak Park. The existing Gothic Revival house
Wright's home in Oak Park, Illinois
was given to his mother, while a compact Shingle style house was built
alongside for Wright and Catherine.[17]

According to an 1890 diagram of the firm's new, 17th floor space atop the Auditorium Building, Wright soon earned
a private office next to Sullivan’s own.[15] However, that office was actually shared with friend and draftsman
George Elmslie, who was hired by Sullivan at Wright's request.[18] Wright had risen to head draftsman and handled
all residential design work in the office. As a general rule, Adler & Sullivan did not design or build houses, but they
obliged to do so when asked by the clients of their important commercial projects. Wright was occupied by the firm’s
major commissions during office hours, so house designs were relegated to evening and weekend overtime hours at
his home studio. He would later claim total responsibility for the design of these houses, but careful inspection of
their architectural style, and accounts from historian Robert Twombly suggest that it was Sullivan that dictated the
overall form and motifs of the residential works; Wright's design duties were often reduced to detailing the projects
from Sullivan's sketches.[18] During this time, Wright worked on Sullivan’s bungalow (1890) and the James A.
Charnley Bungalow (1890) both in Ocean Springs, Mississippi, the Berry-MacHarg House (1891) and Sullivan’s
townhouse (1892) both in Chicago, and the most noted 1891 James A. Charnley House also in Chicago. Of the five
collaborations, only the two commissions for the Charnley family still stand.[19] [20]
Frank Lloyd Wright 27

Despite Sullivan’s loan and overtime salary, Wright was constantly

short on funds. Wright admitted that his poor finances were likely due
to his expensive tastes in wardrobe and vehicles, and the extra luxuries
he designed into his house. To compound the problem, Wright's
children — including first born Lloyd (b.1890) and John (b.1892) —
would share similar tastes for fine goods.[16] [21] To supplement his
income and repay his debts, Wright accepted independent commissions
for at least nine houses. These "bootlegged" houses, as he later called
them, were conservatively designed in variations of the fashionable
The Walter Gale House (1893) is Queen Anne in
Queen Anne and Colonial Revival styles. Nevertheless, unlike the
style yet features window bands and a
prevailing architecture of the period, each house emphasized simple cantilevered porch roof which hint at Wright's
geometric massing and contained features such as bands of horizontal developing aesthetics
windows, occasional cantilevers, and open floor plans which would
become hallmarks of his later work. Eight of these early houses remain today including the Thomas Gale, Parker,
Blossom, and Walter Gale houses.[22]

As with the residential projects for Adler & Sullivan, Wright designed his bootleg houses on his own time. Sullivan
knew nothing of the independent works until 1893, when he recognized that one of the houses was unmistakably a
Frank Lloyd Wright design. This particular house, built for Allison Harlan, was only blocks away from Sullivan’s
townhouse in the Chicago community of Kenwood. Aside from the location, the geometric purity of the composition
and balcony tracery in the same style as the Charnley House likely gave away Wright’s involvement. Since Wright’s
five year contract forbade any outside work, the incident led to his departure from Sullivan’s firm.[20] A variety of
stories recount the break in the relationship between Sullivan and Wright; even Wright later told two different
versions of the occurrence. In An Autobiography, Wright claimed that he was unaware that his side ventures were a
breach of his contract. When Sullivan learned of them, he was angered and offended; he prohibited any further
outside commissions and refused to issue Wright the deed to his Oak Park house until after he completed his five
years. Wright couldn’t bear the new hostility from his master and thought the situation was unjust. He "threw down
[his] pencil and walked out of the Adler and Sullivan office never to return." Dankmar Adler, who was more
sympathetic to Wright’s actions, later sent him the deed.[23] On the other hand, Wright told his Taliesin apprentices
(as recorded by Edgar Tafel) that Sullivan fired him on the spot upon learning of the Harlan House. Tafel also
accounted that Wright had Cecil Corwin sign several of the bootleg jobs, indicating that Wright was aware of their
illegal nature.[20] [24] Regardless of the correct series of events, Wright and Sullivan did not meet or speak for twelve
years.

Transition and experimentation (1893-1900)

After leaving Louis Sullivan, Wright established his own practice on the top floor of the Sullivan designed Schiller
Building (1892, demolished 1961) on Randolph Street in Chicago. Wright chose to locate his office in the building
because the tower location reminded him of the office of Adler & Sullivan. Although Cecil Corwin followed Wright
and set up his architecture practice in the same office, the two worked independently and did not consider themselves
partners.[25] Within a year, Corwin decided that he did not enjoy architecture and journeyed east to find a new
profession.[26]
With Corwin gone, Wright moved out of the Schiller Building and into the nearby and newly completed Steinway
Hall Building. The loft space was shared with Robert C. Spencer, Jr., Myron Hunt, and Dwight H. Perkins.[27] These
young architects, inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement and the philosophies of Louis Sullivan, formed what
would become known as the Prairie School.[28] They were joined by Perkins apprentice, Marion Mahony, who in
1895 transferred to Wright’s team of drafters and took over production of his presentation drawings and watercolor
renderings. Mahony, the first licensed female architect in the United States, also designed furniture, leaded glass
Frank Lloyd Wright 28

windows, and light fixtures, among other features, for Wright’s houses.[29] [30] Between 1894 and the early 1910s,
several other leading Prairie School architects and many of Wright’s future employees launched their careers in the
offices of Steinway Hall.
Wright’s projects during this period followed two basic models. On one
hand, there was his first independent commission, the Winslow House,
which combined Sullivanesque ornamentation with the emphasis on
simple geometry and horizontal lines that is typical in Wright houses.
The Francis Apartments (1895, demolished 1971) Heller House
(1896), Rollin Furbeck House (1897), and Husser House (1899,
demolished 1926) were designed in the same mode. For more
conservative clients, Wright conceded to design more traditional William H. Winslow House (1893) in River
dwellings. These included the Dutch Colonial Revival style Bagley Forest, Illinois
House (1894), Tudor Revival style Moore House I (1895), and Queen
Anne style Charles Roberts House (1896).[31] As an emerging architect, Wright could not afford to turn down clients
over disagreements in taste, but even his most conservative designs retained simplified massing and occasional
Sullivan inspired details.[32]

Soon after the completion of the Winslow House in 1894, Edward Waller, a friend and former client, invited Wright
to meet Chicago architect and planner Daniel Burnham. Burnham had been impressed by the Winslow House and
other examples of Wright’s work; he offered to finance a four year education at the École des Beaux-Arts and two
years in Rome. To top it off, Wright would have a position in Burnham’s firm upon his return. In spite of guaranteed
success and support of his family, Wright declined the offer. Burnham, who had directed the classical design of the
World’s Columbian Exposition was a major proponent of the Beaux Arts movement, thought that Wright was
making a foolish mistake. Yet for Wright, the classical education of the École lacked creativity and was altogether at
odds with his vision of modern American architecture.[33] [34]
Wright relocated his practice to his home in 1898 in order to bring his
work and family lives closer. This move made further sense as the
majority of the architect’s projects at that time were in Oak Park or
neighboring River Forest. The past five years had seen the birth of
three more children — Catherine in 1894, David in 1895, and Frances
in 1898 — prompting Wright to sacrifice his original home studio
space for additional bedrooms. Thus, moving his workspace
necessitated his design and construction of an expansive studio
addition to the north of the main house. The space, which included a
Wright's studio (1898) viewed from Chicago
hanging balcony within the two story drafting room, was one of Avenue
Wright’s first experiments with innovative structure. The studio was a
poster for Wright’s developing aesthetics and would become the laboratory from which the next ten years of
architectural creations would emerge.[35]
Frank Lloyd Wright 29

Prairie House
By 1901, Wright had completed about 50 projects, including many houses in Oak Park. As his son John Lloyd
Wright wrote:
"William Eugene Drummond, Francis Barry Byrne, Walter Burley Griffin, Albert Chase McArthur,
Marion Mahony, Isabel Roberts and George Willis were the draftsmen. Five men, two women. They
wore flowing ties, and smocks suitable to the realm. The men wore their hair like Papa, all except
Albert, he didn’t have enough hair. They worshiped Papa! Papa liked them! I know that each one of
them was then making valuable contributions to the pioneering of the modern American architecture for
which my father gets the full glory, headaches and recognition today!"[36]
Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses which have since been considered the onset of
the "Prairie style". Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright’s early
designs and the Prairie creations.[37] Meanwhile, the Thomas House and Willits House received recognition as the
first mature examples of the new style.[38] [39] At the same time, Wright gave his new ideas for the American house
widespread awareness through two publications in the Ladies' Home Journal. The articles were a answer to an
invitation from the president of Curtis Publishing Company, Edward Bok, as part of a project to improve modern
house design. Bok also extended the offer to other architects, but Wright was the sole responder. "A Home in a
Prairie Town" and "A Small House with Lots of Room in it" appeared respectively in the February and July 1901
issues of the journal. Although neither of the affordable house plans were ever constructed, Wright received
increased requests for similar designs in following years.[37]
Wright's residential designs were "Prairie Houses" because the design is considered to complement the land around
Chicago. These houses featured extended low buildings with shallow, sloping roofs, clean sky lines, suppressed
chimneys, overhangs and terraces, using unfinished materials. The houses are credited with being the first examples
of the "open plan". Windows whenever possible are long, and low, allowing a connection between the interior and
nature, outside, that was new to western architecture and reflected the influence of Japanese architecture on Wright .
The manipulation of interior space in residential and public buildings are hallmarks of his style.
Commercial buildings in the Prairie style include Unity Temple, the home of the Unitarian Universalist congregation
in Oak Park. As a lifelong Unitarian and member of Unity Temple, Wright offered his services to the congregation
after their church burned down in 1904. The community agreed to hire him and he worked on the building from 1905
to 1908. Wright later said that Unity Temple was the edifice in which he ceased to be an architect of structure, and
became an architect of space. Many architects consider it the world's first modern building, because of its unique
construction of only one material: reinforced concrete. This would become a hallmark of the modernists who
followed Wright, such as Mies van der Rohe, and even some post-modernists, such as Frank Gehry.
Many examples of this work are in Buffalo, New York as a result of
friendship between Wright and Darwin D. Martin, an executive of the
Larkin Soap Company. In 1902, the Larkin Company decided to build
a new administration building. Wright came to Buffalo and designed
not only the Larkin Administration Building (completed in 1904,
Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York demolished in 1950), but also homes for three of the company's
executives including the Darwin D. Martin House in 1904.

Other Wright houses considered to be masterpieces of the late Prairie Period (1907–1909) are the Frederick Robie
House in Chicago and the Avery and Queene Coonley House in Riverside, Illinois. The Robie House, with its
soaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a
Frank Lloyd Wright 30

110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic. Its living

and dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space. This building
had a profound influence on young European architects after World
War I and is sometimes called the "cornerstone of modernism".
However, Wright's work was not known to European architects until
the publication of the Wasmuth Portfolio.

Midlife controversy and architecture Hillside Home School, 1902, Taliesin, Spring
Green, Wisconsin

Family abandonment
Local gossips noticed Wright's flirtations, and he developed a
reputation in Oak Park as a man-about-town. His family had grown to
six children, and the brood required most of Catherine's attention. In
1903, Wright designed a house for Edwin Cheney, a neighbor in Oak
Park, and immediately took a liking to Cheney's wife, Mamah
Borthwick Cheney. Mamah Cheney was a modern woman with
interests outside the home. She was an early feminist and Wright
viewed her as his intellectual equal. The two fell in love, even though
Wright had been married for almost 20 years. Often the two could be Aerial photo of Taliesin, Spring Green,
seen taking rides in Wright's automobile through Oak Park, and they Wisconsin
became the talk of the town. Wright's wife, Kitty, sure that this
attachment would fade as the others had, refused to grant him a divorce. Neither would Edwin Cheney grant one to
Mamah. In 1909, even before the Robie House was completed, Wright and Mamah Cheney eloped to Europe,
leaving their own spouses and children behind. The scandal that erupted virtually destroyed Wright's ability to
practice architecture in the United States.

Scholars argue that he felt by 1907 that he had done everything he could do with the Prairie Style, particularly from
the standpoint of the single family house. Wright was not getting larger commissions for commercial or public
buildings, which frustrated him.
What drew Wright to Europe was the chance to publish a portfolio of his work with Ernst Wasmuth, who had agreed
in 1909 to publish his work there.[40] This chance also allowed Wright to deepen his relationship with Mamah
Cheney. Wright and Cheney left the United States separately in 1910, meeting in Berlin, where the offices of
Wasmuth were located.
The resulting two volumes, entitled Studies and Executed Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright, were published in 1910
and 1911 in two editions, creating the first major exposure of Wright's work in Europe. The work contained more
than 100 lithographs of Wright’s designs and was commonly known as the Wasmuth Portfolio.
Wright remained in Europe for one year (though Mamah Cheney returned to the United States a few times) and set
up a home in Fiesole, Italy. During this time, Edwin Cheney granted her a divorce, though Kitty still refused to grant
one to her husband. After Wright's return to the United States in late 1910, Wright persuaded his mother to buy land
for him in Spring Green, Wisconsin. The land, bought on April 10, 1911, was adjacent to land held by his mother's
family, the Lloyd-Joneses. Wright began to build himself a new home, which he called Taliesin, by May 1911. The
recurring theme of Taliesin also came from his mother's side: Taliesin in Welsh mythology was a poet, magician,
and priest. The family motto was Y Gwir yn Erbyn y Byd which means "The Truth Against the World"; it was created
by Iolo Morgannwg who also had a son called Taliesin, and the motto is still used today as the cry of the druids and
Frank Lloyd Wright 31

chief bard of the Eisteddfod in Wales.[41]

More personal turmoil

On August 15, 1914, while Wright was working in Chicago, Julian Carlton, a male servant from Barbados who had
been hired several months earlier, set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and murdered seven people with an axe as
the fire burned.[42] The dead included Mamah; her two children, John and Martha; a gardener; a draftsman; a
workman; and another workman’s son. Two people survived the mayhem, one of whom helped to put out the fire
that almost completely consumed the residential wing of the house. Carlton swallowed acid immediately following
the attack in an attempt to kill himself.[42] He was nearly lynched on the spot, but was taken to the Dodgeville
jail.[42] Carlton died from starvation seven weeks after the attack, despite medical attention.[42]
In 1922, Wright's first wife, Kitty, granted him a divorce, and Wright was required to wait one year until he married
his then-partner, Maude "Miriam" Noel. In 1923, Wright's mother, Anna (Lloyd Jones) Wright, died. Wright wed
Miriam Noel in November 1923, but her addiction to morphine led to the failure of the marriage in less than one
year. In 1924, after the separation, but while still married, Wright met Olga (Olgivanna) Lazovich Hinzenburg, at a
Petrograd Ballet performance in Chicago. They moved in together at Taliesin in 1925, and soon Olgivanna was
pregnant with their daughter, Iovanna. Iovanna was born December 2, 1925 and years later married and divorced
Wright's associate Arthur Pieper.
On April 20, 1925, another fire destroyed the bungalow at Taliesin. Crossed wires from a newly installed telephone
system were held responsible for the fire, which destroyed a collection of Japanese prints that Wright declared
invaluable. Wright estimated the loss at $250,000 to $500,000.[43] Wright rebuilt the living quarters again, naming
the home "Taliesin III".
In 1926, Olga's ex-husband, Vlademar Hinzenburg, sought custody of his daughter, Svetlana. In October 1926,
Wright and Olgivanna were accused of violating the Mann Act and arrested in Minnetonka, Minnesota. The charges
were later dropped.
Wright and Miriam Noel's divorce was finalized in 1927, and once again, Wright was required to wait for one year
until marrying again. Wright and Olgivanna married in 1928.

California and the textile block houses

Wright also built several houses in the Los Angeles area. Currently open to the public are the Hollyhock House
(Aline Barnsdall Residence) in Hollywood and the Anderton Court Shops in Beverly Hills.
Following the Hollyhock House, Wright used an innovative building process in 1923 and 1924, which he called the
textile block system [44] where buildings were constructed with precast concrete blocks with a patterned, squarish
exterior surface: The Alice Millard House (Pasadena), the John Storer House (West Hollywood), the Samuel
Freeman House (Hollywood) and the Ennis House in the Griffith Park area of Los Angeles. During the past two
decades the Ennis House has become popular as an exotic, nearby shooting location to Hollywood television and
movie makers. He also designed a fifth textile block house for Aline Barnsdall, the Community Playhouse ("Little
Dipper"), which was never constructed. Wright's son, Lloyd Wright, supervised construction for the Storer, Freeman
and Ennis House. Most of these houses are private residences closed to the public because of renovation, including
the George Sturges House (Brentwood) and the Arch Oboler Gatehouse & Studio (Malibu).
Frank Lloyd Wright 32

Mature Organic Style

During the later 1920s and 1930s Wright's Organic style had fully matured with the design of Graycliff, Fallingwater
and Taliesin West.
Graycliff, located just south of Buffalo, NY is an important mid-career (1926–1931) design by Wright; it is a
summer estate designed for his long-time patrons, Isabelle and Darwin D. Martin. Created in Wright's high Organic
style, Wright wrote in a letter to the Martins that "Coming in the house would be something like putting on your hat
and going outdoors." [45] Graycliff consists of three buildings set within 8.4 acres of landscape, also designed by
Wright. Its site, high on a bluff overlooking Lake Erie, inspired Wright to create a home that was transparent, with
views through the building to the lake beyond. Terraces and cantilevered balconies also encourage lake views, and
water features throughout the landscape were designed by Wright to echo the lake as well.
One of Wright's most famous private residences was built from 1934 to
1937—Fallingwater—for Mr. and Mrs. Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr., at Bear
Run, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh. It was designed according to
Wright's desire to place the occupants close to the natural
surroundings, with a stream and waterfall running under part of the
building. The construction is a series of cantilevered balconies and
terraces, using limestone for all verticals and concrete for the
horizontals. The house cost $155,000, including the architect's fee of
$8,000. Kaufmann's own engineers argued that the design was not
Fallingwater, Bear Run, Pennsylvania (1937)
sound. They were overruled by Wright, but the contractor secretly
added extra steel to the horizontal concrete elements. In 1994, Robert
Silman and Associates examined the building and developed a plan to restore the structure. In the late 1990s, steel
supports were added under the lowest cantilever until a detailed structural analysis could be done. In March 2002,
post-tensioning of the lowest terrace was completed.

Taliesin West, Wright's winter home and studio complex in Scottsdale, AZ, was a laboratory for Wright from 1937
to his death in 1959. Now the home of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation and archives, it continues today as the
site of the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture.
Wright is responsible for a series of concepts of suburban development united under the term Broadacre City. He
proposed the idea in his book The Disappearing City in 1932, and unveiled a 12-square-foot (1.1 m2) model of this
community of the future, showing it in several venues in the following years. He continued developing the idea until
his death.

Usonian Houses
Concurrent with the development of Broadacre City, also referred to as Usonia, Wright conceived a new type of
dwelling that came to be known as the Usonian House. An early version of the form can be seen in the Malcolm
Willey House (1934) in Minneapolis; but the Usonian ideal emerged most completely in the Herbert and Katherine
Jacobs First House (1937) in Madison, Wisconsin. Designed on a gridded concrete slab that integrated the house's
radiant heating system, the house featured new approaches to construction, including sandwich walls that consisted
of layers of wood siding, plywood cores and building paper, a significant change from typically framed walls.
Usonian houses most commonly featured flat roofs and were mostly constructed without basements, completing the
excision of attics and basements from houses, a feat Wright had been attempting since the early 20th century.
Intended to be highly practical houses for middle-class clients, and designed to be run without servants, Usonian
houses often featured small kitchens — called "workspaces" by Wright — that adjoined the dining spaces. These
spaces in turn flowed into the main living areas, which also were characteristically outfitted with built-in seating and
tables. As in the Prairie Houses, Usonian living areas focused on the fireplace. Bedrooms were typically isolated and
Frank Lloyd Wright 33

relatively small, encouraging the family to gather in the main living areas. The conception of spaces instead of rooms
was a development of the Prairie ideal; as the built-in furnishings related to the Arts and Crafts principles from
which Wright's early works grew. Spatially and in terms of their construction, the Usonian houses represented a new
model for independent living, and allowed dozens of clients to live in a Wright-designed house at relatively low cost.
The diversity of the Usonian ideal can be seen in houses such as the Gregor S. and Elizabeth B. Affleck House
(1941) in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, which projects over a ravine; and the Hanna-Honeycomb House (1937) in
Palo Alto, California, which features a honeycomb planning grid. Gordon House, completed in 1963, was Wright's
last Usonian design.
His Usonian homes set a new style for suburban design that was a feature of countless developers. Many features of
modern American homes date back to Wright, including open plans, slab-on-grade foundations, and simplified
construction techniques that allowed more mechanization and efficiency in building.

Significant later works

The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City occupied
Wright for 16 years (1943–1959)[46] and is probably his most
recognized masterpiece. The building rises as a warm beige spiral from
its site on Fifth Avenue; its interior is similar to the inside of a seashell.
Its unique central geometry was meant to allow visitors to easily
experience Guggenheim's collection of nonobjective geometric
paintings by taking an elevator to the top level and then viewing
artworks by walking down the slowly descending, central spiral ramp,
which features a floor embedded with circular shapes and triangular
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
light fixtures to complement the geometric nature of the structure.
City, New York (1959)
Unfortunately, when the museum was completed, a number of
important details of Wright's design were ignored, including his desire
for the interior to be painted off-white. Furthermore, the Museum currently designs exhibits to be viewed by walking
up the curved walkway rather than walking down from the top level.

The only realized skyscraper designed by Wright is the Price Tower, a 19-story
tower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. It is also one of the two existing
vertically-oriented Wright structures (the other is the S.C. Johnson Wax Research
Tower in Racine, Wisconsin). The Price Tower was commissioned by Harold C.
Price of the H. C. Price Company, a local oil pipeline and chemical firm. It
opened to the public in February 1956. On March 29, 2007, Price Tower was
designated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of the
Interior, one of only 20 such properties in the state of Oklahoma.[47]

Other projects
Wright designed over 400 built structures[48] of which about 300 survive as of
2005. Four have been lost to forces of nature: the waterfront house for W. L.
Wright's Price Tower in Bartlesville,
Fuller in Pass Christian, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Camille in August
Oklahoma
1969; the Louis Sullivan Bungalow of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed by
Hurricane Katrina in 2005; and the Arinobu Fukuhara House (1918) in Hakone,
Japan, destroyed in the Great Kantō Earthquake of 1923. The Ennis House in California has also been damaged by
earthquake and rain-induced ground movement. In January, 2006, the Wilbur Wynant House in Gary, Indiana was
destroyed by fire.[49]
Frank Lloyd Wright 34

In addition, other buildings were intentionally demolished during and

Imperial Hotel, Tokyo (1923)
1968 due to urban developmental pressures.[50]
after Wright's lifetime, such as: Midway Gardens (1913, Chicago,
Illinois) and the Larkin Administration Building (1903, Buffalo, New
York) were destroyed in 1929 and 1950 respectively; the Francis
Apartments and Francisco Terrace Apartments (both located in
Chicago and designed in 1895) were destroyed in 1971 and 1974,
respectively; the Geneva Inn (1911) in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin was
destroyed in 1970; and the Banff National Park Pavilion (1911) in
Alberta, Canada was destroyed in 1939. The Imperial Hotel, in Tokyo
(1913) survived the Great Kantō earthquake but was demolished in

One of his projects, Monona Terrace, originally designed in 1937 as municipal offices for Madison, Wisconsin, was
completed in 1997 on the original site, using a variation of Wright's final design for the exterior with the interior
design altered by its new purpose as a convention center. The "as-built" design was carried out by Wright's
apprentice Tony Puttnam. Monona Terrace was accompanied by controversy throughout the 60 years between the
original design and the completion of the structure.[51]
Florida Southern College, located in Lakeland, Florida, constructed 12 (out of 18 planned) Frank Lloyd Wright
buildings between 1941 and 1958 as part of the Child of the Sun project. It is the world’s largest single-site collection
of Frank Lloyd Wright architecture.
A lesser known project that never came to fruition was Wright's plan for Emerald Bay, Lake Tahoe.[52] Few Tahoe
locals know of the iconic American architect's plan for their natural treasure.
The Kalita Humphreys Theater in Dallas, Texas was Wright's last project before his death.

Wright's last design and first European project

A design that Wright signed off on shortly before his death in 1959 – possibly his last completed design – was
realised in late 2007 in the Republic of Ireland.[53] Wright scholar and devotee Marc Coleman worked closely with
the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, dealing with E. Thomas Casey, the last surviving Foundation architect who
trained under Wright. Working with the Foundation, Coleman selected an unbuilt design that was originally
commissioned for Mr. and Mrs. Gilbert Wieland and due to be built in Maryland, USA. However, the Wielands
subsequently had financial problems and the design was shelved. The Foundation looked through its archive of 380
unbuilt designs and selected 4 for Coleman that were the closest fit for his site. In the end, he chose the Wieland
house, largely because the topography of his site is virtually identical to that which the building was originally
designed for. The completed house,[54] in only the fourth country in which a Wright design has been realised, is
attracting broad interest from the international architectural community. Casey visited the site in County Wicklow,
but died before construction began.

Community planning
Frank Lloyd Wright was interested in site and community planning throughout his career. His commissions and
theories on urban design began as early as 1900 and continued until his death. He had 41 commissions on the scale
of community planning or urban design.[55]
His thoughts on suburban design started in 1900 with a proposed subdivision layout for Charles E. Roberts entitled
the "Quadruple Block Plan." This design strayed from traditional suburban lot layouts and set houses on small square
blocks of four equal-sized lots surrounded on all sides by roads instead of straight rows of houses on parallel streets.
The houses — which used the same design as published in "A Home in a Prairie Town" from the Ladies' Home
Journal — were set toward the center of the block to maximize the yard space and included private space in the
Frank Lloyd Wright 35

center. This also allowed for far more interesting views from each house. Although this plan was never realized,
Wright published the design in the Wasmuth Portfolio in 1910.[56]
The more ambitious designs of entire communities were exemplified by his entry into the City Club of Chicago Land
Development Competition in 1913. The contest was for the development of a suburban quarter section. This design
expanded on the Quadruple Block Plan and included several social levels. The design shows the placement of the
upscale homes in the most desirable areas and the blue collar homes and apartments separated by parks and common
spaces. The design also included all the amenities of a small city: schools, museums, markets, etc.[57] This view of
decentralization was later reinforced by theoretical Broadacre City design. The philosophy behind his community
planning was decentralization. The new development must be away from the cities. In this decentralized America, all
services and facilities could coexist “factories side by side with farm and home.”[58] Notable Community Planning
Designs:
1900–1903 – Quadruple Block Plan – 24 homes in Oak Park, IL (unbuilt)
1909 – Como Orchard Summer Colony – Town site development for new town in the Bitterroot Valley, MT
1913 – Chicago Land Development competition – Suburban Chicago quarter section
1934–1959 – Broadacre City – Theoretical decentralized city plan – exhibits of large scale model
1938 – Suntop Homes also known as Cloverleaf Quadruple Housing Project – commission from Federal
Works Agency, Division of Defense Housing – low cost multifamily housing alternative to suburban
development
1945 – Usonia Homes – 47 homes (3 designed by Wright himself) in Pleasantville, New York
1949 – The Acres, also known as Galesburg Country Homes, 5 homes (4 designed by Wright himself) in
Charleston Township, Michigan

Japanese art
Though most famous as an architect, Wright was an active dealer in Japanese art, primarily ukiyo-e woodblock
prints. He frequently served as both architect and art dealer to the same clients; "he designed a home, then provided
the art to fill it".[59] For a time, Wright made more from selling art than from his work as an architect.
Wright first traveled to Japan in 1905, where he bought hundreds of prints. The following year, he helped organize
the world's first retrospective exhibition of works by Hiroshige, held at the Art Institute of Chicago.[59] For many
years, he was a major presence in the Japanese art world, selling a great number of works to prominent collectors
such as John Spaulding of Boston,[59] and to prominent museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New
York.[60] He penned a book on Japanese art in 1912.[60]
In 1920, however, rival art dealers began to spread rumors that Wright was selling retouched prints; this combined
with Wright's tendency to live beyond his means, and other factors, led to great financial troubles for the architect.
Though he provided his clients with genuine prints as replacements for those he was accused of retouching, this
marked the end of the high point of his career as an art dealer.[60] He was forced to sell off much of his art collection
in 1927 to pay off outstanding debts; the Bank of Wisconsin claimed his Taliesin home the following year, and sold
thousands of his prints, for only one dollar a piece, to collector Edward Burr Van Vleck.[59]
Wright continued to collect, and deal in, prints until his death in 1959, frequently using prints as collateral for loans,
frequently relying upon his art business to remain financially solvent[60]
The extent of his dealings in Japanese art went largely unknown, or underestimated, among art historians for decades
until, in 1980, Julia Meech, then associate curator of Japanese art at the Metropolitan Museum, began researching the
history of the museum's collection of Japanese prints. She discovered "a three-inch-deep 'clump of 400 cards' from
1918, each listing a print bought from the same seller—'F. L. Wright'" and a number of letters exchanged between
Wright and the museum's first curator of Far Eastern Art, Sigisbert C. Bosch Reitz, in 1918 to 1922.[60] These
Frank Lloyd Wright 36

discoveries, and subsequent research, led to a renewed understanding of Wright's career as an art dealer.

Death and legacy

Turmoil followed Wright even many years after his death on April 9,
1959 while undergoing surgery in Phoenix, Arizona to remove an
intestinal obstruction.[61] His third wife, Olgivanna, ran the Fellowship
after Wright's death, until her own death in Scottsdale, Arizona in
1985. That year, it was learned that her dying wish had been that
Wright, she and her daughter by a first marriage all be cremated and
relocated to Scottsdale, Arizona. By then, Wright's body had lain for
over 25 years in the Lloyd-Jones cemetery, next to the Unity Chapel,
near Taliesin, Wright's later-life home in Spring Green, Wisconsin.[62]
Olgivanna's plan called for a memorial garden, already in the works, to
be finished and prepared for their remains. Although the garden had
yet to be finished, his remains were prepared and sent to Scottsdale
where they waited in storage for an unidentified amount of time before
being interred in the memorial area. Today, the small cemetery south
of Spring Green, Wisconsin and a long stone's throw from Taliesin,
Wright with his wife Olgivanna and their
contains a gravestone marked with Wright's name but its grave is
youngest daughter Iovanna in 1957
empty.[63]

Personal style and concepts

Wright's creations took his concern with organic architecture down to
the smallest details. From his largest commercial commissions to the
relatively modest Usonian houses, Wright conceived virtually every
detail of both the external design and the internal fixtures, including
furniture, carpets, windows, doors, tables and chairs, light fittings and
decorative elements. He was one of the first architects to design and
supply custom-made, purpose-built furniture and fittings that
functioned as integrated parts of the whole design, and he often
returned to earlier commissions to redesign internal fittings. Some of
the built-in furniture remains, while other restorations have included
replacement pieces created using his plans. His Prairie houses use
themed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) that
are repeated in windows, carpets and other fittings. He made 1954 portrait by Al Ravenna, New York
innovative use of new building materials such as precast concrete World-Telegram and the Sun staff photographer
blocks, glass bricks and zinc cames (instead of the traditional lead) for
his leadlight windows, and he famously used Pyrex glass tubing as a major element in the Johnson Wax
Headquarters. Wright was also one of the first architects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings,
including some of the very first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glass
lampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting).
Frank Lloyd Wright 37

As Wright's career progressed, so did the mechanization of the glass

industry. Wright fully embraced glass in his designs and found that it
fit well into his philosophy of organic architecture. Glass allowed for
interaction and viewing of the outdoors while still protecting from the
elements. In 1928, Wright wrote an essay on glass in which he
compared it to the mirrors of nature: lakes, rivers and ponds. One of
Wright's earliest uses of glass in his works was to string panes of glass
along whole walls in an attempt to create light screens to join together
solid walls. By utilizing this large amount of glass, Wright sought to
achieve a balance between the lightness and airiness of the glass and Wright-designed window in Robie House,
the solid, hard walls. Arguably, Wright's best-known art glass is that of Chicago (1906)

the Prairie style. The simple geometric shapes that yield to very ornate
and intricate windows represent some of the most integral ornamentation of his career.[64]

Wright responded to the transformation of domestic life that occurred at the turn of the 20th century, when servants
became a less prominent or completely absent from most American households, by developing homes with
progressively more open plans. This allowed the woman of the house to work in her 'workspace', as he often called
the kitchen, yet keep track of and be available for the children and/or guests in the dining room. Much of modern
architecture, including the early work of Mies van der Rohe, can be traced back to Wright's innovative work.
Wright also designed some of his own clothing. His fashion sense was unique, and he usually wore expensive suits,
flowing neckties, and capes. Wright drove a custom yellow 'raceabout' in the Prairie years, a red Cord convertible in
the 1930s, and a famously customized 1940 Lincoln for many years. He earned many speeding tickets in each of his
vehicles.

Colleagues and influences

Wright rarely credited any influences on his designs, but most architects, historians and scholars agree he had five
major influences:
1. Louis Sullivan, whom he considered to be his 'Lieber Meister' (dear master),
2. Nature, particularly shapes/forms and colors/patterns of plant life,
3. Music (his favorite composer was Ludwig van Beethoven),
4. Japanese art, prints and buildings,
5. Froebel Gifts
He also routinely claimed the architects and architectural designers who were his employees' work as his own design
and claimed that the rest of the Prairie School architects were merely his followers, imitators and subordinates.[65]
But, as with any architect, Wright worked in a collaborative process and drew his ideas from the work of others. In
his earlier days, Wright worked with some of the top architects of the Chicago School, including Sullivan. In his
Prairie School days, Wright's office was populated by many talented architects including William Eugene
Drummond, John Van Bergen, Isabel Roberts, Francis Barry Byrne, Albert McArthur, Marion Mahony Griffin and
Walter Burley Griffin.
The Czech-born architect Antonin Raymond, recognized as the father of modern architecture in Japan, worked for
Wright at Taliesin and led the construction of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. He subsequently stayed in Japan and
opened his own practice. Rudolf Schindler also worked for Wright on the Imperial hotel. His own work is often
credited as influencing Wright's Usonian houses. Schindler's friend Richard Neutra also worked briefly for Wright
and became an internationally successful architect.
Later in the Taliesin days, Wright employed many architects and artists who later become notable, such as Aaron
Green, John Lautner, E. Fay Jones, Henry Klumb and Paolo Soleri in architecture and Santiago Martinez Delgado in
Frank Lloyd Wright 38

the arts. As a young man, actor Anthony Quinn applied to study with Wright at Taliesin. However, Wright suggested
that he first take voice lessons to help overcome a speech impediment.
Bruce Goff never worked for Wright but maintained correspondence with him. Their works can be seen to parallel
each other.

Recognition
Later in his life and well after his death in 1959, Wright received much
honorary recognition for his lifetime achievements. He received Gold Medal
awards from The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) in 1941 and the
American Institute of Architects (AIA) in 1949. He was awarded the Franklin
Institute's Frank P. Brown Medal in 1953. He received honorary degrees from
several universities (including his "alma mater", the University of Wisconsin)
and several nations named him as an honorary board member to their national
academies of art and/or architecture. In 2000, Fallingwater was named "The
Building of the 20th century" in an unscientific "Top-Ten" poll taken by
members attending the AIA annual convention in Philadelphia. On that list,
Wright was listed along with many of the USA's other greatest architects
1966 U.S. postage stamp honoring Frank including Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Louis Kahn, Philip Johnson and Ludwig
Lloyd Wright Mies van der Rohe, and he was the only architect who had more than one
building on the list. The other three buildings were the Guggenheim Museum,
the Frederick C. Robie House and the Johnson Wax Building.

In 1992, The Madison Opera in Madison, Wisconsin commissioned and premiered the opera Shining Brow, by
composer Daron Hagen and librettist Paul Muldoon based on events early in Wright's life. The work has since
received numerous revivals. In 2000, Work Song: Three Views of Frank Lloyd Wright, a play based on the
relationship between the personal and working aspects of Wright's life, debuted at the Milwaukee Repertory Theater.
In 1966, the United States Postal Service honored Wright with a Prominent Americans series 2¢ postage stamp.

Family
Frank Lloyd Wright was married three times and fathered seven children: four sons and three daughters. He also
adopted Svetlana Milanoff, the daughter of his third wife, Olgivanna Lloyd Wright.[66]
His wives were:
• Catherine "Kitty" (Tobin) Wright (1871–1959). Socialite and Social Worker. Married June 1889; divorced
November 1922.
• Maude "Miriam" (Noel) Wright (1869–1930). Artist. Married November, 1923; divorced August 1927.
• Olga Ivanovna "Olgivanna" (Lazovich Milanoff) Lloyd Wright (1897–1985). Dancer and writer. Married August
1928.
One of Wright's sons, Frank Lloyd Wright Jr., known as Lloyd Wright, was also a notable architect in Los Angeles.
Lloyd Wright's son (and Wright's grandson), Eric Lloyd Wright, is currently an architect in Malibu, California where
he has a practice of mostly residences, but also civic and commercial buildings.
Another son and architect, John Lloyd Wright, invented Lincoln Logs in 1918, and practiced extensively in the San
Diego area. John's daughter, Elizabeth Wright Ingraham [67], is an architect in Colorado Springs, Colorado. She is
the mother of Christine, an interior designer in Connecticut, and Catherine, an architecture professor at the Pratt
Institute.[68]
Frank Lloyd Wright 39

The Oscar-winning actress Anne Baxter was Wright's granddaughter. Baxter was the daughter of Catherine Baxter, a
child born of Wright's first marriage. Anne's daughter, Melissa Galt, currently lives and works in Atlanta as an
interior designer.[68]
His adopted daughter Svetlana (daughter of Olgivanna) and her son Daniel died in an automobile accident in 1946.
Her widower, William Wesley Peters, was later briefly married to Svetlana Alliluyeva, the youngest child and only
daughter of Joseph Stalin. They divorced after she could not adjust to the communal lifestyle of the Wright
communities, which she compared to life in the Soviet Union under her father, and because of the constant
interference of Wright's widow. Peters served as Chairman of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation from 1985 to
1991.
A great-grandson of Wright, S. Lloyd Natof, currently lives and works in Chicago as a master woodworker who
specializes in the design and creation of custom wood furniture.[69]

Archives
Photographs and other archival materials are held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of
Chicago. The Herbert and Katherine Jacobs Residence and Frank Lloyd Wright Records, 1924–1974, Collection
includes drawings, correspondence, and other materials documenting the construction of two homes for the Jacobs as
well as research files on Wright's life. The Frank Lloyd Wright in Michigan Collection, 1945–1988, consists of
research documents, including photocopied correspondence between Wright and his clients, used for the book
"Frank Lloyd Wright in Michigan." The Wrightiana Collection, c. 1897–1997 (bulk 1949–1969), includes a variety
of printed materials and photographs about Wright and his projects. The Joseph J. Bagley Cottage Collection, c.
1916–1925, contains photographs and drawings documenting the Bagley cottage which was completed in 1916.
The architect's personal archives [70] are located at Taliesin West in Scottsdale, Arizona. The Frank Lloyd Wright
archives include photographs of his drawings, indexed correspondence beginning in the 1880s and continuing
through Wright's life, and other ephemera. The Getty Research Center in Los Angeles, California, also has copies of
Wright's correspondence and photographs of his drawings in their "Frank Lloyd Wright Special Collection [71]".
Wright's correspondence is indexed in An Index to the Taliesin Correspondence, ed. by Professor Anthony Alofsin,
which is available at larger libraries.

Selected works
• Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, Oak Park, Illinois,
1889–1909
• William H. Winslow House, River Forest, Illinois, 1894
• Ward Winfield Willits Residence, and Gardener’s Cottage and
Stables, Highland Park, Illinois, 1901
• Dana-Thomas House, Springfield, Illinois, 1902
• Larkin Administration Building, Buffalo, New York, 1903
(demolished, 1950)
Nathan G. Moore House, Oak Park, Illinois
• Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York, 1903–1905
• Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 1904
• Frederick C. Robie Residence, Chicago, Illinois, 1909
• Taliesin I, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1911
• Midway Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, 1913 (demolished, 1929)
• Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, Japan, 1923 (demolished, 1968; entrance hall reconstructed at Meiji Mura near Nagoya,
Japan, 1976)
Frank Lloyd Wright 40

• Hollyhock House (Aline Barnsdall Residence), Los Angeles,

California, 1919–1921
• Ennis House, Los Angeles, California, 1923
• Taliesin III, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1925
• Graycliff. Buffalo, NY 1926
• Fallingwater (Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Residence), Bear Run,
Pennsylvania, 1935–1937
• First Jacobs House, 1936–1937
The Robie House on the University of Chicago
• Johnson Wax Headquarters, Racine, Wisconsin, 1936 campus
• Herbert F. Johnson Residence ("Wingspread"), Wind Point, WI,
1937
• Taliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona, 1937
• Usonian homes, various locations, 1930s–1950s
• Child of the Sun, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida,
1941–1958 Taliesin West Panorama from the "prow" looking
• First Unitarian Society of Madison, Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin, at the "ship"

1947
• V. C. Morris Gift Shop, San Francisco, California, 1948
• Price Tower, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, 1952–1956
• Beth Sholom Synagogue, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, 1954
• Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
1956–1961
• Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, New York,
1956–1959
• Kentuck Knob, Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania, 1956
• The Illinois, mile-high tower in Chicago, 1956 (unbuilt) Gammage Auditorium viewed from one of the
• Marshall Erdman Prefab Houses, various locations, 1956–1960 pedestrian ramps

• Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin,

1956–1961
• Marin County Civic Center, San Rafael, CA, 1957–1966
• Gammage Auditorium, Tempe, Arizona, 1959–1964

See also
• Frank Lloyd Wright buildings
• Wasmuth Portfolio
• Richard Bock
• Roman brick
• Jaroslav Joseph Polivka
• Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio
• Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy
• Frank Lloyd Wright-Prairie School of Architecture Historic District
• List of Frank Lloyd Wright works
• List of Frank Lloyd Wright works by location
• Broadacre City
• Fallingwater
Frank Lloyd Wright 41

References

Works Cited in Article

[1] Brewster, Mike (2004-07-28). "Frank Lloyd Wright: America's Architect" (http:/ / www. businessweek. com/ bwdaily/ dnflash/ jul2004/
nf20040728_3153_db078. htm). Business Week (The McGraw-Hill Companies). . Retrieved 2008-01-22.
[2] An Autobiography, by Frank Lloyd Wright, Duell, Sloan and Pearce, New York City, 1943, p. 51
[3] Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p.72
[4] Phi Delta Theta list of Famous Phis, accessed on May 26. 2008 (http:/ / www. phideltatheta. org/ index. php?option=com_content&
task=view& id=16& Itemid=161)
[5] Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, p. 82
[6] Wright, Frank Lloyd (2005). Frank Lloyd Wright: An Autobiography. Petaluma, CA: Pomegranate Communications. pp. 60–63.
ISBN 076493243.
[7] "A brief Biography" (http:/ / www. franklloydwright. org/ fllwf_web_091104/ Biography. html). Wright’s Life + Work. Frank Lloyd Wright
Foundation. 2010. . Retrieved 16 May 2010.
[8] O'Gorman, Thomas J. (2004). Frank Lloyd Wright's Chicago. San Diego: Thunder Bay Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN 1-59223-127-6.
[9] Wright 2005, p. 69.
[10] Wright 2005, p. 66.
[11] Wright 2005, p. 83.
[12] Wright 2005, p. 86.
[13] Wright 2005, pp. 89-94.
[14] Tafel, Edgar (1985). Years With Frank lloyd Wright: Apprentice to Genius. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. p. 31. ISBN 0-486-24801-1.
[15] Saint, Andrew (May 2004). "Frank Lloyd Wright and Paul Mueller: the architect and his builder of choice" (http:/ / www. bolender. com/
Frank Lloyd Wright/ Files/ Frank Lloyd Wright and Paul Mueller June 2003. pdf). Architectural Research Quarterly (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press) 7 (2): 157–167. . Retrieved 16 March 2010.
[16] Wright 2005, p. 97.
[17] Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust (2001). Zarine Weil. ed. Building A Legacy: The Restoration of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Oak Park
Home and Studio. San Francisco: Pomegranite. p. 4. ISBN 0-7649-1461-8.
[18] Gebhard, David; Patricia Gebhard (2006). Purcell & Elmslie: Prairie Progressive Architects. Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith. p. 32.
ISBN 1-4236-0005-3.
[19] Wright 2005, p. 100.
[20] Lind, Carla (1996). Lost Wright: Frank Lloyd Wright's Vanished Masterpieces. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc.. pp. 40–43.
ISBN 0-684-81306-8.
[21] Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust 2001, p. 7.
[22] O'Gorman 2004, pp. 38-54.
[23] Wright 2005, p. 101
[24] Tafel 1985, p. 41
[25] Wright 2005, p. 112.
[26] Wright 2005, pp. 118-119.
[27] Wright 2005, p. 119.
[28] Brooks, H. Allen (2005). "Architecture: The Prairie School" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. chicagohistory. org/ pages/ 63. html).
Encyclopedia of Chicago. Chicago Historical Society. . Retrieved 25 May 2010.
[29] Cassidy, Victor M. (21 October 2005). "Lost Woman" (http:/ / www. artnet. com/ magazineus/ features/ cassidy/ cassidy10-21-05. asp).
Artnet Magazine. . Retrieved 24 May 2010.
[30] "Marion Mahony Griffin (1871-1962)" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ museum/ chicago/ griffin. html). From Louis Sullivan to SOM: Boston Grads
Go to Chicago. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1996. . Retrieved 24 May 2010.
[31] O'Gorman 2004, pp. 56-109.
[32] Wright 2005, p. 116
[33] Wright 2005, pp. 114-116.
[34] Goldberger, Paul (9 march 2009). "Toddlin’ Town: Daniel Burnham’s great Chicago Plan turns one hundred" (http:/ / www. newyorker.
com/ arts/ critics/ skyline/ 2009/ 03/ 09/ 090309crsk_skyline_goldberger). The Sky Line. The New Yorker. . Retrieved 26 march 2009.
[35] Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust 2001, pp. 6-9.
[36] My Father: Frank Lloyd Wright, by John Lloyd Wright; 1992; page 35
[37] Clayton, Marie (2002). Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide. Running Press. pp. 97–102. ISBN 0-7624-1324-7.
[38] Sommer, Robin Langley (1997). "Frank W. Thomas House". Frank Lloyd Wright: A Gatefold Portfolio. Honk Kong: Barnes & Noble
Books. ISBN 0-7607-0463-5.
[39] O'Gorman 2004, p. 134.
[40] Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, Alfred A. Knopf, 1993, p. 202
[41] "Home Country" (http:/ / www. unitychapel. org/ home_country. htm). Unitychapel.org. 2005-07-01. . Retrieved 2009-10-16.
Frank Lloyd Wright 42

[42] BBC News article: " Mystery of the murders at Taliesin (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ wales/ 1110359. stm)".
[43] Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, p. 315–317. "$500,000 Fire in Bungalow,"The New York Times, April 22, 1925
[44] A. P. Vargas & G. G. Schierle, The textile block system: seismic analysis and upgrading, http:/ / library. witpress. com/ pages/ PaperInfo.
asp?PaperID=18110
[45] State University of New York at Buffalo Archives http:/ / ubdigit. buffalo. edu/ collections/ lib/ lib-ua/ lib-ua001_DDMartin. php
[46] Guggenheim Museum – History (http:/ / www. guggenheim. org/ history. html)
[47] National Park Service (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ nr/ listings/ 20070413. HTM) – National Historic Landmarks Designated, April 13,
2007
[48] The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog, by William Allin Storrer, University of Chicago Press, 1992 (third edition)
[49] "Preservation Online: Today's News Archives: Fire Guts Rare FLW House in Indiana" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080612122021/
http:/ / www. nationaltrust. org/ magazine/ archives/ arc_news_2006/ 011706. htm). Nationaltrust.org. Archived from the original (http:/ /
www. nationaltrust. org/ magazine/ archives/ arc_news_2006/ 011706. htm) on June 12, 2008. . Retrieved 2009-10-16.
[50] Berstein, Fred A. "Near Nagoya, Architecture From When the East Looked West," (http:/ / travel. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 04/ 02/ travel/
02journeys. html?scp=4& sq=wright+ 1923& st=nyt) New York Times. April 2, 2006.
[51] Monona Terrace Convention Center, history web page (http:/ / www. mononaterrace. com/ educatorspage/ images/ brief-history. pdf)
[52] "Frank Lloyd Wright Emerald Bay, Lake Tahoe" (http:/ / tahoelocals. com/ articles/ franklloydwright. php). Tahoelocals.com. 2007-01-08. .
Retrieved 2009-10-16.
[53] "Wright On" (http:/ / constructireland. ie/ Vol-3-Issue-11/ Articles/ Case-Studies/
Late-1950s-Frank-Lloyd-Wright-design-realised-in-Wicklow. html). constructireland.ie. . Retrieved 2009-10-16.
[54] Wright On (http:/ / constructireland. ie/ Articles/ Case-Studies/ Late-1950s-Frank-Lloyd-Wright-design-realised-in-Wicklow. html) – Late
1950s Frank Lloyd Wright design realised in Wicklow (Retrieved 18 November 2009)
[55] Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs, Charles E. and Berdeana Aguar, McGraw-Hill, 2002, p.344
[56] Wrightscapes:Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs, Charles E. and Berdeana Aguar, McGraw-Hill, 2002, pp. 51–56
[57] "Undoing the City: Frank Lloyd Wright's Planned Communities," American Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Oct., 1972), p. 544
[58] "Undoing the City: Frank Lloyd Wright's Planned Communities," American Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Oct., 1972), p. 542
[59] Cotter, Holland. "Seeking Japan's Prints, Out of Love and Need." New York Times. 6 April 2001.
[60] Reif, Rita. "Frank Lloyd Wright's Love of Japanese Prints Helped Pay the Bills." New York Times. 18 March 2001.
[61] "Frank Lloyd Wright Dies; Famed Architect Was 89" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ learning/ general/ onthisday/ bday/ 0608. html).
nytimes.com<!. 1959-04-10. . Retrieved 2010-05-21.
[62] The Unity Chapel, designed by Joseph Silsbee, should not be confused with the much larger and vastly more famous Unity Temple,
designed by Wright and located in Oak Park, IL. Wright was the draftsman for the design of the Unity Chapel.
[63] Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, Meryle Secrest, University of Chicago Press, 1992.
[64] Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs, Carla Lind, Pomegranate Artbooks/Archetype Press, 1995.
[65] "The Magic of America, Marion Mahony Griffin
[66] ascedia.com. "Taliesin Preservation, Inc. – Frank Lloyd Wright – FAQ's" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080610011735/ http:/ / www.
taliesinpreservation. org/ frank/ faq. htm#Wives_children). Taliesinpreservation.org. Archived from the original (http:/ / www.
taliesinpreservation. org/ frank/ faq. htm#Wives_children) on June 10, 2008. . Retrieved 2009-10-16.
[67] http:/ / www. ewrightingraham. com/
[68] Mann, Leslie (2008-02-01). "Reflecting pools: Descendants follow in Frank Lloyd Wright's footsteps" (http:/ / www. chicagotribune. com/
classified/ realestate/ news/ chi-cp_wright_re_02-10feb03,1,4161107. story). Chicago Tribune. . Retrieved 2008-03-28.
[69] "The Short List" (http:/ / www. chicagomag. com/ Chicago-Magazine/ November-2006/ Short-List-November-2006/ ). Chicago Magazine.
November 2006. . Retrieved 2008-03-10.
[70] http:/ / www. franklloydwright. org/ fllwf_web_091104/ Archives. html
[71] http:/ / www. getty. edu/ research/ conducting_research/ special_collections/ wright. html

Selected books and articles on Wright’s philosophy

• An Autobiography, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1943, Duell, Sloan and Pearce / 2005, Pomegranate; ISBN
0-7649-3243-8)
• Frank Lloyd Wright: A Primer on Architectural Principles, by Robert McCarter (1991, Princeton Architectural
Press; ISBN 1878271261)
• Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Homes: Designs for Moderate Cost One-Family Homes, by John Sergeant (1984,
Watson-Guptill; ISBN 0823071782)
• Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Homes (Wright at a Glance Series), by Carla Lind (1994, Pomegranate
Communications; ISBN 1566409985)
• "In the Cause of Architecture," Architectural Record, March, 1908, by Frank Lloyd Wright. Published in Frank
Lloyd Wright: Collected Writings, vol. 1 (1992, Rizzoli; ISBN 0-8478-1546-3)
Frank Lloyd Wright 43

• Natural House, The, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1954, Horizon Press; ISBN 0517020785)
• Taliesin Reflections: My Years Before, During, and After Living with Frank Lloyd Wright, by Earl Nisbet (2006,
Meridian Press; ISBN 0-9778951-0-6)
• Truth Against the World: Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks for an Organic Architecture, ed. by Patrick Meehan (1987,
Wiley; ISBN 0471845094)
• Understanding Frank Lloyd Wright's Architecture, by Donald Hoffman (1995, Dover Publications; ISBN
048628364X)
• Usonia : Frank Lloyd Wright's Design for America, Alvin Rosenbaum (1993, Preservation Press; ISBN
0891332014)
• Frank Lloyd Wright, by Daniel Treiber (2008, Birkhäuser Basel, 2nd, updated edition; ISBN 978-3764386979)

Biographies of Wright
• Frank Lloyd Wright: Architecture, man in possession of his earth, by Iovanna Lloyd Wright (1962, Doubleday;
OCLC 31514669)
• Many Masks, by Brendan Gill (1987, Putnam; ISBN 0399132325)
• Frank Lloyd Wright, by Ada Louise Huxtable (2004, Lipper/Viking; ISBN 0670033421)
• Frank Lloyd Wright: a Biography, by Meryle Secrest (1992, Knopf; ISBN 0394564367)
• Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and Architecture, by Robert Twombly (1979, Wiley; ISBN 0471034002)
• Frank Lloyd Wright: by Vaccaro, Tony, (2002, Kultur-unterm-Schirm)
• The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship, by Roger Friedland and
Harold Zellman (2006, Regan Books; ISBN 0060393882)
• Loving Frank, by Nancy Horan, (2008, Random House, Inc; ISBN 0345494997)

Selected survey books on Wright’s work

• Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, The, by Neil Levine (1996, Princeton University Press; ISBN 0691033714)
• Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog, The, by William Allin Storrer (2007 updated 3rd. ed.,
University of Chicago Press; ISBN 0-226-77620-4)
• Frank Lloyd Wright, by Robert McCarter (1997, Phaidon, London; ISBN 0 7148 31484 (hardback), ISBN
0714838543 (paperback))
• Frank Lloyd Wright: America’s Master Architect, by Kathryn Smith (1998, Abbeville Publishing Group
(Abbeville Press, Inc.); ISBN 0789202875)
• Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect, by the Museum of Modern Art (1994, ISBN 087070642X)
• Frank Lloyd Wright Companion, The, by William Allin Storrer (2006 Rev. Ed., University of Chicago Press;
ISBN 0-226-77621-2)
• Frank Lloyd Wright: Masterworks, by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer (1993, Rizzoli; ISBN 0847817156)
• Frank Lloyd Wright: Building for Democracy, by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer (2004, Taschen; ISBN 3-8228-2757-6)
• Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Landscape Designs, by Charles and Berdeana Aguar (2003, McGraw-Hill;
ISBN 007140953X)
• Wright Space: Pattern and Meaning in Frank Lloyd Wright's Houses by Grant Hildebrand (1991, University of
Washington Press; ISBN 0295970057)
• Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide, by Thomas A. Heinz (1999, Academy Editions; ISBN 0-8101-2244-8)
• Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs, by Carla Lind (1995, Pomegranate; ISBN 0876544685)
• The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright, introduction by James van Sweden, Frances Linden 2009 ISBN
978-0-711229678
• Frank Lloyd Wright Complete Works 1943–1959, by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer and Peter Gössel (editor) (2009,
Taschen; ISBN 978-3-8228-5770-0). First in a series of three monographs featuring all of Wright's 1,100
designs, both realized and unrealized.
Frank Lloyd Wright 44

Selected books about specific Wright projects

• Fallingwater Rising: Frank Lloyd Wright, E. J. Kaufmann, and America's Most Extraordinary House, by Franklin
Toker (2003, Knopf; ISBN 1400040264)

External links
• Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation (http://www.franklloydwright.org/) Official Website
• Frank Lloyd Wright, Wisconsin Historical Society (http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/topics/flw)
• Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy (http://www.savewright.org/)
• Works by or about Frank Lloyd Wright (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-nr2001-33991) in libraries
(WorldCat catalog)
• Frank Lloyd Wright YouTube (http://www.nou-sera.com/architect/wright.html#Anchor-4159)
• Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust (http://www.gowright.org/) – FLW Home and Studio, Robie House
• Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture (http://www.taliesin.edu/)
• Frank Lloyd Wright Wisconsin Heritage Tourism Program (http://www.WrightInWisconsin.org/)
• Frank Lloyd Wright (http://www.pbs.org/flw/) – PBS documentary by Ken Burns and resources
• American System-Built Houses by Frank Lloyd Wright (http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/
history-prefabricated-home/american-system-built-houses-frank-lloyd-wright.html) – an overview with
slideshow.
• Frank Lloyd Wright. Designs for an American Landscape 1922–1932 (http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/flw/flw.
html)
• Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings Recorded by the Historic American Buildings Survey (http://www.loc.gov/rr/
print/list/103_flw.html)
• Complete list of Wright buildings by location (http://architecture.about.com/library/bl-wright-list.htm)
• Sullivan, Wright, Prairie School, & Organic Architecture (http://www.artic.edu/aic/libraries/research/
specialcollections/subject/sullivanwright.html)
• Audio interview with Martin Filler on Frank Lloyd Wright (http://media.nybooks.com/111008-filler.mp3)
from The New York Review of Books
• Article on the 50th anniversary of Wright's only gas station. (http://www.metropolismag.com/story/20081015/
higher-station)
• Frank Lloyd Wright and Quebec (http://cca.qc.ca/en/collection/5-frank-lloyd-wright-and-quebec)
• Frank Lloyd Wright (http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/multimedia/video/2008/wallace/wright_frank_lloyd.html)
interviewed by Mike Wallace on The Mike Wallace Interview recorded September 1 & 28, 1957
Bauhaus 45

Bauhaus
Staatliches Bauhaus, commonly known simply as Bauhaus, was a
school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts, and was
famous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught. It
operated from 1919 to 1933. The term Bauhaus is German for "House
of Building" or "Building School".
The Bauhaus school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. In
spite of its name, and the fact that its founder was an architect, the
Bauhaus did not have an architecture department during the first years
of its existence. Nonetheless it was founded with the idea of creating a The Bauhaus Dessau
'total' work of art in which all arts, including architecture would
eventually be brought together. The Bauhaus style became one of the
most influential currents in Modernist architecture and modern
design.[1] The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent
developments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design,
industrial design, and typography.

The school existed in three German cities (Weimar from 1919 to 1925,
Dessau from 1925 to 1932 and Berlin from 1932 to 1933), under three
different architect-directors: Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928,
1921/2, Walter Gropius's Expressionist
Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930 and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe
Monument to the March Dead
from 1930 until 1933, when the school was closed by its own
leadership under pressure from the Nazi regime.

The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of

focus, technique, instructors, and politics. For instance: the pottery
shop was discontinued when the school moved from Weimar to
Dessau, even though it had been an important revenue source; when
Mies van der Rohe took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into
a private school, and would not allow any supporters of Hannes Meyer
to attend it.

Typography by Herbert Bayer above the entrance

Bauhaus and German modernism to the workshop block of the Bauhaus, Dessau,
2005
Defeat in World War I, the fall of the German monarchy and the
abolition of censorship under the new, liberal Weimar Republic allowed an upsurge of radical experimentation in all
the arts, previously suppressed by the old regime. Many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural
experimentation that followed the Russian Revolution, such as constructivism. Such influences can be overstated:
Gropius himself did not share these radical views, and said that Bauhaus was entirely apolitical.[2] Just as important
was the influence of the 19th century English designer William Morris, who had argued that art should meet the
needs of society and that there should be no distinction between form and function.[3] Thus the Bauhaus style, also
known as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the function
of an object or a building and its design.

However, the most important influence on Bauhaus was modernism, a cultural movement whose origins lay as far
back as the 1880s, and which had already made its presence felt in Germany before the World War, despite the
prevailing conservatism. The design innovations commonly associated with Gropius and the Bauhaus—the radically
Bauhaus 46

simplified forms, the rationality and functionality, and the idea that mass-production was reconcilable with the
individual artistic spirit—were already partly developed in Germany before the Bauhaus was founded. The German
national designers' organization Deutscher Werkbund was formed in 1907 by Hermann Muthesius to harness the new
potentials of mass production, with a mind towards preserving Germany's economic competitiveness with England.
In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the authoritative body on questions of design in
Germany, and was copied in other countries. Many fundamental questions of craftsmanship vs. mass production, the
relationship of usefulness and beauty, the practical purpose of formal beauty in a commonplace object, and whether
or not a single proper form could exist, were argued out among its 1,870 members (by 1914).
The entire movement of German architectural modernism was known as Neues Bauen. Beginning in June 1907,
Peter Behrens' pioneering industrial design work for the German electrical company AEG successfully integrated art
and mass production on a large scale. He designed consumer products, standardized parts, created clean-lined
designs for the company's graphics, developed a consistent corporate identity, built the modernist landmark AEG
Turbine Factory, and made full use of newly developed materials such as poured concrete and exposed steel.
Behrens was a founding member of the Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius and Adolf Meier worked for him in this
period.
The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German zeitgeist ("spirit of the times") had turned from emotional
Expressionism to the matter-of-fact New Objectivity. An entire group of working architects, including Erich
Mendelsohn, Bruno Taut and Hans Poelzig, turned away from fanciful experimentation, and turned toward rational,
functional, sometimes standardized building. Beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speaking
architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school. They also
responded to the promise of a "minimal dwelling" written into the new Weimar Constitution. Ernst May, Bruno Taut,
and Martin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks in Frankfurt and Berlin. The acceptance of modernist
design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like the
Weissenhof Estate, films, and sometimes fierce public debate.

Bauhaus and Vkhutemas

Vkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow, has been compared to Bauhaus.
Founded a year after the Bauhaus school Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent,
organization and scope. The two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner.[4] Both schools
were state-sponsored initiatives to merge the craft tradition with modern technology, with a Basic Course in aesthetic
principles, courses in color theory, industrial design, and architecture.[4] Vkhutemas was a larger school than the
Bauhaus,[5] but it was less publicised outside the Soviet Union and consequently, is less familiar to the West.[6]
With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were many exchanges between the Vkhutemas
and the Bauhaus.[7] The second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer attempted to organise an exchange between the two
schools, while Hinnerk Scheper of the Bauhaus collaborated with various Vkhutein members on the use of colour in
architecture. In addition, El Lissitzky's book Russia: an Architecture for World Revolution published in German in
1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects there.

History of the Bauhaus

Bauhaus 47

Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar

and Dessau*
UNESCO World Heritage Site

State Party  Germany

Type Cultural

Criteria ii, iv, vi

Reference [8]
729

Region** Europe and North America

Inscription history
Inscription 1996  (20th Session)
[9]
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List.
[10]
** Region as classified by UNESCO.

Weimar
The school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919 as a merger of the Grand Ducal School of Arts and
Crafts and the Weimar Academy of Fine Art. Its roots lay in the arts and crafts school founded by the Grand Duke of
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906 and directed by Belgian Art Nouveau architect Henry van de Velde.[11] When van de
Velde was forced to resign in 1915 because he was Belgian, he suggested Gropius, Hermann Obrist and August
Endell as possible successors. In 1919, after delays caused by the destruction of World War I and a lengthy debate
over who should and socio-economic reconciliation of the fine arts and the applied arts (an issue which remained a
defining one throughout the school's existence), Gropius was made the director of a new institution integrating the
two called the Bauhaus.[12] In the pamphlet for an April 1919 exhibition entitled "Exhibition of Unknown
Architects", Gropius proclaimed his goal as being "to create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions
which raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist." Gropius' neologism Bauhaus references both building
and the Bauhütte, a premodern guild of stonemasons.[13] The early intention was for the Bauhaus to be a combined
architecture school, crafts school, and academy of the arts. In 1919 Swiss painter Johannes Itten, German-American
painter Lyonel Feininger, and German sculptor Gerhard Marcks, along with Gropius, comprised the faculty of the
Bauhaus. By the following year their ranks had grown to include German painter, sculptor and designer Oskar
Schlemmer who headed the theater workshop, and Swiss painter Paul Klee, joined in 1922 by Russian painter
Wassily Kandinsky. A tumultuous year at the Bauhaus, 1922 also saw the move of Dutch painter Theo van Doesburg
to Weimar to promote De Stijl ("The Style"), and a visit to the Bauhaus by Russian Constructivist artist and architect
El Lissitzky.[14]
Bauhaus 48

From 1919 to 1922 the school was shaped by the pedagogical and
aesthetic ideas of Johannes Itten, who taught the Vorkurs or
'preliminary course' that was the introduction to the ideas of the
Bauhaus.[12] Itten was heavily influenced in his teaching by the ideas
of Franz Cižek and Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. He was also
influenced in respect to aesthetics by the work of the Blaue Reiter
group in Munich as well as the work of Austrian Expressionist Oskar
Kokoschka. The influence of German Expressionism favoured by Itten
was analogous in some ways to the fine arts side of the ongoing debate. Foyer of the Bauhaus University in Weimar

This influence culminated with the addition of Der Blaue Reiter

founding member Wassily Kandinsky to the faculty and ended when Itten resigned in late 1922. Itten was replaced
by the Hungarian designer László Moholy-Nagy, who rewrote the Vorkurs with a leaning towards the New
Objectivity favored by Gropius, which was analogous in some ways to the applied arts side of the debate. Although
this shift was an important one, it did not represent a radical break from the past so much as a small step in a broader,
more gradual socio-economic movement that had been going on at least since 1907 when van de Velde had argued
for a craft basis for design while Hermann Muthesius had begun implementing industrial prototypes.[15]

Gropius was not necessarily against Expressionism, and in fact himself in the same 1919 pamphlet proclaiming this
"new guild of craftsmen, without the class snobbery," described "painting and sculpture rising to heaven out of the
hands of a million craftsmen, the crystal symbol of the new faith of the future." By 1923 however, Gropius was no
longer evoking images of soaring Romanesque cathedrals and the craft-driven aesthetic of the "Völkisch movement",
instead declaring "we want an architecture adapted to our world of machines, radios and fast cars."[16] Gropius
argued that a new period of history had begun with the end of the war. He wanted to create a new architectural style
to reflect this new era. His style in architecture and consumer goods was to be functional, cheap and consistent with
mass production. To these ends, Gropius wanted to reunite art and craft to arrive at high-end functional products
with artistic pretensions. The Bauhaus issued a magazine called Bauhaus and a series of books called
"Bauhausbücher". Since the country lacked the quantity of raw materials that the United States and Great Britain
had, they had to rely on the proficiency of its skilled labor force and ability to export innovative and high quality
goods. Therefore designers were needed and so was a new type of art education. The school's philosophy stated that
the artist should be trained to work with the industry.
Weimar was in the German state of Thuringia, and the Bauhaus school received state support from the Social
Democrat-controlled Thuringian state government. From 1923 the school in Weimar came under political pressure
from right-wing circles, until on December 26, 1924 it issued a press release accusing the government and setting the
closure of the school for the end of March 1925.[17] [18] In February 1924, the Social Democrats lost control of the
state parliament to the Nationalists. The Ministry of Education placed the staff on six-month contracts and cut the
school's funding in half. They had already been looking for alternative sources of funding. After the Bauhaus moved
to Dessau, a school of industrial design with teachers and staff less antagonistic to the conservative political regime
remained in Weimar. This school was eventually known as the Technical University of Architecture and Civil
Engineering, and in 1996 changed its name to Bauhaus University Weimar.
Bauhaus 49

Dessau
Gropius's design for the Dessau facilities was a return to the futuristic
Gropius of 1914 that had more in common with the International style
lines of the Fagus Factory than the stripped down Neo-classical of the
Werkbund pavilion or the Völkisch Sommerfeld House.[19] The Dessau
years saw a remarkable change in direction for the school. According
to Elaine Hoffman, Gropius had approached the Dutch architect Mart
Stam to run the newly-founded architecture program, and when Stam The Bauhaus Dessau

declined the position, Gropius turned to Stam's friend and colleague in

the ABC group, Hannes Meyer.

Meyer became director when Gropius resigned in February 1928, and brought the Bauhaus its two most significant
building commissions, both of which still exist: five apartment buildings in the city of Dessau, and the headquarters
of the Federal School of the German Trade Unions (ADGB) in Bernau. Meyer favored measurements and
calculations in his presentations to clients, along with the use of off-the-shelf architectural components to reduce
costs, and this approach proved attractive to potential clients. The school turned its first profit under his leadership in
1929.
But Meyer also generated a great deal of conflict. As a radical functionalist, he had no patience with the aesthetic
program, and forced the resignations of Herbert Bayer, Marcel Breuer, and other long-time instructors. As a vocal
Communist, he encouraged the formation of a communist student organization. In the increasingly dangerous
political atmosphere, this became a threat to the existence of the Dessau school. Gropius fired him in the summer of
1930.[20]

Berlin
Although neither the Nazi Party nor Hitler himself had a cohesive architectural policy before they came to power in
1933, Nazi writers like Wilhelm Frick and Alfred Rosenberg had already labeled the Bauhaus "un-German" and
criticized its modernist styles, deliberately generating public controversy over issues like flat roofs. Increasingly
through the early 1930s, they characterized the Bauhaus as a front for communists and social liberals. Indeed, a
number of communist students loyal to Meyer moved to the Soviet Union when he was fired in 1930.
Even before the Nazis came to power, political pressure on Bauhaus had increased. But the Nazi regime was
determined to crack down on what it saw as the foreign, probably Jewish influences of "cosmopolitan modernism."
Despite Gropius's protestations that as a war veteran and a patriot his work had no subversive political intent, the
Berlin Bauhaus was pressured to close in April 1933. Mies van der Rohe decided to emigrate to the United States for
the directorship of the School of Architecture at the Armour Institute (now IIT) in Chicago and to seek building
commissions. (The closure, and the response of Mies van der Rohe, is fully documented in Elaine Hochman's
Architects of Fortune.) Curiously, however, some Bauhaus influences lived on in Nazi Germany. When Hitler's chief
engineer, Fritz Todt, began opening the new autobahn (highways) in 1935, many of the bridges and service stations
were "bold examples of modernism" - among those submitting designs was Mies van der Rohe.[21]
Bauhaus 50

Architectural output
The paradox of the early Bauhaus was that, although its manifesto
proclaimed that the ultimate aim of all creative activity was building,
the school did not offer classes in architecture until 1927. The single
most profitable tangible product of the Bauhaus was its wallpaper.
During the years under Gropius (1919–1927), he and his partner Adolf
Meyer observed no real distinction between the output of his
architectural office and the school. So the built output of Bauhaus
architecture in these years is the output of Gropius: the Sommerfeld
house in Berlin, the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house in Jena,
Bauhaus building in Chemnitz
and the competition design for the Chicago Tribune Tower, which
brought the school much attention. The definitive 1926 Bauhaus
building in Dessau is also attributed to Gropius. Apart from
contributions to the 1923 Haus am Horn, student architectural work
amounted to un-built projects, interior finishes, and craft work like
cabinets, chairs and pottery.

In the next two years under Meyer, the architectural focus shifted away
from aesthetics and towards functionality. There were major
commissions: one from the city of Dessau for five tightly designed
"Laubenganghäuser" (apartment buildings with balcony access), which
are still in use today, and another for the headquarters of the Federal The Engel House in the White City of Tel Aviv:
School of the German Trade Unions (ADGB) in Bernau bei Berlin. architect: Ze'ev Rechter, 1933; a residential
building that has become one of the symbols of
Meyer's approach was to research users' needs and scientifically
Modernist architecture and the first building in
develop the design solution. Tel Aviv to be built on pilotis

Mies van der Rohe repudiated Meyer's politics, his supporters, and his
architectural approach. As opposed to Gropius's "study of essentials",
and Meyer's research into user requirements, Mies advocated a "spatial
implementation of intellectual decisions", which effectively meant an
adoption of his own aesthetics. Neither van der Rohe nor his Bauhaus
students saw any projects built during the 1930s.

The popular conception of the Bauhaus as the source of extensive

Weimar-era working housing is not accurate. Two projects, the
apartment building project in Dessau and the Törten row housing also
in Dessau, fall in that category, but developing worker housing was not
A stage in the Festsaal
the first priority of Gropius nor Mies. It was the Bauhaus
contemporaries Bruno Taut, Hans Poelzig and particularly Ernst May,
as the city architects of Berlin, Dresden and Frankfurt respectively, who are rightfully credited with the thousands of
socially progressive housing units built in Weimar Germany. In Taut's case, the housing he built in south-west Berlin
during the 1920s, is still occupied, and can be reached by going easily from the U-Bahn stop Onkel Toms Hütte.
Bauhaus 51

Impact
The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and architecture trends in
Western Europe, the United States, Canada and Israel (particularly in
White City, Tel Aviv) in the decades following its demise, as many of
the artists involved fled, or were exiled, by the Nazi regime. Tel Aviv,
in fact, has been named to the list of world heritage sites by the UN
due to its abundance of Bauhaus architecture in 2004;[22] [23] it had
some 4,000 Bauhaus buildings erected from 1933 on.
Ceiling with light fixtures for stage in the Festsaal
Walter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, and László Moholy-Nagy
re-assembled in Britain during the mid 1930s to live and work in the
Isokon project before the war caught up with them. Both Gropius and
Breuer went to teach at the Harvard Graduate School of Design and
worked together before their professional split. The Harvard School
was enormously influential in America in the late 1920s and early
1930s, producing such students as Philip Johnson, I.M. Pei, Lawrence
Halprin and Paul Rudolph, among many others.

In the late 1930s, Mies van der Rohe re-settled in Chicago, enjoyed the
sponsorship of the influential Philip Johnson, and became one of the
pre-eminent architects in the world. Moholy-Nagy also went to
Chicago and founded the New Bauhaus school under the sponsorship
of industrialist and philanthropist Walter Paepcke. This school became
the Institute of Design, part of the Illinois Institute of Technology.
Dormitory balconies in the residence
Printmaker and painter Werner Drewes was also largely responsible for
bringing the Bauhaus aesthetic to America and taught at both
Columbia University and Washington University in St. Louis. Herbert
Bayer, sponsored by Paepcke, moved to Aspen, Colorado in support of
Paepcke's Aspen projects at the Aspen Institute. In 1953, Max Bill,
together with Inge Aicher-Scholl and Otl Aicher, founded the Ulm
School of Design (German: Hochschule für Gestaltung - HfG Ulm) in
Ulm, Germany, a design school in the tradition of the Bauhaus. The
school is notable for its inclusion of semiotics as a field of study. The
school closed in 1968, but the ′Ulm Model′ concept continues to
influence international design education.[24]
Mechanically opened windows
One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and
technology. The machine was considered a positive element, and therefore industrial and product design were
important components. Vorkurs ("initial" or "preliminary course") was taught; this is the modern day "Basic Design"
course that has become one of the key foundational courses offered in architectural and design schools across the
globe. There was no teaching of history in the school because everything was supposed to be designed and created
according to first principles rather than by following precedent.
Bauhaus 52

One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the field

of modern furniture design. The ubiquitous Cantilever chair and the
Wassily Chair designed by Marcel Breuer are two examples. (Breuer
eventually lost a legal battle in Germany with Dutch architect/designer
Mart Stam over the rights to the cantilever chair patent. Although Stam
had worked on the design of the Bauhaus's 1923 exhibit in Weimar,
and guest-lectured at the Bauhaus later in the 1920s, he was not
formally associated with the school, and he and Breuer had worked
independently on the cantilever concept, thus leading to the patent
The Mensa (Dining room)
dispute.)

The physical plant at Dessau survived World War II and was operated as a design school with some architectural
facilities by the German Democratic Republic. This included live stage productions in the Bauhaus theater under the
name of Bauhausbühne ("Bauhaus Stage"). After German reunification, a reorganized school continued in the same
building, with no essential continuity with the Bauhaus under Gropius in the early 1920s.[25] In 1979
Bauhaus-Dessau College started to organize postgraduate programs with participants from all over the world. This
effort has been supported by the Bauhaus-Dessau Foundation which was founded in 1974 as a public institution.
American art schools have also rediscovered the Bauhaus school. The Master Craftsman Program at Florida State
University bases its artistic philosophy on Bauhaus theory and practice.

Bauhaus artists
Bauhaus was not a formal group, but rather a school. Its three architect-directors (Walter Gropius, Hannes Meyer,
and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe) are most closely associated with Bauhaus.
Furthermore a large number of outstanding artists of their time were lecturers at Bauhaus:

• Anni Albers • Werner Drewes • Otto Lindig

• Josef Albers • Lyonel Feininger • Gerhard Marcks
• Herbert Bayer • Naum Gabo • László Moholy-Nagy
• Max Bill • Ludwig Hilberseimer • Piet Mondrian
• Marianne Brandt • Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack • Oskar Schlemmer
• Marcel Breuer • Johannes Itten • Lothar Schreyer
• Avgust Černigoj • Wassily Kandinsky • Joost Schmidt
• Christian Dell • Paul Klee • Naum Slutzky
• Gunta Stölzl

See also
• Bauhaus Archive
• New Objectivity (architecture)
• International style (architecture)
• Bauhaus in Budapest
• New Bauhaus
• Form follows function
• Constructivist architecture
• Bauhaus Dessau Foundation
• Ulm School of Design
Bauhaus 53

References
[1] Pevsner, Nikolaus, ed (Paperback). A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh (5th ed.).
London: Penguin Books. pp. 880. ISBN 78014513233x.
[2] Evans, Richard J. The Coming of the Third Reich, p. 416
[3] Funk and Wagnall's New Encyclopaedia, Vol 5, p. 348
[4] (Russian) Great Soviet Encyclopedia; Bolshaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya, Вхутемас (http:/ / www. cultinfo. ru/ fulltext/ 1/ 001/ 008/
007/ 304. htm)
[5] Wood, Paul (1999) The Challenge of the Avant-Garde. New Haven: Yale University Press ISBN 0-300-07762-9, p. 244
[6] Tony Fry, Inc. NetLibrary (1999) A New Design Philosophy: an Introduction to Defuturing. UNSW Press ISBN 0-86840-753-4; p. 161
[7] Colton, Timothy J. (1995) Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press ISBN 0-674-58749-9; p.
215
[8] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 729
[9] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list
[10] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ ?search=& search_by_country=& type=& media=& region=& order=region
[11] Pevsner, Nikolaus, ed (Paperback). A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh (5th ed.).
Penguin Books. p. 44. ISBN 0198606788.
[12] Frampton, Kenneth. "The Bauhaus: Evolution of an Idea 1919-32". Modern Architecture: a critical history (3rd ed. rev. ed.). New York,
NY: Thames and Hudson, Inc.. p. 124. ISBN 0500202575.
[13] Whitford, Frank, ed. The Bauhaus: Masters & Students by Themselves. London: Conran Octopus. p. 32. ISBN 1850294151. "...He invented
the name 'Bauhaus ' not only because it specifically referred to bauen ('building', 'construction') -- but also because of its similarity to the word
Bauhütte, the medieval guild of builders and stonemasons out of which Freemasonry sprang. The Bauhaus was to be a kind of modern
Bauhütte, therefore, in which craftsmen would work on common projects together, the greatest of which would be buildings in which the arts
and crafts would be combined."
[14] Hal Foster, ed. "1923: The Bauhaus … holds its first public exhibition in Weimar, Germany". Art Since 1900: Volume 1 - 1900 to 1944.
Rosalind Krauss, Yve-Alain Bois, Benjamin Buchloh. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson. pp. 185–189. ISBN 0500285349.
[15] Foster, Hal, ed. "1923: The Bauhaus … holds its first public exhibition in Weimar, Germany". Art Since 1900: Volume 1 - 1900 to 1944.
Rosalind Krauss, Yve-Alain Bois, Benjamin Buchloh. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 185–189. ISBN 0442240392.
[16] Curtis, William. "Walter Gropius, German Expressionism, and the Bauhaus". Modern Architecture Since 1900 (2nd Ed. ed.). Prentice-Hall.
pp. 309–316. ISBN 0135866944.
[17] Michael Baumgartner and Josef Helfenstein At the Bauhaus in Weimar, 1921–1924 (http:/ / www. paulkleezentrum. ch/ ww/ en/ pub/
web_root/ act/ wissenschaftliches_archiv/ werkphasen/ am_bauhaus_in_weimar_1921_1924. cfm), at Zentrum Paul Klee
[18] Magdalena Droste (2002) [1990] Bauhaus, 1919-1933 (http:/ / books. google. ie/ books?id=ZXB8rX5AsgUC) p.113
[19] Curtis, William. "Walter Gropius, German Expressionism, and the Bauhaus". Modern Architecture Since 1900 (2nd Ed. ed.). Prentice-Hall.
p. 120. ISBN 0135866944.
[20] Richard A. Etlin editor, Art, culture, and media under the Third Reich, page 291, ISBN 0-226-22087-7 ISBN 978-0-226-22087-1
[21] Richard J Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 325
[22] "Unesco celebrates Tel Aviv" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 3777385. stm). BBC News. June 8, 2004. . Retrieved April 26,
2010.
[23] White City of Tel-Aviv - the Modern Movement - UNESCO World Heritage Centre (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 1096)
[24] Ulm School of Design | HfG Ulm Archive (http:/ / www. hfg-archiv. ulm. de/ english/ the_hfg_ulm/ )
[25] Current information : english : Stiftung Bauhaus Dessau / Bauhaus Dessau Foundation (http:/ / www. bauhaus-dessau. de/ en/ )

Bibliography
• Oskar Schlemmer. Tut Schlemmer, Editor. The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer. Translated by Krishna
Winston. Wesleyan University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-8195-4047-1
• Magdalena Droste, Peter Gossel, Editors. Bauhaus, Taschen America LLC, 2005. ISBN 3-8228-3649-4
• Marty Bax. Bauhaus Lecture Notes 1930–1933. Theory and practice of architectural training at the Bauhaus,
based on the lecture notes made by the Dutch ex-Bauhaus student and architect J.J. van der Linden of the Mies
van der Rohe curriculum. Amsterdam, Architectura & Natura 1991. ISBN 90-71570-04-5
• Anja Baumhoff, The Gendered World of the Bauhaus. The Politics of Power at the Weimar Republic's Premier
Art Institute, 1919-1931. Peter Lang, Frankfurt, New York 2001. ISBN 3-631-37945-5
• Boris Friedewald, Bauhaus, Prestel, Munich, London, New York 2009. ISBN 978-3-7913-4200-9
• Catherine Weill-Rochant, "Bauhaus" - Architektur in Tel Aviv, Rita H. Gans. Ed., Kiriat Yearim, Zurich, 2008
(German and French)
Bauhaus 54

• 'The Tel-Aviv School : a constrained rationalism' (Catherine Weill-Rochant)DOCOMOMO journal

(Documentation and conservation of buildings, sites and neighbourhoods of the modern movement), April 2009.
• Anker, Peder. From Bauhaus to Eco-House: A History of Ecological Design. Baton Rouge LA.: Louisiana State
University Press, 2009 ISBN 978-0-8071-3551-8
• Kirsten Baumann: "Bauhaus Dessau - Architecture Design Koncept", JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2007, ISBN
978-3-939633-11-2
• Monika Markgraf (Ed.): "Archaeology of Modernism - Renovation Bauhaus Dessau", JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2007,
ISBN 978-3-936314-83-0
• Torsten Blume / Burghard Duhm (Eds.): "Bauhaus.Theatre.Dessau - Change of Scene", JOVIS Verlag Berlin,
ISBN 978-3-936314-81-6

External links
• Bauhaus Dessau (http://www.bauhaus-dessau.de/), the foundation maintaining the school and master houses in
Dessau.
• Bauhaus (http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Art_History/Periods_and_Movements/Bauhaus/) at the Open Directory
Project
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 55

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

Personal information

Nationality German 1886-1944/American 1944-1969

Born March 27, 1886Aachen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

Died August 17, 1969 (aged 83)Chicago, Illinois, USA

Work

Buildings Barcelona Pavilion

Tugendhat House
Crown Hall
Farnsworth House
860-880 Lake Shore Drive
Seagram Building
New National Gallery
Toronto-Dominion Centre

Awards Order Pour le Mérite (1959)

Royal Gold Medal (1959)
AIA Gold Medal (1960)
Presidential Medal of Freedom (1963)

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (March 27, 1886 – August 17, 1969) was a German-American architect.[1] He was
commonly referred to and addressed by his surname, Mies, by his colleagues, students, writers, and others.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, along with Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier, is widely regarded as one of the
pioneering masters of Modern architecture. Mies, like many of his post World War I contemporaries, sought to
establish a new architectural style that could represent modern times just as Classical and Gothic did for their own
eras. He created an influential 20th century architectural style, stated with extreme clarity and simplicity. His mature
buildings made use of modern materials such as industrial steel and plate glass to define interior spaces. He strived
towards an architecture with a minimal framework of structural order balanced against the implied freedom of
free-flowing open space. He called his buildings "skin and bones" architecture. He sought a rational approach that
would guide the creative process of architectural design, and is known for his use of the aphorisms "less is more" and
"God is in the details".
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 56

Early career
Mies worked in his father's stone-carving shop and at several local design firms before he moved to Berlin joining
the office of interior designer Bruno Paul. He began his architectural career as an apprentice at the studio of Peter
Behrens from 1908 to 1912, where he was exposed to the current design theories and to progressive German culture,
working alongside Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier. Mies served as construction manager of the Embassy of the
German Empire in Saint Petersburg under Behrens.[2] His talent was quickly recognized and he soon began
independent commissions, despite his lack of a formal college-level education. A physically imposing, deliberative,
and reticent man, Ludwig Mies renamed himself as part of his rapid transformation from a tradesman's son to an
architect working with Berlin's cultural elite, adding his mother's more impressive surname "van der Rohe". He
began his independent professional career designing upper class homes in traditional Germanic domestic styles. He
admired the broad proportions, regularity of rhythmic elements, attention to the relationship of the manmade to
nature, and compositions using simple cubic volumes of the early 19th century Prussian Neo-Classical architect Karl
Friedrich Schinkel, while dismissing the eclectic and cluttered classical so common at the turn of the century as
irrelevant to the modern zeitgeist.

Traditionalism to Modernism
After World War I, Mies began, while still
designing traditional neoclassical homes, a
parallel experimental effort. He joined his
avant-garde peers in the long-running search
for a new style for a new industrial age. The
weak points of traditional styles had been
under attack by progressive theorists since
the mid-nineteenth century, primarily for the
application of historical styles to modern
building types. Their mounting criticism of
the historical styles gained substantial
cultural credibility after the disaster of
World War I, widely seen as a failure of the
old order of imperial leadership of Europe.
The classical revival styles were particularly Villa Tugendhat built in 1930 in Brno, in today's Czech Republic, for Fritz
reviled by many as the architectural symbol Tugendhat.

of a now-discredited aristocratic system.

Progressive thinkers called for a completely new architectural design process guided by rational problem-solving
using modern materials, rather than the application of classical facades onto predetermined forms.

While continuing his traditional neoclassical design practice Mies began to develop visionary projects that, though
mostly unbuilt, rocketed him to fame as a progressive architect. Boldly abandoning ornament altogether, Mies made
a dramatic modernist debut with his stunning competition proposal for the faceted all-glass Friedrichstraße
skyscraper in 1921, followed by a taller curved version in 1922 named the Glass Skyscraper.[3]
He continued with a series of pioneering projects, culminating in his two European masterworks: the temporary
German Pavilion for the Barcelona exposition (often called the Barcelona Pavilion) in 1929 (a 1986 reconstruction is
now built on the original site) and the elegant Villa Tugendhat in Brno, Czech Republic, completed in 1930.
He worked with the progressive design magazine G which started in July 1923. He developed prominence as
architectural director of the Werkbund, organizing the influential Weissenhof Estate prototype modernist housing
exhibition. He was also one of the founders of the architectural association Der Ring. He joined the avant-garde
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 57

Bauhaus design school as their director of architecture, adopting and developing their functionalist application of
simple geometric forms in the design of useful objects.
Like many other avant garde architects of the day, Mies based his own architectural theories and principles on his
own personal re-combination of ideas developed by many other thinkers and designers who had pondered the flaws
of the traditional design styles.
Mies' modernist thinking was influenced by many of the design and art movements of the day. He selectively
adopted theoretical ideas such as the aesthetic credos of Russian Constructivism with their ideology of "efficient"
sculptural constructions using modern industrial materials. Mies found appeal in the use of simple rectilinear and
planar forms, clean lines, pure use of color, and the extension of space around and beyond interior walls expounded
by the Dutch De Stijl group. In particular, the layering of functional sub-spaces within an overall space and the
distinct articulation of parts as expressed by Gerrit Rietveld appealed to Mies.
The design theories of Adolf Loos found resonance with Mies, particularly the ideas of eradication of the superficial
and unnecessary, substituting elaborate applied ornament with the straightforward display of rich materials and
forms. Loos had famously declared, in the tongue-in-cheek humor of the day, that "ornament is a crime". Mies also
admired his ideas about the nobility that could be found in the anonymity of modern life.
The bold work of American architects was greatly admired by European architects. Like other architects who viewed
the Wasmuth Portfolio and its associated exhibit, Mies was enthralled with the free-flowing spaces of
inter-connected rooms which encompass their outdoor surroundings as demonstrated by the open floor plans of the
American Prairie Style work of Frank Lloyd Wright. American engineering structures were also held up to be
exemplary of the beauty possible in functional construction.

Significance and meaning

Mies pursued an ambitious lifelong mission to create a new architectural language that could be used to represent the
new era of technology and production. He saw a need for an architecture expressive of and in harmony with his
epoch, just as Gothic architecture was for an era of spiritualism. He applied a disciplined design process using
rational thought to achieve his spiritual goals. He believed that the configuration and arrangement of every
architectural element must contribute to a unified expression. The self-educated Mies painstakingly studied the great
philosophers and thinkers, past and present, to enhance his own understanding of the character and essential qualities
of the technological times he lived in. More than perhaps any other practising pioneer of modernism, Mies mined the
writings of philosophers and thinkers for ideas that were relevant to his architectural mission. Mies' architecture was
created at a high level of abstraction, and his own generalized descriptions of his principles intentionally leave much
room for interpretation. Yet his buildings also seem very direct and simple when viewed in person. Every aspect of
his architecture, from overall concept to the smallest detail, supports his effort to express the modern age. The depth
of meaning conveyed by his work, beyond its aesthetic qualities, has drawn many contemporary philosophers and
theoretical thinkers to continue to further explore and speculate about his architecture.

Emigration to the United States

Opportunities for commissions dwindled with the worldwide depression after 1929. In the early 1930s, Mies served
briefly as the last Director of the faltering Bauhaus, at the request of his colleague and competitor Walter Gropius.
After 1933, Nazi political pressure soon forced Mies to close the government-financed school. He built very little in
these years (one built commission was Philip Johnson's New York apartment); his style was rejected by the Nazis as
not "German" in character. Frustrated and unhappy, he left his homeland reluctantly in 1937 as he saw his
opportunity for any future building commissions vanish, accepting a residential commission in Wyoming and then
an offer to head the department of architecture of the newly established Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago.
Here he introduced a new kind of education and attitude later known as Second School of Chicago, which became
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 58

very influential in the following decades in North America and Europe.

Career in the United States

Mies settled in Chicago, Illinois where he was appointed as head of the
architecture school at Chicago's Armour Institute of Technology (later
renamed Illinois Institute of Technology - IIT). One of the benefits of
taking this position was that he would be commissioned to design the
new buildings and master plan for the campus. All his buildings still
stand there, including Alumni Hall, the Chapel, and his masterpiece the
S.R. Crown Hall, built as the home of IIT's School of Architecture.
Crown Hall is widely regarded as Mies' finest work, the definition of
Miesian architecture. In 1944, he became an American citizen,
completing his severance from his native Germany. His 30 years as an
American architect reflect a more structural, pure approach towards
achieving his goal of a new architecture for the 20th Century. He
focused his efforts on the idea of enclosing open and adaptable
"universal" spaces with clearly arranged structural frameworks,
featuring pre-manufactured steel shapes infilled with large sheets of
glass. His early projects at the IIT campus and for developer Herb
Greenwald opened the eyes of Americans to a style that seemed a
natural progression of the almost forgotten 19th century Chicago School
IBM Plaza, Chicago, Illinois
style. His architecture, with origins in the German Bauhaus and western
European International Style became an accepted mode of building for
American cultural and educational institutions, developers, public agencies, and large corporations.

American work
Mies worked from his studio in downtown Chicago for his entire 31-year period in America. His significant projects
in the U.S. include the residential towers of 860-880 Lake Shore Dr, the Federal Center, the Farnsworth House,
Crown Hall and other structures at IIT, all in and around Chicago, and the Seagram Building in New York. These
iconic works became the prototypes for his other projects.

Farnsworth House
Between 1946 and 1951, Mies van der Rohe designed and built the Farnsworth House, a weekend retreat outside
Chicago for an independent professional woman, Dr. Edith Farnsworth. Here, Mies explored the relationship
between ourselves, our shelter, and nature. This small masterpiece showed the world that exposed industrial steel and
glass were materials capable of creating architecture of great emotional impact. The glass pavilion is raised six feet
above a floodplain next to the Fox River, surrounded by forest and rural prairies. The highly crafted pristine white
structural frame and all-glass walls define a simple rectilinear interior space, letting nature and light envelop the
interior space. A wood-panelled fireplace (also housing mechanical equipment, kitchen, and toilets) is positioned
within the open space to suggest living, dining and sleeping spaces without using walls. No partitions touch the
surrounding all-glass enclosure. Without solid exterior walls, full-height draperies on a perimeter track allow
freedom to provide full or partial privacy when and where desired. The house has been described as sublime, a
temple hovering between heaven and earth, a poem, a work of art. The Farnsworth House and its 60-acre (240000
m2) wooded site was purchased at auction for US$7.5 million by preservation groups in 2004 and is now operated by
the Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois as a public museum. The influential building spawned hundreds of
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 59

modernist glass houses, most notably the Glass House by Philip Johnson, located near New York City and also
owned by the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The iconic Farnsworth House is considered among Mies's
greatest works. The house is an embodiment of Mies' mature vision of modern architecture for the new technological
age: a single unencumbered space within a minimal "skin and bones" framework, a clearly understandable
arrangement of architectural parts. His ideas are stated with clarity and simplicity, using materials that are allowed to
express their own individual character.

860-880 Lake Shore Drive

Mies then designed a series of four middle-income high-rise
apartment buildings for developer Herb Greenwald (and his successor
firms after his untimely death in a plane crash) the 860/880 (which
was build between 1949 and 1951) and 900-910 Lake Shore Drive
towers on Chicago's Lakefront. These towers, with façades of steel
and glass, were radical departures from the typical residential brick
apartment buildings of the time. Interestingly, Mies found their unit
sizes too small for himself, choosing instead to continue living in a
spacious traditional luxury apartment a few blocks away. The towers
were simple rectangular boxes with a non-hierarchical wall enclosure,
raised on stilts above a glass enclosed lobby. The lobby is set back
from the perimeter columns which were exposed around the
perimeter of the building above, creating a modern arcade not unlike
those of the Greek temples. This configuration created a feeling of
860–880 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois. light, openness, and freedom of movement at the ground level that
became the prototype for countless new towers designed both by
Mies's office and his followers. Some historians argue that this new approach is an expression of the American spirit
and the boundless open space of the frontier, which German culture so admired.

Once Mies had established his basic design concept for the general form and details of his tower buildings, he
applied those solutions (with evolving refinements) to his later high-rise building projects. The architecture of his
towers appears to be similar, but each project represents new ideas about the formation of highly sophisticated urban
space at ground level. He delighted in the composition of multiple towers arranged in a seemingly casual
non-hierarchical relation to each other. He created, just as he did in his interiors, free flowing spaces and flat surfaces
that represented the idea of an oasis of uncluttered clarity and calm within the chaos of the city. Nature was included
by leaving openings in the pavement, through which plants seem to grow unfettered by urbanization, just as they
would in their pre-settlement environment.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 60

Seagram Building
In 1958, Mies van der Rohe designed what is often regarded as the pinnacle of the modernist high-rise architecture,
the Seagram Building in New York City. Mies was chosen by the daughter of the client, Phyllis Bronfman Lambert,
who has become a noted architectural figure and patron in her own right.
The Seagram Building has become an icon of the growing power
of that defining institution of the 20th century, the corporation. In
a bold and innovative move, the architect chose to set the tower
back from the property line to create a forecourt plaza and fountain
on Park Avenue. Although now acclaimed and widely influential
as an urban design feature, Mies had to convince Bronfman's
bankers that a taller tower with significant "unused" open space at
ground level would enhance the presence and prestige of the
building. Mies' design included a bronze curtain wall with external
H-shaped mullions that were exaggerated in depth beyond what is
structurally necessary, touching off criticism by his detractors that
Mies had committed Adolf Loos's "crime of ornamentation".
Philip Johnson had a role in interior materials selections and he
designed the sumptuous Four Seasons Restaurant which has
endured un-remodeled to today. The Seagram Building is said to
be an early example of the innovative "fast-track" construction
process, where design documentation and construction are done
TD Centre towers frame CN Tower in Toronto.
concurrently.

Using the Seagram as a prototype, Mies' office designed a number of modern high-rise office towers, notably the
Chicago Federal Center, which includes the Dirksen and Kluczynski Federal Buildings and Post Office (1959) and
the IBM Plaza in Chicago, the Westmount Square in Montreal and the Toronto-Dominion Centre in 1967. Each
project applies the prototype rectangular form on stilts and ever-more refined enclosure wall systems, but each
creates a unique set of exterior spaces that are an essential aspect of his creative efforts.
During 1951-1952, Mies' designed the steel, glass and brick McCormick House, located in Elmhurst, Illinois (15
miles west of the Chicago Loop), for real-estate developer Robert Hall McCormick, Jr. A one story adaptation of the
exterior curtain wall of his famous 860-880 Lake Shore Drive towers, it served as a prototype for an unbuilt series of
speculative houses to be constructed in Melrose Park, Illinois. The house has been moved and reconfigured as a part
of the public Elmhurst Art Museum.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 61

Museum of Fine Arts, Houston

Mies designed two buildings for the Museum of Fine
Arts, Houston as additions to the Caroline Weiss Law
Building. In 1953, the MFAH commissioned Mies van
der Rohe to create a master plan for the institution. He
designed two additions to the building—Cullinan Hall,
completed in 1958, and the Brown Pavilion, completed
in 1974. A renowned example of the International
Style, the Caroline Wiess Law Building is one of only
two Mies-designed museums in the world.[4]

Caroline Weiss Law Building National Gallery, Berlin

Mies's last work was the Neue Nationalgalerie art
museum, the New National Gallery, in Berlin. Considered one of the most perfect statements of his architectural
approach, the upper pavilion is a precise composition of monumental steel columns and a cantilevered (overhanging)
roof plane with a glass enclosure. The simple square glass pavilion is a powerful expression of his ideas about
flexible interior space, defined by transparent walls and supported by an external structural frame. The glass pavilion
is a relatively small portion of the overall building, serving as a symbolic architectural entry point and monumental
gallery for larger scale art. A large podium building below the pavilion accommodates most of the buildings actual
built area in more functional spaces for galleries, support and utilitarian rooms.

The campus of Whitney Young High School and the adjacent Chicago Police Academy are two examples of the
influence van der Rohe had on Chicago architecture.

Furniture
Mies designed modern furniture pieces using new industrial technologies that have become popular classics, such as
the Barcelona chair and table, the Brno chair, and the Tugendhat chair. His furniture is known for fine craftsmanship,
a mix of traditional luxurious fabrics like leather combined with modern chrome frames, and a distinct separation of
the supporting structure and the supported surfaces, often employing cantilevers to enhance the feeling of lightness
created by delicate structural frames. During this period, he collaborated closely with interior designer and
companion Lilly Reich.

Mies as educator
Mies played a significant role as an educator, believing his architectural language could be learned, then applied to
design any type of modern building. He set up a new education at the Department of Architecture of the Illinois
Institute of Technology in Chicago replacing the old-fashioned Ecole des Beaux-Art attitude by a
three-step-education beginning with crafts of building leading to planning skills and finishing with theory of
architecture (compare Vitruvius: firmitas, utilitas, venustas). He worked personally and intensively on prototype
solutions, and then allowed his students, both in school and his office, to develop derivative solutions for specific
projects under his guidance. Some of Mies' curriculum is still put in practice in the first and second year programs at
IIT, for example the excruciating drafting of bricks in second year. But when none was able to match the genius and
poetic quality of his own work, he agonized about where his educational method had gone wrong. Nevertheless his
achievements for an architecture created out of modern technology survived very successfully until today by others
and is known as High-tech architecture.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 62

Mies placed great importance on education of architects who could carry on his design principles. He devoted a great
deal of time and effort leading the architecture program at IIT. Mies served on the initial Advisory Board of the
Graham Foundation in Chicago. His own practice was based on intensive personal involvement in design efforts to
create prototype solutions for building types (860 Lake Shore Dr, the Farnsworth, Seagram, S.R. Crown Hall, The
New National Gallery), then allowing his studio designers to develop derivative buildings under his supervision.
Mies's grandson Dirk Lohan and two partners led the firm after he died in 1969. Lohan, who had collaborated with
Mies on the New National Gallery, continued with existing projects but soon led the firm on his own independent
path. Other disciples continued his teachings for a few years, notably Gene Summers, David Haid, Myron
Goldsmith, Jacques Brownson, and other architects at the firms of C.F. Murphy and Skidmore, Owings and Merrill.
But while Mies' work had enormous influence and critical recognition, his approach failed to sustain a creative force
as a style after his death and was eclipsed by the new wave of Post Modernism by the 1980s. He had hoped his
architecture would serve as a universal model that could be easily imitated, but the aesthetic power of his best
buildings proved impossible to match, instead resulting mostly in drab and uninspired structures. The failure of his
followers to meet his high standard may have contributed to demise of Modernism and the rise of new competing
design theories, notably Postmodernism.

Death
Over the last twenty years of his life, Mies developed and built his
vision of a monumental "skin and bones" architecture that reflected
his goal to provide the individual a place to fulfil himself in the
modern era. Mies sought to create free and open spaces, enclosed
within a structural order with minimal presence. Mies van der Rohe
died on August 17, 1969. After cremation, his ashes were buried near
Chicago's other famous architects in Chicago's Graceland Cemetery.
His grave is marked by a simple black slab of granite and a large Mies van der Rohe's grave marker in Graceland
Honey locust tree.[1] Cemetery

Archives
The Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Archive, an administratively
independent section of the Museum of Modern Art's Department of
Architecture and Design, was established in 1968 by the Museum's
trustees. It was founded in response to the architect's desire to
bequeath his entire work to the Museum. The Archive consists of
about nineteen thousand drawings and prints, one thousand of which
are by the designer and architect Lilly Reich (1885–1947), Mies van German commemorative stamp marking 100 years
der Rohe's close collaborator from 1927 to 1937; of written since Mies's birth

documents (primarily, the business correspondence) covering nearly

the entire career of the architect; of photographs of buildings, models, and furniture; and of audiotapes, books, and
periodicals.

Archival materials are also held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The Ludwig
Mies van der Rohe Collection, 1929-1969 (bulk 1948-1960) includes correspondence, articles, and materials related
to his association with the Illinois Institute of Technology. The Ludwig Mies van der Rohe/Metropolitan Structures
Collection, 1961–1969, includes scrapbooks and photographs documenting Chicago projects.
Other archives are held at the University of Illinois at Chicago (personal book collection), the Canadian Center for
Architecture (drawings and photos) in Montreal, the Newberry Library in Chicago (personal correspondence), the
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 63

Library of Congress in Washington D.C.

Gallery

Martin Luther King Interior of Lafayette Park, Detroit is on the Lafayette

Jr. Memorial Neue U.S. National Register of Towers
Library, Nationalgalerie Historic Places Apartments
Washington. museum in East,
Berlin, Detroit.
Germany

Toronto-Dominion Mies-designed section of PATH, TD Centre podium, Toronto, S.R. Crown Hall on the campus
Centre logo includes the Toronto used as a branch for TD Canada of the Illinois Institute of
font text created by Mies Trust bank Technology is a National
Historic Landmark

Highfield House, Baltimore Barcelona Pavilion University of TD Centre podium,

(reconstruction) Chicago Toronto
School of
Social Service
Administration
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 64

List of works
Canada
• Toronto-Dominion Centre - Office
Tower Complex, Toronto
• Westmount Square - Office &
Residential Tower Complex,
Westmount
• Nuns' Island - 3 Residential towers
and a filling station (closed),
Montreal (c.1969)
Czech Republic
• Tugendhat House - Residential
Home, Brno
Germany
• Riehl House - Residential Home,
Potsdam (1907) A memorial to the Spartacist leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg,
• Peris House - Residential Home, commissioned by Eduard Fuchs, president of the German Communist Party in Germany
Zehlendorf (1911) designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, built by Wilhelm Pieck, and inaugurated on 13
June 1926, later destroyed by the Nazis
• Werner House - Residential Home,
Zehlendorf (1913)
• Urbig House - Residential Home, Potsdam (1917)
• Kempner House - Residential Home, Charlottenburg (1922)
• Eichstaedt House - Residential Home, Wannsee (1922)
• Feldmann House - Residential Home, Wilmersdorf (1922)
• Mosler House - Residential Home, Babelsberg (1926)
• Weissenhof Estate - Housing Exhibition coordinated by Mies and with a contribution by him, Stuttgart (1927)
• Lemke House - Residential Home, Weissensee (1932)
• Haus Lange/Haus Ester - Residential Home and an art museum, Krefeld
• New National Gallery - Modern Art Museum, Berlin
Mexico
• Bacardi Office Building - Office Building, Mexico City
Spain
• Barcelona Pavilion - World's Fair Pavilion, Barcelona
United States
• Cullinan Hall - Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
• The Promontory Apartments - Residential Apartment Complex, Chicago
• Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Library - District of Columbia Public Library, Washington, DC
• Richard King Mellon Hall of Science - Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA (1968)
• IBM Plaza - Office Tower, Chicago
• Lake Shore Drive Apartments - Residential Apartment Towers, Chicago
• Seagram Building - Office Tower, New York City (1958)
• Crown Hall - College of Architecture, and other buildings, at the Illinois Institute of Technology (1956)
• University of Chicago School of Social Service Administration - Chicago, IL (1965)
• Farnsworth House - Residential Home, Plano, Illinois (1946)
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 65

• Chicago Federal Center

• Dirksen Federal Building - Office Tower, Chicago
• Kluczynski Federal Building - Office Tower, Chicago
• United States Post Office Loop Station - General Post Office, Chicago
• One Illinois Center - Office Tower, Chicago
• One Charles Center - Office Tower, Baltimore, Maryland
• Highfield House Condominium | 4000 North Charles - Condominium Apartments, Baltimore, Maryland
• Colonnade and Pavilion Apartments - Residential Apartment Complex, Newark, New Jersey (1959)
• Lafayette Park - Residential Apartment Complex, Detroit, Michigan (1963).[5]
• Commonwealth Promenade Apartments - Residential Apartment Complex, Chicago (1956)
• Caroline Weiss Law Building, Cullinan Hall (1958) and Brown Pavilion (1974) additions, Museum of Fine Art,
Houston
• Richard King Mellon Building (1968) at Duquesne University, Pittsburgh
• American Life Building - Louisville, Kentucky (1973; completed after Mies's death by Bruno Conterato)

References
Notes
[1] "Mies van der Rohe Dies at 83; Leader of Modern Architecture" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ learning/ general/ onthisday/ bday/ 0327. html).
The New York Times. August 17, 1969. . Retrieved 2007-07-21. "Mies van der Rohe, one of the great figures of 20th-century architecture, died
in Wesley Memorial Hospital here late last night. He was 83 years old."
[2] "German Embassy Building" (http:/ / www. encspb. ru/ en/ article. php?kod=2804004653). Encyclopaedia of Saint Petersburg. . Retrieved
2008-08-11.
[3] Compare Arthur Lubow's "The Contextualizer," (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 04/ 06/ magazine/ 06nouvel. html?pagewanted=4&
sq=grande arche& st=nyt& scp=10) New York Times. April 6, 2008, p. 4; excerpt, "...a skyscraper that Nouvel (adapting a term from the artist
Brancusi) called the “tour sans fins,” or endless tower. Conceived as a kind of minaret alongside the squat, monumental Grande Arche de La
Défense, the endless tower has taken on some of the mystique of Mies van der Rohe’s unbuilt Friedrichstrasse glass skyscraper of 1921. To
obscure its lower end, the tower was designed to sit within a crater. Its facade, appearing to vanish in the sky, changed as it rose, from
charcoal-colored granite to paler stone, then to aluminum and finally to glass that became increasingly reflective, all to enhance the illusion
of dematerialization."
[4] The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston Law Building (http:/ / mfah. org/ destination. asp?par1=1& par2=1& par3=1& par4=1& par5=1&
par6=1& par7=& lgc=3& eid=& currentPage=)
[5] Vitullo-Martin, Julio, . The Biggest Mies Collection: His Lafayette Park residential development thrives in Detroit (http:/ / online. wsj. com/
article/ SB119827404882045751. html).The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved on April 21, 2007.

Further reading
• Puente, Moisés (2008). Conversations with Mies Van Der Rohe. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. pp. 96.
ISBN 9781568987538.
• Schulze, Franz (1985). Mies Van Der Rohe, a Critical Biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
ISBN 0226740595.
• Sharp, Dennis (1991). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Architects and Architecture. New York: Whitney Library
of Design. p. 109. ISBN 082302539X.
• Spaeth, David (1985). Mies Van Der Rohe. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc..
ISBN 0847805638.
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 66

External links
• Mies van der Rohe Society (http://www.mies.iit.edu/)
• Great Buildings Architects (http://www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe.html)
• Mies in Berlin-Mies in America (http://www.moma.org/mies/)
• MoMA Architecture & Design Study Center (http://moma.org/research/studycenters/index.html/)
• Ludwig Mies van der Rohe YouTube (http://www.nou-sera.com/architect/mies.html#Anchor-14553)
• Mies van der Rohe Photo Gallery (http://www.danda.be/gallery/architect/mies-van-der-rohe/)
• Mies van der Rohe Foundation (http://www.miesbcn.com/en/foundation.html)
• Elmhurst Art Museum, featuring McCormick House (http://www.elmhurstartmuseum.org)
• Barcelona chair (http://www.miesbarcelonachair.com)
• Richard King Mellon Hall, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA (http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/mies/
miespitt.html)
• The Farnsworth House, a property of the National Trust for Historic Preservation (http://www.farnsworthhouse.
org)
• Mies, IIT, and the Second Chicago School (http://www.artic.edu/aic/libraries/research/specialcollections/
subject/mies.html)
• Mies in America exhibition (http://cca.qc.ca/en/exhibitions/20-mies-in-america)
• Photo Pool on Flickr (http://www.flickr.com/groups/miesvanderrohe/pool)
• Travel guide to Mies Buildings (http://www.galinsky.com/buildings/lemke/index.htm)
Le Corbusier 67

Le Corbusier
Charles-Édouard Jeanneret
Le Corbusier

Le Corbusier (1933)

Personal information

Nationality Swiss / French

Born October 6, 1887La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland

Died August 27, 1965 (aged 77)Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France

Work

Buildings Villa Savoye, France

Notre Dame du Haut, France
Buildings in Chandigarh, India

Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, who chose to be known as Le Corbusier (French pronunciation: [lə kɔʁbyzje]; October
6, 1887 – August 27, 1965), was a Swiss architect, designer, urbanist, writer and painter, famous for being one of the
pioneers of what now is called Modern architecture or the International style. He was born in Switzerland and
became a French citizen in his thirties.
He was a pioneer in studies of modern high design and was dedicated to providing better living conditions for the
residents of crowded cities. Later commentators have criticized Le Corbusier's monoliths as soulless and expressive
of his arrogance in pioneering his form of architecture.[1]
His career spanned five decades, with his buildings constructed throughout central Europe, India, Russia, and one
each in North and South America. He was also an urban planner, painter, sculptor, writer, and modern furniture
designer.
Le Corbusier adopted his pseudonym in the 1920s, allegedly deriving it in part from the name of a distant ancestor,
"Lecorbésier." However, it appears to have been an earlier (and somewhat unkind) nickname, which he simply
decided to keep. It stems from the French for "the crow-like one".[2] In the absence of a first name, some have also
suggested it suggests "a physical force as much as a human being," and brings to mind the French verb courber, to
bend.[1]
He was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal in 1961.
Le Corbusier 68

Life

Early life and education, 1887–1913

He was born as Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris in La Chaux-de-Fonds, a small city in Neuchâtel canton in
north-western Switzerland, in the Jura mountains, which is just five kilometres across the border from France. He
attended a kindergarten that used Fröbelian methods.
Le Corbusier was attracted to the visual arts and studied at the La-Chaux-de-Fonds Art School under Charles
L'Eplattenier, who had studied in Budapest and Paris. His architecture teacher in the Art School was the architect
René Chapallaz, who had a large influence on Le Corbusier's earliest houses.
In his early years he would frequently escape the somewhat provincial atmosphere of his hometown by traveling
around Europe. About 1907, he traveled to Paris, where he found work in the office of Auguste Perret, the French
pioneer of reinforced concrete. In 1908, He studied architecture in Vienna with Josef Hoffmann. Between October
1910 and March 1911, he worked near Berlin for the renowned architect Peter Behrens, where he might have met
Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius. He became fluent in German. Both of these experiences proved
influential in his later career.
Later in 1911, he journeyed to the Balkans and visited Greece and Turkey, filling sketchbooks with renderings of
what he saw, including many famous sketches of the Parthenon, whose forms he would later praise in his work Vers
une architecture (1923) ("Towards an Architecture," but usually translated into English as "Towards a New
Architecture").

Early career: the villas, 1914–1930

Le Corbusier taught at his old school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds during World War I, not returning to Paris until the war
was over. During these four years in Switzerland, he worked on theoretical architectural studies using modern
techniques.[3] Among these was his project for the "Dom-ino" House (1914–1915). This model proposed an open
floor plan consisting of concrete slabs supported by a minimal number of thin, reinforced concrete columns around
the edges, with a stairway providing access to each level on one side of the floor plan.
This design became the foundation for most of his architecture for the next ten years. Soon he would begin his own
architectural practice with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret (1896–1967), a partnership that would last until 1940.
In 1918, Le Corbusier met the Cubist painter, Amédée Ozenfant, in whom he recognized a kindred spirit. Ozenfant
encouraged him to paint, and the two began a period of collaboration. Rejecting Cubism as irrational and "romantic,"
the pair jointly published their manifesto, Après le cubisme and established a new artistic movement, Purism.
Ozenfant and Le Corbusier established the Purist journal L'Esprit nouveau. He was good friends with the Cubist
artist Fernand Léger.

Pseudonym Adopted, 1920

In the first issue of the journal, in 1920, Charles-Edouard Jeanneret adopted Le Corbusier, an altered form of his
maternal grandfather's name, "Lecorbésier", as a pseudonym, reflecting his belief that anyone could reinvent himself.
Some architectural historians claim that this pseudonym translates as "the raven-like one."[4] Adopting a single name
to identify oneself was in vogue by artists in many fields during that era, especially among those in Paris.
(The name "Le Corbusier" is today a registered trademark (US Reg. 2073285) owned by the Fondation Le Corbusier
and licensed for the production of designs created by Charles Jeanneret alone and with his co-authors Charlotte
Perriand and Pierre Jeanneret.)
Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier built nothing, concentrating his efforts on Purist theory and painting. In 1922,
Le Corbusier and Ozenfant opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Sèvres.[3]
Le Corbusier 69

His theoretical studies soon advanced into several different single-family house models. Among these was the
Maison "Citrohan", a pun on the name of the French Citroën automaker, for the modern industrial methods and
materials Le Corbusier advocated using for the house. Here, Le Corbusier proposed a three-floor structure, with a
double-height living room, bedrooms on the second floor, and a kitchen on the third floor. The roof would be
occupied by a sun terrace. On the exterior Le Corbusier installed a stairway to provide second-floor access from
ground level. Here, as in other projects from this period, he also designed the façades to include large expanses of
uninterrupted banks of windows. The house used a rectangular plan, with exterior walls that were not filled by
windows, left as white, stuccoed spaces. Le Corbusier and Jeanneret left the interior aesthetically spare, with any
movable furniture made of tubular metal frames. Light fixtures usually comprised single, bare bulbs. Interior walls
also were left white. Between 1922 and 1927, Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret designed many of these private
houses for clients around Paris. In Boulogne-sur-Seine and the 16th arrondissement of Paris, Le Corbusier and Pierre
Jeanneret designed and built the Villa Lipschitz, Maison Cook (see William Edwards Cook), Maison Planeix, and
the Maison La Roche/Albert Jeanneret, which now houses the Fondation Le Corbusier.

Personal Relationships
While returning in 1929 from South America to Europe, Le Corbusier met entertainer and actress Josephine Baker
on board the ocean liner Lutétia. Le Corbusier made several nude sketches of Baker. Soon after his return to France,
Le Corbusier married Yvonne Gallis, a dressmaker and fashion model. She died in 1957. Le Corbusier also had a
long extramarital affair with Swedish-American heiress Marguerite Tjader Harris.
Le Corbusier took French citizenship in 1930.[3]

Forays into urbanism

For a number of years French officials had been unsuccessful in dealing
with the squalor of the growing Parisian slums, and Le Corbusier sought
efficient ways to house large numbers of people in response to the urban
housing crisis. He believed that his new, modern architectural forms would
provide a new organizational solution that would raise the quality of life for
the lower classes. His Immeubles Villas (1922) was such a project that
called for large blocks of cell-like individual apartments stacked one on top
of the other, with plans that included a living room, bedrooms and kitchen,
as well as a garden terrace.
Not merely content with designs for a few housing blocks, soon Le
Corbusier moved into studies for entire cities. In 1922, he presented his
scheme for a "Contemporary City" for three million inhabitants (Ville
Contemporaine). The centerpiece of this plan was the group of sixty-story,
cruciform skyscrapers; steel-framed office buildings encased in huge curtain
walls of glass. These skyscrapers were set within large, rectangular
park-like green spaces. At the center was a huge transportation hub, that on Portrait on Swiss ten francs banknote

different levels included depots for buses and trains, as well as highway
intersections, and at the top, an airport. He had the fanciful notion that commercial airliners would land between the
huge skyscrapers. Le Corbusier segregated pedestrian circulation paths from the roadways and glorified the use of
the automobile as a means of transportation. As one moved out from the central skyscrapers, smaller low-story,
zigzag apartment blocks (set far back from the street amid green space), housed the inhabitants. Le Corbusier hoped
that politically-minded industrialists in France would lead the way with their efficient Taylorist and Fordist strategies

adopted from American industrial models to reorganize society. As Norma Evenson has put it, "the proposed city
appeared to some an audacious and compelling vision of a brave new world, and to others a frigid megalomaniacally
Le Corbusier 70

scaled negation of the familiar urban ambient."[5]

In this new industrial spirit, Le Corbusier contributed to a new journal called L'Esprit Nouveau that advocated the
use of modern industrial techniques and strategies to transform society into a more efficient environment with a
higher standard of living on all socioeconomic levels. He forcefully argued that this transformation was necessary to
avoid the spectre of revolution that would otherwise shake society. His dictum, "Architecture or Revolution,"
developed in his articles in this journal, became his rallying cry for the book Vers une architecture (Toward an
Architecture, previously mistranslated into English as Towards a New Architecture), which comprised selected
articles he contributed to L'Esprit Nouveau between 1920 and 1923. In this book, Le Corbusier followed the
influence of Walter Gropius and reprinted several photographs of North American factories and grain elevators.[6]
Theoretical urban schemes continued to occupy Le Corbusier. He exhibited his "Plan Voisin," sponsored by another
famous automobile manufacturer, in 1925. In it, he proposed to bulldoze most of central Paris north of the Seine, and
replace it with his sixty-story cruciform towers from the Contemporary City, placed in an orthogonal street grid and
park-like green space. His scheme was met with criticism and scorn from French politicians and industrialists,
although they were favorable to the ideas of Taylorism and Fordism underlying Le Corbusier designs. Nonetheless,
it did provoke discussion concerning how to deal with the cramped, dirty conditions that enveloped much of the city.
In the 1930s, Le Corbusier expanded and reformulated his ideas on urbanism, eventually publishing them in La Ville
radieuse (The Radiant City) of 1935. Perhaps the most significant difference between the Contemporary City and the
Radiant City is that the latter abandons the class-based stratification of the former; housing is now assigned
according to family size, not economic position.[7] Some have read dark overtones into The Radiant City: from the
"astonishingly beautiful assemblage of buildings" that was Stockholm, for example, Le Corbusier saw only
“frightening chaos and saddening monotony.”[1] He dreamed of "cleaning and purging" the city, bringing "a calm and
powerful architecture"—referring to steel, plate glass, and reinforced concrete. Though Le Corbusier's designs for
Stockholm did not succeed, later architects took his ideas and partly "destroyed" the city with them.[1]
La Ville radieuse also marks Le Corbusier's increasing dissatisfaction with capitalism and his turn to the right-wing
syndicalism of Hubert Lagardelle. During the Vichy regime, Le Corbusier received a position on a planning
committee and made designs for Algiers and other cities. The central government ultimately rejected his plans, and
after 1942 Le Corbusier withdrew from political activity.[8]
After World War II, Le Corbusier attempted to realize his urban
planning schemes on a small scale by constructing a series of "unités"
(the housing block unit of the Radiant City) around France. The most
famous of these was the Unité d'Habitation of Marseilles (1946–1952).
In the 1950s, a unique opportunity to translate the Radiant City on a
grand scale presented itself in the construction of the Union Territory
Chandigarh, the new capital for the Indian states of Punjab and
Haryana and the first planned city in India. Le Corbusier designed
many administration buildings including a courthouse, parliament
High Court in Chandigarh, India
building and a university. He also designed the general layout of the
city dividing it into sectors. Le Corbusier was brought on to develop
the plan of Albert Mayer.
Le Corbusier 71

Death
Against his doctor's orders, on August 27, 1965, Le Corbusier went for a swim in the Mediterranean Sea at
Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France. His body was found by bathers and he was pronounced dead at 11 a.m. It was
assumed that he suffered a heart attack, at the age of seventy-seven. His death rites took place at the courtyard of the
Louvre Palace on September 1, 1965 under the direction of writer and thinker André Malraux, who was at the time
France's Minister of Culture. He was buried alongside his wife in the grave he had designated at Roquebrune.
Le Corbusier's death had a strong impact on the cultural and political world. Homages were paid worldwide and even
some of Le Corbusier's worst artistic enemies, such as the painter Salvador Dalí, recognised his importance (Dalí
sent a floral tribute). The President of the United States Lyndon B. Johnson said: "His influence was universal and
his works are invested with a permanent quality possessed by those of very few artists in our history". The Soviet
Union added, "Modern architecture has lost its greatest master". Japanese TV channels decided to broadcast,
simultaneously to the ceremony, his Museum in Tokyo, in what was at the time a unique media homage.
Visitors may find his grave site in the cemetery above Roquebrune-Cap-Martin in between Menton and Monaco in
southern France.
The Fondation Le Corbusier (or FLC) functions as his official Estate.[9] The U.S. copyright representative for the
Fondation Le Corbusier is the Artists Rights Society.[10]

Ideas

Five points of architecture

It was Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye (1929–1931) that most succinctly summed up his five points of architecture that
he had elucidated in the journal L'Esprit Nouveau and his book Vers une architecture, which he had been developing
throughout the 1920s. First, Le Corbusier lifted the bulk of the structure off the ground, supporting it by pilotis –
reinforced concrete stilts. These pilotis, in providing the structural support for the house, allowed him to elucidate his
next two points: a free façade, meaning non-supporting walls that could be designed as the architect wished, and an
open floor plan, meaning that the floor space was free to be configured into rooms without concern for supporting
walls. The second floor of the Villa Savoye includes long strips of ribbon windows that allow unencumbered views
of the large surrounding yard, and which constitute the fourth point of his system. The fifth point was the roof garden
to compensate for the green area consumed by the building and replacing it on the roof. A ramp rising from ground
level to the third floor roof terrace allows for an architectural promenade through the structure. The white tubular
railing recalls the industrial "ocean-liner" aesthetic that Le Corbusier much admired. As if to put an exclamation
mark after Le Corbusier's homage to modern industry, the driveway around the ground floor, with its semicircular
path, measures the exact turning radius of a 1927 Citroën automobile.

The Modulor
Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his Modulor system for
the scale of architectural proportion. He saw this system as a
continuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's
"Vitruvian Man", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others who
used the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance and
function of architecture. In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusier
based the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and the Cover of Modulor and Modulor 2
double unit.

He took Leonardo's suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model
human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio
Le Corbusier 72

at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system.
Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplified the Modulor system's application. The villa's rectangular
ground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles.[11]
Le Corbusier placed systems of harmony and proportion at the centre of his design philosophy, and his faith in the
mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden section and the Fibonacci series, which he
described as "rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at the
very root of human activities. They resound in Man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability which
causes the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages, and the learned."[12]

Furniture
Corbusier said: "Chairs are architecture, sofas are bourgeois."
Le Corbusier began experimenting with furniture design in 1928 after inviting the architect, Charlotte Perriand, to
join his studio. His cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, also collaborated on many of the designs. Before the arrival of Perriand,
Le Corbusier relied on ready-made furniture to furnish his projects, such as the simple pieces manufactured by
Thonet, the company that manufactured his designs in the 1930s.
In 1928, Le Corbusier and Perriand began to put the expectations for furniture Le Corbusier outlined in his 1925
book L'Art Décoratif d'aujourd'hui into practice. In the book he defined three different furniture types: type-needs,
type-furniture, and human-limb objects. He defined human-limb objects as: "Extensions of our limbs and adapted to
human functions that are type-needs and type-functions, therefore type-objects and type-furniture. The human-limb
object is a docile servant. A good servant is discreet and self-effacing in order to leave his master free. Certainly,
works of art are tools, beautiful tools. And long live the good taste manifested by choice, subtlety, proportion, and
harmony".
The first results of the collaboration were three chrome-plated tubular steel chairs designed for two of his projects,
The Maison la Roche in Paris and a pavilion for Barbara and Henry Church. The line of furniture was expanded for
Le Corbusier's 1929 Salon d'Automne installation, Equipment for the Home.
The most famous of these chairs are the now-iconic LC-1, LC-2, LC-3, and LC-4, originally titled "Basculant"
(LC-1), "Fauteuil grand confort, petit modèle" (LC-2, "great comfort sofa, small model"), "Fauteil grand confort,
grand modèle" (LC-3, "great comfort sofa, large model"), and "Chaise longue" (LC-4, "Long chair", English: "chaise
lounge").[13] The LC-2 and LC-3 are more colloquially referred to as the petit confort and grand confort
(abbreviation of full title, and due to respective sizes). The LC-2 (and similar LC-3) have been featured in a variety
of media, notably the Maxell "blown away" advertisement.[14]
In the year 1964, while Le Corbusier was still alive, Cassina S.p.A. of Milan acquired the exclusive worldwide rights
to manufacture his furniture designs. Today many copies exist, but Cassina is still the only manufacturer authorized
by the Fondation Le Corbusier; see US page [15].

Politics
Le Corbusier moved increasingly to the far right of French politics in the 1930s.[16] He associated with Georges
Valois and Hubert Lagardelle and briefly edited the syndicalist journal Prélude. In 1934, he lectured in Rome on
architecture, by invitation of Benito Mussolini. He sought out a position in urban planning in the Vichy regime and
received an appointment on a committee studying urbanism. He drew up plans for the redesign of Algiers in which
he criticized the perceived differences in living standards between Europeans and Africans in the city, describing a
situation in which "the civilised live like rats in holes" yet "the barbarians live in solitude, in well-being."[17] These
and plans for the redesign of other cities were ultimately ignored. After this defeat, Le Corbusier largely eschewed
politics.
Le Corbusier 73

Although the politics of Lagardelle and Valois included elements of fascism, anti-semitism, and ultra-nationalism,
Le Corbusier's own affiliation with these movements remains uncertain. In La Ville radieuse, he conceives an
essentially apolitical society, in which the bureaucracy of economic administration effectively replaces the state.[18]
Le Corbusier was heavily indebted to the thought of the nineteenth-century French utopians Saint-Simon and Charles
Fourier. There is a noteworthy resemblance between the concept of the unité and Fourier's phalanstery.[19] From
Fourier, Le Corbusier adopted at least in part his notion of administrative, rather than political, government.

Criticisms
Since his death, Le Corbusier's contribution has been hotly contested, as the architecture values and its
accompanying aspects within modern architecture vary, both between different schools of thought and among
practising architects.[20] At the level of building, his later works expressed a complex understanding of modernity's
impact, yet his urban designs have drawn scorn from critics. One social commentator writes that "Le Corbusier was
to architecture what Pol Pot was to social reform."[21]
Technological historian and architecture critic Lewis Mumford wrote in Yesterday's City of Tomorrow that the
extravagant heights of Le Corbusier's skyscrapers had no reason for existence apart from the fact that they had
become technological possibilities. The open spaces in his central areas had no reason for existence either, Mumford
wrote, since on the scale he imagined there was no motive during the business day for pedestrian circulation in the
office quarter. By "mating utilitarian and financial image of the skyscraper city to the romantic image of the organic
environment, Le Corbusier had, in fact, produced a sterile hybrid."
James Howard Kunstler, a member of the New Urbanism movement, has criticised Le Corbusier's approach to urban
planning as destructive and wasteful:
Le Corbusier [was] ... the leading architectural hoodoo-meister of Early High Modernism, whose 1925 Plan
Voisin for Paris proposed to knock down the entire Marais district on the Right Bank and replace it with rows
of identical towers set between freeways. Luckily for Paris, the city officials laughed at him every time he
came back with the scheme over the next forty years – and Corb was nothing if not a relentless self-promoter.
Ironically and tragically, though, the Plan Voisin model was later adopted gleefully by post-World War Two
American planners, and resulted in such urban monstrosities as the infamous Cabrini–Green housing projects
of Chicago and scores of things similar to it around the country.[22]
The public housing projects influenced by his ideas are seen by some as having had the effect of isolating poor
communities in monolithic high-rises and breaking the social ties integral to a community's development. One of his
most influential detractors has been Jane Jacobs, who delivered a scathing critique of Le Corbusier's urban design
theories in her seminal work The Death and Life of Great American Cities.

Influence
Le Corbusier was at his most influential in the sphere of urban planning, and was a founding member of the Congrès
International d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM).
One of the first to realize how the automobile would change human agglomerations, Le Corbusier described the city
of the future as consisting of large apartment buildings isolated in a park-like setting on pilotis. Le Corbusier's
theories were adopted by the builders of public housing in Western Europe and the United States. For the design of
the buildings themselves, Le Corbusier criticized any effort at ornamentation. The large spartan structures in cities,
but not 'of' cities, have been widely criticized for being boring and unfriendly to pedestrians.
Throughout the years, many architects worked for Le Corbusier in his studio, and a number of them became notable
in their own right, including painter-architect Nadir Afonso, who absorbed Le Corbusier's ideas into his own
aesthetics theory. Lúcio Costa's city plan of Brasília and the industrial city of Zlín planned by František Lydie
Gahura in the Czech Republic are notable plans based on his ideas, while the architect himself produced the plan for
Le Corbusier 74

Chandigarh in India. Le Corbusier's thinking also had profound effects on the philosophy of city planning and
architecture in the Soviet Union, particularly in the Constructivist era.
Le Corbusier was heavily influenced by problems he saw in industrial cities at the turn of the century (that is, from
the 19th to the 20th century). He thought that industrial housing techniques led to crowding, dirtiness, and a lack of a
moral landscape. He was a leader of the modernist movement to create better living conditions and a better society
through housing concepts. Ebenezer Howard's Garden Cities of Tomorrow heavily influenced Le Corbusier and his
contemporaries.
Le Corbusier also harmonized and lent credence to the idea of space as a set of destinations which mankind moved
between, more or less continuously. He was therefore able to give credence and credibility to the automobile (as a
transporter); and most importantly to freeways in urban spaces. His philosophies were useful to urban real estate
development interests in the American Post World War II period because they justified and lent architectural and
intellectual support to the desire to destroy traditional urban space for high density high profit urban concentration,
both commercial and residential. Le Corbusier’s ideas also sanctioned further destruction of traditional urban spaces
to build freeways that connected this new urbanism to low density, low cost (and highly profitable), suburban and
rural locales which were free to be developed as middle class single-family (dormitory) housing.
Notably missing from this scheme of movement were connectivity between isolated urban villages created for
lower-middle and working classes and other destination points in Le Corbusier's plan: suburban and rural areas, and
urban commercial centers. This was because as designed, the freeways traveled over, at, or beneath grade levels of
the living spaces of the urban poor (one modern example: the Cabrini–Green housing project in Chicago). Such
projects and their areas, having no freeway exit ramps, cut-off by freeway rights-of-way, became isolated from jobs
and services concentrated at Le Corbusier’s nodal transportation end points. As jobs increasingly moved to the
suburban end points of the freeways, urban village dwellers found themselves without convenient freeway access
points in their communities and without public mass transit connectivity that could economically reach suburban job
centers.
Very late in the Post-War period, suburban job centers found this to be such a critical problem (labor shortages) that
they, on their own, began sponsoring urban-to-suburban shuttle bus services between urban villages and suburban
job centers, to fill working class and lower-middle class jobs which had gone wanting, and which did not normally
pay the wages that car ownership required.
Le Corbusier deliberately created a myth about himself and was revered in his lifetime, and after death, by a
generation of followers who believed Le Corbusier was a prophet who could do no wrong. But in the 1950s the first
doubts began to appear, notably in some essays by his greatest admirers such as James Stirling and Colin Rowe, who
denounced as catastrophic his ideas on the city. Later critics revealed his technical incompetence as an architect. In
his book Armée du Salut, Brian Brace Taylor went into great detail about Le Corbusier's Machiavellian activities to
create this commission for himself, his many ill-judged design decisions about building technologies, and the
sometimes absurd solutions he then proposed.

Fondation Le Corbusier
The Fondation Le Corbusier is a private foundation and archive honoring the work of architect Le Corbusier
(1887–1965). It operates Maison La Roche, a museum located in the 16th arrondissement at 8-10, square du Dr
Blanche, Paris, France, which is open daily except Sunday. As of June 2008, the Maison La Roche is temporarily
closed for renovation.
The Fondation Le Corbusier was established in 1968. It now owns Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (which
form the foundation's headquarters), as well as the apartment occupied by Le Corbusier from 1933-1965 at rue
Nungesser et Coli in Paris 16e, and the "Small House" he built for his parents in Corseaux on the shores of Lac
Leman (1924).
Le Corbusier 75

Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (1923–24), also known as the La Roche-Jeanneret house, is a pair of
semi-detached houses that was Corbusier's third commission in Paris. They are laid out at right angles to each other,
with iron, concrete, and blank, white facades setting off a curved two-story gallery space. Maison La Roche is now a
museum containing about 8,000 original drawings, studies and plans by Le Corbusier (in collaboration with Pierre
Jeanneret from 1922–1940), as well as about 450 of his paintings, about 30 enamels, about 200 other works on
paper, and a sizable collection of written and photographic archives. It describes itself as the world's largest
collection of Le Corbusier drawings, studies, and plans.[23] [24]

Major buildings and projects

• 1905: Villa Fallet, La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland
• 1908: Stotzer House, 6, Chemin de Pouillerel, la Chaux-de-Fonds,
Switzerland.
• 1912: Villa Jeanneret-Perret, La Chaux-de-Fonds [25]
• 1916: Villa Schwob, La Chaux-de-Fonds
• 1922: Villa Besnus (Ker-Ka-Ré), Vaucresson, Paris, France
• 1922: Ozenfant House and Studio, Vaucresson, Paris. ( much
altered.)
• 1923: Villa La Roche/Villa Jeanneret, Paris
• 1924: Pavillon de L'Esprit Nouveau, Paris (destroyed)
• 1924: Quartiers Modernes Frugès, Pessac, France
• 1925: Villa Jeanneret, Paris
• 1926: Villa Cook, Boulogne-sur-Seine, France
• 1926: Villa Ternisien, 5, Allee des Pins, Boulogne-sur-Seine, Paris. The Open Hand Monument is one of numerous
( Block of apartments built over the house.) projects in Chandigarh, India designed by Le
Corbusier
• 1927: Villa Stein, Garches, Paris.
• 1927: Pleinex House, 24, Bis Boulevard Massena, Paris 13e.
• 1927: Villas at Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany
• 1928: Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France View on the map [26]
• 1929: Cité du Refuge, Armée du Salut, Paris, France
• 1930: Pavillon Suisse, Cité Universitaire, Paris
• 1930: Maison Errazuriz, Chile
• 1930: Las Nubes, house of Uruguayan novelist Enrique Amorim
(Salto, Uruguay)
• 1931: Palace of the Soviets, Moscow, USSR (project)
• 1931: Immeuble Clarté, Geneva, Switzerland View on the map [27] National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo,
Japan
• 1933: Tsentrosoyuz, Moscow, USSR
• 1936: Palace of Ministry of National Education and Public Health, Rio de Janeiro (as a consultant to Lucio Costa,
Oscar Niemeyer and others)
• 1938: The "Cartesian" sky-scraper (project)
• 1945: Usine Claude et Duval, Saint-Dié-des-Vosges, France
• 1947–1952: Unité d'Habitation, Marseille, France View on the map [28], History of the Prefabricated Home [29]
• 1948: Curutchet House, La Plata, Argentina
• 1949–1952: United Nations headquarters, New York City (Consultant)
Le Corbusier 76

• 1950–1954: Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, France

View on the map [30]
• 1951: Cabanon de vacances, Roquebrune-Cap-Martin
• 1951: Maisons Jaoul, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France
• 1951: Mill Owners' Association Building, villa Sarabhai and villa
Schodan, Ahmedabad, India
• 1952: Unité d'Habitation of Nantes-Rezé, Nantes, France View on
the map [31]
• 1952–1959: Buildings in Chandigarh, India
Centre Le Corbusier (Heidi Weber Museum) in
• 1952: Palace of Justice (Chandigarh) Zürich-Seefeld (Zürichhorn)
• 1952: Museum and Gallery of Art (Chandigarh)
• 1953: Secretariat Building (Chandigarh)
• 1953: Governor's Palace (Chandigarh)
• 1955: Palace of Assembly (Chandigarh)
• 1959: Government College of Art (GCA) and the Chandigarh
College of Architecture(CCA) (Chandigarh)
• 1956: Museum at Ahmedabad, Ahmedabad, India
A governmental building, Chandigarh, India
• 1956: Saddam Hussein Gymnasium, Baghdad, Iraq
• 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Briey en Forêt, France
• 1957: National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo
• 1957: Maison du Brésil, Cité Universitaire, Paris
• 1957–1960: Sainte Marie de La Tourette, near Lyon, France (with
Iannis Xenakis)
• 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Berlin-Charlottenburg, Flatowallee 16,
Berlin View on the map [32]
• 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Meaux, France
• 1958: Philips Pavilion, Brussels, Belgium (with Iannis Xenakis)
(destroyed) at the 1958 World Expositon Villa Savoye
• 1961: Center for Electronic Calculus, Olivetti, Milan, Italy
• 1961: Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States
• 1964–1969: Firminy-Vert
•1964: Unité d'Habitation of Firminy, France
•1966: Stadium Firminy-Vert
•1965: Maison de la culture de Firminy-Vert
•1969: Church of Saint-Pierre, Firminy, France (built posthumously and completed under José Oubrerie's
guidance in 2006)
• 1967: Heidi Weber Museum (Centre Le Corbusier), Zürich, Switzerland
Le Corbusier 77

Major written works

• 1918: Après le cubisme (After Cubism), with Amédée Ozenfant
• 1923: Vers une architecture (Towards an Architecture) (frequently mistranslated as "Towards a New
Architecture")
• 1925: Urbanisme (Urbanism)
• 1925: La Peinture moderne (Modern Painting), with Amédée Ozenfant
• 1925: L'Art décoratif d'aujourd'hui (The Decorative Arts of Today)
• 1931: Premier clavier de couleurs (First Color Keyboard)
• 1935: Aircraft
• 1935: La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City)
• 1942: Charte d'Athènes (Athens Charter)
• 1943: Entretien avec les étudiants des écoles d'architecture (A Conversation with Architecture Students)
• 1945: Les Trios éstablishments Humains (The Three Human Establishments)
• 1948: Le Modulor (The Modulor)
• 1953: Le Poeme de l'Angle Droit (The Poem of the Right Angle)
• 1955: Le Modulor 2 (The Modulor 2)
• 1959: Deuxième clavier de couleurs (Second Colour Keyboard)
• 1966: Le Voyage d'Orient (The Voyage to the East)

Quotations
• "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is
construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: 'This
is beautiful.' That is Architecture. Art enters in..." (Vers une architecture, 1923)
• "Architecture is the masterly, correct, and magnificent play of masses brought together in light."
• "Space and light and order. Those are the things that men need just as much as they need bread or a place to
sleep."
• "The house is a machine for living in." (Vers une architecture, 1923)
• "It is a question of building which is at the root of the social unrest of today: architecture or revolution." (Vers une
architecture, 1923)
• "Modern life demands, and is waiting for, a new kind of plan, both for the house and the city." (Vers une
architecture, 1923)
• "The 'Styles' are a lie." (Vers une architecture, 1923)
• "Architecture or revolution. Revolution can be avoided." (Vers une architecture, 1923)

Memorials
Le Corbusier's portrait was featured on the 10 Swiss francs banknote, pictured with his distinctive eyeglasses.
The following place-names carry his name:
• Place Le Corbusier, Paris, near the site of his atelier on the Rue de Sèvres.
• Le Corbusier Boulevard, Laval, Quebec, Canada.
• Place Le Corbusier in his hometown of La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland.
• Le Corbusier Street in the partido of Malvinas Argentinas, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina.
• Le Corbusier Street in Le Village Parisien of Brossard, Quebec, Canada.
• Le Corbusier Promenade, a promenade along the water at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin.
Le Corbusier 78

See also
• Category:Le Corbusier buildings – thumbnail images of buildings and articles
• Modernism

References
[1] Dalrymple, Theodore. 'The Architect as Totalitarian:Le Corbusier’s baleful influence', City Journal, Autumn 2009, vol. 19, no. 4
[2] Brewers Dictionary of 20th Century Phrase and Fable
[3] Choay, Françoise, le corbusier (1960), pp. 10-11. George Braziller, Inc. ISBN 0-8076-0104-7.
[4] Gans, Deborah, The Le Corbusier Guide (2006), p. 31. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 1-56898-539-8.
[5] Evenson, Norma. Le Corbusier: The Machine and the Grand Design. George Braziller, Pub: New York, 1969 (p.7).
[6] "American Colossus: the Grain Elevator 1843-1943" (http:/ / www. american-colossus. com/ ). Colossus Books. 2009. .
[7] Robert Fishman, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier (Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 1982), 231.
[8] Fishman, 244-246
[9] "Fondation Le Corbusier's English Version Website" (http:/ / www. fondationlecorbusier. asso. fr/ fondationlc_us. htm). .
[10] "Most frequently requested artists list of the Artists Rights Society" (http:/ / arsny. com/ requested. html). .
[11] Le Corbusier, The Modulor, p. 35, as cited in Padovan, Richard, Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture (1999), p. 320. Taylor &
Francis. ISBN 0-419-22780-6: "Both the paintings and the architectural designs make use of the golden section."
[12] Ibid. The Modulor pp.25, as cited in Padovan's Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture pp.316
[13] Le Corbusier Classics LC2, LC3 and LC4 Get Colorful, Courtesy Of Cassina. (http:/ / ifitshipitshere. blogspot. com/ 2010/ 06/
le-corbusier-classics-lc2-lc3-and-lc4. html) 2010-07-27
[14] Lc2 Chair in famous "blown away" Maxell Advertisment (http:/ / corbustier. com/ lc2-chair-in-famous-blown-away-maxell-advertisment/ )
[15] http:/ / www. cassinausa. com/ corbusier. html
[16] Antliff, Mark, Avant-Garde Fascism: The Mobilization of Myth, Art, and Culture in France, 1909–1939. Duke University Press, 2007, p.
111.
[17] Celik, Zeynep, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers under French Rule, University of California Press, 1997, p. 4.
[18] Fishman, 228
[19] Peter Serenyi, “Le Corbusier, Fourier, and the Monastery of Ema.” The Art Bulletin 49, no. 4 (1967): 282.
[20] Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape
the build environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.
[21] Dalrymple 2009
[22] "Kunstler on Cities of the Future" (http:/ / www. kunstler. com/ mags_cities_of_the_future. html). Kunstler.com. . Retrieved 2010-03-10.
[23] Fondation Le Corbusier (http:/ / www. fondationlecorbusier. asso. fr/ )
[24] Paris.org entry (http:/ / www. paris. org/ Musees/ Corbusier/ info. html)
[25] http:/ / www. maisonblanche. ch
[26] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=48.
924256,2. 02841& spn=0. 001472,0. 002414& t=h& z=19
[27] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=46.
200229,6. 156464& spn=0. 0031,0. 004828& t=h& z=18
[28] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=43.
261183,5. 396401& spn=0,359. 995172& t=h& z=18& layer=c& cbll=43. 26125,5. 397412& panoid=gSIrayV3K7aTziB_K1KGZQ&
cbp=12,270. 87750318263215,,0,-5. 777772317930098
[29] http:/ / www. housing. com/ categories/ homes/ history-prefabricated-home/ unit%C3%A9-dhabitation-le-corbusier. html
[30] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=47.
705849,6. 62143& spn=0. 012057,0. 019312& z=16
[31] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=47.
188515,-1. 568384& spn=0. 001522,0. 002414& t=h& z=19
[32] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=52.
510096,13. 244179& spn=0. 002726,0. 004828& t=h& z=18
Le Corbusier 79

Further reading
• Weber, Nicholas Fox, Le Corbusier: A Life, Alfred A. Knopf, 2008, ISBN 0375410430
• Marco Venturi, Le Corbusier Algiers Plans, research available on planum.net (http://www.planum.net/archive/
lec.htm)
• Behrens, Roy R. (2005). COOK BOOK: Gertrude Stein, William Cook and Le Corbusier. Dysart, Iowa: Bobolink
Books. ISBN 0-9713244-1-7.
• Naïma Jornod and Jean-Pierre Jornod, Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret), catalogue raisonné de l’oeuvre
peint, Skira, 2005, ISBN 8876242031
• Eliel, Carol S. (2002). L'Esprit Nouveau: Purism in Paris, 1918 - 1925. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN
0-8109-6727-8
• Frampton, Kenneth. (2001). Le Corbusier. London, Thames and Hudson.
• H. Allen Brooks: Le Corbusier's Formative Years: Charles-Edouard Jeanneret at La Chaux-de-Fonds, Paperback
Edition, University of Chicago Press, 1999, ISBN 0226075826

External links
• Fondation Le Corbusier (http://www.fondationlecorbusier.asso.fr/) - Official website
• The Architect as Totalitarian, City Journal, Autumn 2009 (http://www.city-journal.org/2009/
19_4_otbie-le-corbusier.html)
• Le Corbusier and Villa Cook (http://www.bobolinkbooks.com/BALLAST/CookStein.html)
• Reflections on Brutalist Architecture in East London (http://thethirdestate.net/2009/05/brutal-but-true)
• Podcast: Kenneth Frampton on Le Corbusier (http://simplycharly.com/podcasts/
kenneth-frampton-on-le-corbusier)
• Resource site for furniture designs (http://www.corbustier.com/)
• Images of the Ministry of National Education and Public Health, Rio de Janeiro (http://www.fredcamper.com/
A/Accretions/AC005/index.html)
• Le Corbusier's projects in a map (http://proyecto.localizarq.es/etiquetas/corbusier-le/)
• The Shape Of Things That Came: Tim Benton's Analysis Of Le Corbusier's Audacious Designs (http://
simplycharly.com/lecorbusier/tim_benton_interview.htm)
• Le Corbusier in Artfacts.Net (http://www.artfacts.net/index.php/pageType/artistInfo/artist/2312)
• Corbusier's Working Lifestyle: 'Working with Corbusier' (http://www.archsociety.com/e107_plugins/content/
content.php?content.24)
• Video: Sector 1 Chandigarh, India (http://es.youtube.com/watch?v=iq8T_BzXTPE)
• Artists Rights Society, Le Corbusier's U.S. Copyright Representatives (http://www.arsny.com)
• Model for the Villa Chimanbhai (http://cca.qc.ca/en/collection/9-le-corbusier-villa-chimanbhai)
• Proportional Systems in the architecture of Le Corbusier (http://www.benflatman.com/Le Corbusier/Le
Corbusier.html)
Hafeez Contractor 80

Hafeez Contractor
Hafeez Contractor (born 1950) is an Indian architect. He did his
Graduate Diploma in architecture from Academy of Architecture,
Mumbai in 1975 and completed his graduation from Columbia
University in New York City on a Tata scholarship. He has also
designed The Imperial I and II, the tallest buildings in India.

Contractor has built several residential buildings

such as this 25 story residential building called
Buckley Court in Colaba, Mumbai

Hafeez Contractor commenced his career in 1968 as an apprentice

with T. Khareghat and in 1977 he became the associate partner in
the firm. Between 1977 and 1980 Hafeez was a visiting faculty at
the Academy of Architecture, Mumbai. He is a member of the
Bombay Heritage Committee and New Delhi Lutyens Bungalow
Zone Review Committee.

His practice started in 1983 with a staff of two. Today the firm has
over 350 employees including senior associates, architects, interior
designers, draftsmen, civil engineering team and architectural
support staff. The firm has conceptualized ,designed and executed
a wide range of architectural projects like bungalows; residential
developments; hospitals; hotels; corporate offices; banking and
financial institutions; commercial complexes; shopping malls;
The Imperial Towers
educational institutions; recreational and sports facilities;
townships; airports; railway stations, urban planning and civic
redevelopment projects.

Projects
• DY Patil Stadium in Nerul, Navi Mumbai
• Seawoods Estate (also known as NRI complex) in Nerul,
Navi Mumbai is one of the residential complexes/ townships
• One Indiabulls Center, Mumbai, India (Ongoing)
• Morya Regency [1] in Bandra, Mumbai
• Rodas- An ecotel in hiranandani gardens,powai
• Hiranandani Gardens
• Multiple Buildings , DLF City , Gurgaon
• Mumbai Airport redesign
• Infosys - Bangalore , Mangalore , Mysore , Trivandrum
• AV Brila Training centre DY Patil Stadium in Nerul, Navi Mumbai

• Aditya Birla Corporate Head Quarters

Hafeez Contractor 81

• Russi Modi Centre of Excellence , Jamshedpur

• Rajneesh Osho Ashram , Pune
• NICMAR , Pune
• ONGC Green Buildings- Multiple Locations
• Turbe Railway Station, Navi mumbai
• Low Income housing schemes , Navi Mumbai
• MP Mill Slum Redevelopment Project
• Thapar House , Worli , Mumbai
• ITC Grand Central , Mumbai
• Hyatt Regency , Mumbai
• Sarla Birla Academy , Bangalore
• ILFS Building , Bandra Kurla Compex, Mumbai
• Vidarbha Cricket Association stadium , Jamtha , Nagpur

External links
• Official website [2]
• Book: Architect Hafeez Contractor : Select works (1982-2005) [3]
• Architect Hafeez Contractor's Blog [4]

References
[1] http:/ / www. emporis. com/ en/ wm/ bu/ ?id=191424
[2] http:/ / www. hafeezcontractor. com/
[3] http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=IG85li6h8_0C& client=firefox-a& source=gbs_navlinks_s
[4] http:/ / www. theurbanvision. com/ blogs/ ?author=8
Antoni Gaudí 82

Antoni Gaudí
Antoni Gaudí

Antoni Gaudí by Pau Audouard

Personal information

Born [1] [2]

25 June 1852Reus, or Riudoms (Catalonia, Spain)

Died 10 June 1926 (aged 73)Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain

Work

Buildings Sagrada Família, Casa Milà, Casa Batlló

Projects Parc Güell, Colònia Güell

Antoni Plàcid Guillem Gaudí i Cornet (Catalan pronunciation: [ənˈtɔni gəwˈði]; 25 June 1852 – 10 June 1926) was a
Spanish[3] architect who worked during the Modernisme (Art Nouveau) period but became famous for his unique
and highly individualistic designs regarded as beyond the scope of Modernisme.[4] He is sometimes referred to, in
English, by the Spanish translation of his name, Antonio Gaudí.[5] [6] [7]

Life

Childhood
Antoni Gaudí was born in the province of Tarragona in southern Catalonia, Spain on 25 June 1852. While there is
some dispute as to his birthplace – official documents state that he was born in the town of Reus, whereas others
claim he was born in Riudoms, a small village 3 miles (5 km) from Reus,[2] – it is certain that he was baptized in
Reus a day after his birth. The artist's parents, Francesc Gaudí Serra and Antònia Cornet Bertran, both came from
families of coppersmiths.
During his youth, Gaudí suffered many times from the rheumatic fevers that were common at the time. This illness
caused him to spend much time in isolation, and it also allowed him to spend lots of time alone with nature.[8]
It was this exposure to nature at an early age which is thought to have inspired him to incorporate natural shapes and
themes into his later work.[9]
Antoni Gaudí 83

Early career
• 1878–1879: Lampposts for the Plaça Reial at Barcelona
• 1878: Showcase for glove manufacturer Comella. Via this work, used at the World's Fair in Paris, Eusebi Güell
came to know the architect.[10]
• 1878–1882: Several designs for the Obrera Mataronense at Mataró. Only a very small part of these plans was
built, but it shows Gaudí's first use of parabolic arches, here in a wooden structure
• 1883–1885: Casa Vicens
• 1883–1885: Villa "El Capricho" at Comillas (Cantabria)
• 1884: Finca Güell: Entrance pavilion and stables for the palace at Pedralbes (first completed building for Eusebi
Güell);
• 1885–1889: Palau Güell
• 1884–1891: Completion of the crypt of the Sagrada Família (the crypt had been started by the architect Francisco
del Villar in 1882, who had to abandon the project in 1883)
• 1887–1893: Episcopal Palace at Astorga
• 1892–1893: Casa de los Botines at León

Later years
Gaudí was a devout Catholic, to the point that in his later years he
abandoned secular work and devoted his life to Catholicism and his
Sagrada Família. He designed it to have 18 towers, 12 for the 12
apostles, 4 for the 4 evangelists, one for Mary and one for Jesus. One
of his closest family members – his niece Rosa Egea – died in 1912,
only to be followed by a "faithful collaborator", Francesc Berenguer
Mestres, two years later. After these tragedies, Barcelona fell on hard
times economically. The construction of La Sagrada Família slowed;
the construction of La Colonia Güell ceased altogether. Four years
later in 1918, Eusebi Güell, his patron, died.[11]

Perhaps it was because of this unfortunate sequence of events that The Casa Milà, in the Eixample, Barcelona.
Gaudí changed. He became reluctant to talk with reporters or have his
picture taken and solely concentrated on his masterpiece, La Sagrada Família.[11] He spent the last few years of his
life living in the crypt of the "Sagrada Familia".
On 7 June 1926[12] Gaudí was hit by a tram. Because of his ragged attire and empty pockets, many cab drivers
refused to pick him up for fear that he would be unable to pay the fare. He was eventually taken to a paupers'
hospital in Barcelona. Nobody recognized the injured artist until his friends found him the next day. When they tried
to move him into a nicer hospital, Gaudí refused, reportedly saying "I belong here among the poor." [13] He died
three days later on 10 June 1926, at age 73, with half of Barcelona mourning his death. He was buried in the midst of
La Sagrada Família.[11]

Although Gaudí was constantly changing his mind and recreating his blueprints, the only existing copy of his last
recorded blueprints was destroyed by the anarchists in 1938 during the Spanish Civil War. This has made it very
difficult for his workers to complete the church in the fashion Gaudí most likely would have wished. It is for this that
Gaudí is known to many as "God's Architect". La Sagrada Família is now being completed, but differences between
his work and the new additions can be seen.
As of 2007, completion of the Sagrada Familía is planned for 2026, which would be the 100th anniversary of Gaudí's
death. It is currently at the center of a row over the proposed route of a high-speed rail tunnel that would pass near
the church, approximately thirty meters below.[14] [15] [16] [17] Supporters of the tunnel point to many successful
Antoni Gaudí 84

tunneling projects under city centers. Detractors cite a metro tunnel in Barcelona’s Carmel district that collapsed and
destroyed an entire city block on February 1, 2005.[18] The route passes near some of Gaudí's other works, Casa
Batlló and Casa Milà, although deep underground.

Artistic style
Gaudí's first works were designed in the style of gothic architecture
and traditional Catalan architectural modes, but he soon developed his
own distinct sculptural style. French architect Eugene Viollet-le-Duc,
who promoted an evolved form of gothic architecture, proved a major
influence on Gaudí. The student went on to contrive highly original
designs – irregular and fantastically intricate. Some of his greatest
works, most notably La Sagrada Família, have an almost hallucinatory
power.

He once said on the subject of gothic architecture:

Gothic art is imperfect, it means to solve; it is the style of
the compass, the formula of industrial repetition. Its
stability is based on the permanent propping of abutments:
it is a defective body that holds with support… gothic
works produce maximum emotion when they are Gaudí's unfinished masterpiece, Sagrada Família,
under construction since 1882.
mutilated, covered with ivy and illuminated by the
moon.[19]

The same expressive power of Gaudí's monumental works exists in his oddly graceful chairs and tables. Gaudí's
architecture is a total integration of materials, processes and poetics. His approach to furniture design exceeded
structural expression and continued with the overall architectural idea.[20]

Interests
Gaudí, throughout his life, studied nature's angles and curves and incorporated them into his designs and mosaics.
Instead of relying on geometric shapes, he mimicked the way men stand upright. The hyperboloids and paraboloids
he borrowed from nature were easily reinforced by steel rods and allowed his designs to resemble elements from the
environment.
Gaudí was so inspired by nature, he says, because:
Those who look for the laws of Nature as a support for their new works collaborate with the creator.[21]
Because of his rheumatism, the artist observed a strict vegetarian diet, used homeopathic drug therapy, underwent
water therapy, and hiked regularly. Long walks, besides suppressing his rheumatism, further allowed him to
experience nature.
Antoni Gaudí 85

Popularity
Gaudí's originality was at first ridiculed by his peers. Indeed, he was first only supported by the rich industrialist
Eusebi Güell. His fellow citizens referred to the Casa Milà as La Pedrera ("the quarry"), and George Orwell, who
stayed in Barcelona during the Spanish Civil War, admittedly loathed his work. As time passed, though, his work
became more famous. He stands as one of history's most original architects.

Social and political influences

The opportunities afforded by Catalonia's socioeconomic and political influences were endless. Catalans such as
Antoni Gaudí often showcased the country's diverse art techniques in their works. By mimicking nature, such artists
symbolically pushed back the ever-increasing industrial society. Gaudí, among others, promoted the Catalan
movement for regaining sovereignty from Spain by incorporating elements of Catalan culture in his designs.[22]
Gaudí was involved in politics since he supported the Catalanist political party Regionalist League. For example, in
1924 Spanish authorities (ruled by the dictator Primo de Rivera) closed Barcelona's churches in order to prevent a
nationalist celebration (11 September, National Day of Catalonia), Gaudí attended to Saints Justus and Pastor's
church and was arrested by the Spanish police for answering in Catalan.[23]

In popular culture
The Alan Parsons Project released Gaudi, an album based on the life of Antoni Gaudí, in 1987. Eric Woolfson in
1993 re-engineered the album as a musical, Gaudi.
U.S. ambient musician Robert Rich released an album, also named Gaudí, in 1991.

Major works
• Casa Vicens (1884–1885)
• Palau Güell (1885–1889)
• College of the Teresianas (1888–1890)
• Crypt of the Church of Colònia Güell (1898–1916)
• Casa Calvet (1899–1904)
• Casa Batlló (1905–1907)
• Casa Milà (La Pedrera) (1905–1907)
View of the Park Güell, El Carmel, Barcelona.
• Park Güell (1900–1914)
• Sagrada Família Nativity façade and Crypt of the Sagrada Família church (1884 until his death in 1926, although
still under construction as of 2010)

Notes
[1] See, in Catalan, Juan Bergós Massó, Gaudí, l'home i la obra ("Gaudí: The Man and his Work"), Universitat Politècnica de Barcelona (Càtedra
Gaudí), 1974 – ISBN 84-600-6248-1, section "Nacimiento" (Birth), pp. 17–18.
[2] "Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 1" (http:/ / www. gaudiclub. com/ ingles/ i_vida/ i_vida. asp). . Retrieved 2005-11-05.
[3] "Antoni Gaudi" (http:/ / www. archiplanet. org/ architects/ Antoni_Gaudi. html). . Retrieved 2008-10-02.
[4] C. Vragel. "History of Architecture: Art Nouveau." Newschool of Architecture, San Diego, CA, April 30, 2010
[5] Gaudí, living under Spanish dictatorship, was not allowed to register his name in his native Catalan. The imposed Spanish translation of his
name was popularized and spread during the nationalistic Francoist period. Many publications from this period, including English references,
use the Spanish translation. His native Catalan name, Antoni, is now preferred and widely used.
[6] "Gaudí, Antonio" (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 7/ G0060700. html). The AWTmerFSFican Heritage Dictionary of the English Language:
Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000. . Retrieved 2008-11-11.
[7] "Gaudí, Antonio" (http:/ / www. RTWRTdictionary. reference. com/ browse/ gaudi). Random House Unabridged Dictionary. Random House,
Inc.. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-11-11.
[8] (http:/ / www. ezmuseum. com/ Gaudi. htm)
Antoni Gaudí 86

[9] "Biography at ArteHistoria" (http:/ / www. artehistoria. com/ arte/ personajes/ 6764. htm) (in German). . Retrieved 2005-11-09.
[10] "Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 4" (http:/ / www. gaudiclub. com/ ingles/ i_vida/ i_vida4. asp). .
[11] "Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club" (http:/ / www. gaudiclub. com/ ingles/ i_vida/ i_vida5. asp). p. 5. . Retrieved 2005-11-09.
[12] Antoni Gaudí, Catalan Modernist Architect – Life of Antoni Gaudí (http:/ / architecture. about. com/ library/ blgaudi. htm)
[13] Antoni Gaudí, Biography (http:/ / www. barcelona-life. com/ barcelona/ gaudi)
[14] "Video produced by SOS Sagrada Familia (http:/ / www. sossagradafamilia. org)" (http:/ / www. elperiodico. com/ default.
asp?idpublicacio_PK=46& idioma=CAS& idnoticia_PK=425520& idseccio_PK=1022). .
[15] Video produced by SOS Sagrada Familia (http:/ / www. elperiodico. com/ default. asp?idpublicacio_PK=46& idioma=CAS&
idnoticia_PK=425520& idseccio_PK=1022)
[16] Sossagradafamilia.org (http:/ / www. sossagradafamilia. org)
[17] SOSSAGRADAFAMILIA.ORG-(radio-english) (http:/ / it. youtube. com/ watch?v=aKJW-mN_kmo) YouTube
[18] Carmel Tunnel Collapse in Barcelona (http:/ / geographyfieldwork. com/ CarmelTunnel. htm)
[19] Carlos Flores, Les lliçons de Gaudí, p. 89
[20] Dalisi, R., (1979), Gaudí, mobili e oggetti, Milan: Gruppo Editoriale Electa S.p.A.
[21] Brainyquote.com (http:/ / www. brainyquote. com/ quotes/ authors/ a/ antonio_gaudi. html)
[22] Roth, Leland M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning (First ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
pp. 452–454. ISBN 0-06-430158-3.
[23] Gaudi and Art Nouveau in Catalonia (http:/ / www. gaudiallgaudi. com/ AA002crono. htm)

References
• Cèsar Martinell. Antoni Gaudí. Barcelona, 1975 (English edition).

External links
• Gallery of Gaudi's works (http://itiscreation.com/2010/08/25/antoni-gaudi/)
• Casa Batlló (http://www.casabatllo.es/) (multilingual; requires Adobe Flash)
• Sagrada Família (http://www.sagradafamilia.org/) (multilingual)
• La Pedrera (http://www.lapedreraeducacio.org/) (multilingual; requires Adobe Flash)
• Other Gaudi works (http://www.gaudisagradafamilia.com/lesser-known-gaudi-works/)
• Gaudi: Designer (http://www.gaudidesigner.com/uk/index.html) (English), (French), (Spanish)
• Hyperboloid structures by Gaudí (http://www.business.otago.ac.nz/SIRC05/conferences/2001/05_burry.
pdf)PDF (420 KiB)
• Antoni Plàcid Gaudí i Cornet (http://en.structurae.de/persons/data/index.cfm?ID=d000014) information at
Structurae
• Antoni Gaudí (http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Architecture/History/Architects/G/Gaudí,_Antoni//) at the
Open Directory Project
• Antoni Gaudí i Cornet (http://www.gaudiallgaudi.com/AA002.htm)
• Gaudí's arrest (http://webs.racocatala.cat/cat1714/d/gaudi.pdf)PDF (142 KiB) (Catalan)
• Guell Palace Site (http://www.palauguell.cat) (multilingual)
• Church of Colònia Güell virtual visit (http://guell.vrama.net) (multilingual; requires Adobe Flash)
• Gaudí Tours (http://www.barcelonaguidebureau.com/index.php) (English)
• Gaudí Center Reus (http://www.gaudicentre.cat/eng/index.html)
Achyut Kanvinde 87

Achyut Kanvinde
Padma Shri Achyut P. Kanvinde (1916–28
December 2002) is considered as one of
forefathers of modern Indian architecture.[1]

Early life and education

He was born in Achara, in the Konkan region of
Maharashtra, in 1916 in a large family. His mother
died when he was two and his father was an arts
teacher in Bombay. Kanvinde entered the Sir J.J.
School of Art (University of Mumbai) in 1935, to
study architecture under Claude Batley. He later
PK Kelkar Library, IIT Kanpur, designed by Achyut Kanvinde
studied design at Harvard in 1945 and was
influenced by the works of Walter Gropius.

Career
Along with his partner S. Rai, he opened a firm Kanvinde, Rai and Chowdhury
in New Delhi (which is currently run by Mr. Sanjay Kanvinde, Mrs. B.K. Tanuja
and Mr. Murad Chaudhury). The firm has been responsible for IIT Kanpur,
National Science Centre, Delhi, NII Pune, numerous dairy buildings under
NDDB and many other great buildings.[2] .

References
[1] Jon T. Lang 2002 A Concise History of Modern Architecture in India. Orient Blackswan.
[2] An Architecture of Independence: The Making of Modern South Asia (http:/ / www. upenn. edu/
ARG/ archive/ architecture/ architecture. html) University of Pennsylvania.

External links The University of Agricultural

Sciences, Bangalore campus
• http://www.angelfire.com/tx/deenu2/alofsin.html designed by Kanvinde and Rai

• http://www.iianc.org/vs/novdec2002.pdf
Joseph Allen Stein 88

Joseph Allen Stein

Joseph Stein, (April 10, 1912 – October 14, 2001) was
an American architect. He is noted for designing
several important buildings in India.[1]

Biography
Joseph Allen Stein was born on April 10, 1912, in
Omaha, Nebraska. He studied architecture at the
University of Illinois, the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris
and the Cranbrook Academy of Art.[2] He apprenticed
with Richard Neutra in Los Angeles, and after that he
established a practice in San Francisco.

In 1952 he moved to India, and became head of the

department of architecture at the Bengal Engineering
College in Calcutta. He worked in New Delhi from
1955 onwards, starting with another American Joseph Allen Stein in 1986
architect, Benjamin Polk [3] and even after retirement in
1995, continued to design for the architecture firm he founded.

He was awarded the Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian honor, in 1992. He married the late Margaret Suydam
in 1938. He died on October 14, 2001, at age 89 in Raleigh, North Carolina [4] . He is survived by their sons David
and Ethan.

Selected projects
• 1940: "One Family Defense House" (with Gregory Ain),
unbuilt[5]
• 1940: "Low-Cost House", unbuilt[6]
• 1947: Ladera Cooperative (with John Funk; landscape
architect: Garrett Eckbo), Palo Alto, CA
• 1968: Indian Express Tower, Nariman Point, Mumbai [7] ,
relandscaping of Lodhi Gardens, along with Garrett Eckbo [8]
.
• Several buildings in Lodi Estate, New Delhi, including the
headquarters of the Ford Foundation, Unicef and the World
Wide Fund for Nature, a conference center called the India
International Center (1959–62), and the India Habitat Center
for housing and environmental studies.
• Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode campus, Kerala.
• Triveni Kala Sangam arts center, New Delhi
• Several factories with roofs inspired by the domes used in
traditional Indian architecture
• Kashmir Conference Center India Habitat Centre (IHC), Lodhi Road, New Delhi, in
typical Stein architecture
Joseph Allen Stein 89

Notes
[1] Lewis, Paul (October 14, 2001), "Joseph Stein, 89, Architect Noted for Work in India, Is Dead" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9A07E1DB103FF937A25753C1A9679C8B63), New York Times.,
[2] Weinstein, Dave (April 7, 2007), "Architectural idealist: Modernist Joseph Allen Stein preferred to design public housing and finished his
career in India" (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2007/ 04/ 07/ HOGHVP2AAP1. DTL), San Francisco Chronicle.,
[3] A Concise History of Modern Architecture in India, by Jon T. Lang, Orient Blackswan, 2002. ISBN 8178240173. Page 45.
[4] OBITUARY - A built legacy - Joseph Allen Stein, 1912-2001 (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ fline/ fl1823/ 18230810. htm) Frontline, The
Hindu, Volume 18 - Issue 23, Nov. 10 - 23, 2001.
[5] "One Family Defense House Project, Designed by Gregory Ain", Architectural Forum 73, November 1940
[6] "Low-Cost House", Architectural Forum 73, October 1940
[7] among the first skyscrapers to be constructed in India.. (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1060519/ asp/ propertt/ story_6242627. asp) The
Telegraph, May 19, 2006.
[8] Eicher: City Guide - Delhi, Eicher Goodearth Publication. 1998. ISBN 8190060120. Page 117.

Other sources
• White, Stephen (1993), Building in the Garden: The Architecture of Joseph Allen Stein in India and California,
Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195629248
• The architecture of Joseph Allen Stein in India and California, by Stephen White, Oxford University Press, 1993.
• The responsibility for environment: First address, 9 October 1962, by Joseph Allen Stein. University of
California, College of Environmental Design, 1962.

External links
• Stein’s gone but his works live on (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/185451132.cms) at Times
of India.
Raj Rewal 90

Raj Rewal
Raj Rewal
Personal information

Nationality Indian

Work

Buildings Asiad Village, Parliament Library, New Delhi

Raj Rewal is a leading Indian architect.[1]

Early life
Raj Rewal was born in 1934 in Hoshiarpur, Punjab, India. He created a revolution in geometric design systems.
Creation of geometric systems and responding visual imageries are apparent in Raj Rewal’s architectural works.
He even went to School of Art in Delhi for six months before joining the School of Architecture. He chiselled his art
in London's Architectural Association School[2]

Career
He lived in Delhi and Shimla for a couple of years in his childhood that is from 1939 – 1951. He attended Harcourt
Butler higher secondary school. In 1951-1954, he attended Delhi School of Architecture in New Delhi.
He was very imaginative and a creative person. His imaginative perception helped him go a long way. He believed in
gaining knowledge and then applied his knowledge mingled with creativity in his projects.
After completing the post graduation in Architecture; in 1955-1961, he moved to London and attended the
architectural association of architecture for one year. He completed his formal professional training at the Brixton
school of building, London.
Raj Rewal took up his first job as an assistant stage manager for several avante grade theatre production in London.
He became an associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects, London.
Raj Rewal worked with Michel Ecochards’s office in Paris before starting his practice in New Delhi. He designed
designed the Asiad Village and the Parliament Library in New Delhi. He got married to a Lady named Helene from
France in 1962.
He set up his own architectural practice in 1962 when he returned back to Delhi. In 1963-72, he taught at the Delhi
School of Architecture. He opened his second Architectural Office at Tehran, Iran in 1974. Ram Sharma was his
associate in the foundation of the Architectural Research Cell in 1985. In 1986, he became the curator of the
exhibition “Traditional Architecture in India” for the festival of India in Paris.
Raj Rewal worked with Michel Ecochards's office in Paris before starting his practice in New Delhi.
He designed designed the Asiad Village and the Parliament Library in New Delhi.He was assigned a Project of the
design of a Parliament Library which he designed beautifully with lot of grace and also adding majestic qualities to
the structure.
Raj Rewal 91

Awards
• Gold Medal from Indian Institute of Architects
• Robert Mathew Award from the Commonwealth Associations of Architects.

References
[1] http:/ / www. architectureweek. com/ 2003/ 1022/ design_1-1. html
[2] http:/ / beta. thehindu. com/ life-and-style/ metroplus/ article77671. ece

External links
• Official site (http://www.rajrewal.in/index_1024.htm)
• The Designer of Secular India (http://beta.thehindu.com/life-and-style/metroplus/article77671.ece)
Philip Johnson 92

Philip Johnson
Philip Johnson

Philip Johnson at age 95 with his model of a 30' by 60' sculpture created for a Qatari collector.

Personal information

Nationality American

Born July 8, 1906Cleveland, Ohio, United States

Died January 25, 2005 (aged 98)New Canaan, Connecticut, United States

Alma mater Harvard Graduate School of Design

Work

Buildings IDS Tower, PPG Place, Crystal Cathedral

Design Buildings clad entirely in glass

Awards Pritzker Prize (1979)

Philip Cortelyou Johnson (July 8, 1906 – January 25, 2005) was an influential American architect. With his thick,
round-framed glasses, Johnson was the most recognizable figure in American architecture for decades.
In 1930, he founded the Department of Architecture and Design at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City
and later (1978), as a trustee, he was awarded an American Institute of Architects Gold Medal and the first Pritzker
Architecture Prize, in 1979. He was a student at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. When Johnson died in
January 2005, he was survived by his long-time life partner, David Whitney, [1] [2] who died only a few months later,
on June 12, 2005.
Philip Johnson 93

Early life
Johnson was born in Cleveland, Ohio. He was descended from the
Jansen (a.k.a. Johnson) family of New Amsterdam, and included
among his ancestors the Huguenot Jacques Cortelyou, who laid out the
first town plan of New Amsterdam for Peter Stuyvesant. He attended
the Hackley School, in Tarrytown, New York, and then studied at
Harvard University as an undergraduate, where he focused on history
and philosophy, particularly the work of the Pre-Socratic philosophers.
Johnson interrupted his education with several extended trips to
Europe.[3] These trips became the pivotal moment of his education; he Chapel of St. Basil on the Academic Mall at the
University of St. Thomas in Houston, Texas.
visited Chartres, the Parthenon, and many other ancient monuments,
becoming increasingly fascinated with architecture.

In 1928 Johnson met with architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was at the time designing the German Pavilion
for the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. The meeting was a revelation for Johnson and formed the basis for
a lifelong relationship of both collaboration and competition.
Johnson returned from Germany as a proselytizer for the new architecture. Touring Europe more comprehensively
with his friends Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and Henry-Russell Hitchcock to examine firsthand recent trends in architecture,
the three assembled their discoveries as the landmark show "The International Style: Architecture Since 1922" at the
Museum of Modern Art, in 1932. The show was profoundly influential and is seen as the introduction of modern
architecture to the American public. It introduced such pivotal architects as Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, and Mies
van der Rohe. The exhibition was also notable for a controversy: architect Frank Lloyd Wright withdrew his entries
in pique that he was not more prominently featured.
As critic Peter Blake has stated, the importance of this show in shaping American architecture in the century "cannot
be overstated." In the book accompanying the show, coauthored with Hitchcock, Johnson argued that the new
modern style maintained three formal principles: 1. an emphasis on architectural volume over mass (planes rather
than solidity) 2. a rejection of symmetry and 3. rejection of applied decoration. The definition of the movement as a
"style" with distinct formal characteristics has been seen by some critics as downplaying the social and political bent
that many of the European practitioners shared.
Johnson continued to work as a proponent of modern architecture,
using the Museum of Modern Art as a bully pulpit. He arranged for Le
Corbusier's first visit to the United States in 1935, then worked to bring
Mies and Marcel Breuer to the US as emigres.
In the 1930s Johnson sympathized with Nazism, and expressed
antisemitic ideas.[4] Regarding this period in his life, he later said, "I
have no excuse (for) such unbelievable stupidity... I don't know how
you expiate guilt."[5]
During the Great Depression, Johnson resigned his post at MoMA to Puerta de Europa in Madrid
try his hand at journalism and agrarian populist politics. His
enthusiasm centered on the critique of the liberal welfare state, whose "failure" seemed to be much in evidence
during the 1930s. As a correspondent, Johnson observed the Nuremberg Rallies in Germany and covered the
invasion of Poland in 1939. The invasion proved the breaking point in Johnson's interest in journalism or politics –
he returned to enlist in the US Army. After a couple of self-admittedly undistinguished years in uniform, Johnson
returned to the Harvard Graduate School of Design to finally pursue his ultimate career of architect.
Philip Johnson 94

The Glass House

Johnson's early influence as a practicing architect was his use of glass;
his masterpiece was the Glass House (1949) he designed as his own
residence in New Canaan, Connecticut, a profoundly influential work.
The concept of a Glass House set in a landscape with views as its real
“walls” had been developed by many authors in the German
Glasarchitektur drawings of the 1920s, and already sketched in initial
form by Johnson's mentor Mies. The building is an essay in minimal
structure, geometry, proportion, and the effects of transparency and
reflection.
A model of the Glass House on display at the
The house sits at the edge of a crest on Johnson’s estate overlooking a Museum of Modern Art in New York City
pond. The building's sides are glass and charcoal-painted steel; the
floor, of brick, is not flush with the ground but sits 10 inches above. The interior is an open space divided by low
walnut cabinets; a brick cylinder contains the bathroom and is the only object to reach floor to ceiling.
Johnson continued to build structures on his estate as architectural essays. Offset obliquely fifty feet from the Glass
House is a guest house, echoing the proportions of the Glass House and completely enclosed in brick (except for
small round windows at the rear). It contains a bathroom, library, and single bedroom with a gilt vaulted ceiling and
shag carpet. It was built at the same time as the Glass House and can be seen as its formal counterpart. Johnson
stated that he deliberately designed it to be less than perfectly comfortable, as "guests are like fish, they should only
last three days at most".
Later, Johnson added a painting gallery with an innovative viewing mechanism of rotating walls to hold paintings
(influenced by the Hogarth displays at Sir John Soane's house), followed by a sky-lit sculpture gallery. The last
structures Johnson built on the estate were a library and a reception building, the latter, red and black in color and of
curving walls. Johnson viewed the ensemble of one-room buildings as a total work of art, claiming that it was his
best and only "landscape project."
The Philip Johnson Glass House is a site of the National Trust for Historic Preservation and now open to the public
for tours.

The Seagram Building

After completing several houses in the idiom of Mies and Breuer, Johnson joined Mies van der Rohe as the New
York associate architect for the 39-story Seagram Building (1956). Johnson was pivotal in steering the commission
towards Mies, working with Phyllis Lambert, the daughter of the CEO of Seagram. This collaboration of architects
and client resulted in the bronze-and-glass tower on Park Avenue.
Completing the Seagram Building with Mies also decisively marked a shift in Johnson's career. After this
accomplishment, Johnson's practice grew as projects came in from the public realm, including coordinating the
master plan of Lincoln Center and designing that complex's New York State Theater. Meanwhile, Johnson began to
grow bored with the orthodoxies of the International Style he had championed.
Philip Johnson 95

Later buildings
Although startling when constructed, the glass and steel tower (indeed many
idioms of the modern movement) had by the 1960s become commonplace the
world over. He eventually rejected much of the metallic appearance of earlier
International Style buildings, and began designing spectacular, crystalline
structures uniformly sheathed in glass. Many of these became instant icons, such
as PPG Place in Pittsburgh and the Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove,
California.

The postmodern AT&T Building,

now the Sony Building

Johnson's architectural work is a balancing act between two dominant

trends in post-war American art: the more "serious" movement of
Minimalism, and the more populist movement of Pop Art. His best
work has aspects of both movements. Johnson's personal collections
reflected this dichotomy, as he introduced artists such as Mark Rothko
to the Museum of Modern Art as well as Andy Warhol. Straddling
between these two camps, his work was seen by purists of either side
as always too contaminated or influenced by the other.

From 1967 to 1991 Johnson collaborated with John Burgee. This was
The Crystal Cathedral, Garden Grove, California
in 2007. by far Johnson's most productive period — certainly by the measure of
scale — he became known at this time as builder of iconic office
towers, including Minneapolis's IDS Tower. That building's distinctive stepbacks (called "zogs" by the architect)
created an appearance that has since become one of Minneapolis's trademarks and the crown jewel of its skyline. In
1980, the Crystal Cathedral was completed for Rev. Robert H. Schuller's famed megachurch, which became a
Southern California landmark.

The AT&T Building in Manhattan, now the Sony Building, was

completed in 1984 and was immediately controversial for its
neo-Georgian pediment (Chippendale top). At the time, it was seen as
provocation on a grand scale: crowning a Manhattan skyscraper with a
shape echoing a historical wardrobe top defied every precept of the
modernist aesthetic: historical pattern had been effectively outlawed
among architects for years. In retrospect other critics have seen the
AT&T Building as the first Postmodernist statement, necessary in the
context of modernism's aesthetic cul-de-sac. In 1987, Johnson was
Atrium of the New York State Theater at Lincoln
awarded an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Houston.
Center.
The institution's Hines College of Architecture is also housed in one of
Johnson's buildings.

Johnson's publicly held archive, including architectural drawings, project records, and other papers up until 1964 are
held by the Drawings and Archives Department of Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library at Columbia
University, the Getty, and the Museum of Modern Art.
Philip Johnson 96

Notable works

1943–1980
• Johnson House at Cambridge, "The Arch Street House", Cambridge,
Massachusetts (1942–1943)
• Booth (Damora) House, Bedford Village, New York (1946)
• Johnson House, "The Glass House", New Canaan, Connecticut
(1949)
• John de Menil House, Houston, Texas (1950)
• Rockefeller Guest House for Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, New York
City, New York (1950)
• Seagram Building, New York City, New York (in collaboration
with Mies van der Rohe; 1956)
PPG Place in Pittsburgh,
• The Four Seasons Restaurant, New York City, New York (1959) Pennsylvania, in 2007.
• Expansion of St. Anselm's Abbey, Washington, D.C. (1960)
• Museum of Art at Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute, Utica,
New York (1960)
• Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Sculpture Garden at The Museum of
Modern Art, New York City, New York
• Sheldon Museum of Art, Lincoln, Nebraska (1963)
• New York State Theater (renamed David H. Koch Theater) at
Lincoln Center, New York City, New York (with Richard Foster;
1964)
• Amon Carter Museum, Fort Worth, Texas (1961; also expansion in
2001)
Hines College of Architecture at the University of
• New York State Pavilion for the 1964 New York World's Fair, New
Houston, Houston, Texas, in 2007.
York City, New York (1964)
• Kreeger Museum, Washington, D.C. (with Richard Foster; 1967)
• Main campus mall at the University of Saint Thomas, Houston,
Texas
• Elmer Holmes Bobst Library at New York University, New York
City, New York (1967–1973)
• John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial, Dallas, Texas (1970)[6]
• IDS Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota (1972)
• Art Museum of South Texas, Corpus Christi, Texas (1972)
• Johnson Building at the Boston Public Library, Boston,
Massachusetts (1973) The Johnson Building at Boston Public Library,
• Fort Worth Water Gardens, Fort Worth, Texas (1974) Boston, Massachusetts, in 2008.
• Pennzoil Place, Houston, Texas (1975)
• Dorothy and Dexter Baker Center for the Arts at Muhlenberg College, Allentown, Pennsylvania (1976)
• Thanks-Giving Square, Dallas, Texas (1976)
• 101 California Street, San Francisco, California (Johnson/Burgee Architects; 1979–1982)
• Neuberger Museum of Art at the State University of New York at Purchase, Purchase, New York
• Crystal Cathedral, Garden Grove, California (1980)
• Tata Theatre, National Centre for the Performing Arts, Mumbai, India (1980)
Philip Johnson 97

1981–2010
• Metro-Dade Cultural Center, Miami, Florida (1982)
• Chapel of St. Basil and the Academic Mall at the University of St. Thomas, Houston, Texas
• Republic Bank Center (renamed Bank of America Center), Houston, Texas (1983)
• Transco Tower (renamed Williams Tower), Houston, Texas (1983)
• Cleveland Play House, Cleveland, Ohio (extension; 1983)
• Wells Fargo Center, Denver, Colorado (1983)
• PPG Place, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (1984)
• The Gerald D. Hines College of Architecture, University of Houston, Houston, Texas (1985)
• Lipstick Building, New York City, New York (1986)
• Comerica Bank Tower, Dallas, Texas (1987)
• 190 South LaSalle Street, Chicago, Illinois (John Burgee Architects, Philip Johnson Consultant; 1987)
• Gate of Europe, Madrid, Spain (John Burgee Architects, Philip Johnson Consultant; 1989–1996)
• 191 Peachtree Tower, Atlanta, Georgia (John Burgee Architects, Philip Johnson Consultant; 1990)
• The Museum of Television & Radio (renamed Paley Center for Media), New York City, New York (1991)
• Chapel of St. Basil at the University of St. Thomas, Houston, Texas (with John Manley, Architect; 1992)
• Science and Engineering Library at Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (1992)
• AEGON Center, Louisville, Kentucky (John Burgee Architects, Philip Johnson Consultant; 1993)
• One Detroit Center, Detroit, Michigan (John Burgee Architects, Philip Johnson Consultant; 1993)
• Visitor's Pavilion, New Canaan, Connecticut (1994)
• Turning Point at Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio (1996)
• Philip-Johnson-Haus, Berlin, Germany (1997)
• First Union Plaza, Boca Raton, Florida (2000)
• Interfaith Peace Chapel on the Cathedral of Hope campus, Dallas, Texas (2010)

Johnson in popular culture

He is mentioned in the song "Thru These Architect's Eyes" on the album Outside (1995) by David Bowie.

References
[1] (subscription required) Kennedy, Randy (June 14, 2005). "David Whitney, 66, Renowned Art Collector, Dies" (http:/ / www. nytimes.
com/ 2005/ 06/ 14/ arts/ design/ 14whitney. html). The New York Times. . Retrieved May 11, 2009.
[2] (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=m1UEAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA70& lpg=PA70& dq=Lyrical+ Abstraction+ Whitney+ catalog&
source=bl& ots=WBmFZkTZT3& sig=5Wgy2zOaoyJ39hI7sTAYccmJjCI& hl=en& ei=BZwNTKORF8SBlAf3rs2XDg& sa=X&
oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CBQQ6AEwATgy#v=onepage& q& f=false) Bourdon, David (May 1970). "What's Up in Art,
The Castelli Clan". Life. Accessed June 9, 2010.
[3] Saint, Andrew (January 29, 2005). "Philip Johnson — Flamboyant Postmodern Architect Whose Career Was Marred by a Flirtation with
Nazism" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ obituaries/ story/ 0,3604,1401260,00. html). The Guardian. . Retrieved August 12, 2010.
[4] Stern, Robert A. M. (May 2005). "Philip Johnson: An Essay by Robert A.M. Stern" (http:/ / archrecord. construction. com/ people/ profiles/
archives/ 0505johnsonProfile_stern. asp). Architectural Record. . Retrieved August 12, 2010.
[5] Varnelis, Kazys (November 1994). "We Cannot Know History — Philip Johnson's Politics and Cynical Survival" (http:/ / varnelis. net/
research/ johnson. html). Journal of Architectural Education. . Retrieved August 12, 2010.
[6] John F. Kennedy Memorial. Philip Johnson, Memorial Architect (http:/ / www. jfk. org/ Research/ Kennedy_Memorial/ Architect. htm)
Philip Johnson 98

Further reading
• Schulze, Franz. Philip Johnson: Life and Work, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
• Lacayo, Richard (June 28, 2007). "Splendor in the Glass" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/
0,9171,1638456,00.html). Time. Accessed August 12, 2010.
• Philip Johnson: Diary of an Eccentric Architect, 1997 documentary.
• "Extending the Legacy" (http://www.metropolismag.com/cda/story.php?artid=2377) Alexandra Lange article
on the preservation of the Glass House, from the November 2006 issue of Metropolis magazine.
• Philip Johnson article at Great Buildings Online (http://www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Philip_Johnson.
html). Retrieved Sep. 27, 2003.
• Philip Johnson bio on the Pritzker Architecture Prize website (http://www.pritzkerprize.com/pjohn.htm).
Retrieved Sep. 27, 2003.
• Philip Johnson on NewsHour (1996) (http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/environment/johnson_7-9a.html).
Retrieved Sep. 27, 2003.
• Heyer, Paul, ed. (1966). Architects on Architecture: New Directions in America, p. 279. New York: Walker and
Company.
• One hour interview with [[Charlie Rose (http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1521371649740956773&
q=philip+johnson+architecture)] at Google Video (July 8, 1996)]
• Other interviews with or about Phillip Johnson on Charlie Rose at Google Video (http://video.google.com/
videosearch?q=philip+johnson+architecture&so=0)
• Tompkins, Calvin (May 23, 1977). "Profile of Philip Johnson". The New Yorker.
• Jenkins, Stover, et al. The Houses of Philip Johnson, New York: Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press,
Inc.), 2001.

External links
• Obituary (http://www.legacy.com/Obituaries.asp?Page=LifeStory&PersonID=3087991)
• Philip Johnson (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=10379550) at Find a Grave
• Philip Johnson speaks at the University of Houston (http://www.researchchannel.org/prog/displayevent.
aspx?rID=3092&fID=345)
• The Architecture of Philip Johnson (http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/index/johnson/johnsonindex.html)
• (subscription required) Pogrebin, Robin (August 8, 2010). "The Hand of a Master Architect" (http://www.
nytimes.com/2010/08/09/arts/design/09archive.html?ref=arts). The New York Times.
B. V. Doshi 99

B. V. Doshi
B. V. Doshi
Personal information

Nationality Indian

Born August 26, 1927

Work

Balkrishna Vithaldas Doshi (born 26 August 1927) is an Indian architect.

Early life
B. V. Doshi was born in Pune, India. He studied at the J. J. School of Architecture, Mumbai.

Career
B. V. Doshi worked in London then for four years with Le Corbusier. He returned to Ahmedabad to supervise Le
Corbusier's work. His studio, Vastu-Shilpa (environmental design), was established in 1955. Doshi worked closely
with Louis Kahn and Anant Raje, when Kahn designed the campus of the Indian Institute of Management,
Ahmedabad. In 1958 he was a fellow at the Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts. He then
started the School of Architecture (S.A) in 1962.
Doshi is a Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and has been on the selection committee for the
Pritzker Prize, the Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts, and the Aga Khan Award. He is also a Fellow of the
Indian Institute of Architects
After initial study at the J J School of Architecture, Bombay, he worked for four years with Le Corbusier as Senior
Designer (1951–54) in Paris and four more years in India to supervise his projects in Ahmedabad. His office
Vastu-Shilpa (environmental design) was established in 1955.
Dr Doshi has been a member of the Jury for several international and national competitions including the Indira
Gandhi National Centre for Arts and Aga Khan Award for Architecture.
Apart from his international fame as an architect, Dr. Doshi is equally known as educator and institution builder. He
has been the first founder Director of School of Architecture, Ahmedabad (1962–72), first founder Director of
School of Planning (1972–79), first founder Dean of Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology (1972–81),
founder member of Visual Arts Centre, Ahmedabad and first founder Director of Kanoria Centre for Arts,
Ahmedabad. Dr. Doshi has been instrumental in establishing the nationally and internationally known research
institute Vastu-Shilpa Foundation for Studies and Research in Environmental Design. The institute has done
pioneering work in low cost housing and city planning.
As an academician, Dr. Doshi has been visiting the U.S.A. and Europe since 1958 and has held important chairs in
American Universities.
In recognition of his distinguished contribution as a professional and as an academician, Dr. Doshi has received
several international and national awards and honours.
In 2008, 100hands director Prjmit Ramachandran released a documentary interviewing Doshi.
Doshi was the teacher for contemporary designer and University of Pennsylvania professor Anuradha Mathur.
B. V. Doshi 100

Related links
• Vastu Shilpa Consultants and Vastu Shilpa Foundation [1]
• Video: Interview of BV Doshi by Christopher Benninger [2]

Further reading
• Curtis, William J. R., Balikrishna Doshi: An Architecture for India, Rizzoli, New York 1988, ISBN 0847809374
• James Steel, The Complete Architecture of Balikrishna Doshi, Rethinking Modernism for the Developing World,
Thames and Hudson, London 1998, ISBN 0-500-28082-7

References
[1] http:/ / www. sangath. org/
[2] http:/ / aecworldxp. com/ edesign/ 361/ interviews/ conversation
Anant Raje 101

Anant Raje
Anant
Damodar Raje
Personal information

Nationality Indian

Work

Anant Damodar Raje (September 26 1929 - June 27, 2009) was an Indian architect and intellectual

Early life
Ananth Raje was born in Mumbai, India. He studied at the Sir J. J. College of Architecture.

Career
He worked with Louis Kahn in Philadelphia, where he also taught at the University of Pennsylvania. As Kahn's
student, he devoted his life to see the completion of the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, which Kahn
did not live to see completed.
For over thirty years he has taught at the School of Architecture Ahmedabad. He also taught at the University of
New Mexico, in The United States of America, and was a visiting professor at many universities in America and
Europe.
His well known works include the Executive Management Centre at the Indian Institute of Management in
Ahmedabad, India, the Forest Management Institute in Bhopal, India and the Institute of Statistics in New Delhi.

Death
Raje died on 27 June 2009.

References
• "He was a teacher and an institution" [1]. The Times of India. 1 July 2009.

References
[1] http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ city/ surat/ He-was-a-teacher-and-an-institution/ articleshow/ 4721898. cms
Walter Gropius 102

Walter Gropius
Walter Adolph Gropius

Walter Gropius (circa 1920). Photo by Louis Held.

Personal information

Nationality German / American

Born May 18, 1883Berlin, Germany

Died July 5, 1969 (aged 86)Cambridge, Massachusetts

Work

Practice Peter Behrens (1908–1910)

The Architects' Collaborative (1945–1969)

Buildings Fagus Factory

Factory Buildings at the Werkbund Exhibition
(1914)
Bauhaus
Village College
Gropius House
Harvard Graduate Center
University of Baghdad
John F. Kennedy Federal Office Building
Pan Am Building
Interbau
Wayland High School
Embassy of the United States in Athens

Walter Adolph Georg Gropius (May 18, 1883 – July 5, 1969) was a German architect and founder of the Bauhaus
School[1] who, along with Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier, is widely regarded as one of the pioneering
masters of modern architecture.
Walter Gropius 103

Early life
Born in Berlin, Walter Gropius was the third child of Walter Adolph Gropius and Manon Auguste Pauline
Scharnweber. Gropius married Alma Mahler (1879–1964), widow of Gustav Mahler. Walter and Alma's daughter,
named Manon after Walter's mother, was born in 1916. When Manon died of polio at age eighteen, composer Alban
Berg wrote his Violin Concerto in memory of her (it is inscribed "to the memory of an angel"). Gropius and Alma
divorced in 1920. (Alma had by that time established a relationship with Franz Werfel, whom she later married.) In
1923 Gropius married Ise (Ilse) Frank (d. 1983), and they remained together until his death. They adopted Beate
Gropius, also known as Ati.

Early career
Walter Gropius, like his father and his great-uncle Martin Gropius before him, became an architect. Gropius could
not draw, and was dependent on collaborators and partner-interpreters throughout his career. In school he hired an
assistant to complete his homework for him. In 1908 Gropius found employment with the firm of Peter Behrens, one
of the first members of the utilitarian school. His fellow employees at this time included Ludwig Mies van der Rohe,
Le Corbusier, and Dietrich Marcks.
In 1910 Gropius left the firm of Behrens and together with fellow employee Adolf Meyer established a practice in
Berlin. Together they share credit for one of the seminal modernist buildings created during this period: the
Faguswerk in Alfeld-an-der-Leine, Germany, a shoe last factory. Although Gropius and Meyer only designed the
facade, the glass curtain walls of this building demonstrated both the modernist principle that form reflects function
and Gropius's concern with providing healthful conditions for the working class. Other works of this early period
include the office and factory building for the Werkbund Exhibition (1914) in Cologne.
In 1913, Gropius published an article about "The Development of Industrial Buildings," which included about a
dozen photographs of factories and grain elevators in North America. A very influential text, this article had a strong
influence on other European modernists, including Le Corbusier and Erich Mendelsohn, both of whom reprinted
Gropius's grain elevator pictures between 1920 and 1930.[2]
Gropius's career was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Called up immediately as a reservist,
Gropius served as a sergeant major at the Western front during the war years, and was wounded and almost killed.[3]

Bauhaus period
Gropius's career advanced in the postwar period. Henry van de Velde,
the master of the Grand-Ducal Saxon School of Arts and Crafts in
Weimar was asked to step down in 1915 due to his Belgian nationality.
His recommendation for Gropius to succeed him led eventually to
Gropius's appointment as master of the school in 1919. It was this
academy which Gropius transformed into the world famous Bauhaus,
attracting a faculty that included Paul Klee, Johannes Itten, Josef
Albers, Herbert Bayer, László Moholy-Nagy, Otto Bartning and
Wassily Kandinsky. One example was the armchair F 51, designed for
Bauhaus (built 1925–1926) in Dessau, Germany.
the Bauhaus's directors room in 1920 - nowadays a re-edition in the
market, manufactured by the German company TECTA/Lauenfoerde.

In 1919, Gropius was involved in the Glass Chain utopian expressionist correspondence under the pseudonym
"Mass." Usually
Walter Gropius 104

more notable for his functionalist approach, the "Monument to the

March Dead," designed in 1919 and executed in 1920, indicates that
expressionism was an influence on him at that time.
In 1923, Gropius designed his famous door handles, now considered an
icon of 20th-century design and often listed as one of the most
influential designs to emerge from Bauhaus. He also designed
large-scale housing projects in Berlin, Karlsruhe and Dessau in
1926-32 that were major contributions to the New Objectivity Walter Gropius's Monument to the March Dead
movement, including a contribution to the Siemensstadt project in (1921)

Berlin.

After Bauhaus
With the help of the English architect Maxwell Fry, Gropius was able
to leave Nazi Germany in 1934, on the pretext of making a temporary
visit to Britain. He lived and worked in Britain, as part of the Isokon
group with Fry and others and then, in 1937, moved on to the United
States. The house he built for himself in Lincoln, Massachusetts, (now
known as Gropius House) was influential in bringing International
Gropius House (1938) in Lincoln, Massachusetts
Modernism to the U.S. but Gropius disliked the term: "I made it a point
to absorb into my own conception those features of the New England
architectural tradition that I found still alive and adequate."[4]

Gropius and his Bauhaus protégé Marcel Breuer both moved to

Cambridge, Massachusetts to teach at the Harvard Graduate School of
Design and collaborate on the company-town Aluminum City Terrace
project in New Kensington, Pennsylvania, before their professional
split. In 1944, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States.
In 1945, Gropius founded The Architects' Collaborative (TAC) based
in Cambridge with a group of younger architects. The original partners
Aluminum City Terrace (1944)
included Norman C. Fletcher, Jean B. Fletcher, John C. Harkness,
Sarah P. Harkness, Robert S. MacMillan, Louis A. MacMillen, and
Benjamin C. Thompson. TAC would become one of the most well-known and respected architectural firms in the
world. TAC went bankrupt in 1995.

Gropius died in 1969 in Boston, Massachusetts, aged 86. Today, he is remembered not only by his various buildings
but also by the district of Gropiusstadt in Berlin.
In the early 1990s, a series of books entitled The Walter Gropius Archive was published covering his entire
architectural career.
Walter Gropius 105

Selected buildings
• 1910–1911 the Fagus Factory, Alfeld an der Leine, Germany
• 1914 Office and Factory Buildings at the Werkbund Exhibition, 1914, Cologne, Germany
• 1921 Sommerfeld House, Berlin, Germany designed for Adolf Sommerfeld
• 1922 competition entry for the Chicago Tribune Tower competition
• 1925–1932 Bauhaus School and Faculty, Housin, Dessau, Germany
• 1936 Village College, Impington, Cambridge, England
• 1937 The Gropius House, Lincoln, Massachusetts, USA
• 1942–1944 Aluminum City Terrace housing project, New Kensington, Pennsylvania, USA
• 1949–1950 Harvard Graduate Center, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA (The Architects' Collaborative)[5]
• 1945–1959 Michael Reese Hospital, Chicago, Illinois, USA - Master planned 37-acre (150000 m2) site and led
the design for at least 8 of the approx. 28 buildings.
• 1957–1960 University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq
• 1963–1966 John F. Kennedy Federal Office Building, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
• 1948 Peter Thacher Junior High School,
• 1958–1963 Pan Am Building (now the Metlife Building), New York, with Pietro Belluschi and project architects
Emery Roth & Sons
• 1957 Interbau Apartment blocks, Hansaviertel, Berlin, Germany, with The Architects' Collaborative and Wils
Ebert
• 1960 Temple Oheb Shalom (Baltimore, Maryland)
• 1960 the Gropiusstadt building complex, Berlin, Germany
• 1961 The award-winning Wayland High School, Wayland, Massachusetts, USA
• 1959–1961 Embassy of the United States, Athens, Greece (The Architects' Collaborative and consulting architect
Pericles A. Sakellarios)
• 1968 Glass Cathedral, Thomas Glassworks, Amberg
• 1967– 69 Tower East Shaker Heights, Ohio, this was Gropius' last major project.
The building in Niederkirchnerstraße, Berlin, known as the Gropius-Haus is named for Gropius' great-uncle, Martin
Gropius, and is not associated with Bauhaus.

See also
• Walter Gropius buildings
• Bauhaus

References
[1] Bauhaus (http:/ / www. tate. org. uk/ collections/ glossary/ definition. jsp?entryId=40), The Tate Collection, retrieved 2008-05-18
[2] American Colossus: the Grain Elevator 1843-1943 (http:/ / www. american-colossus. com/ ), Colossus Books, 2009. american-colossus.com
[3] "Walter Adolph Gropius 1883 - 1969" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ bbcfour/ audiointerviews/ profilepages/ gropiusw1. shtml). British
Broadcasting Corporation. . Retrieved 2006-08-02.
[4] Gropius House by Walter Gropius (http:/ / www. galinsky. com/ buildings/ gropiushouse/ )
[5] Harvard Graduate Center - Walter Gropius - Great Buildings Online (http:/ / www. greatbuildings. com/ buildings/
Harvard_Graduate_Center. html)
Walter Gropius 106

Further reading
• The New Architecture and the Bauhaus, Walter Gropius, 1955.
• The Scope of Total Architecture, Walter Gropius, 1956.
• From Bauhaus to Our House, Tom Wolfe, 1981.

External links
• Walter Gropius' house, Lincoln, Massachusetts (http://www.historicnewengland.org/visit/homes/gropius.
htm)
• Packaged House by Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius (http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/
history-prefabricated-home/packaged-house-konrad-wachsmann-and-walter-gropius.html) - an overview with
slideshow.
• On the Interbau apartments (http://www.galinsky.com/buildings/gropiusinterbau/)
• Impington Village College (http://www.infed.org/schooling/b-vilcol.htm) — only example of Gropius's work
in the UK
• Fagus works (http://www.fagus-gropius.com/content/home/) (German)
• Copper Houses by Walter Gropius (http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/history-prefabricated-home/
copper-houses-walter-gropius.html) - an overview with slideshow
• Bauhaus in America (http://www.mindspring.com/~cliofilm) is a documentary film made in 1995 that reveals
the influence of Gropius and others on American design and architecture.
• Designer portrait on rosenthalusa.com (http://www.rosenthalusa.com/1288d872/GROPIUS_Walter.htm)
• More information on Gropius's early years at the Bauhaus (http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5779n7f0&
chunk.id=bioghist-1.7.3&brand=oac) can be found in his correspondence with Lily Hildebrandt, with whom he
had an affair between 1919-22: Getty Research Institute, California.
• Baukasten by Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer (http://www.housing.com/categories/homes/
history-prefabricated-home/baukasten-walter-gropius-and-adolf-meyer.html) - an overview with slideshow.
Modern architecture 107

Modern architecture
Modern architecture is characterized by simplification
of form and creation of ornament from the structure and
theme of the building. The first variants were conceived
early in the 20th century. Modern architecture was
adopted by many influential architects and architectural
educators, gained popularity after the Second World
War, and continues as a dominant architectural style for
institutional and corporate buildings in the 21st century.

History

Origins
Some historians see the evolution of Modern
architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project
of Modernity and thus the Enlightenment. The Modern
style developed, in their opinion, as a result of social and
political revolutions.[1]

The Seagram Building, New York City, 1958. Regarded as one of

the finest examples of the functionalist aesthetic and a masterpiece
of corporate modernism.

Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and

Melnikov House near Arbat Street in
Moscow by Konstantin Melnikov.
engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building
materials such as iron, steel, and glass drove the invention of new building
techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill owner
Charles Bage first used his 'fireproof' design, which relied on cast iron and brick
with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of
mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor
knowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early mills
collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the
section beam, leading to widespread use of iron in construction, this kind of
austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern
Britain, leading to the description of places like Manchester and parts of West
Yorkshire as "Dark satanic mills".

The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an
early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel
skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ
concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank
Modern architecture 108

Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from
1926 near Basel, Switzerland.
Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses
of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau. Note that the Russian word for Art Nouveau, "Модерн", and the
Spanish word for Art Nouveau, "Modernismo" are cognates of the English word "Modern" though they carry
different meanings.
Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural
solutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of
Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto
Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common
struggle between old and new. An early use of the term in print around this time, approaching its later meaning, was
in the title of a book by Otto Wagner.[2] [3]
A key organization that spans the ideals of the Arts and Crafts and Modernism as it developed in the 1920s was the
Deutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation) a German association of architects, designers and industrialists. It
was founded in 1907 in Munich at the instigation of Hermann Muthesius. Muthesius was the author of a
three-volume "The English House" of 1905, a survey of the practical lessons of the English Arts and Crafts
movement and a leading political and cultural commentator.[4] The purpose of the Werkbund was to sponsor the
attempt to integrate traditional crafts with the techniques of industrial mass production. The organization originally
included twelve architects and twelve business firms, but quickly expanded. The architects include Peter Behrens,
Theodor Fischer (who served as its first president), Josef Hoffmann and Richard Riemerschmid. Joseph August Lux,
an Austrian-born critic, helped formulate its agenda.[5]

Modernism as dominant style

By the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are
commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany.
Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and
associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.
Frank Lloyd Wright's career, in which he built more than Mies, Le Corbusier and Gropius combined, parallels and
influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be
categorized with them claiming that "they" copied his ideas. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius (founder
of the Bauhaus) and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture. Gropius claimed that his
"bible" for forming the Bauhaus was 100 Frank Lloyd Wright drawings that the architect shared with Germany over
a decade prior to this point. Many architects in Germany believed that Wright's life would be wasted in the United
States, since the US wasn't ready for his architecture. Just as many European architects saw Wright's Larkin Building
(1904) in Buffalo, Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park, and the Robie House (1910) in Chicago as some of the first
examples of modern architecture in the 20th century. It would be two to three decades later before the European
architects would bring their version back to the United States.
Modern architecture 109

In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of

Modern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaborator
Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends,
identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and
consolidated them into the International style.
This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures of
the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate
School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural
design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in
institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent,
and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design
solution from about 1932 to about 1984.

Architects who worked in the International style wanted to break with

architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most
commonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and
Marina City (left) and IBM Plaza
concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and
(right) in Chicago.
logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its
most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le
Corbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building and the Toronto-Dominion Centre
(Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill). A prominent residential example is
the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.

Le Corbusier once described buildings as

Oscar Niemeyer's Casino da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal.
prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.
"machines for living", but people are not
machines and it was suggested that they do
not want to live in machines. Even Philip
Johnson admitted he was "bored with the
box". Since the early 1980s many architects
have deliberately sought to move away from
rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic
styles. During the middle of the century,
some architects began experimenting in
organic forms that they felt were more
human and accessible. Mid-century
modernism, or organic modernism, was very
popular, due to its democratic and playful
nature. Oscar Niemeyer, Alvar Aalto and
Eero Saarinen were three of the most

Modern architecture met with some criticism which began in the 1960s on the grounds that it seemed universal,
elitist, and lacked meaning. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and
Architecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary
architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961
symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état
appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking
advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[6] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglass
Modern architecture 110

Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium of
architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons.
Architects explored Postmodern architecture which offered a blend of some pre-modern elements. By the 1980s,
postmodern architecture appeared to trend over modernism; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by
the mid-1990s, a new surge of modern architecture once again established international pre-eminence. As part of this
revival, much of the criticism of the modernists was re-evaluated; and a modernistic style once again dominates in
institutional and commercial contemporary practice. Although modern and postmodern design compete with a
revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues to
be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.
That is not to say that the residential sector in the United
States is devoid of examples from the Modernist
movement. The Case Study Houses are prime examples
of this. Commissioned around the mid-twentieth century,
the six homes that were built have had more than 350,000
visitors since their completion, and have influenced many
architects over the years. These and other Modern
residences tend to focus on humanizing the otherwise
harsh ideal, making them more livable and ultimately
more appealing to real people. Many of these designs use
a similar tactic: blurring the line between indoor and
outdoor spaces. This is achieved by embracing "the box" The Bailey House, Case Study House #21.

while at the same time dissolving it into the background

with minimal structure and large glass walls.[7] Some critics claim that these spaces remain too cold and static for the
average person to function, however. The materials utilized in a large number of Modern homes are not hidden
behind a softening facade. While this may make them somewhat less desirable for the general public, most modernist
architects see this as a necessary and pivotal tenet of Modernism: uncluttered and purely Minimal design.

Characteristics
Modern architecture is usually characterized by:
• an adoption of the principle that the materials and functional requirements determine the result
• an adoption of the machine aesthetic
• an emphasis of horizontal and vertical lines
• a creation of ornament using the structure and theme of the building, or a rejection of ornamentation.
• a simplification of form and elimination of "unnecessary detail"
• an adoption of expressed structure
• Form follows function
Modern architecture 111

Preservation
Private organizations such as Docomomo International, the World Monuments Fund, and the Recent Past
Preservation Network [8] are working to safeguard and document imperiled Modern architecture. In 2006, the World
Monuments Fund launched Modernism at Risk, an advocacy and conservation program.
Following the destruction caused by Hurricane Katrina, Modern structures in New Orleans have been increasingly
slated for demolition. Currently plans are underway to demolish many of the city's Modern public schools, as well as
large portions of the city's Civic Plaza. FEMA funds will contribute to razing the State Office Building and State
Supreme Court Building, both designed by the collaborating architectural firms of August Perez and Associates;
Goldstein, Parham and Labouisse; and Favrot, Reed, Mathes and Bergman. The New Orleans Recovery School
District has proposed demolitions of schools designed by Charles R. Colbert, Curtis and Davis, and Ricciuti
Associates. The 1959 Lawrence and Saunders building for the New Orleans International Longshoremen's
Association Local 1419 is currently threatened with demolition although the union supports its conservation.

See also
• Brutalist architecture
• Functionalism
• International style (architecture)
• Modern furniture
• Bauhaus
• Postmodern architecture
• Mid-century modern

References
[1] Crouch, Christopher. 2000. "Modernism in Art Design and Architecture", New York: St. Martins Press. ISBN 0-312-21830-3 (cloth) ISBN
0-312-21832-X (pbk)
[2] Otto Wagner. Moderne Architektur: Seinen Schülern ein Führer auf diesem Kunstgebiete. (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=AvgjAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA2& dq) Anton Schroll. 1902.
[3] Otto Wagner. Translated by Harry Francis Mallgrave. Modern Architecture: A Guidebook for His Students to This Field of Art. Getty Center
for the History of Art and the Humanities. 1988. ISBN 0-226-86938-5
[4] Lucius Burckhardt (1987) . The Werkbund. ? : Hyperion Press. ISBN. Frederic J. Schwartz (1996). The Werkbund: Design Theory and Mass
Culture Before the First World War. New Haven, Conn. : Yale University Press. ISBN.
[5] Mark Jarzombek. "Joseph August Lux: Werkbund Promoter, Historian of a Lost Modernity," Journal of the Society of Architectural
Historians 63/1 (June 2004): 202–219.
[6] Meredith L. Clausen, 2005. The Pan Am building and the shattering of the Modernist Dream (Cambridge: MIT Press) ( On-line analytical
review (http:/ / www. h-net. org/ reviews/ showpdf. cgi?path=95871145369534))
[7] Paul Adamson, AIA. " California Modernism: Models for Contemporary Housing (http:/ / www. aiacc. org/ cgi-bin/ htmlos. cgi/ 00671. 3.
4558823583020346930)" arcCa Archive accessed September 3, 2009.
[8] http:/ / www. recentpast. org

External links
• Famous architects – Biographies of well-known architects, almost all of the Modern Movement. (http://architect.
architectures.sk)
• Architecture and Modernism (http://calitreview.com/2007/03/26/architecture-and-modernism/)
• "Preservation of Modern Buildings" edition of AIA Architect (http://www.aia.org/aiarchitect/thisweek08/
0307/0307t.cfm/)
• Brussels50s60s.be (http://www.brussels50s60s.be), Overview of the architecture of the 1950s and 1960s in
Brussels
Crystal Palace, London 112

Crystal Palace, London

Crystal Palace

View of Crystal Palace from the park. Four London Boroughs; Bromley, Croydon, Lambeth, and Lewisham meet at this
junction. A fifth, Southwark, is only 0.6 km away.

Crystal Palace
 Crystal Palace shown within Greater London

OS grid reference TQ341708

London borough Bromley

Croydon

Lambeth

Southwark

Lewisham

Ceremonial county Greater London

Region London

Country England

Sovereign state United Kingdom

Post town LONDON

Postcode district SE19, SE20,

SE26
Dialling code 020
Police Metropolitan

Fire London

Ambulance London

EU Parliament London
Crystal Palace, London 113

UK Parliament Beckenham

Croydon North

Dulwich and West

Norwood

Lewisham West

London Assembly Bexley and Bromley

Croydon and Sutton

Lambeth and
Southwark

List of places: UK • England • London

Crystal Palace is a residential area in south London, England named from the former local landmark, The Crystal
Palace,[1] which occupied the area from 1854 to 1936. The area is located approximately 8 miles south east of
Charing Cross, and offers impressive views over the capital. An electoral ward named Crystal Palace and Crystal
Palace Park are entirely contained within the London Borough of Bromley. However, the wider area has no defined
boundaries and straddles the convergence of five London boroughs and three postal districts. It is contiguous with
Anerley, Dulwich Wood, Gipsy Hill, Penge, South Norwood, Sydenham and Upper Norwood. It includes one of the
highest points in London, 367 feet (112 m) at OS map reference TQ337707.[2] Two television transmitter masts
make the district a landmark location, visible from many parts of the London area.

History
The ridge and the historic oak tree known as The Vicars Oak (located at the present-day crossroads of the A212
Church Road and A214 Westow Hill) were used to mark parish boundaries. This has led to the Crystal Palace area
straddling the boundaries of five London Boroughs; Bromley, Croydon, Lambeth, Southwark and Lewisham. The
area also straddles at least three postcode districts SE19, SE20 and SE26. The ancient boundary between Surrey and
Kent passes through the area and from 1889 to 1965 the area lay on the south eastern boundary of the County of
London. It included parts of Kent and Surrey until 1889 and then parts of Kent, London and Surrey between
1889-1965.
For centuries the area was occupied by the Great North Wood, an extensive area of natural oak forest that formed a
wilderness close to the southern edge of the ever-expanding city of London. Local legend has it that Sir Francis
Drake's ship, the Golden Hind, had its timbers cut from trees in this area. The forest was a popular area for
Londoners' recreation right up to the 19th century, when it began to be built over. It was also a haunt of Gypsies,
with many local street names and pubs recording the link. The area still retains vestiges of woodland. The third
quarter of the 19th Century brought the Crystal Palace and the railways.

The Crystal Palace

The Crystal Palace was a cast-iron and glass building originally erected in Hyde Park to house the Great Exhibition
of 1851. Following the success of the exhibition, the palace was moved and reconstructed in 1854 in a modified and
enlarged form in the grounds of the Penge Place estate at Sydenham Hill. It attracted visitors for over seven
decades.[3]
Sydenham Hill is one of the highest locations in London; 109 metres (357 ft) above sea level (spot height on
Ordnance Survey Map); and the size of the palace and prominence of the site made it easy to identify from much of
London. This led to the residential area around the building becoming known as Crystal Palace instead of Sydenham
Hill. The palace was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936 and the site of the building and its grounds is now
known as Crystal Palace Park.
Crystal Palace, London 114

Area today
Crystal Palace still retains much of its impressive Victorian architecture, although housing styles are mixed, with
Victorian terraces next to mid-war terraces side by side with blocks of modern flats. Crystal Palace Park is
surrounded by grand Victorian villas, many of which have been converted into flats and apartments.
The "Crystal Palace Triangle", formed by Westow Street, Westow Hill and Church Road, has a large number of
restaurants and several independent shops, as well as a sprawling indoor secondhand market on Haynes Lane.

Crystal Palace Park

Crystal Palace Park is a Victorian pleasure ground used for many
cultural, patriotic and sporting events. The sculptor Benjamin
Waterhouse Hawkins erected the first lifesized models of the (then)
newly-discovered dinosaurs and other extinct animals in the park,
following the gift of a megatherium skull by Charles Darwin. The
grounds once housed a football ground, which hosted the FA Cup final
from 1895 to 1914 as well as London County Cricket Club games from
1900 to 1908, when they folded. This site is now the National Sports
Centre, built 1964.
Crystal Palace Park
The extensive grounds were used in pre-war days for motorcycle and,
after the 1950s, for motorcar racing; this was known as the Crystal
Palace circuit. Parts of the track layout remain in 2005 as access roads.
The track itself fell into disuse after 1972, although it has been digitally
recreated in the Grand Prix Legends racing simulation and 2010 sees
the 10 years of campaigning work to reopen the track culminating in
The return of Motor racing to Crystal Palace [4]

The park also housed one of the pioneer speedway tracks, opening for
business in 1928. The Glaziers raced in the Southern and National
Leagues up to 1933 when the promotion moved on to a track in New Upper Lake at the Park
Cross.
The park remains a major London public park. The park was
maintained by the LCC and later the GLC, but with the abolition of the
GLC in 1986 control of the park was given to the London Borough of
Bromley. The park is entirely within the London Borough of Bromley,
but its proximity to other boroughs left many Crystal Palace residents
of surrounding boroughs feeling disenfranchised.

A long-fought-over local issue is whether to build on the open space

which was the location of the original Crystal Palace building or to
leave it as parkland as the GLC had done. Any development would be Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins's Iguanodon
within the London Borough of Bromley, but affect residents in statues.

neighbouring boroughs and the access to the sports centre. It would

also affect the skyline view across the whole of London.
In 2005 the Mayor of London and the London Development Agency (LDA) took control of the National Sports
Centre in the park as part of London's bid for the 2012 Olympics. The Centre is now managed by Greenwich Leisure
on their behalf. The LDA has the option to take on responsibility for the whole park by 2009.
Crystal Palace, London 115

The park is situated along the highest section of the London Clay ridge known at its ends as Sydenham Hill and
Beulah Hill or the Claygate Ridge. This ridge offers views northward to central London, east to the Queen Elizabeth
II Bridge and Greenwich, and southward to Croydon and the North Downs. The park has recently become home to
many ring-necked parakeets, especially in the trees around the café and play area. Sightings of the birds have become
increasingly common in South London but rarely in a location as busy as Crystal Palace Park. The park is one of the
starting points for the Green Chain Walk, linking to places such as Chislehurst, Erith, the Thames Barrier and
Thamesmead.

Media

Television
Two TV transmitter towers — Crystal Palace Transmitter
(640 ft) and Croydon Transmitter (500 ft) — stand on the hill at
Upper Norwood, making the district a landmark location, visible
from many parts of the London area. The towers may appear
similar in height and design, but the Crystal Palace mast,
constructed 1956, stands on a slightly higher elevation. The
current Croydon tower was built in 1962.

Films
The Italian Job has a scene filmed by the athletics track, in
which Michael Caine says "You were only supposed to blow the
bloody doors off!"
The Pleasure Garden was also filmed in the park.
Our Mother's House has a scene featuring Dirk Bogarde with
several children on the boating lake in Crystal Palace Park.
The Crystal Palace Transmitter is the second-tallest
structure in London.
Music
The park features prominently as the setting of an outdoor rave in the music video for The Chemical Brothers'
number 1 single Setting Sun.
A mini-album about the history of the local area, entitled Fire & Glass: A Norwood Tragedy, was released in Spring
2007 by the Anglo-Dutch group, H.E.R.R..[5]

Literature
Arthur Conan Doyle was active in the area between 1891 and 1894. Although he lived in nearby South Norwood he
visited the Crystal Palace and Upper Norwood area regularly in connection with the Upper Norwood Literary and
Scientific Society. The Forresters Hall on Westow Street was known as the Welcome Hall (or just Welcome) in
those days and it was in that hall in May 1892 that Arthur Conan Doyle was elected president of the society. He was
re-elected to the post in 1893 and resigned in 1894. Each occasion was in the same hall.[6]
Crystal Palace, London 116

Sports Teams
• Crystal Palace F.C. (football)
• London Olympians (American football)

Transport

Roads
The area is served by the A212, A214, A234 and A2199 roads.

Rail
Crystal Palace is accessible by rail via Crystal Palace railway station, where Southern trains run to and from Victoria
and London Bridge railway stations. Crystal Palace railway station is one of the few stations to border two zones,
Zones 3 and 4.
As of May 2010, the station also serves the East London Line branch of the London Overground, connecting with
the Docklands and Shoreditch.
There are renewed hopes that the Croydon tramlink to Crystal Palace will eventually find funding and open in a few
years.[7] [8]

Bus
The area is also well served by bus routes being the terminus for many of them. These services include routes N2,
3/N3, N63, 122, N137, 157, 202, 227, 249, 322, 358, 363, 410, 417, 432, 450, 931 and 934

Nearest places
• Gipsy Hill
• Sydenham
• Penge
• Dulwich
• Anerley
• West Norwood
• Upper Norwood

References

Notes
[1] Mills, A., Oxford Dictionary of London Place Names, (2000)
[2] Spot Height in feet, TQ337707, Ordnance Survey Map, 1862
[3] ric.edu (http:/ / www. ric. edu/ faculty/ rpotter/ cryspal. html) Russell Potter, The Crystal Palace, January 29, 2007. Retrieved 12 October
2008.
[4] http:/ / www. crystalpalacelocal. co. uk/ life-and-style/ sports-a-leisure/ 299-motor-racing-at-the-crystal-palace
[5] HeathenHarvest Music reviews (http:/ / www. heathenharvest. com/ article. php?story=20071130050845407) Luminatrix, H.E.R.R. - Fire
And Glass: A Norwood Tragedy, 1 December 2007. Retrieved 12 October 2008.
[6] The Norwood Author - Arthur Conan Doyle & The Norwood Years (1891-1894) by Alistair Duncan ISBN 978-1904312697
[7] Streatham Guardian
[8] http:/ / www. thisislocallondon. co. uk/ news/ 8362902. Ken_Livingstone_looks_to_China_to_regenerate_Croydon/

http:/ / www. yourlocalguardian. co. uk/ news/ local/ streathamnews/ 4023238.

Renewed_hope_for_Crystal_Palace_tram/
Crystal Palace, London 117

Bibliography
• Alan R. Warwick The Phoenix Suburb: A South London Social History; Publisher: Crystal Palace Foundation;
ISBN 0-904034-01-1

External links
• South London Press article - 'Fight over Crystal Palace Park' (http://www.southlondon-today.co.uk/tn/news.
cfm?id=27891&searchword=crystal palace park)
• TV Commercial Production Company Crystal Palace London (http://www.harlequinproductions.co.uk/)
• Upper Norwood Library for Local History Collection (http://www.uppernorwoodlibrary.org/)
• Crystal Palace Park (http://www.crystalpalacepark.org/)
• Map of Crystal Palace Park (http://www.cocgb.dircon.co.uk/cry_pal_park.htm)
• Crystal Palace and Norwood Chamber of Commerce (http://www.norwoodchamber.org.uk/)
• The Norwood Society, London's oldest local amenity group (http://www.norwoodsociety.co.uk/)
• Virtual Norwood (http://www.virtualnorwood.com/) - community web site with photos and online forum
• Historical images of Crystal Palace (http://www.beckenhamhistory.co.uk/flashNifties/gallery4.html)
• Crystal palace Local forum directory & news (http://www.crystalpalacelocal.co.uk/index.php)
Eiffel Tower 118

Eiffel Tower
Eiffel Tower
La Tour Eiffel

The Eiffel Tower as seen from the Champ de Mars

[I]
Eiffel Tower was the world's tallest building from 1889 to 1930.

General information

Location Paris, France

Coordinates 48°51′30″N 2°17′40″E

Status Complete

Constructed 1887–1889

Opening March 31, 1889

Use Observation tower,

Radio broadcasting tower

Height

Antenna or spire 324.00 m (1063 ft)

Roof 300.65 m (986 ft)

Top floor 273.00 m (896 ft)

Technical details

Floor count 3

Elevators 7

Companies involved

Architect(s) Stephen Sauvestre

Structural engineer Maurice Koechlin,

Émile Nouguier

Contractor Gustave Eiffel & Cie

Owner City of Paris, France (100%)

Management Société d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel (SETE)
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]
References:

 Fully habitable, self-supported, from main entrance to highest structural or architectural top; see the list of tallest buildings in the
world for other listings.
Eiffel Tower 119

The Eiffel Tower (French: La Tour Eiffel, [tuʁ ɛfɛl], nickname La dame de fer, the iron lady) is an 1889 iron lattice
tower located on the Champ de Mars in Paris that has become both a global icon of France and one of the most
recognizable structures in the world. The tallest building in Paris,[10] it is the most-visited paid monument in the
world; millions of people ascend it every year. Named for its designer, engineer Gustave Eiffel, the tower was built
as the entrance arch to the 1889 World's Fair.
The tower stands 324 metres (1063 ft) tall, about the same height as an 81-storey building. Upon its completion, it
usurped the Washington Monument to assume the title of tallest man-made structure in the world, a title it held for
41 years, until the Chrysler Building in New York City was built in 1930. Not including broadcast antennas, it is the
second-tallest structure in France after the 2004 Millau Viaduct.
The tower has three levels for visitors. Tickets can be purchased to ascend, by stairs or lift, to the first and second
levels. The walk to the first level is over 300 steps, as is the walk from the first to the second level. The third and
highest level is accessible only by elevator. Both the first and second levels feature restaurants.
The tower has become the most prominent symbol of both Paris and France, often in the establishing shot of films
set in the city.

History
The structure was built between 1887 and 1889 as the entrance arch for
the Exposition Universelle, a World's Fair marking the centennial
celebration of the French Revolution. Three hundred workers joined
together 18,038 pieces of puddled iron (a very pure form of structural
iron), using two and a half million rivets, in a structural design by
Maurice Koechlin. Eiffel was assisted in the design by engineers Émile
Nouguier and Maurice Koechlin and architect Stephen Sauvestre.[11]
The risk of accident was great as, unlike modern skyscrapers, the tower
is an open frame without any intermediate floors except the two
platforms. However, because Eiffel took safety precautions, including Eiffel Tower under construction in July 1888

the use of movable stagings, guard-rails and screens, only one man
died. The tower was inaugurated on 31 March 1889, and opened on 6
May.

The tower was much criticised by the public when it was built, with
many calling it an eyesore. Newspapers of the day were filled with
angry letters from the arts community of Paris. One is quoted
extensively in William Watson's US Government Printing Office
publication of 1892 Paris Universal Exposition: Civil Engineering,
Public Works, and Architecture: "And during twenty years we shall
see, stretching over the entire city, still thrilling with the genius of so
many centuries, we shall see stretching out like a black blot the odious
shadow of the odious column built up of riveted iron plates."[12]
Signers of this letter included Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier, Charles Eiffel Tower Construction view:
Gounod, Charles Garnier, Jean-Léon Gérôme, William-Adolphe girders at the first story

Bouguereau, and Alexandre Dumas.

Novelist Guy de Maupassant—who claimed to hate the tower[13] —supposedly ate lunch in the Tower's restaurant
every day. When
Eiffel Tower 120

asked why, he answered that it was the one place in Paris where one
could not see the structure. Today, the Tower is widely considered to
be a striking piece of structural art.
One of the great Hollywood movie clichés is that the view from a
Parisian window always includes the tower. In reality, since zoning
restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to 7 stories, only
a very few of the taller buildings have a clear view of the tower.
Eiffel had a permit for the tower to stand for 20 years; it was to be
dismantled in 1909, when its ownership would revert to the City of Panoramic view during ascension of the Eiffel
Paris. The City had planned to tear it down (part of the original contest Tower by the Lumière brothers, 1898

rules for designing a tower was that it could be easily demolished) but
as the tower proved valuable for communication purposes, it was
allowed to remain after the expiry of the permit. The military used it to
dispatch Parisian taxis to the front line during the First Battle of the
Marne.

Timeline of events
10 September 1889
Thomas Edison visited the tower. He signed the guestbook with
the following message—
To M Eiffel the Engineer the brave builder of so gigantic
and original specimen of modern Engineering from one
who has the greatest respect and admiration for all
Engineers including the Great Engineer the Bon Dieu,
Thomas Edison.
25 August 1944: American soldiers watch as the
1910 Tricolor flies from the Eiffel Tower again.

Father Theodor Wulf measured radiant energy at the top and

bottom of the tower, discovering at the top more than was
expected, and thereby detecting what are today known as cosmic
rays.[14]
4 February 1912
Austrian tailor Franz Reichelt died after jumping 60 metres from
the first deck of Eiffel tower with his home-made parachute.
1914
a radio transmitter located in the tower jammed German radio
communications during the lead-up to the First Battle of the
Marne
1925
The con artist Victor Lustig "sold" the tower for scrap metal on
Lightning strikes the Eiffel Tower on
two separate, but related occasions.[15] June 3, 1902, at 9:20 P.M.
1930
The tower lost the title of the world's tallest structure when the Chrysler Building was completed in New York
City.
Eiffel Tower 121

1925 to 1934
Illuminated signs for Citroën adorned three of the tower's four sides,
making it the tallest advertising space in the world at the time.
1940-1944
Upon the German occupation of Paris in 1940, the lift cables were cut by
the French so that Adolf Hitler would have to climb the steps to the
summit. The parts to repair them were allegedly impossible to obtain
because of the war. In 1940 German soldiers had to climb to the top to
hoist the swastika, but the flag was so large it blew away just a few hours
later, and was replaced by a smaller one. When visiting Paris, Hitler chose
to stay on the ground. It was said that Hitler conquered France, but did not
conquer the Eiffel Tower. A Frenchman scaled the tower during the Adolf Hitler with the Eiffel Tower in
the background
German occupation to hang the French flag. In August 1944, when the
Allies were nearing Paris, Hitler ordered General Dietrich von Choltitz, the
military governor of Paris, to demolish the tower along with the rest of the city. Von Choltitz disobeyed the
order. Some say Hitler was later persuaded to keep the tower intact so it could later be used for
communications. The lifts of the Tower were working normally within hours of the Liberation of Paris.

3 January 1956
A fire damaged the top of the tower.
1957
The present radio antenna was added to the top.
1980s
A restaurant and its supporting iron scaffolding midway up the tower was dismantled; it was purchased and
reconstructed on St. Charles Avenue and Joesphine Street in Garden District of New Orleans, Louisiana, by
entrepreneurs John Onorio and Daniel Bonnot, originally as the Tour Eiffel Restaurant, later as the Red Room
and now as the Cricket Club (owned by the New Orleans Culinary Institute). The restaurant was re-assembled
from 11,000 pieces that crossed the Atlantic in a 40-foot (12 m) cargo container.
31 March 1984
Robert Moriarty flew a Beechcraft Bonanza through the arches of the tower.[16]
1987
A.J. Hackett made one of his first bungee jumps from the top of the Eiffel Tower, using a special cord he had
helped develop. Hackett was arrested by the Paris police upon reaching the ground.[17]
27 October 1991
Thierry Devaux, along with mountain guide Hervé Calvayrac, performed a series of acrobatic figures of
bungee jump (not allowed) from the second floor of the Tower. Facing to Champ de Mars, Thierry Devaux
was using an electric winch between each figure to go back up. When firemen arrived, he stopped after the
sixth bungee jump.[18]
14 July 1995
Bastille Day, French synthesiser musician Jean Michel Jarre performed Concert For Tolerance at the tower in
aid of UNESCO. The free concert was attended by an estimated 1.5 million people, filling the Champ de Mars.
The concert featured lighting and projection effects on the tower, and a huge fireworks display throughout.
Three years later he returned to the same spot for a more dance music-oriented show, Electronic Night.
New Year's Eve 1999
Eiffel Tower 122

The Eiffel Tower played host to Paris' Millennium Celebration. On this occasion, flashing lights and four
high-power searchlights were installed on the tower, and fireworks were set off all over it. An exhibition above
a cafeteria on the first floor commemorates this event. Since then, the light show has become a nightly event.
The searchlights on top of the tower make it a beacon in Paris' night sky, and the 20,000 flash bulbs give the
tower a sparkly appearance every hour on the hour.[19]
28 November 2002
The tower received its 200000000th guest.[20] [21]
22 July 2003
At 19:20, a fire occurred at the top of the tower in the broadcasting equipment room. The entire tower was
evacuated; the fire was extinguished after 40 minutes, and there were no reports of injuries.
2004
The Eiffel Tower began hosting an ice skating rink on the first floor each winter.[22]
2008
At the start of the French presidency of the European Union in the second half of 2008, the twelve golden stars
of the European flag were mounted on the base, and whole tower bathed in blue light.
14 September 2010
Both the Eiffel Tower and Champ de Mars were evacuated following a bomb threat. And after a search of the
area, no bomb was found. The tower and Champ de Mars were reopened the next day.[23] [24]

Engraved names
Gustave Eiffel engraved on the tower seventy-two names of French scientists, engineers and other notable people.
This engraving was painted over at the beginning of the twentieth century but restored in 1986–1987 by the Société
Nouvelle d'exploitation de la Tour Eiffel, a company contracted to operate business related to the Tower.

Design of the tower

Material
The metal structure of the Eiffel Tower weighs 7300 tonnes while the entire structure, including non-metal
components, is approximately 10000 tonnes. As a demonstration of the economy of design, if the 7,300 tonnes of the
metal structure were melted down it would fill the 125 metre square base to a depth of only 6 cm (2.36 in), assuming
the density of the metal to be 7.8 tonnes per cubic metre. Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the tower
may shift away from the sun by up to 18 cm (7.1 in) because of thermal expansion of the metal on the side facing the
sun.
Eiffel Tower 123

Wind considerations
At the time the tower was built many people were shocked by its daring shape.
Eiffel was criticised for the design and accused of trying to create something
artistic, or inartistic according to the viewer, without regard to engineering. Eiffel
and his engineers, however, as experienced bridge builders, understood the
importance of wind forces and knew that if they were going to build the tallest
structure in the world they had to be certain it would withstand the wind. In an
interview reported in the newspaper Le Temps, Eiffel said:

Now to what phenomenon did I give primary concern in designing the

Tower? It was wind resistance. Well then! I hold that the curvature of the
monument's four outer edges, which is as mathematical calculation
dictated it should be [...] will give a great impression of strength and
beauty, for it will reveal to the eyes of the observer the boldness of the
design as a whole.[25]
The third floor of the Eiffel Tower, at
The shape of the tower was determined by empirical methods accounting for the
night, seen from Trocadéro
effects of wind, and graphical methods, without an overall mathematical
framework. Careful examination of the tower shows a basically exponential
shape; actually two different exponentials, the lower section overdesigned to
ensure resistance to wind forces.
Several explanations have been proposed over the years; the most recent is a
nonlinear integral equation based on counterbalancing the wind pressure on any
point on the tower with the tension between the construction elements at that
point.[26] [27] The tower sways 6–7 cm (2–3 in) in the wind.[28]

Maintenance
Maintenance of the tower includes applying 50 to 60 tonnes of paint every seven
years to protect it from rust.
The Eiffel Tower from the Left Bank
Aesthetic considerations
In order to maintain a uniform appearance to an observer on the ground, three separate colours of paint are used on
the tower, with the darkest on the bottom and the lightest at the top. On occasion the colour of the paint is changed;
the tower is currently painted a shade of brownish-grey.[29] On the first floor there are interactive consoles hosting a
poll for the colour to use for a future session of painting.
The only non-structural elements are the four decorative grillwork arches, added in Stephen Sauvestre's sketches,
which served to reassure visitors that the structure was safe, and to frame views of other nearby architecture.[30] [31]
[32]
Eiffel Tower 124

Tourism

Popularity
More than 200000000 people have visited the tower since its construction in 1889,[33] including 6719200 in 2006.[28]
The tower is the most-visited paid monument in the world.[34] [35]

Passenger Elevators

Ground to the second level

View of Eiffel Tower from the Montparnasse
Tower.
The original elevators to the first and second floors were provided by
two companies. Both companies had to overcome many technical
obstacles as neither company (or indeed any company) had experience
with installing elevators climbing to such heights with large loads. The
slanting tracks with changing angles further complicated the problems.
The East and West elevators were supplied by the French company
Roux Combaluzier Lepape, using hydraulically powered chains and
rollers. Contemporary engravings of the elevators cars show that the
passengers were seated at this time but it is not clear whether this was
conceptual. It would be unnecessary to seat passengers for a journey of
a couple of minutes. The North and South elevators were provided by
the American company Otis using car designs similar to the original
installation but using an improved hydraulic and cable scheme. The
French elevators had a very poor performance and were replaced with
the current installations in 1897 (West Pillar) and 1899 (East Pillar) by
Fives-Lille using an improved hydraulic and rope scheme. Both of the
original installations operated broadly on the principle of the
Fives-Lille lifts.[36] [37]

The Fives-Lille elevators from ground level to the first and second
levels are operated by cables and pulleys driven by massive
water-powered pistons. The hydraulic scheme was somewhat unusual
The Eiffel Tower, October 2007
for the time in that it included three large counterweights of 200 tonnes
each sitting on top of hydraulic rams which doubled up as
accumulators for the water. As the elevators ascend the inclined arc of the pillars, the angle of ascent changes. The
two elevator cabs are kept more or less level and indeed are level at the landings. The cab floors do take on a slight
angle at times between landings.
The principle behind the elevators is similar to the operation of a block
and tackle but in reverse. Two large hydraulic rams (over 1 metre
diameter) with a 16 metre travel are mounted horizontally in the base
of the pillar which pushes a carriage (the French word for it translates
as chariot and this term will be used henceforth to distinguish it from
the elevator carriage) with 16 large triple sheaves mounted on it. There
are 14 similar sheaves mounted statically. Six wire ropes are rove back
and forth between the sheaves such that each rope passes between the 2
sets of sheaves 7 times. The ropes then leave the final sheaves on the The Eiffel Tower illuminated in blue to celebrate
the French presidency of the EU (July 2008)
Eiffel Tower 125

chariot and passes up through a series of guiding sheaves to above the second floor and then via a pair of triple
sheaves back down to the lift carriage again passing guiding sheaves.
This arrangement means that the elevator carriage, complete with its cars and passengers, travels 8 times the distance
that the rams move the chariot, the 128 metres from the ground to the second floor. The force exerted by the rams
also has to be 8 times the total weight of the lift carriage, cars and passengers, plus extra to account for various losses
such as friction. The hydraulic fluid was water, normally stored in three accumulators, complete with counterbalance
weights. To make the elevator ascend, water was pumped using an electrically driven pump from the accumulators to
the two rams. Since the counterbalance weights provided much of the pressure required, the pump only had to
provide the extra effort. For the descent, it was only necessary to allow the water to flow back to the accumulators
using a control valve. The lifts were operated by an operator perched precariously underneath the lift cars. His
position (with a dummy operator) can still be seen on the lifts today.
The Fives-Lille elevators were completely upgraded in 1986 to meet modern safety requirements and to make the
elevators easier to operate. A new computer controlled system was installed which completely automated the
operation. One of the three counterbalances was taken out of use, and the cars were replaced with a more modern and
lighter structure. Most importantly, the main driving force was removed from the original water pump such that the
water hydraulic system provided only a counterbalancing function. The main driving force was transferred to a
320 kW electrically driven oil hydraulic pump which drives a pair of hydraulic motors on the chariot itself, thus
providing the motive power. The new lift cars complete with their carriage and a full 92 passenger load weigh 22
tonnes.
Due to elasticity in the ropes and the time taken to get the cars level with the
landings, each elevator in normal service takes an average of 8 minutes and 50
seconds to do the round trip, spending an average of 1 minute and 15 seconds at
each floor. The average journey time between floors is just 1 minute.
The original Otis elevators in the North and South pillars in their turn proved to
be inferior to the new (in 1899) French elevators and were scrapped from the
South pillar in 1900 and from the North pillar in 1913 after failed attempts to
re-power them with an electric motor. The North and South pillars were to
remain without elevators until 1965 when increasing visitor numbers persuaded
the operators to install a relatively standard and modern cable hoisted system in
the north pillar using a cable-hauled counterbalance weight, but hoisted by a
block and tackle system to reduce its travel to one third of the elevator travel.
The counterbalance is clearly visible within the structure of the North pillar. This
A view from above latter elevator was upgraded in 1995 with new cars and computer controls.
The South pillar acquired a completely new fairly standard electrically driven
elevator in 1983 to serve the Jules Verne restaurant. This was also supplied by Otis. A further four-ton service
elevator was added to the South pillar in 1989 by Otis to relieve the main elevators when moving relatively small
loads or even just maintenance personnel.
The East and West hydraulic (water) elevator works are on display and, at least in theory, are open to the public in a
small museum located in base of the East and West tower, which is somewhat hidden from public view. Because the
massive mechanism requires frequent lubrication and attention, public access is often restricted. However, when
open, the wait times are much less than the other, more popular, attractions. The rope mechanism of the North tower
is visible to visitors as they exit from the elevator .
Eiffel Tower 126

Second to the third level

The original elevators from the second to the third floor were also of a
water-powered hydraulic design supplied by Léon Edoux. Instead of using a
separate counterbalance, the two elevator cars counterbalanced each other. A pair
of 81 metre long hydraulic rams were mounted on the second level reaching
nearly half way up to the third level. An elevator car was mounted on top of the
rams. Ropes ran from the top of this car up to a sheave on the third level and
back down to a second car. The result of this arrangement was that each car only
travelled half the distance between the second and third levels and passengers
were required to change elevators halfway walking between the cars along a
narrow gangway with a very impressive and relatively unobstructed downward
view. The ten-ton cars held 65 passengers each or up to four tons.
One interesting feature of the original installation was that the hoisting rope ran
through guides to retain it on windy days to prevent it flapping and becoming
The original spiral stairs to the third
damaged. The guides were mechanically moved out of the way of the ascending floor which were only 80 centimetres
car by the movement of the car itself. In spite of some antifreeze being added to wide. Note also the small service
the water that operated this system, it nevertheless had to close to the public from elevator in the background.

November to March each year.

The original elevators complete with their hydraulic mechanism were

completely scrapped in 1982 after 97 years of service. They were
replaced with two pairs of relatively standard rope hoisted cars which
were able to operate all the year round. The cars operate in pairs with
one providing the counterbalance for the other. Neither car can move
unless both sets of doors are closed and both operators have given a
start command. The commands from the cars to the hoisting
mechanism are by radio obviating the necessity of a control cable. The
The original Hydraulic pump for the Edoux lifts replacement installation also has the advantage that the ascent can be
made without changing cars and has reduced the ascent time from 8
minutes (including change) to 1 minute and 40 seconds. This
installation also has guides for the hoisting ropes but they are
electrically operated. The guide once it has moved out of the way as
the car ascends automatically reverses when the car has passed to
prevent the mechanism becoming snagged on the car on the downward
journey in the event it has failed to completely clear the car.
View from the South-East edge on the second Unfortunately these elevators do not have the capacity to move as
level.
many people as the three public lower elevators and long lines to
ascend to the third level are common. Most of the intermediate level
structure present on the tower today was installed when the elevators were replaced and allows maintenance workers
to take the elevator half way.
The replacement of these elevators allowed the restructuring of the criss-cross beams in upper part of the tower and
further allowed the installation of two emergency staircases. These replaced the dangerous winding stairs that were
installed when the tower was constructed.
Eiffel Tower 127

Identical to Kings Dominion near Richmond, Virginia

The entrance to Altitude 95.

Replica at the Paris Las Vegas Hotel, Nevada,

United States

Replica at Walt Disney World's EPCOT

Replica at Tianducheng, Hangzhou, China.

Eiffel Tower 128

Replica at Kings Island near Cincinnati, Ohio,

United States

Restaurants
The tower has two restaurants: Altitude 95, on the first floor 311 ft (95 m) above
sea level; and the Jules Verne, an expensive gastronomical restaurant on the
second floor, with a private lift. This restaurant has one star in the Michelin Red
Guide. In January 2007, the multi-Michelin star chef Alain Ducasse was brought
in to run Jules Verne.[38]

Attempted Relocation
According to interviews given in the early 1980s Montreal Mayor Jean Drapeau
negotiated a secret agreement with French President Charles de Gaulle for the
tower to be dismantled and temporarily relocated to Montreal to serve as a Replica of Eiffel Tower on factory
building at Satteldorf near
landmark and tourist attraction during Expo 67. The plan was allegedly vetoed
Crailsheim, Germany
by the company which operated the tower out of fear that the French government
[39]
could refuse permission for the tower to be restored to its original location.

Reproductions
As one of the most iconic images in the world, the Eiffel Tower has been the
inspiration for the creation of over 30 duplicates and similar towers around the
world.
• The Eiffel Tower was the inspiration for the Blackpool Tower in Blackpool,
England. After visiting the Great Paris Exhibition in 1889, the town's mayor
John Bickerstaffe commissioned the building of the tower, which has a very
similar design and was completed 1894. The main differences are that the
Blackpool Tower is approximately half the height of the Eiffel Tower and is
not Replica in Parizh village, Russia
Eiffel Tower 129

freestanding, the base being contained within buildings which house

the Tower Circus. Both the Eiffel Tower and Blackpool Tower
feature on the list of the World Federation of Great Towers.
Other Eiffel-inspired towers, in order of decreasing height:
• Tokyo Tower in Minato Tokyo, Japan — 332.5 m (1091 ft)
• In front of the Paris Las Vegas hotel/casino on the Las Vegas Strip,
Paradise, Nevada — 165 m (541 ft) (scale 1:2). 36°6′45″N
115°10′20″W
• Eiffel Tower of Window of the World, Shenzhen, Guangdong, The Eiffel Tower shape telecommunications
China — 108 m (354 ft) (scale 1:3) 22°32′13.33″N 113°58′9.51″E tower in Da Lat, Vietnam

• Eiffel Tower of Tiandu City Community, Hangzhou, Zhejiang,

China — 108 m (354 ft) (scale 1:3)[40] [41] 30°23′6.72″N 120°14′36.60″E
• Kings Island Amusement Park, Mason, Ohio — ~101 m (~332 ft, scale 1:3) 39°20′36″N 84°16′1″W [42]
• Kings Dominion Amusement Park, Doswell, Virginia — ~101 m (332 ft, scale 1:3)
• Slobozia, Romania — 54 m (177 ft)
• In Parizh, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia. Built by South Ural Cell Telephone company as a cellphone tower —
50 m (164 ft) 53°17′51.02″N 60°5′59.46″E
• In Zoo, Copenhagen, Denmark. Wooden replica — 50 m (164 ft) 55°40′19.16″N 12°31′24.70″E
• Watkin's Tower in London, England, UK — Original planned to be 358 m (1175 ft) high and construction began
in 1891, but finally constructed to 47 m (154 ft) and demolished in 1907.
• Fayetteville, North Carolina — The Bordeaux Tower is about 45 m (148 ft) (150 ft)
• Walt Disney World's EPCOT theme park in Lake Buena Vista, Florida (at the France Pavilion in World
Showcase) — 23 m (76 ft, scale 1:10)[43]
• Paris, Texas — 20 m (66 ft)
• Eiffel Tower (Paris, Tennessee) in Paris, Tennessee — about 60 feet (18 m) tall.
• As a Meccano model, housed at the SciTrek technology museum in (Atlanta, Georgia) — 11 m (36 ft)[44]
• On the roof of the catering company Rungis Express in Meckenheim and Satteldorf, Germany — (height
unknown)
• Centerpiece of the Falconcity of Wonders — a planned new development project in Dubai. UAE, featuring seven
modern wonders of the world (planned).[45] 25°5′43.8″N 55°20′31.5″E (approximate coordinates)
• Inwald Miniature Park, Inwald, Poland
• Mini-Europe, Brussels, a 12.96 m model (a proportion of 1:25 to the original).
• Model on the roof of the Rue De Paris cafe in Brisbane, Australia — (roughly 12 m (39 ft) tall)
• Montmartre, Saskatchewan - 8.5 metres tall.
• Model in the First World Plaza shopping mall in Genting Highlands, Malaysia[46]
• In Austin, Texas there is a 7.5 m (25 ft) tall replica at the Dreyfus Antique Shop.
• An 18 m model in Filiatra, Messinia, Greece, at the entrance of the village[47] [48]
• Paris, Michigan; approximately 3 m (10 ft) (10 ft) tall and in a park
• Baku, Azerbaijan, Sahil Trade Center, at "Parfums de France" shop. Approximately 3 m (10 ft) tall.
• Golden Sands sea resort in Varna, Bulgaria — A tower with a ratio of 1:10 to the original is built in the town as a
tourist attraction.
• Aktau, Kazakhstan — model at the front of the office of Oil Construction Company
• Satteldorf near Crailsheim, Germany. On the top of a company building
• In 2007 the Lego company released a 1:300 scale model of the Eiffel tower as a set.[49] It contains 3428 pieces
and stands 108 cm (42.5 in) tall and 50 cm (19.7 in) wide and deep.
• Da Lat, Vietnam. Design to used as Viettel telecommunications tower
Eiffel Tower 130

Communications
Since the beginning of the 20th century, the tower has been used for radio transmission. Until the 1950s, an
occasionally modified set of antenna wires ran from the summit to anchors on the Avenue de Suffren and Champ de
Mars. They were connected to long-wave transmitters in small bunkers; in 1909, a permanent underground radio
centre was built near the south pillar and still exists today. On 20 November 1913, the Paris Observatory, using the
Eiffel Tower as an antenna, exchanged sustained wireless signals with the United States Naval Observatory which
used an antenna in Arlington, Virginia. The object of the transmissions was to measure the difference in longitude
between Paris and Washington, D.C.[50] Today, both radio and television stations broadcast their signals from the top
of the Eiffel.

FM-radio

Programme Frequency ERP

France Inter 87.8 MHz 10 kW

RFI Paris 89.0 MHz 10 kW

TSF Jazz 89.9 MHz 6 kW

Nostalgie 90.4 MHz 10 kW

Chante France 90.9 MHz 4 kW

Television

Programme Channel-Number Frequency ERP

Canal+ 6 182,25 MHz 100 kW

France 2 22 479,25 MHz 500 kW

TF1 25 503,25 MHz 500 kW

France 3 28 527,25 MHz 500 kW

France 5 30 543,25 MHz 100 kW

M6 33 567,25 MHz 100 kW

Image copyright claims

Panoramic view from underneath the Eiffel
Tower
night without permission in France and some other countries.[52] [53]
The tower and its representations have long been in the public domain;
however, a French court ruled, in March 1992, that the night-time light
display is protected under copyright, except in a panoramic view.
SNTE (Société nouvelle d'exploitation de la tour Eiffel) installed a
special lighting display on the tower in 1989, for the tower's 100th
anniversary. The Court of Cassation, France's judicial court of last
resort, decided that the display was an "original visual creation"
protected by copyright.[51] Since then, the SNTE considers any
night-time image of the lighting display under copyright. As a result, it
is no longer legal to publish contemporary photographs of the tower at
Eiffel Tower 131

The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of

Documentation for SNTE, Stéphane Dieu, commented in January
2005, "It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image,
so that it isn't used in ways we don't approve." However, it also
potentially has the effect of prohibiting tourist photographs of the
tower at night from being published,[54] as well as hindering non-profit
and semi-commercial publication of images of the tower. Besides,
French doctrine and jurisprudence traditionally allow pictures
incorporating a copyrighted work as long as their presence is incidental
The Eiffel Tower and the Seine at night
or accessory to the main represented subject,[55] a reasoning akin to the
De minimis rule. Thus, SNTE could not claim copyright on
photographs of panoramas of Paris incorporating the lit tower.

In popular culture
As a global landmark, the Eiffel Tower is featured in media including films, video games, and television shows.
In a commitment ceremony in 2007, Erika Eiffel, an American woman famously "married" the Eiffel Tower. Her
relationship with the tower has been the subject of extensive global publicity.[56]

Taller structures
Although it was the world's tallest structure when completed in 1889, the Eiffel Tower has since lost its standing
both as the tallest lattice tower and as the tallest structure in France.

Lattice towers taller than the Eiffel Tower

Name Pinnacle height Year Country Town Remarks

Kiev TV Tower 1263 ft (385 m) 1973 Ukraine Kiev Tallest lattice tower of the world

Tashkent Tower 1230 ft (375 m) 1985 Uzbekistan Tashkent

Pylons of Yangtze River 1137 ft (347 m) 2003 People's Republic of Jiangyin 2 towers, tallest pylons in the
Crossing China world

Dragon Tower 1102 ft (336 m) 2000 People's Republic of Harbin

China

Tokyo Tower 1091 ft (333 m) 1958 Japan Tokyo

WITI TV Tower 1078 ft (329 m) 1962 U.S. Shorewood,

Wisconsin

WSB TV Tower 1075 ft (328 m) 1957 U.S. Atlanta, Georgia

Architectural structures in France taller than the Eiffel Tower

Eiffel Tower 132

Name Pinnacle Year Structure type Town Remarks

height

Longwave transmitter 350 m 1974 Guyed Mast Allouis

Allouis

HWU transmitter 350 m ? Guyed Mast Rosnay Multiple masts

Viaduc de Millau 343 m 2004 Bridge Pillar Millau

TV Mast Niort-Maisonnay 330 m ? Guyed Mast Niort

Transmitter Le Mans-Mayet 342 m 1993 Guyed Mast Mayet

Transmitter Roumoules 330 m 1974 Guyed Mast Roumoules spare transmission mast for long wave, insulated against
ground

Other structures carrying this name

• Eiffel Tower (Paris, Tennessee)
• Eiffel Tower Co-op in Hackensack, New Jersey, USA[57]

Gallery

Taken from From the highest platform. The Eiffel Tower from below. Eiffel Tower
the top of while France
L'Arc de was bidding for
Triomphe on a the 2012
cloudy Spring Olympic
day. Games, summer
2005

Eiffel tower on Bastille Day The Eiffel Tower The Eiffel The Eiffel Tower as seen
taken shortly after Tower at from Rue de Monttessuy in
the end of World sunrise from the 7th arrondissement.
War II, in June of the Trocadero
1945
Eiffel Tower 133

Eiffel Tower Lift Hydraulics Controls from Some of the automation controls Interior of the Altitude 95
one of the at the base of one of the Eiffel restaurant in the Eiffel Tower.
Eiffel Tower Tower's lifts.
lifts

See also
• List of tallest buildings and structures in the Paris region
• List of tallest buildings and structures in the world
• List of tallest freestanding structures in the world
• List of tallest towers in the world

References
[1] "Identity card of the Eiffel Tower" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ chiffres/ page/ identite. html?id=4_14) (in
(English)). Tour-eiffel.fr. 2009-12-31. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[2] "The documents" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ dossiers/ index. html?id=4_12) (in (English)). Tour-eiffel.fr. .
Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[3] "The structure of the Eiffel Tower and its evolution" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ structure/ page/ structure.
html?id=4_13) (in (English)). Tour-eiffel.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[4] "Chronology of the main construction periods" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ structure/ page/ chronologie. html) (in
(English)). Tour-eiffel.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[5] "A few statistics" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ structure/ page/ chiffres. html) (in (English)). Tour-eiffel.fr. .
Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[6] "Dictionary of technical terms" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ structure/ page/ lexique. html) (in (English)).
Tour-eiffel.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[7] (English) http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ pdf/ about_the%20Eiffel_Tower. pdf?id=4_11
[8] "The Tower operating company" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ chiffres/ page/ entreprise. html) (in (English)).
Tour-eiffel.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[9] "The industrial maintenance of the Tower" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ chiffres/ page/ usine. html) (in
(English)). Tour-eiffel.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[10] "The Eiffel Tower as a World monument" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ chiffres/ page/ tour_monde. html) (in
(English)). Tour-eiffel.fr. 1996-04-02. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[11] "The Tower Conception And Design" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ dossiers/ page/ invention. html) (in
(English)). Tour-eiffel.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[12] Watson, William. Paris Universal Exposition: Civil Engineering, Public Works, and Architecture (Washington: Government Printing office,
1892), 833.
[13] Jonnes, Jill (2009). Eiffel's Tower: And the World's Fair Where Buffalo Bill Beguiled Paris, the Artists Quarreled, and Thomas Edison
Became a Count. Viking Adult. pp. 163–64. ISBN 978-0670020607.
[14] Wulf, Theodor. Physikalische Zeitschrift, contains results of the four-day long observation done by Theodor Wulf while at the top of the
Eiffel Tower in 1910.
[15] Letcher, Piers (2003). Eccentric France. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 105. ISBN 978-1841620688.
[16] "A Bonanza in Paris" (http:/ / proairshow. com/ Eiffel. htm). . Retrieved 2008-04-04.
[17] "Extreme bid to stretch bungy record - World" (http:/ / www. smh. com. au/ news/ world/ extreme-bid-to-stretch-bungy-record/ 2007/ 02/
27/ 1172338606150. html). smh.com.au. 2007-02-27. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[18] [http:// http:/ / www. sunnydream. info/ index. php?page=eiffel "Eiffel Tower"]. 1991-10-21. http:// . Retrieved 2010-06-24.
[19] "All You Need To Know About the Eiffel Tower" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ pdf/ about_the Eiffel_Tower.
pdf?id=4_11). Official Site. . Retrieved 2009-01-09.
[20] "The Eiffel Tower: Paris' Grande Dame" (http:/ / www. france. com/ docs/ 97. html). france.com. . Retrieved 2007-07-24.
Eiffel Tower 134

[21] "Soirée réussie le 28 novembre pour fêter l'année du 200 millionième visiteur" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ fr/ actualites/ page/
news_list. html?Year=2002#News122) (in French). Official Site. 2002. . Retrieved 2007-07-24.
[22] Porter, Darwin; Prince, D; McDonald, G; Mastrini, H; Marker, S; Princz, A; Bánfalvy, C; Kutor, A; Lakos, N (2006). Frommer's Europe.
9th ed.. Frommer's. p. 318. ISBN 978-0471922650.
[23] "Eiffel Tower evacuated after bomb alert" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ news/ world-europe-11302294). BBC. 2010-09-14. .
[24] "Eiffel Tower reopens after bomb threat, evacuation" (http:/ / hosted. ap. org/ dynamic/ stories/ E/
EU_FRANCE_EIFFEL_TOWER_EVACUATED?SITE=WYCHE& SECTION=HOME& TEMPLATE=DEFAULT). Associated Press. .
[25] Translated from the French newspaper Le Temps of 14 February 1887. Extrait de la réponse d'Eiffel (http:/ / christophe. chouard. free. fr/
eiffel/ reponse-eiffel. htm)
[26] "Elegant Shape Of Eiffel Tower Solved Mathematically By University Of Colorado Professor" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/
2005/ 01/ 050106111209. htm). Sciencedaily.com. 2005-01-07. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[27] "The Virginia Engineer: Correct Theory Explaining The Eiffel Tower's Design Revealed" (http:/ / www. vaeng. com/ news/
correct-theory-explaining-the-eiffel-towers-design-revealed). Vaeng.com. 2005-01-31. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[28] "A few statistics" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ structure/ page/ chiffres. html) (in (French)). Tour-eiffel.fr. .
Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[29] "Painting the Eiffel Tower" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ dossiers/ page/ peinture. html) (in (French)).
Tour-eiffel.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[30] "Corus in construction - Exhibition buildings" (http:/ / www. corusconstruction. com/ en/ reference/ teaching_resources/
architectural_studio_reference/ history/ development_of_the_clear_span_building/ exhibition_buildings/ ). Corusconstruction.com. . Retrieved
2010-05-24.
[31] "The annotated arch: a crash course in the history of architecture, By Carol Strickland, Amy Handy - Google Books" (http:/ / www. google.
com/ books?id=rdiFhC6XOWwC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Google.com. . Retrieved
2010-05-24.
[32] "Space, time and architecture: the growth of a new tradition, By Sigfried Giedion - Google Books" (http:/ / www. google. com/
books?id=ZHZnmKxkGMwC& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_navlinks_s#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Google.com. . Retrieved
2010-05-24.
[33] "Number of visitors since 1889" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ chiffres/ page/ frequentation. html) (in (French)).
Tour-eiffel.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[34] The Guardian: New look for Eiffel Tower (http:/ / www. mg. co. za/ articlepage. aspx?area=/ breaking_news/
breaking_news__international_news/ & articleid=335316& referrer=RSS)
[35] "Tour Eiffel et souvenirs de Paris" (http:/ / www. lemonde. fr/ web/ article/ 0,1-0@2-3232,36-938349,0. html). LeMonde.fr. . Retrieved
2010-05-24.
[36] "The construction of the Eiffel Tower" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ documentation/ dossiers/ page/ construction. html) (in
(French)). Tour-eiffel.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[37] Société nouvelle d'exploitation de la tour Eiffel
[38] Fawcett, Karen. "Paris France Guide: Paris Hotels, Food, Wine and Discounts - The Eiffel Tower Breaking News" (http:/ / www.
bonjourparis. com/ Articles/ Destination_Paris/ The_Eiffel_Tower__Breaking_News/ ). Bonjourparis.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[39] "Mayor Jean Drapeau aims for an Expo 67 tower - CBC Archives" (http:/ / archives. cbc. ca/ society/ celebrations/ clips/ 554/ ).
Archives.cbc.ca. 2009-08-14. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[40] "Reuters.com" (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ news/ pictures/ slideshow?collectionId=969). Reuters.com. 2009-02-09. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[41] lefigaro.fr. "Le Figaro – Actualité en direct et informations en continu" (http:/ / www. lefigaro. fr/ economie/ 20070823.
FIG000000095__hangzhou_les_chinois_batissent_une_replique_de_paris. html). Lefigaro.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[42] "KI Mobile" (http:/ / www. visitkingsisland. com/ attractions/ detail. cfm?ai_id=153). Visitkingsisland.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[43] Disney's official French Pavilion page (http:/ / disneyworld. disney. go. com/ wdw/ parks/
attractionDetail?id=FrancePavilionAttractionPage) — lists the Eiffel Tower as approximately 1/10th the height of the original.
[44] "Eiffel Tower" (http:/ / www. dalefield. com/ mwes/ history/ eiffel_tower. html). Dalefield.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[45] ":: Falconcity of Wonders (L.L.C) ::" (http:/ / www. falconcity. com/ ). Falconcity.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[46] First World Plaza (http:/ / www. genting. com. my/ en/ media/ press/ themepark/ fwp. htm). Retrieved on 2008-09-13
[47] "Tower model at Filiatra" (http:/ / users. mes. sch. gr/ stamgian/ ERG_MATINAS. htm). Users.mes.sch.gr. 2001-03-22. . Retrieved
2010-05-24.
[48] Photograph of Filiatra tower (http:/ / www. nds. gr/ filiatra/ images/ pyrgos. jpg)
[49] "LUGNET Set Guide" (http:/ / guide. lugnet. com/ set/ 10181). Guide.lugnet.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[50] "Paris Time By Wireless", New York Times, 22 November 1913, pg 1.
[51] Cass. 1re civ. (http:/ / www. lexeek. com/ jus-luminum/ decision-cass-03-03-1992,523975. htm), 3 March 1992, RIDA 1994 no. 159, p.113.
[52] "Statement that publishing pictures of the lighting requires a fee" (http:/ / www. tour-eiffel. fr/ teiffel/ uk/ pratique/ faq/ index.
html?id=2_10) (in (French)). Tour-eiffel.fr. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[53] In the United States, for example, 17 U.S.C.  § 120 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 17/ 120. html)(a) explicitly permits the
publication of photographs of copyrighted architecture in public spaces. In Germany this is known as Panoramafreiheit.
Eiffel Tower 135

[54] "Eiffel Tower: Repossessed" (http:/ / blog. fastcompany. com/ archives/ 2005/ 02/ 02/ eiffel_tower_repossessed. html).
Blog.fastcompany.com. 2005-02-02. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.
[55] E.g., "La représentation d'une œuvre située dans un lieu public n'est licite que lorsqu'elle est accessoire par rapport au sujet principal
représenté ou traité"; Cass. 1re civ. 4 juillet 1995. Christophe Caron, Droit d'auteur et droits voisins, Litec, 2006, §365.
[56] "Inanimate attachment: Love objects" (http:/ / www. theglobeandmail. com/ life/ family-and-relationships/ love-objects/ article1259075/ ).
The Globe and Mail. August 21, 2009. . Retrieved 2010-05-04.
[57] "Eiffel Tower Co-op —" (http:/ / skyscraperpage. com/ cities/ ?buildingID=19207). Skyscraperpage.com. . Retrieved 2010-05-24.

Further reading
• 1889 La Tour Eiffel et L’Exposition Universelle, Musée d'Orsay, 16 May – 15 August 1989 [exhibition catalog].
Paris: Editions de la Reunion des Musees Nationaux, 1989
• Frémy, Dominique, Quid de la Tour Eiffel, Robert Lafont, Paris (1989) — out of print
• Engineering. The Paris Exhibition, 3 May 1889 (Vol. XLVII). London: Office for Advertisements and
Publication.
• Eiffel's Tower by Jill Jonnes (Viking 2009)
• Watson, William. Paris Universal Exposition: Civil Engineering, Public Works, and Architecture. Washington
[DC], Government Printing Office, 1892.
• Chanson, Hubert (2009). Hydraulic Engineering Legends Listed on the Eiffel Tower (http://espace.library.uq.
edu.au/view/UQ:184247), in "Great Rivers History", ASCE-EWRI Publication, Proceedings of the History
Symposium of the World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2009, Kansas City, USA, 17–19 May,
J.R. ROGERS Ed., pp. 1–7 (ISBN 978-0-7844-1032-5)

External links
• Official website of the Eiffel Tower (http://www.tour-eiffel.fr) (French)
• Official website of the Eiffel Tower (http://www.tour-eiffel.fr/teiffel/uk) (English)
• 360° Panoramic view - Under the Eiffel Tower (http://www.worldtour360.com/360.php?country=France&
swf=UnderEiffelTower20100505)
• Eiffel Tower (http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s0000021) at Structurae
• Mechanical Engineering Magazine: Deconstructing Eiffel (http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/
membersonly/feb05/departments/news_notes/news_note.html)
• Reconstructing the Eiffel Tower in CATIA ,3DXML file to download and CG Images (http://eiffel-tower-catia.
com)
• 3D render of the Eiffel Tower for use in Google Earth (http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/
Number/268868/an/0/page/3#268868)
• The first transmitters at Eiffel Tower (http://dspt.club.fr/tour_eiffel.htm)
• Eiffel Tower: A French Beauty (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/41432/
eiffel-tower-a-french-beauty) - slideshow by Life magazine
• Evening view of Paris from the Eiffel Tower (http://www.360cities.net/image/
evening-view-over-paris-from-the-eiffel-tower) - 360º panorama
• Gigapixel of the tower (http://www.roumestan-photo.com/EN/Portfolio/Gigapixel/TourEiffel.htm),
Photography by Guillaume Roumestan
Woolworth Building 136

Woolworth Building
Woolworth Building

[I]
Woolworth Building was the world's tallest building from 1913 to 1930.

Record height

Preceded by Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower

Surpassed by 40 Wall Street

General information

Location 233 Broadway, New York, NY, USA

Status Complete

Constructed 1910–1913

Opening April 24, 1913

Height

Roof 792 ft (241 m)

Technical details

Floor count 57

Cost $13,500,000

Companies involved

Architect(s) Cass Gilbert

Structural engineer Gunvald Aus and Kort Berle

Owner Witkoff Group

Woolworth Building 137

Woolworth Building
U.S. National Register of Historic Places

U.S. National Historic Landmark

Location in New York City

Coordinates: 40°42′44″N 74°00′29″W

Added to NRHP: 11/13/1966

NRHP Reference#: 66000554

 Fully habitable, self-supported, from main entrance to highest structural or architectural top; see the list of tallest buildings in the
world for other listings.

The Woolworth Building, at 57 stories, is one of the oldest—and one of the most famous—skyscrapers in New
York City. More than 95 years after its construction, it is still one of the fifty tallest buildings in the United States as
well as one of the twenty tallest buildings in New York City. The building is a National Historic Landmark, having
been listed in 1966.[1] [2] [3]

Architecture
The Woolworth Building under construction
The Woolworth Building was constructed in neo-Gothic style by
architect Cass Gilbert, who was commissioned by Frank Woolworth in
1910 to design the new corporate headquarters on Broadway, between
Park Place and Barclay Street in Lower Manhattan, opposite City Hall.
Originally planned to be 625 feet (190.5 m) high, in accordance with
the area's zoning laws, the building was eventually elevated to 792 feet
(241 m). The construction cost was $13,500,000 and Woolworth paid
all of it in cash. On completion, the Woolworth building overtook the
Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower as the world's tallest
building; it opened on April 24, 1913.

With splendor and a resemblance to European Gothic cathedrals, the structure was labeled the Cathedral of
Commerce by the Reverend S. Parkes Cadman during the opening ceremony. It remained the tallest building in the
world until the construction of 40 Wall Street and the Chrysler Building in 1930; an observation deck on the 57th
floor attracted visitors until 1945.
Woolworth Building 138

The building's tower, flush with the main frontage on Broadway, is

raised on a block base with a narrow interior court for light. The
exterior decoration was cast in limestone-colored, glazed architectural
terra-cotta panels. Strongly articulated piers, carried—without
interrupting cornices—right to the pyramidal cap, give the building its
upward thrust. The Gothic detailing concentrated at the highly visible
top is massively scaled, able to be read from the street level several
hundred feet below. The ornate, cruciform lobby has a vaulted ceiling,
mosaics, and sculpted caricatures that include Gilbert and Woolworth.
Detail of the top portion.
Woolworth's private office, revetted in marble in French Empire style,
is preserved.

Engineers Gunvald Aus and Kort Berle designed the steel frame, supported on massive caissons that penetrate to the
bedrock. The high-speed elevators were innovative, and the building's high office-to-elevator ratio made the
structure profitable.
Tenants included the Irving Trust bank and Columbia Records. Columbia Records had moved into the building in
1913 and housed a recording studio in it.[4] In 1917, Columbia made a recording of a dixieland band, the Original
Dixieland Jass Band in this studio.[5] [6]

Recent history
The building was owned by the Woolworth company for 85 years until
1998, when the Venator Group (formerly the F. W. Woolworth
Company) sold it to the Witkoff Group for $155 million.[7] Until
recently, that company kept a presence in the building through a Foot
Locker store (Foot Locker is the successor to the Woolworth
Company).

Prior to its 2001 destruction, the World Trade Center was often
photographed in such a way that the Woolworth Building could be
The building is brightly illuminated at night.
seen between 1 and 2 World Trade Center.
After the September 11, 2001 attacks a few blocks away, the building was without electricity, water and telephone
service for a few weeks but suffered no major damage. Increased post-attack security restricted access to most of the
ornate lobby, previously a tourist attraction.[8]
The structure has a long association with higher education, housing a number of Fordham University schools in the
early 20th century. Today, the building houses, among other tenants, Control Group Inc. and the New York
University School of Continuing and Professional Studies' Center for Global Affairs.
Woolworth Building 139

References in popular culture

In Laura Lee Hope's 1919 book The Bobbsey Twins in Washington is
this passage:
"We'll go up in the tower and have a view," said Mr.
Bobbsey, "and then we'll get lunch and go to the Bronx,
where the animals are."
They entered one of the many elevators, with a number of
other persons who also wanted to go to the Woolworth
tower, and, in a moment, the sliding doors were closed.
Viewed from the former World Trade Center.
"Oh!" suddenly exclaimed Nan.
And Flossie, Freddie and Bert all said the same thing,
while Mrs. Bobbsey clasped her husband's arm and looked
rather queer.
"What's the matter?" asked her husband.
"Why, we're going up so fast!" exclaimed the children's
mother. "It makes me feel queer!"
"This is an express elevator," said Mr. Bobbsey. "There
are so many floors in this tall building that if an elevator
went slowly, and stopped at each one, it would take too
long to get to the top. So they have some express
Viewed from above the clouds, 1928
elevators, that start at the bottom floor, and don't stop until
they get to floor thirty, or some such number as that."[9]

Jeffery Deaver's 1997 book The Bone Collector, mentions the building and states that during the construction in
1913, the body of an industrialist who went missing in 1906 was found buried on the site.
The Woolworth Building has made some notable appearances in film. In the Disney film Enchanted, Narissa the
dragon carries Robert up to the top of it. After killing the dragon, Robert and Giselle slide down. The building also
features in the 1979 Academy Award-winning Best Picture Kramer vs. Kramer, in which Billy asks his father
(played by Dustin Hoffman) its name. In the film Cloverfield, it collapses after the monster critically damages it. The
building is also mentioned near the beginning of 12 Angry Men, and appears as the headquarters of Mode magazine
in Ugly Betty.[10]
Sara Teasdale wrote of the building in her poem "From the Woolworth Tower," written in 1915.
The Woolworth Building is also mentioned in Langston Hughes's poem "Negro":
"I've been a worker:
Under my hand the pyramids arose.
I made mortar for the Woolworth Building."
The Woolworth Building made an appearance in the video game Grand Theft Auto IV and Grand Theft Auto:
Chinatown Wars as the "Woodworld Building" a.k.a. the Civic Citadel.
Woolworth Building 140

Inspired architecture
The Lincoln American Tower in Memphis, Tennessee, built in 1924, is a small replica of the Woolworth Building,
standing one-third the height of the Woolworth's size.

See also
• Tallest buildings in New York City
• Classic Woolworth's Store in Wilmington, Delaware
• New York Daily News, Wednesday, March 11, 2009: Big Town Big Picture column, The Woolworth Building,
Page 23.

References
[1] "Woolworth Building" (http:/ / tps. cr. nps. gov/ nhl/ detail. cfm?ResourceId=398& ResourceType=Building). National Historic Landmark
summary listing. National Park Service. 2007-09-23. .
[2] Patricia Heintzelman and Cecil McKithan (January 6, 1978). ""The Woolworth Building"" (http:/ / pdfhost. focus. nps. gov/ docs/ NHLS/
Text/ 66000554. pdf) (PDF). National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination. National Park Service. .
[3] "The Woolworth Building--Accompanying 3 photos, exterior, from 1975." (http:/ / pdfhost. focus. nps. gov/ docs/ NHLS/ Photos/ 66000554.
pdf) (PDF). National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination. National Park Service. 1978-01-06. .
[4] Hoffman, Frank, Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xV6tghvO0oMC& printsec=frontcover), New
York & London : Routledge, 1993 & 2005, Volume 1. Cf. p.212 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xV6tghvO0oMC& pg=PA212&
lpg=PA212& dq=columbia+ graphophone+ company+ woolworth+ building& source=bl& ots=s8dYF4ymNR&
sig=WyvhJPnKB9b97aaqr3OtMBF5JSg& hl=en& ei=1_SHTPjFDIKcOLzmwdUO& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3&
sqi=2& ved=0CCYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q=columbia graphophone company woolworth building& f=false), article on "Columbia
(Label)".
[5] Cogan, Jim; Clark, William, Temples of sound : inside the great recording studios (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hO-KQ4o_B2MC&
printsec=frontcover), San Francisco : Chronicle Books, 2003. ISBN 0811833941. Cf. chapter on Columbia Studios.
[6] "The Woolworth Building" (http:/ / www. nyc-architecture. com/ SCC/ SCC019. htm), NYC Architecture
[7] recordonline.com - The Times Herald-Record, serving New York’s Hudson Valley and the Catskills (http:/ / www. recordonline. com/ 1998/
06/ 23/ woolwort. htm)
[8] Brainstorm: American Architectural Wonder: Keep Out - Chronicle.com (http:/ / chronicle. com/ review/ brainstorm/ index. php?id=102)
[9] Laura Lee Hope, The Bobbsey Twins in Washington, 1919.
[10] Soll, Lindsay (2008-10-17). "The Deep Dive: Made in NYC" (http:/ / www. ew. com/ ew/ article/ 0,,20233561,00.
html?xid=rss-allabout-TVUglyBetty-TV+ show's+ shot+ in+ NYC). Entertainment Weekly. . Retrieved 2010-01-21.

External links
• "Designation List 164: The Woolworth Building" (http://nycnpc.org/db/bb_files/Woolworth-Building.pdf),
New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission, April 12, 1983
• Great Buildings on-line (http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Woolworth_Building.html) – the
Woolworth Building
• Medieval New York website (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/medny/buttowski/) – Construction details and
photo images of the Woolworth Building
• New York Architecture Images – The Woolworth Building (http://www.nyc-architecture.com/SCC/SCC019.
htm)
Article Sources and Contributors 141

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Crystal Palace, London  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390376885  Contributors: 100110100, A bit iffy, Acalamari, Achangeisasgoodasa, Addshore, Alec - U.K.,
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RevelationDirect, Rrburke, Seidenstud, ShelfSkewed, Shocking Blue, Shoreranger, Skyscraper66, Stefanomione, Stepheng3, Stevenmitchell, Sunimoto, Tariqabjotu, The Duke of Waltham,
TheGrappler, TheJerman, Theshard, Truthseeker 85.5, Tysto, Vary, Vchimpanzee, Waltloc, Warofdreams, Wetman, Wikiklrsc, Wl219, Wordsmith, Xnatedawgx, Zambaccian, Zimbabweed,
Zonafan39, Zzyzx11, Γνώθι Σεαυτόν, 93 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 145

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

file:Seal of Chandigarh.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Seal_of_Chandigarh.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Government
file:India Chandigarh locator map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Chandigarh_locator_map.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Planemad, Roland zh
file:Red pog.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Andux
File:Flag of India.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SKopp
Image:Chandigarh Lake.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandigarh_Lake.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Aviad2001,
Roland zh
Image:sambar-deer-in-forest.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sambar-deer-in-forest.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader
( log) was SCooper4711 at the English language Wikipedia
image:Secretariat.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Secretariat.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: duncid
image:Chandigarh Monument.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandigarh_Monument.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Aviad2001, FlickreviewR, Indianhilbilly, Mattes, Pruneau, Roland zh
image:Corbu Chandigarh Palais Justice.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Corbu_Chandigarh_Palais_Justice.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5
 Contributors: Paul Lechevallier
File:IT-Park-at-Chandigarh.Jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IT-Park-at-Chandigarh.Jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Mf1004
Image:Indian Rupee symbol.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indian_Rupee_symbol.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Orionist
Image:India Corbusier .jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:India_Corbusier_.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Aviad2001,
Cecil, Pymouss, Wiiii
File:Chandigarh - Bus Tata Marcopolo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandigarh_-_Bus_Tata_Marcopolo.png  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:HFret
Image:Chandigarh hockey stadium.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandigarh_hockey_stadium.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Gaganspidey
File:Waterfall at Rock Garden, Chandigarh.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Waterfall_at_Rock_Garden,_Chandigarh.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Nagesh Kamath from Bangalore, India
File:Tvdnindiancoffeehouse (89).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tvdnindiancoffeehouse_(89).JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors:
User:Soman
File:Dolas house.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dolas_house.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Roland zh, Thunderboltz
File:Hamlet ‍baker.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hamlet_‍baker.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Roland zh, Shyamal,
Thunderboltz
File:JesseOslerHouseElkinsParkPA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JesseOslerHouseElkinsParkPA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gottscho-Schleisner,
Inc., photographer.
Image:Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (Roehl).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jatiyo_Sangshad_Bhaban_(Roehl).jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: MECU, Ragib, Ranveig, Souvik.arko, Wiiii, ~Pyb, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Kimbell Art Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kimbell_Art_Museum.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bilpen, Jmabel, Leuk2, Nopira,
TomAlt, Wiiii
File:Exeter library interior.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Exeter_library_interior.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Rohmer at
en.wikipedia
File:Salk_Institute_Panorama.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Salk_Institute_Panorama.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:Farwestern
File:Magnify-clip.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnify-clip.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Erasoft24
Image:Louis Kahn Memorial Park.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louis_Kahn_Memorial_Park.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: user:evrik
File:Yale University Art Gallery entrance.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yale_University_Art_Gallery_entrance.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Bilpen, Ragesoss, Vincent Steenberg
File:Triangle-ceiling.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Triangle-ceiling.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Astarikov
File:YUAG stairwell.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:YUAG_stairwell.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Highpriority, Ragesoss, Vincent Steenberg
File:Trenton Bath House-Model-Program and Volume-Roof with Sheathing 2.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trenton_Bath_House-Model-Program_and_Volume-Roof_with_Sheathing_2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Uograd
File:Wharton Esherick House & Studio, 1520 Horsehoe Trail, Malvern (Chester County, Pennsylvania).jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wharton_Esherick_House_&_Studio,_1520_Horsehoe_Trail,_Malvern_(Chester_County,_Pennsylvania).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
Unknown, Photographer,
File:WTP2 Mike Reali 01d.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WTP2_Mike_Reali_01d.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Michael E Reali
Jr (Wiki Takes Philadelphia 2 participant)
File:Kahn - Rochester Sanctuary.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kahn_-_Rochester_Sanctuary.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was
Jimbo35353 at en.wikipedia
Image:Iima panorama complex.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Iima_panorama_complex.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Zenmaster
File:Yale Center for British Art.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yale_Center_for_British_Art.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bilpen, Ragesoss, Wiiii
File:Frank Lloyd Wright LC-USZ62-36384.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frank_Lloyd_Wright_LC-USZ62-36384.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
Awadewit, Dogears, Frank C. Müller, Tom
Image:Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio (west side zoom).JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frank_Lloyd_Wright_Home_and_Studio_(west_side_zoom).JPG
 License: unknown  Contributors: User:Kalmia
Image:Oak Park Il Walter Gale House4.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oak_Park_Il_Walter_Gale_House4.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5
 Contributors: User:IvoShandor
Image:William H. Winslow House Front Facade.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_H._Winslow_House_Front_Facade.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Oak Park Cycle Club
image:Frank LLoyd Wright Studio Chicago Frontage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frank_LLoyd_Wright_Studio_Chicago_Frontage.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Zol87 (Jeff Zoline) from Chicago, IL, USA
Image:Darwin D. Martin House.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Darwin_D._Martin_House.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Davepape
Image:Taliesin600.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taliesin600.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Original uploader was Jeff dean at en.wikipedia
File:Taliesin-aerial-600.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taliesin-aerial-600.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: Original uploader was Jeff dean at en.wikipedia
Image:FallingwaterWright.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FallingwaterWright.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Serinde
Image:Guggenheim museum exterior.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Guggenheim_museum_exterior.jpg  License: Trademarked  Contributors: Conscious, Dogears,
Fred J, Gaf.arq, Nilfanion, Paul Richter, Rei-artur, Rlbberlin, TomAlt, Yarl, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Price tower.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Price_tower.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Emersonbiggins85 at en.wikipedia
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 146

Image:Imperial Hotel FFW 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Imperial_Hotel_FFW_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gryffindor, WTCA
File:Frank Lloyd Wright family in 1957.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frank_Lloyd_Wright_family_in_1957.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Michael A.
Vaccaro for LOOK Magazine
Image:Frank Lloyd Wright portrait.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frank_Lloyd_Wright_portrait.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: New York World-Telegram
and the Sun staff photographer: Al Ravenna
Image:RobieHouseWindows ChicagoIL.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RobieHouseWindows_ChicagoIL.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Cervin Robinson
Image:FrankLloydWright1966USstamp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FrankLloydWright1966USstamp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Butko, Frode
Inge Helland, Infrogmation, Kilom691, Man vyi, NYCRuss, Nonenmac, Stan Shebs, Ww2censor
Image:2010-04-10 3000x2000 oakpark nathan g moore.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2010-04-10_3000x2000_oakpark_nathan_g_moore.jpg  License: Attribution
 Contributors: user:Jcrocker
Image:Robie House.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robie_House.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Rdsmith4
Image:Taliesinpan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Taliesinpan.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Robert Finlay Pabobfin
Image:FLW Gammage Auditorium ASU PHX AZ 20186.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FLW_Gammage_Auditorium_ASU_PHX_AZ_20186.JPG  License:
Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Wars
Image:Bauhaus.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bauhaus.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mewes in de-Wikipedia
Image:Monument to the March dead.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Monument_to_the_March_dead.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gerardus,
Mcginnly, Most Curious
Image:BauhausType.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BauhausType.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: GearedBull, Kenmayer, 2
anonymous edits
Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Atelier.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bauhaus-Dessau_Atelier.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Achim Hering, Bohème,
Cethegus, Mogelzahn, Shaqspeare, ShingBoning, TomAlt, 4 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Germany.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Germany.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Madden, User:Pumbaa80, User:SKopp
File:Weimarbauhaus6.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Weimarbauhaus6.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Hans Weingartz.
Original uploader was Leonce49 at de.wikipedia
Image:Bauhaus Dessau,Gropiusallee.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bauhaus_Dessau,Gropiusallee.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: M_H.DE
Image:Bauhaus Chemnitz hb.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bauhaus_Chemnitz_hb.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Hbar.cc
Image:84 Rothschild Boulevard Engel House by David Shankbone.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:84_Rothschild_Boulevard_Engel_House_by_David_Shankbone.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:DavidShankbone
Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Festsaal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bauhaus-Dessau_Festsaal.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cethegus, Shaqspeare,
TomAlt, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Festsaal Bühnenbeleuchtung.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bauhaus-Dessau_Festsaal_Bühnenbeleuchtung.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Cethegus, Shaqspeare, TomAlt, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Wohnheim Balkone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bauhaus-Dessau_Wohnheim_Balkone.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
Alma, Cethegus, Infrogmation, Ronaldino, Shaqspeare, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Fensterfront.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bauhaus-Dessau_Fensterfront.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cethegus,
MB-one, Man vyi, Palamède, Ronaldino, Shaqspeare, 3 anonymous edits
Image:Mensa Bauhaus Dessau.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mensa_Bauhaus_Dessau.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Borowski, Kresspahl, 3
anonymous edits
File:Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Steven Andrew Miller
Image:Villa Tugendhat front.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Villa_Tugendhat_front.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Diligent, Gryffindor, JCBrunner,
7 anonymous edits
File:2004-09-02 1580x2800 chicago IBM building.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2004-09-02_1580x2800_chicago_IBM_building.jpg  License: Attribution
 Contributors: user:Jcrocker
Image:860-880 Lake Shore Drive.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:860-880_Lake_Shore_Drive.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: User:JeremyA
Image:TD Centre Toronto.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TD_Centre_Toronto.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
Angusmclellan, EPO, Ronaldino, Skeezix1000, TomAlt
File:MFAH.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MFAH.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: J Milburn, MFAH archives, Sfan00 IMG, VernoWhitney
Image:Mies van der Rohe headstone.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mies_van_der_Rohe_headstone.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
 Contributors: User:Night Ranger
Image:Stamps of Germany (Berlin) 1986, MiNr 753.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stamps_of_Germany_(Berlin)_1986,_MiNr_753.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: Deutsche Bundespost Berlin
Image:MLK Library.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MLK_Library.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Monack
Image:Berlin Neue Nationalgalerie June 2002.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Berlin_Neue_Nationalgalerie_June_2002.jpg  License: Creative Commons Sharealike
1.0  Contributors: User:K.lee
Image:Mies van der Rohe Residential District.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mies_van_der_Rohe_Residential_District.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: CarolSpears, EPO, Xnatedawgx
Image:Lafayette Pavillion Apartments.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lafayette_Pavillion_Apartments.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: CarolSpears, EPO, KrakatoaKatie, TomAlt, Xnatedawgx, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Toronto Dominion Centre logo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Toronto_Dominion_Centre_logo.png  License: unknown  Contributors:
User:BetacommandBot, User:Cydebot, User:MBisanz, User:Miesianiacal, User:Themepark
Image:TDCenter shopping concourse near Canoe elevators.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TDCenter_shopping_concourse_near_Canoe_elevators.jpg  License:
Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Original uploader was Mikerussell at en.wikipedia
Image:King and Bay.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:King_and_Bay.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Leslie, Skeezix1000, Themedpark
Image:Crown_Hall_060514.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crown_Hall_060514.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
JeremyA, TomAlt
Image:HighfieldHouse_2008.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HighfieldHouse_2008.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:BalPhoto
Image:Barcelona_mies_v_d_rohe_pavillon_weltausstellung1999_03.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Barcelona_mies_v_d_rohe_pavillon_weltausstellung1999_03.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Elsapucai, Gaf.arq,
Ikiwaner, Mastacheata, Shaqspeare, Tmv23, Toutíorîx, Wiiii, Wst
Image:CHICAGOSSA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CHICAGOSSA.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Crimsonmaroon at
en.wikipedia
Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H29710, Berlin-Friedrichsfelde, Revolutionsdenkmal.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-H29710,_Berlin-Friedrichsfelde,_Revolutionsdenkmal.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Erik Warmelink, FRZ,
Gödeke, Mutter Erde, NSK Nikolaos S. Karastathis, Xenophon
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 147

File:Le Corbusier 1933.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Le_Corbusier_1933.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: okänd

Image:CHF10 8 front.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CHF10_8_front.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 3122WIKI, Mattes, Scartol, Schutz, Szajci
File:Chandigarh High Court.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandigarh_High_Court.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: gb
pandey from chandigarh, India
Image:Modulor-Modulor2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Modulor-Modulor2.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Moe Epsilon, Sherool, Solipsist
File:Chandigarh Monument.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chandigarh_Monument.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
Aviad2001, FlickreviewR, Indianhilbilly, Mattes, Pruneau, Roland zh
File:National museum of western art01 1920.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:National_museum_of_western_art01_1920.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 2.5  Contributors: 663highland
File:Zürich - Seefeld - Corbusier - Heidi Weber Museum IMG 1552.JPG  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Zürich_-_Seefeld_-_Corbusier_-_Heidi_Weber_Museum_IMG_1552.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:Roland zh
File:Secretariat.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Secretariat.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: duncid
File:VillaSavoye.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VillaSavoye.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Valueyou
Image:Colaba apartments.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colaba_apartments.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Belasd, Ekabhishek,
FlickreviewR, Nilfanion, Ranveig, Roland zh
File:ImperialMumbai.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ImperialMumbai.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:
User:KuwarOnline
File:Dypatil 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dypatil_01.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Jaxer
File:Antoni Gaudi 1878.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antoni_Gaudi_1878.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Docu, Lupo
File:Casa Milà - Barcelona, Spain - Jan 2007.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Casa_Milà_-_Barcelona,_Spain_-_Jan_2007.jpg  License: Creative Commons
Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Diliff
File:Sagradafamilia-overview.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sagradafamilia-overview.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
User:Montrealais
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May 2008 (UTC)
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Image:Tour Eiffel 1878.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tour_Eiffel_1878.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anonyme / Unknown
Image:02192w08.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:02192w08.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Engineering. The Paris Exhibition, May 3, 1889 (Vol.
XLVII). London : Office for Advertisements and Publication.
File:Vue Lumière No 992 - Panorama pendant l'ascension de la Tour Eiffel (1898).ogv  Source:
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