Steel Beam-Column Connections Designed For Robustness

STEEL BEAM-COLUMN CONNECTIONS
DESIGNED FOR ROBUSTNESS
Dissertation submitted as part requirement for the Degree of Master of Science in

Structural Engineering
By
Vishal Krishnan
Supervisor:
Dr Buick Davison
The University of Sheffield

Department of Civil and Structural Engineering
September 2009
Declaration
DECLARATION
Vishal Krishnan, certifies that all the material contained within this document is his own
work except where it is clearly referenced to others.
(Signature)
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
Robustness of connections and structures has been a very keen area of research. Interest
in the subject was further advocated by the many disastrous events involving collapse of
buildings, which happened to occur. This dissertation investigates the behaviour of a
connection in the event of a dynamic event such as a progressive collapse. The study
compares a theoretical model of a connection, with a numerical model subjected to static
and dynamic loading.
A Finite Element Model of a flexible end-plate connection was used as the subject of
analysis. In order to perform the analysis the FEA package, ABAQUS was used. The 3D
model portrayed all surface interactions and properties of material non-linearity.
Presently the design codes make available certain provisions although not descriptive, to
determine the design tying resistance. The analysis consisted of determination of the
theoretical tying force of a flexible end-plate connection. A static analysis was
performed on the numerical model in order to validate the theoretical representation of
the connection model. An explicit dynamic solution was opted in order to analyse the
quasi-static process that was simulated in ABAQUS.
The analyses were performed by imposing various loads at different instances as tying
forces on the connection. It concluded that the tying resistance the numerical model
could provide under static loading was far greater than the value of design tying
resistance established by the present design rules. On proceeding to a dynamic analysis
at the same load instances it was found that the connection model underwent further
deformation than the static load case.
Thus it can be suggested from the analysis that although the present design provisions
cater for a static event the same cannot be considered as a satisfactory means of design
in the event of a progressive collapse.
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Acknowledgement
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am sincerely grateful to Dr Buick Davison for providing me this opportunity to work
on this dissertation. I am also thankful for his kind support and supervision during my
period of study.
Also, heartfelt gratitude towards Mr Ying Hu for his technical support which was most
helpful during the software analysis conducted for this dissertation.
Finally, I would like to thank my family and friends for their love and support.
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<Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration .................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................iii
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................ iv
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... v
Table of Figures ............................................................................................................. x
List of Tables .............................................................................................................. xiii
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................. 1
1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Aims and objectives ......................................................................................... 2
1.1.1 Aims ......................................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Objectives ................................................................................................. 2
1.2 Methodology ................................................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Review existing design methods ............................................................... 3
1.2.2 Capacity of design method ........................................................................ 3
1.2.3 Analysis .................................................................................................... 3
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<Table of Contents
1.2.4 Comparison of results ............................................................................... 4
1.3 Dissertation outline .......................................................................................... 4
1.3.1 Chapter 1 .................................................................................................. 4
1.3.2 Chapter 2 – Literature review .................................................................... 4
1.3.3 Chapter 3 – Description of the model ........................................................ 4
1.3.4 Chapter 4 – Analysis ................................................................................. 4
1.3.5 Chapter 5 – Results ................................................................................... 4
1.3.6 Chapter 6 – Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................... 5
CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................. 6
2 Literature Review ................................................................................................... 6
2.1 General terms .................................................................................................. 6
2.1.1 Robustness................................................................................................ 6
2.1.2 Progressive collapse.................................................................................. 7
2.1.3 Disproportionate collapse ......................................................................... 7
2.1.4 Tying ........................................................................................................ 8
2.1.5 Relevant events and findings................................................................... 10
2.1.6 Progressive collapse findings .................................................................. 13
2.2 Present advancement in research .................................................................... 14

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2.2.1 Robustness rules ..................................................................................... 15
2.3 Connections ................................................................................................... 16
2.3.1 Connection types .................................................................................... 17
2.3.2 Behaviour of connections and experimental investigations ...................... 20
2.4 Design approach to connections ..................................................................... 27
2.4.1 Indirect design ........................................................................................ 28
2.4.2 Direct design .......................................................................................... 28
2.4.3 Missing member strategy ........................................................................ 29
2.5 Scope of Eurocode (EN 1991-1-7) ................................................................. 29
CHAPTER 3 ................................................................................................................ 32
3 Numerical Model .................................................................................................. 32
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 32
3.2 Components and Material properties .............................................................. 33
3.3 Design Features and considerations ................................................................ 35
3.4 Connection details ......................................................................................... 36
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................ 37
4 Analysis ................................................................................................................ 37
4.1 Methodology of analysis ................................................................................ 37

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<Table of Contents
4.2 Design tying resistance .................................................................................. 38
4.2.1 Bolts in tension ....................................................................................... 40
4.2.2 End-plate in bending ............................................................................... 42
4.2.3 Supporting column flange in bending ...................................................... 46
4.2.4 Supporting column web in bending ......................................................... 46
4.2.5 Beam web in tension ............................................................................... 47
4.3 Static Analysis ............................................................................................... 48
4.4 Dynamic Analysis .......................................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................ 52
5 Results .................................................................................................................. 52
5.1 Theoretical Analysis ...................................................................................... 52
5.2 Static Analysis ............................................................................................... 52
5.2.1 Axial Displacement ................................................................................ 52
5.3 Dynamic Analysis .......................................................................................... 55
5.3.1 Axial Displacement ................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER 6 ................................................................................................................ 58
6 Conclusions And Recommendations ..................................................................... 58
6.1 Static Resistance ............................................................................................ 58

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6.2 Dynamic Resistance ....................................................................................... 60
6.3 Tying Resistance and connection geometry .................................................... 63
6.4 Recommendations.......................................................................................... 64
Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 65
APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................. 70
A.1 Static tying resistance (Calculation sheet) .......................................................... 70
A.1.1 Bolts in tension ....................................................................................... 72
A.1.2 End-plate in bending ............................................................................... 73
A.1.3 Supporting column web in bending ......................................................... 75
A.1.4 Beam web in tension ............................................................................... 76
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Table of Figures
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure ‎2.1: Horizontal tying force ................................................................................. 9
Figure ‎2.2 Ronan Point – Partially Collapsed ............................................................... 11
Figure ‎2.3: Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building – Collapsed North Side ........................ 12
Figure ‎2.4: Robustness rules – concept ......................................................................... 16
Figure ‎2.5: Shear end-plate connection......................................................................... 17
Figure ‎2.6: Double angle connection ............................................................................ 18
Figure ‎2.7: Extended end-plate connection ................................................................... 19
Figure ‎2.8: Experimental setup ..................................................................................... 21
Figure ‎2.9: Failure modes of Owens and Moore‟s tests ................................................ 22
Figure ‎2.10: Apparatus used in experiment .................................................................. 23
Figure ‎2.11: Experimental setup ................................................................................... 24
Figure ‎2.12: Component based model for flexible end-plate ......................................... 25
Figure ‎2.13: Force-displacement curve for each component ......................................... 26
Figure ‎3.1: Flexible end-plate model (FE model) ......................................................... 33
Figure ‎3.2 Components of the flexible end-plate connection model .............................. 34
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Table of Figures
Figure ‎3.3: Flexible end-plate connection details .......................................................... 36
Figure ‎4.1: Parameters and notations of an end plate .................................................... 39
Figure ‎4.2: Equivalent T-stub (dimensions) .................................................................. 42
Figure ‎4.3: Parameters of an equivalent T-stub............................................................. 43
Figure ‎4.4: Endplate model as separate T-stubs ............................................................ 43
Figure ‎4.5: Weld dimensions ........................................................................................ 45
Figure ‎4.6: Structural integrity – end plate connecting to a column .............................. 46
Figure ‎4.7: Static load applied on the flexible end-plate connection model ................... 48
Figure ‎4.8: Static response at 250kN ............................................................................ 49
Figure ‎4.9: Dynamic loading ........................................................................................ 50
Figure ‎4.10: Load pattern ............................................................................................. 50
Figure ‎4.11: Dynamic response at 250kN (at t 1=1ms) ................................................... 51
Figure ‎5.2: Static Response at 300kN ........................................................................... 54
Figure ‎5.5: Dynamic Response at 250kN ..................................................................... 55

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Table of Figures
Figure ‎6.1: Static Response at different load conditions ............................................... 58
Figure ‎6.3: Dynamic response at different load conditions ........................................... 60
Figure ‎6.4: Dynamic response at 450kN ....................................................................... 61
Figure ‎6.5: Static and dynamic response at 300kN ....................................................... 61
Figure ‎6.6: Static and dynamic response at 400kN ....................................................... 62
Figure ‎6.7: Static and Dynamic Response at 450kN ..................................................... 62
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List of Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table ‎3.1: Material properties ...................................................................................... 34
Table ‎4.1: Design resistance for bolts and rivets subjected to tension or shear .............. 41
Table ‎4.2: Design resistance ......................................................................................... 44
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CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
In the past, there have been various events such as the Ronan Point collapse (London) on
16th May 1968 and the collapse of the Alfred P. Murrah building (Oklahoma city, April
1995). Events such as these have known to have claimed many lives and injured several
others. This happened to result in a widespread awareness among many and invoked the
need for research and study in order to develop methods that can avoid disasters such as
these. The main objective is the safety of the people, who maybe the occupants of the
building or those around that can be affected by the collapse of the building.
A particular interest of research has been towards progressive collapse of structures,

which refer to global failure of the building that is caused by a local damage in the
structure. This chain reaction of failures leading to the Ronan point incident was of a
similar kind.
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Introduction
Such failures of connections and structures are possibly due to the customary method of
design and general norm to follow the known regulations without considering drastic
effects of such low probability. This along with the accountability of present rules and
adequacy of various considerations may be a key reason.
Connections on being made more robust pose another problem. Increasing strength may
lead to reduced ductility and hence possibility of brittle failure. Sufficient ductility is
necessary in order to ensure that fracture does not occur at any point of the connection
due to excessive deformation. It is then that the question arises whether a strong but
more brittle connection more robust than a weak ductile one?
Therefore in order to make connections more robust and less susceptible to failure due to
progressive collapse, there requires research in the subject.
1.1 Aims and objectives
1.1.1 Aims
 Review the need for robust designs considering already available sources and
previous literature
 Understand the theory of design and analyze the present rules provided for the
tying resistance of a connection
 Value the need for robustness and its effect on ductility of connections
1.1.2 Objectives
 Recognize the limitations of the current design methods

 To perform a theoretical analysis using present rules of design, followed by static
and dynamic analysis
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Introduction
 Examine the validity of the present design methods to model a connection in

terms of its tying force. Compare the results to the static and dynamic analysis
performed.
 Analyse the results and the influence of connection geometry in affecting the
tying resistance.
1.2 Methodology
In order to attain the above aims and objectives the following methodology of research
and analysis were adopted.
1.2.1 Review existing design methods
This included an extensive research in regard to the present available methods of design
and existing proposed theories. Comparisons between conclusions drawn by various
articles and references were made. This is effectively an elaborate literature review on
the subject.
1.2.2 Capacity of design method
Using the present rules of design determination of the „Tying resistance‟ of a simple
end-plate connection was made.
1.2.3 Analysis
With the help of a numerical model (using ABAQUS) validity of the present theoretical
design model was established. The finite element model was used to perform a static and
dynamic analysis.
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Introduction
1.2.4 Comparison of results
The results of the static and the dynamic analysis were compared in order to establish
the validity of the present theoretical design model. This is further discussed in the light
of changing connection geometry in order to increase tying resistance of connections.
1.3 Dissertation outline
1.3.1 Chapter 1
This consists of a general introduction to the subject of the dissertation, aims and
objectives of the thesis and the methodology of research.
1.3.2 Chapter 2 – Literature review
This chapter consists of an elaborate literature review that discusses the need for
research in the area and the various events that led to it. It also progresses on to provide
an insight into previous research documentations.
1.3.3 Chapter 3 – Description of the model
The model that has been used to perform the analysis is shortly described. It illustrates
its features and the necessary assumptions that were made.
1.3.4 Chapter 4 – Analysis
The methodology of analysis and the procedure undertaken is explained. A detailed

explanation of the calculations and the analysis is done.
1.3.5 Chapter 5 – Results
The various outputs and results obtained from the FE analysis are shown. Graphs
denoting the static and dynamic responses are plotted and displayed.
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Introduction
1.3.6 Chapter 6 – Conclusions and Recommendations
The results are closely analysed and conclusions to the software analysis carried out are
made. A discussion in the light of changing connection geometry to increase tying
resistance is made. Recommendations on plausible further research are made.
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CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
1.4 General terms
1.4.1 Robustness
The term robustness can be defined as,
“The ability of a structure to withstand events like fire, explosions, impact or the
consequences of human error, without being damaged to an extent disproportionate to
the original cause.” (BSEN 1990:2002)
It is also generally referred to as the insensitivity to local failure. Robustness is not only
associated with the structure itself but also considered an element of various indicators
such as risk, ductility, loads and resistances, occurrence probabilities of extraordinary
loads and exposure to the environment, structural monitoring and maintenance, and
general structural coherence (prEN 1991-1-7, 2003).
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Literature Review
It is the ability to survive a potentially damaging incident or exceptionally drastic event

without disproportionate loss of function (I Struct E, 2002). Thus in modern codes it
requires that the “consequences of damages to structures should not be disproportionate
to the cause of the damage”. Robustness is essentially covered by two Eurocodes, EN
1990: Eurocode: Basis of Structural Design and EN 1991-1-7 Eurocode 1: Part 1-7
Accidental Actions that speak about methods to achieve robustness and the various
actions to consider (Gulvanessian & Vrouwenvelder, 2006). Thus the term can be
summarized as the capacity of a structure to withstand load (that may be even unusual or
extraordinary in nature).
1.4.2 Progressive collapse
“It is a chain reaction of failures following damage to a relatively small portion of a

structure. The damage resulting from progressive collapse is disproportionate to the
damage that initiated the collapse” (BSEN 1990:2002)
“Progressive collapse denotes an extensive structural failure initiated by local

structural damage, or a chain reaction of failures following damage to a relatively small
portion of a structure. This can be also characterized by the loss of load-carrying
capacity of a relatively small portion of the structure due to an abnormal load which, in
turn, triggers a cascade of failures affecting a major portion of the structures.”
(Krauthammer, 2002)
One of the key reasons to develop interest in this area was the Ronan Point collapse in
London in 1968.
1.4.3 Disproportionate collapse
“A building which is susceptible to disproportionate collapse is one where the effects of

accidents and, in particular, situations where damage to small areas of structure or
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Literature Review
failure in single elements could lead to collapse of major parts of the structure”
(ANON, Structure, 2007).
Requirements in regulations were introduced after the collapse of Ronan Point in 1968.
The Building Regulations now require the design to be such that it avoids such disasters.
Progressive collapse as a phenomenon is not explicitly mentioned in the regulations.
But, a building that is vulnerable to progressive collapse will almost definitely result in a
disproportionate collapse. The collapse of Ronan Point was both progressive as well as
disproportionate.
It is stated according to requirement A3 of Approved document A of Building

Regulations that,
“The building shall be constructed so that in the event of an accident the building will
not suffer collapse to an extent disproportionate to the cause” (Way, 2004).
An approach is to ensure whole frame action by providing both horizontal and vertical
tying of the frame elements (Way, 2004)
1.4.4 Tying
Clause 2.4.5.2 of BS 5950 states that Tying of Buildings should be applied to buildings
of all kinds. It recommends the following
 Columns are to be tied at approximate right angles, at each principle floor level.
 All ties and end connections along the edges of the building and along each
column line should be able to resist a factored tensile load of at least 75kN
 Horizontal ties (represented in Figure 2.1) are also to be provided at roof level.
But in cases where only imposed roof loads and wind loads are present and
where steelwork only supports cladding that weighs more than 0.7kN/m2 it may
not be necessary.
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Literature Review
The standard robustness measures state that connections should resist certain factored
tensile loads that are (Moore, 2002):
 Internal ties: 0.5(1.4gk + 1.6qk)stL

 Edge ties: 0.25(1.4gk + 1.6qk)stL
Where, gk – dead load per unit area
L – span
qk – imposed load per unit area
St – mean transverse spacing of the ties adjacent to that being checked.
It is to be noted that for both the ties the tensile capacity should not be less than 75kN.
Figure 0.1: Horizontal tying force (Gozzi & Uppfeldt, 2005)
There are two main objectives to horizontal tying. They are,
 General ties, to provide catenary action when a support fails.

 Column ties, to prevent columns becoming detached from the floor or roof they
are supporting.
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Literature Review
The general system is to use steel members as ties. It is necessary to use tie members
between frames, as it was traditionally done in order to obtain lateral restraint to the
columns. Generally they require being such that they restrain the column in two
directions. If not connected directly they should be as close to them as possible.
Currently the requirements relate to all buildings as opposed to the previous limit that
was to buildings of five or more storeys only. Usually the end connections of the
members provided are more than necessary, but tying checks are made as an alternative
to normal loads.
“Also, gross deformations under load are no problem when resisting accidental damage
so it should rarely be necessary to increase sizes of cleats, or other connection material
such as end plates, to cater for tying forces.” (AD063, SCI Advisory Desk, 2009)
It is stated that,
“The ties and their end connections should be of a standard of robustness commensurate
with the structure of which they form a part.” (AD 131, SCI Advisory Desk, 2009).
Recently there has been a lot of development that corresponds to structural integrity.
1.4.5 Relevant events and findings
A few events of extremely disastrous effects have resulted in the need to reconsider
certain norms of the past. These events generally referred to as progressive or
disproportionate collapses were responsible to trigger a major interest toward research
and study in order to avoid such collapses. Some of these prominent events are discussed
below.
1.4.5.1 Ronan Point, London 1968
Ronan Point was constructed in the West Ham region of East London. It was a 22-storey
block constructed using a technique known a Large Panel System building (LPS) that
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Literature Review
involved using precast wall and floor units. The prefabricated units were picked up by
crane, positioned and held together by bolts. In the event of a gas explosion that
happened to occur on the 18th floor, the connections between the wall and floor failed
that the wall units fell apart. Thus the rest could not support the slab and the falling slabs
contributed to the failure of the ones below as well. Thus it resulted in a progressive
collapse throughout until the ground floor instead of the failure being confined to just
the floor where the explosion had occurred (shown in Figure 2.2). Four people were
killed in the incident and seventeen injured.
Figure 0.2 Ronan Point – Partially Collapsed (Wikipedia)
The incident led to the phenomenon of progressive collapse to be taken on a serious note
among many. It called for serious investigation into the subject and study in order to
avoid further events as drastic as this (Campbell, 2001).
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Literature Review
1.4.5.2 Murrah Building, Oklahoma city 1995
Another incident of a similar category occurred on the 19th April 1995, due to the
explosion of a truck loaded with explosives, parked outside the Alfred P. Murrah federal
building in Oklahoma City. It resulted in the collapse of a large part of the nine-storey
building along with causing damages to buildings that were in the same complex, and
168 casualties (Tang, et al., 2006) It was estimated that the progressive collapse of the
building contributed to most of the damage that was seen (Prendergast, 1995). The
building collapsed with eight bays along the north face and two bays along the south
face. It suggested that the damage was made more severe as the result of the progressive
collapse rather than the explosion itself (I Struct E, 2002).
Figure 0.3: Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building – Collapsed North Side (Caruso, K.)
Other major events of international attention were the World Trade Centre towers
incident, New York, 2001 and the Manchester City Centre disaster in 1996.
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Literature Review
1.4.6 Progressive collapse findings
Following events such as the Ronan point incident and the Alfred P. Murrah building the
phenomenon was put in the spotlight, various research ideas have been proposed by
many. Usually, buildings should be safe by all means, and in case of any accident should
retain structural integrity. The intension being that the building should be such that it
may be prevented from posing a threat to the safety of people as a result of various
issues such as,
 Loadings
 Collapse or deformations
 Stability of the buildings and other buildings in the vicinity
 Environmental exposure or effects
 Details of construction
 Safety factors
For events such as gas explosions and attacks on civilian buildings, even though
provisions do exist, the importance given is far less due to assumed “low probability” of
its occurrence. It is evident from previously explained scenarios of disastrous events that
the collapse is initiated by the loss of structural integrity in a part of the structure mainly
due to the weakness of the connection between the members.
Therefore a new standard was introduced in the United Kingdom,
“Every building must be designed and constructed in such a way that in the event of
damage occurring to any part of the structure of the building the extent of any resultant
collapse will not be disproportionate to the original cause.” (ANON., 2007)
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Literature Review
1.5 Present advancement in research
A common conclusion to all the research and investigations that followed the various
drastic events were that in order to avoid such collapses, there should be provision for
construction of structures that are more robust in nature.
Post the twin tower incident it was stated that,
“It is insufficient merely to tie structural elements together. Tying alone does not
inherently provide a ductile structure or one with good energy absorption capability” (I
Struct E, 2002)
The National Institute of standards and Technology (NIST) in the year 2005 submitted a
report post the September 9/11 incident that summarized, as much as thirty
recommendations for actions in various areas of work among which included increasing
structural integrity and improving procedures and practises (Gustafon, et al., 2005).
Moreover, now it has also been suggested that robustness can be achieved by allowing
absorption of energy. The role of connections in the same is very significant. Failure of
connections jeopardizes the safety levels that we wish to maintain.
The mechanism of load transfer in damaged structures and the ability of connections to
sustain loads in extreme events remains a key research area. Building codes do not
provide sufficient guidance on achieving robustness even though they advice engineers
to ensure that collapse do not occur. Thus to enhance robustness in structures and
improve structural integrity the following are recommended (Davison & Tyas, 2005):
 Applying prescriptive design and detailing rules that provide acceptable

robustness for the structure.
 Designing key members to withstand accidental actions.
 Accepting localized failure and ensuring that integrity of rest of the structure is
not comprised (the alternate load path method)
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Literature Review
Various other important principles are needed to develop this field of research
considering progressive and disproportionate collapse.
“Analytical tools to support performance-based engineering design of buildings for

extreme events, and in particular for combinations of events” (I Struct E, 2002)
To improve ductility based on parametric studies it is stated that,
“Connections performance under impact loads and during fire loads needs to be
analytically understood and quantified for improved design capabilities and
performance as critical components in structural frames” (FEMA/ASCE, 2002)
It is also required to develop tools and analysis methods to analyze members and
connections for engineers and designers (FEMA/ASCE, 2002).
1.5.1 Robustness rules
Generally robustness rules mean for the safety in the case of a collapse by requiring the
columns to be tied to the rest of the structure. This is to prevent the removal of columns
and to promote catenary action of beams in the case of an event such as the Ronan point
and others where the floor could not be supported by the members below that initiated a
progressive collapse. The concept of robustness rules is depicted in Figure 2.4, even
though the same is not recommended in the design procedures presently. Thus they are
more of a prescriptive nature than design recommendations that propose to create
structures that perform satisfactorily in the case of such drastic events, rather than well
defined systems of structural mechanics. In other words, it is acceptable that there may
be a permanent deformation of the members and connections, thus not necessarily
availing the structure to be still serviceable but preventing an initiated progressive
collapse to cause complete damage to a structure (Brown, et al., 2004).
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Literature Review
Figure 0.4: Robustness rules – concept (Brown, et al., 2004)
1.6 Connections
Beam-to-column connections are an integral part of a structure. They provide the

necessary strength by linking primary parts of the rest of the structure. It plays vital role
in the load transfer path of a structure. Thus it contributes largely to the stability and
integrity of the structure. Generally connections are designed in order to allow transfer
of joint forces to which they are subjected. Welded connectors, plates, beam elements
and other associated components are also designed with respect to the design loads
(Fisher & Iwankiw, 2002). Nowadays bolt type fasteners are preferred over rivet type
(which were quite sort after initially). This is majorly due to the increasing awareness
toward the benefits of bolted and welded connections in terms of fabrication and
erection. Thus research in the area was also encouraged (Kulak, et al. 1987)
There are various types of steel connections that are mainly classified into two major
categories. These are simple connections and moment connections. Simple connections
are those which are considered to behave as nominally pinned; this implies that they do
not create significant moments. On the contrary moment connections are those
considered to have full moment resistance or transfer of moments. They are further sub
categorized based on other design considerations which are discussed further. (Way,
2004 & Sarraj, 2007). Beam-to-column connections behave differently under different
conditions. Various other parameters also affect their behaviour extensively.
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Literature Review
Investigations into these characteristics under varying parametric conditions or

configurations have been conducted over the years.
1.6.1 Connection types
1.6.1.1 Simple connections
Even though they are assumed to have no moment transfer, experimental results have
shown some amount of end beam moments. But these rotational restraints ignored,
generate results that can be considered satisfactorily conservative. Adequate ductility
and sufficient rotational ductility is the main purpose of shear connections (Green, et al.,
1986)
1.6.1.1.1 Shear end-plate connection
Shear end-plate connections consist of a plate welded at the end of the supported beam
web that is bolted or welded to the supporting member (as shown in Figure 2.5 below).
In these types of connections the end plate is to be limited within the vertical length of
the beam. They are in general simple to design but due to the fact that the detailed length
is to be contained by the supports, fabrication is to be done with care (Green, et al.,
1986).
Figure 0.5: Shear end-plate connection (Green, et al., 1986)
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Literature Review
1.6.1.1.2 Double-angle connection
Double-angle connections also referred to as a cleat connection are fabricated with two
angles. Each angle is on either side of the beam web. The leg that is connected to the
supported beam web is called the web-framing leg and the leg connected to the
supporting column is known as the outstanding leg (Gong, 2007). They are also termed
in-plane and out-of-plane legs respectively (Green, et al., 1986). The connection type
maybe all bolted or all welded. Sometimes they are welded onto the beam and bolted
onto the column or vice versa (in which case they are called “knife angle connection”)
(Gong, 2007). Figure 2.6 below portrays a double angle connection (all bolted)
Figure 0.6: Double angle connection
1.6.1.2 Moment connections
Moment connections, as mentioned previously allow transfer of moments from the

flanges of the supported beam to the supporting column member. They are considered
to have no rotation between the beam and column. They are further sub categorized as
Fully Restrained and Partially Restrained. The former assumes that the angles between
the members remain constant whereas the latter considers there to be some rotation
although there is a transfer of moments (Green, et al., 1986).
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Literature Review
1.6.1.2.1 Extended end-plate connection
Extended end-plates are similar in appearance to shear end plates except for the fact that
the depth of the plate is longer than that of the beam. Another variation is that it is
welded to the web as well as the flange of the supported beam. This plate is then bolted
to the supporting member (Green, et al., 1986). They are also classified as one where the
end plate is extended to the tension side and where the end plate is extended to both the
tension and the compression side (Sarraj, 2007). Figure 2.7 depicts an extended end-
plate.
Figure 0.7: Extended end-plate connection
1.6.1.2.2 Flush end-plate connection
Flush end-plate connections are connections where the beam to be supported is welded
onto the plate before bringing to the site. The weld is applied along the web and the
flanges (Sarraj, 2007). This component is then bolted to the flange of the column.
1.6.1.2.3 T-Stub connections
T-stub connections have two T sections that connect the supported beam on each flange
side. They maybe bolted or welded.
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Literature Review
1.6.2 Behaviour of connections and experimental investigations
Experimental work on behaviour of connections under various conditions and subject to

various loads such as axial force, bending moment and shear force has been very popular
among researchers. The use of equivalent models and comparison of analytical results
with numeric results have been a successful methodology. Flexural behaviour and
stability of connections have also been an engaging area of study. A very keen interest in
research has been toward the tying forces that act on connections, which have been
emphasised as horizontal tying forces in the Eurocodes.
Owens and Moore (1992) conducted experiments on the static behaviour of connections
and their robustness. They considered various types such as web cleat, end-plate and fin-
plate connections. It was concluded that connections possess an innate quality of
robustness toward progressive collapse of structures. Tests showed that the forces the
connections could withstand were far more than the currently recommended resistance
of 75kN.
The arrangement basically was the form of an inverted Tee to which axial load was
applied and the behaviour was observed. The load was applied co-liner to the centroid of
the connection. A 2500kN Avery testing machine was used for the purpose. The beam-
to-column connection varied depending on the type. The column was supported onto the
apparatus as shown in Figure 2.10.
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Literature Review
Figure 0.8: Experimental setup (Owens & Moore, 1992)
From the experimental findings it was suggested that the question of connections failing
in the case of progressive collapse is not of very much concern, but then during the event
of dynamic loading it may pose a further threat as the forces that are produced are far
larger than in the occurrence of a static impact. Thus it is necessary to look into the
validity of the requirement 0.5(1.4gk + 1.6qk)stL as stated by BS5950: Part 1 (Garcia,
2005).
Owens and Moore‟s (1992) result suggested there were two main categories of failure
that the endplate connection was subjected to. They were:
 Bearing failure of the endplate

 Fracture close to the toe of the weld
The experiment showed that specimens that were single bolted, yield lines formed
around the bolts portraying the first mode of failure. This is shown in Figure 2.11(a)
below whereas Figure 2.11(b) depicts the second mode of failure where yield lines
formed along the toes of the welds which mainly occurred in all multibolt pair type of
connections (Owens & Moore, 1992).
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Literature Review
(a) (b)
Figure 0.9: Failure modes of Owens and Moore’s tests (Owens & Moore, 1992)
The tests showed that there were large amounts of energy absorption as the connections
underwent sufficient plastic deformation before failure. Such behaviour of connections
suggested that the connections would act as a hindrance and help arrest collapse of a
structure, although they vary through connections at different levels of strength and
ductility. This in turn depended on the many parametric variations in connections
(Garcia, 2005).
Pretlove and Ramsden (1991) studied the effects of dynamic loading and its association
to progressive collapse. Their studies proved that there are cases where a structure may
be safe under static loading but unsafe under dynamic loading. In the event of a fracture
there may result in two possibilities, the complete drastic failure of the structure or an
arrest of the collapse (Pretlove, et al., 1991). They also reviewed the effect of the
premature failure of one member, on the rest of the members and the sequential failure
of members that may lead to an eventual arrest of the collapse or on the contrary a full
collapse of the structure.
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Literature Review
The experimental setup consisted of a free central mass connected to a fixed outer ring
by 12 tensioned spokes as shown in Figure 2.12 below. The model was relatively simple,
easy and safe to use in the laboratory.
(a) (b)
Figure 0.10: Apparatus used in experiment (Pretlove, et al., 1991)
The experimental setup compared the margin for the initiation of progressive collapse in
the case of static loading and dynamic loading in the event of the failure of one wire. In
the case of failure of one wire (say wire 1) it was noted that the mass moved upward
thus distributing the tension to the other wires. The tension was dispersed such that it
was relieved on the top and increased below the mass. The failure of another element or
wire would cause the further collapse of the whole model. It was concluded that in the
case of a structural event if the initial static load is not bearable by the structure it may
result in the failure of the rest of the members by initiation. This suggests that even
though the static loading is taken into consideration during design transient overloading
may affect the structure which initially would have been thought to be safe (Pretlove, et
al., 1991). This supports the previous suggestions that it is necessary to consider the
criticality of a dynamic event although it satisfies the conditions to be fulfilled in
preparing for a static event.
Ying Hu et al. (2009) conducted a study that involved the use of a component based
model in order to simulate the behaviour of connections. The method proved to be
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Literature Review
simple and flexible in nature with a commendable level of accuracy. The concept was to
separate the different active components that the connection constituted of and represent
them as non-linear springs. The components were separated based on three main aspects,
tension, compression and shear which were referred to as the three major zones of
deformation. These zones consisted of a number of basic spring components which
contribute to the overall behaviour of the connection (Hu, et al., 2009)
A number of tests were also performed on end-plates in order to produce experimental

data on the behaviour of the connections. The experiment, (set up as shown in Figure
2.13) showed that most of the failure modes corresponded to Owens and Moore‟s (1992)
second mode of failure i.e. by fracture close to the toe of the weld.
Figure 0.11: Experimental setup (Hu, et al., 2009)
The component based model (shown in Figure 2.14) that was proposed included all the
active components of the end-plate. The experiment suggested that the failure
mechanism is largely controlled by the weakest component of the model. It was found
that most of the failures occurred close to the toe of the weld before the first row of
bolts. Most of the deformation was caused by the elongation of the bolt and bending of
the end-plate.
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Literature Review
Spyrou et al. (2004) conducted an experiment on t-stubs that concluded that one of the
common modes of failure was the complete yielding of the flange, with the development
of four plastic hinges. Most of the results here showed this type of failure.
Figure 0.12: Component based model for flexible end-plate (AL-Jabri, et al., 2005)
L Simões da Silva and Ana Girão Coelho (2001) performed research on beam-to-
column connections by examining a model for the ductility of connections. The
proposed model basically followed the ideology put forth by the component based
method, i.e. representation of a connection with an assembly of springs or components
in series and parallel. The model was able to provide satisfactory analytical results that
were in tally with the numerical solutions, in-spite of the complexity that may be
generally encountered in such connections. The various components that are represented
are individually characterised by a bi-linear force-displacement curve as shown in Figure
2.15. Already existing experimental results of a flush end-plate beam-to-column
connection tested at the University of Innsbruck were taken to perform comparisons.
The non-linear analysis that was carried helped understand the response and the yield
points of individual components. The yielding happened to be in the order as column
flange first, then the end-plate and eventually the bolts. The analytical and numerical
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Literature Review
results showed an error of 2.04 % that was accepted and considered negligible (da Silva
& Coelho, 2001).
Figure 0.13: Force-displacement curve for each component (da Silva & Coelho, 2001)
Another aspect of modelling was developed by Ying Hu et al. (2008) that use cohesive
elements in order to understand the resistance and ductility of connections. It is a very
suitable method in order to perform studies on the tying resistance. The numerical model
was created with intricate features of contact surfaces or interactions. Since the
procedure involved an explicit dynamic procedure to analyse the particular quasi-static
simulations, it was an imperative measure to consider the shortest time period such that
the inertial forces still remain insignificant. Load-Rotation relationships were compared
based on the results from the finite element modelling and the experimental results at
hand. This proved to be quite in agreement to each other even though variety could not
be represented in a numerical model. Moreover, the model was able to make a judgment
as to the failure of the steel connections due to the rupture of the endplate (Hu Y. et al.,
2008).
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Literature Review
1.7 Design approach to connections
It is necessary that the connections perform efficiently under severe cases. This relates
directly to the robustness of the structure. Although not a primary requirement of
structural analysis, sufficient ductility is necessary in order to ensure that fracture does
not occur in any point of the connection due to excessive deformation.
Thus to avoid such collapses and failures the Steel Construction Institute states that,
“in structural steel connections where possible, frame connections should provide full
continuity, but all connections, whether fully rigid or nominally pinned, should exhibit
ductility when overloaded” (Yandzio & Gough, 2009).
There are certain recommendations that relate to the type of connection used. They are
(Yandzio & Gough, 2009):
 Welded connections: to mainly avoid brittle failure that result from high strains
an appropriate welding technique is required.
 Bolted connections: this arrangement would generally have a capacity greater
than the plastic moment of the attached beams; therefore the latter should be an
upper bound value.
 Fixed-ended connections: since the maximum moment and the maximum shear
act at the same point, it is often suggested to ensure that local or lateral buckling
is prevented.
Other precautions to be taken care of are,
 Make sure that the steel connections can withstand dynamic loads.
 It is able to withstand any load reversals imposed upon them.
 It is able to withstand a level of distortion without being susceptible to fracture.
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Literature Review
Thus nominally pinned connections need to be designed being able to carry reversal of
loading and imposed distortion (Bertagnoli, 2003). Such precautions and
recommendations allow the connections to be robust and thus prevent collapses by
retaining the structural integrity in cases of drastic events.
There are two approaches of design that have been suggested in order to reduce the risk
of collapse in buildings.
1.7.1 Indirect design
Indirect design approach allows developing “resistance to progressive collapse

by specifying a minimum level of strength, continuity, and ductility”
(Krauthammer, 2002). The method provides specified minimums for strength
and continuity, i.e. tie forces etc. thus developing a specific capacity of the
members. This supports the plausibility of an alternative load path in case of
failure of a particular part or member.
1.7.2 Direct design
Direct design approach considers resistance to be achieved by the structure‟s

ability to absorb damages that it may be subjected to. This method has been
further classified into the following (Krauthammer, 2002):
i. Specific local resistance method

This method provides the generally required strength to withstand
accidental loads, but a specific collapse initiating event is identified that a
resistance can be provided locally in reference to a specific limit state. It
is also known as “key element design” as the loss of an element or
structural member in such situations cannot be tolerated by the structure.
This is in the case where it is not checked for disproportionate collapse. It
is to be checked that whether the elimination of a member or element
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Literature Review
may lead to disproportionate collapse. If the case may be so then the

element is to be designed as a key element (BS 5950-1:2000).
ii. Alternate path method

This method relies mainly on continuity and ductility of the structure. It is
based on the ability of the structure to redistribute forces such that “an
alternate path” is taken in case of local failure. This avoids the need of
identifying the initiating collapse event as that of the formerly discussed
method. Thus it focuses on the damage after it has occurred irrespective
of what the cause may be.
1.7.3 Missing member strategy
This is a strategy criterion was first adopted by codes in the United Kingdom. The
method involves the use of calculations that consider a particular member to be missing,
performing a damage state analysis and then examining the ability of the structure to
withstand the load under gravity in spite of loss of a member. (Bertagnoli, 2003). This
strategy is not applied in the thought of reproducing a particular event or abnormal load
condition but just as a “load initiator” and helps bring redundancy to the structure
(ANON, Progressive collapse analysis and design guidelines for a new federal office
buildings and major modernization projects, 2003)
1.8 Scope of Eurocode (EN 1991-1-7)
The Eurocode can be referred to as set of technical rules on the basis of which structures
are designed in Europe. The standard prEN1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures (Part
1-7 Accidental actions) “provides rules for safeguarding buildings and other civil
engineering works against accidental actions. For buildings, EN 1991-1-7 also provides
strategies to limit the consequences of localized failure caused by an unspecified
accidental event.”
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Literature Review
It thus provides recommendations in order to avoid or reduce the accidental actions and
to designing the structure to withstand such an event, but it is not necessarily a clear
guidance in an event of a gas explosion (such as the Ronan Point incident), warfare,
terrorist attacks or a seismic event. These events are generally assumed to be of a low
probability.
But there are certain areas that promote the adoption of robustness strategies (given in
Annex A) to ensure that collapse does not occur due to localized failure, and that in the
event of such a failure, the collapse should not be disproportionate to the cause of the
localized failure.
The subjects that are in fact dealt with are:
 Impact
 Explosions (internal)
The following are the types of design situations that the standard identifies under
accidental design situations (prEN 1991-1-7, 2003),
1. Indentified causes
a. Accidental actions
Strategies –
 Preventing or reducing the action
 Design the structure to sustain the action
2. Unidentified causes
a. Localized failure
Strategies –
 Enhanced redundancy
 Key element designed to sustain notional
accidental action.
The EN 1991-1-7 adopts regulations to avoid disproportionate collapse. It states that,

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Literature Review
“designing the building such that neither the whole building nor a significant part
of it will collapse if localized damage were sustained, is an acceptable strategy for
ensuring that the structure is sufficiently robust to survive a reasonable range of
undefined accidental actions.”
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CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 3
NUMERICAL MODEL
1.9 Introduction
In order to perform the analysis an already existing three dimensional numerical model
of a flexible end plate was used. The model was created using the finite element
package, ABAQUS. It is an assembly created through various components that include
end-plate, beam, bolts, welds and column. The model shown below in Figure 3.1 is able
to simulate the various surface interactions and show connection behaviour and
response.
Numerical Model
Figure 0.1: Flexible end-plate model (FE model)
1.10 Components and Material properties
The different components of the model (shown in Figure 3.2) and their specifications are
as given below:
1. Beam - 305x165x40UB
2. Column - 254x254x89UC
3. Endplate - 200x150x10
4. Bolts - M20 Grade 8.8
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Numerical Model
Figure 0.2 Components of the flexible end-plate connection model
The beam and the end-plate sections are of steel S275 and the column section are of
S355. The material properties of the components have been tabulated in Table 3.1
Table 0.1: Material properties
Ultimate Young's
Yield Stress Density Poisson's
Component Material Stress Modulus
(N/mm2) (Kg/mm3) ratio
(N/mm2) (kN/mm2)
Beam S275 275 450 7.85E+12 205 0.3

Column S355 355 550 7.85E+12 205 0.3
End-plate S275 275 450 7.85E+12 205 0.3
Bolt 8.8 640 800 7.85E+12 205 0.3
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Numerical Model
1.11 Design Features and considerations
The finite element model and its components were basically of element type that is an
„eight-node continuum hexahedral brick element‟. This type of element has the ability of
demonstrating deformation of large proportions. It also displays non-linearity, both in
material and geometric characteristics. Another aspect of the element type used,
„C3D8R‟ is that it is conservative in nature in determining the behaviour of the
connection. A dense mesh was opted for the model in order to control the hourglass
modes (Hu, et al., 2008). Hourglass modes generally occur due to the lack of lateral
confinement that arises during the creation of the mesh.
The different contact areas were defined using the surface-to-surface interaction
(conditions of friction) between elements. These areas include areas between bolts, end-
plates and column flanges. It follows the process of assigning the different surfaces as
master and slave, where the master surface is generally a component of stronger material
or one with finer mesh (Hu, et al., 2008).
The solution that is applied to the numerical model is described as an explicit dynamic
procedure. This is relatively a preferred solution for quasi-static process such as this.
This is because of the benefits of an explicit dynamic solution over an implicit solution
in the case of a very long process such as a quasi-static process which may require
feasibly smaller time steps as opposed to the real time scale. Thus using an explicit
dynamic solution provides an accelerated event (Hu, et al., 2008).
Page | 35
Numerical Model
1.12 Connection details
The geometrical details of the numerical model of the flexible end-plate connection is
shown in Figure 3.3
Figure 0.3: Flexible end-plate connection details
Page | 36
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 4
ANALYSIS
1.13 Methodology of analysis
The analysis performed basically consisted of three parts. They are described shortly
below:
 Theoretical Analysis (Calculation of design tying resistance)

The present design considerations were taken into account in order to perform a
theoretical calculation to determine the tying resistance and create a design
model based on the provided provisions of the Eurocode EN1993-1-8
 Static Analysis
A static analysis was performed with predefined values of loading. The range of
loading was selected based on the calculated design tying resistance. This was
Page | 37
Analysis
done in order to validate the calculated design value and its coherence to the
analytical values.
 Dynamic Analysis
The connection was then subjected to dynamic loading. This was compared to
the results of the static loading, thus examining the safety of a statically designed
model under dynamic loading.
1.14 Design tying resistance
Based on EN1993-1-8, NCCI provides rules to determine the tying resistance of a partial
depth end-plate connection. The design model that has been considered refers to the case
of accidental limit state. As for tying resistance, EN1993-1-8 does not give any guidance
per se but since the failure modes are associated with the deformations and strains
produced, it is recommended that the ultimate tensile strengths (fu) be used (ANON.,
2009).
The tying resistance and the mode of failure is that particular value of the resistance and
mode that corresponds to the lowest resistance of all the modes of failure. The individual
resistances of the various modes of failure are denoted as given below,
Bolts in tension - NRd,u,1
End-plate in bending - NRd,u,2
Supporting member in tension - NRd,u,3
Beam web in tension - NRd,u,4
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Analysis
Figure 0.1: Parameters and notations of an end plate (ANON, 2009)
The notations and values of the parameters shown in Figure 4.1 (corresponding to the
model) are given below:
Depth of straight portion of the column web - dc
Diameter of hole - do
Width across the points of bolts head or nut - dw
Longitudinal edge distance (end-plate) - e1
Transverse edge distance (column flange) - e2
Ultimate tensile strength of bolt - e2,c
Ultimate tensile strength of supported beam - fu,b
Ultimate tensile strength of column - fu,b1
Ultimate tensile strength of end-plate - fu,c
Distance between bolt line and toe of the weld,
(Connecting the end-plate to beam) - fu,p
Height of end-plate - hp
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Analysis
Distance between bolt line and toe of the weld,
(Connecting the end-plate to beam) - mp
Total number of bolts - n
Number of horizontal rows of bolts - n1
Number of vertical lines of bolts - n2
Longitudinal bolt pitch - p1
Distance between cross centres of bolts - p3
Column flange thickness - tf,c
End plate thickness - tp
Thickness of supported beam web - tw,b1
Thickness of column web - tw,c
Partial factor for tying resistance - γM,u
1.14.1 Bolts in tension
The tying resistance is given by,
N Rd ,u ,1  nFt , Rd ,u (Equation 4.1)
The following Table 4.1 denotes the various modes of failure and respective design
resistances for fasteners.
Page | 40
Analysis
Table 0.1: Design resistance for bolts and rivets subjected to tension or shear (prEN 1991-1-8: 2003)
Failure mode Bolts Rivets
Shear resistance per shear  v f ub A Ft , Rd 

0.6 f ur A0
Ft , Rd 
 M2
plane
M2
where the shear plane passes
through the threaded portion of
the bolt (A is the tensile stress
area of the bolt As)
- for classes 4.6,5.6 and 8.8:
αv=0.5
where the shear plane passes
through the unthreaded portion
of the bolt (A is the gross cross
section of the bolt): αv=0.6
Bearing resistance
k1ab f u dt
Ft ,Rd 
M2
where αb is the smallest of αd; fub/fu or 1.0;
in the direction of load transfer:

for end bolts: αd=(e1/3d0); for inner bolts αd=(p1/3d0)-1/4
perpendicular to the direction of load transfer

for edge bolts: k1 is the smallest of (2.8 e2/d0-1.7) or 2.5
for inner bolts: k1 is the smallest of (1.4 p2/d0-1.7) or 2.5
Tension resistance
k 2 f ub As
Ft , Rd  Ft , Rd 
0.6 f ur A0
 Mu M2
where k2 = 0.63 for countersunk

bolt,
otherwise k2 = 0.9
Punching shear resistance Bp,Rd=0.6πdmtpfu/γM2 No check needed
Combined shear and Fv ,Ed F
tension  t ,Ed  1.0
Fv ,Rd 1.4 Ft ,Rd
Page | 41
Analysis
For the particular failure mode of bolts, the tension resistance is given as,
k 2 f ub As
Ft , Rd  (Equation 4.2)
 Mu
Where, k2 = 0.9 (for bolts other than countersunk bolts), and
As is the tensile stress are of the bolt
1.14.2 End-plate in bending
In the case of bolted connections, it may be assumed that for various parts such as the
end-plate in bending, the connection may be designed as an equivalent T-stub model.
Figure 0.2: Equivalent T-stub (dimensions) (prEN 1991-1-8: 2003)
Various considerations are taken into account while representing the connection as a T-
stub model in tension, in order to find the design resistance of the component. The mode
of failure and the design resistance of the component along with the associated bolts in
tension should be considered to be those of a T-stub connection. This is applicable for
both,
 Individual bolt-rows required to resist tension
Page | 42
Analysis
 Group of bolt-rows required to resist tension
Figure 0.3: Parameters of an equivalent T-stub (prEN 1991-1-8: 2003)
The group of bolt-rows on either side is considered as an individual T-stub. Thus the
design resistance is calculated for each individual equivalent T-stub. The dimension e min
can be obtained from Figure 4.3. The effective length is given as leff that is calculated
using the provisions for each bolt row. The variables m and mx can be obtained from
Figure 4.4
Figure 0.4: Endplate model as separate T-stubs
Page | 43
Analysis
Table 0.2: Design resistance at different modes of failure
Thus,
N  min( F ;F ) (Equation 4.3)

Rd ,u,2 Rd ,u,ep1 Rd ,u,ep 2
Hence, from the table 4.1, the different modes and design tension resistances are,
FT ,1, Rd 
8n  2e  M 
p w pl ,1, Rd
2m n  e m  n 
(Mode 1) (Equation 4.4)
p p w p p
And,
FT , 2, Rd 
2M pl, 2 , Rd  n p  Ft , Rd  (Mode 2) (Equation 4.5)
m p  np 
The modes of failure, Mode 1 represent complete yielding of the flange and Mode 2 bolt
failure with yielding of the flange.
Page | 44
Analysis
Where,
n p  min( e2 ; e2,c ;1.25m p ) (Equation 4.6)
( p3  t w,b1  2  0.8a 2 (Equation 4.7)

mp 
2
dw (Equation 4.8)
ew 
4
(dw is the width across the points of the bolt head)
For weld design (ANON, 2009) ,
The specification in the case of shear will be sufficient for the requirements of tying
resistance. Full strength double fillets are provided, and the welds are considered as side
fillet weld. The size of the weld throat „a‟ (shown in figure 4.2) conforms to the
conditions that follow:
Figure 0.5: Weld dimensions
a ≥ 0.38 tw,b1 (S235 beam) (Equation 4.8)
Page | 45
Analysis
The plastic moment resistance is given as,

2
1 hpt p f u , p
M pl,1, Rd ,u  M pl, 2, Rd ,u  (Equation 4.11)
4  M ,u
Thus from the previous section,
F t , Rd ,u  N Rd ,u ,1  nFt , Rd ,u (Equation 4.12)
1.14.3 Supporting column flange in bending
In this case the column flange is thicker than the end –plate, therefore this check is not
considered to be a requirement.
1.14.4 Supporting column web in bending
The tying resistance for this component is given as
8m pl, Rd ,u (Equation 4.13)

N Rd ,u ,3  (1  1.5(1  1 ) 0.5 (1   1 ) 0.5 )
(1  1 )
Figure 0.6: Structural integrity – end plate connecting to a column (SCI, 2006)
Page | 46
Analysis
This check is done usually in compliance with the structural integrity requirements. It is
to validate the tying capacity in the case of an axial compression in the column. The
basic requirement being that the „tie force‟ be less than the tying capacity of the column,
where the tying capacity is given by Equation 4.13 shown above (SCI, 2006)
The moment capacity is given as

2
1 f u ,c t w,c
m pl, Rd ,u  (Equation 4.14)
4  M ,u
And,
p3
1 
dc (Equation 4.14)
n1
(1  1) p1  d0
1  2 (Equation 4.15)
dc
do
1  (Equation 4.16)
dc
The factor 1.5 in Equation 4.13 is in order to incorporate an allowance for the axial
compression in the column.
1.14.5 Beam web in tension
The resistance is given as

t w,b1hp f u ,b1
N Rd ,u , 4 
 M ,u (Equation 4.17)
Thus the tying resistance is determined as the least value of resistance provided among
these components.
Page | 47
Analysis
1.15 Static Analysis
In order to compare to the theoretical design model and the design tying resistance a
static analysis on the numerical FEA model was performed. As the same model was
used for both the analyses the static load was imposed as a linear curve, which depicted
a dynamic force applied in a static condition. This was in the intention of saving time in
applying changes to the already available model although it increased analysis time. For
the analysis four predefined loads were assumed to which the connections were
subjected. The loads were applied at 250kN, 350kN, 400kN and 450kN. The loads were
applied uniformly at the beam end of the connection as depicted in Figure 4.2.
Figure 0.7: Static load applied on the flexible end-plate connection model
The setup up considered for the numerical analysis resembles Owens and Moore‟s
(1991) experimental setup where the load was applied co-linear to the connection. In this
analysis the load has been input in the form of load/surface area.
Page | 48
Analysis
For each load case that is applied, the static response was obtained and was compared to
the theoretical model. The response at 300kN is shown below in Figure 4.3.
Figure 0.8: Static response at 250kN
1.16 Dynamic Analysis
The same predefined loads were applied at different rates in order to perform a dynamic
analysis and observe the response of the model. An explicit dynamic solution was
applied to the quasi-static loading. The load pattern that was chosen was that of one that
is generally produced in the case of an accidental impact, as of a vehicular impact onto
an external column.
Page | 49
Analysis
Figure 0.9: Dynamic loading
The load is applied (as shown above in Figure 4.3) monotonically or linearly for a
particular duration and then a constantly at a peak value for the rest of the time duration
of the analysis. The load pattern is shown in Figure 4.5.
Figure 0.10: Load pattern
Page | 50
Analysis
The load is applied at different instances of time, i.e. the peak load is achieved at
different instances of time. In this analysis in order to compare different responses the
corresponding peak times (t1) at different instances are chosen at 1,10,100,1000
milliseconds. The time duration for the analysis varied from three to four days and it
seemingly increased with slower rates of loading. The dynamic response at 300kN load
at 1000 milliseconds is shown below in Figure 4.6.
Figure 0.11: Dynamic response at 250kN (at t1=1ms)
Page | 51
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 5
RESULTS
1.17 Theoretical Analysis
The design of the theoretical model concluded that the numerical model created has a
tying resistance of 270kN (Appendix A). Thus using the rules provided by the Eurocode
the connection would effectively be able to with stand such a force.
1.18 Static Analysis
Following the static analyses the subsequent results were obtained
1.18.1 Axial Displacement
The displacement measured at each static load condition was recorded (from ABAQUS)
and is shown in the stress vs. displacement graphs below. The displacement was
recorded at the centroid of the connection.
Results
250
200
Stress (N/mm2) 150
100
50
0
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Displacement (mm)
From Figure 5.1 it can be noticed that at the particular load condition of 250kN which is
smaller than the design static resistance that was found, the connection obviously
provides adequate resistance as expected. Moreover it is far larger than the
recommendations provided by the code that suggests it should be able to possess a tying
resistance of at least 75kN. Below are the responses at 300kN, 400kN and 450kN
respectively.
250
200
Stress (N/mm2)
150
100
50
0
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Displacement (mm)
Page | 53
Results
Figure 0.2: Static Response at 300kN
250
200
Stess (N/mm2)
150
100
50
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Displacement (mm)
300
250
Stress (N/mm2)
200
150
100
50
0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement (mm)
From the above Figures 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4, it can be seen that the response or the
displacements to the various load cases that have been considered is quite reasonable. At
Page | 54
Results
a load of 450kN the connection undergoes a maximum axial displacement to a value of

9.5 mm.
1.19 Dynamic Analysis
In order to validate the safety of a static design in the case of a dynamic event, the model
of end-plate connection was subjected to dynamic loading. The results of these tests at
various instances are shown below.
1.19.1 Axial Displacement
The following graphs depict the stress vs. displacement of the various load cases and
instances. Due to errors in the analysis results, certain load instances are not shown here.
250
200
Stress (N/mm2)
150
100 1ms
10 ms
50
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Displacement (mm)
Figure 0.5: Dynamic Response at 250kN
The above Figure 5.5 shows that on applying a tying force of 250kN dynamically there
seems to be a displacement up to 3.8 mm at the fastest rate of loading. The following
figures portray the response of the connection at further cases of loading.
Page | 55
Results
250
200
150
Stress (N/mm2)
100
1000 ms
50
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-50
Displacement (mm)
300
250
Stress (N/mm2)
200
150
10 ms
100
1000 ms
50
0
-5 0 5 10 15
Displacement (mm)
Page | 56
Results
350
300
Stress (N/mm2) 250
200
1 ms
150
10 ms
100
100 ms
50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Displacement (mm)
As it can be seen from the above graphs in Figures 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8 as the rates of
loading is increased there is evident increase in displacement of the connection..
Page | 57
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.20 Static Resistance
300
250
Stress (N/mm2)
200
450 kN
150
400 kN
100
300 kN
50 250 kN
0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10
Displacement (mm)
Figure 0.1: Static Response at different load conditions
Page | 58
Conclusions And Recommendations
On studying Figure 6.1 above it can be seen that various values of displacement at the
different loads may be acceptable considering the load applied. The provisions given
presently suggest a minimum tying resistance of 75kN. The theoretical analysis by
NCCI that follows the rules provided by the Eurocode assumes that the connection be
designed for a tying resistance of 270kN.
From figure 6.2 (ABAQUS screenshot), it can be observed the connection does not seem
to undergo a failure as portrayed through the experiments of Owens and Moore (1991)
even at a load of 450kN. The value is 60 % higher than the tying resistance that the
connection is expected to resist.
Thus it shows that the theoretical design model that the Eurocode provides is quite
adequate as the connection is able to withstand far higher loads or provide a much higher
resistance.
Page | 59
1.21 Dynamic Resistance
The figure 6.3 below shows the summary of the results depicted above
350
300
250
Stress (N/mm2)
200 450 kN
150 400 kN
100 300 kN
250 kN
50
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25
-50
Displacement (mm)
Figure 0.3: Dynamic response at different load conditions
For each load case it can be noted that the displacements are quite larger than as seen
before at any instance of load rates applied. The displacement in the case of the highest
load case values up to 19 mm that is very high in comparison to the static case. The
figure 6.4 below shows the dynamic response at a loading of 450kN in 1 millisecond.
Page | 60
Figure 0.4: Dynamic response at 450kN
The following graphs illustrate the comparison between the applied dynamic and static
load cases. Two instances viz. at 300 kN and 400 kN are shown below,
250
200
150
Stress (N/mm2)
100 Static load (300 kN)

Dynamic load (300 kN)
50
0
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-50
Displacement (mm)
Figure 0.5: Static and dynamic response at 300kN
Page | 61
300
250
200
Stress (N/mm2)
150
Static load (400 kN)
100 Dynamic load (400 kN)
50
0
-2 0 2 4 6 8
Displacement (mm)
Figure 0.6: Static and dynamic response at 400kN
In both the cases of loading it can be seen that (Figure 6.5 and 6.6), in the event of a
dynamic load (a scenario of a vehicular impact in this case) there is considerably larger
displacement. The Figure 6.7(a) showing the static impact and Figure 6.7(b) showing the
dynamic response, corroborates the fact that the tying resistance provided in the case of
a dynamic event is smaller than the resistance provided in a static condition of loading.
(a) (b)
Figure 0.7: Static and Dynamic Response at 450kN
Page | 62
Thus it can be concluded that even though the static load analysis results seem to
comply with the design values that were calculated theoretically, the dynamic case are
not in consistency with the expectations. In addition, a dynamic event is complicated in
terms of the varying results obtained at different rates of loading under the same load
case. Thus it implies that although the static design considerations that are made are
reliable in the event of a static failure of the connection, this cannot be considered a safe
design methodology in the event of a dynamic impact.
1.22 Tying Resistance and connection geometry
The robustness of a connection is crucially determined by the tying resistance of the

connection. In this dissertation it has been concluded that the static design procedure is
not a preferably safe design consideration to be applied in the case of a dynamic event.
Therefore it is necessary to increase the tying resistance of the connection in order to

render the connection robust in the occurrence of a dynamic event. It can be seen from
the design calculations in 4.2 (Calculations in Appendix A) that the tying resistance of
the connection depends invariably on the parameters of the connection viz. end-plate
thickness, number of bolts, throat weld, end-plate length etc. In order to increase the
tying resistance of the connection it is thus a favourable direction of research to change
connection geometry in order to increase the tying resistance of the connection.
But on increasing the robustness of connections there may be reduction in its

characteristic ductility as in the case of a dynamic event the deformation is largely
different from a static event. The failure may be brittle in nature at higher loads in the
case of a dynamic impact. Thus it might be sensible to change the geometry of the
connection in order to analyse the varying resistances the connection to provide.
Page | 63
1.23 Recommendations
There should probably be a wider time span in order to get accustomed to the software;
therefore maybe getting acquainted with the software a little earlier would be perhaps a
good solution as modelling more than one connection and simulating it is task that
would require a little more time. In regard to further research, there could be substantial
scope in a parametric study of connections.
Page | 64
<Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AD 131, SCI Advisory Desk. (2009). Structural Integrity - Tying.
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AL-Jabri, K., Burgess, I., & Plank, R. (2005). Spring-stiffness model for flexible end-
plate bare-steel joints in fire. Journal of Constructional Steel Research , 61, p. 1672-
1691.
ANON. (2009). NCCI: Shear resistance of a simple end plate connection SN014a-EN-
EU. Access Steel.
ANON. (2009). NCCI: Tying resistance of a simple end plate connection SN015a-EN-
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ANON. (2003). Progressive collapse analysis and design guidelines for a new federal
office buildings and major modernization projects. General Services Administration.
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Bertagnoli, L. (2003). Robustness of Steel Structures. Universita' Degli Studi Di Trento.
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BS 5950-1:2000. Structural use of steelwork in building - Part 1: Code of practice for

design - Rolled and welded sections. London: Bristish Standard Institution.
BSEN 1990:2002. Eurocode 0: Basis of Design. London: British Standards Institution.
Page | 65
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Garcia, M. (2005). Structural integrity of connections. Sheffield: The University of

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mean for connection design? New York: American Society of Civil Engineers.
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Page | 69
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A
A.1 Static tying resistance (Calculation sheet)
Calculation Reference
The tying resistance and the mode of failure is that NCCI

particular value of the resistance and mode that SN015a-
corresponds to the lowest resistance of all the modes of EN-EU
failure.
The individual resistances of the various modes of failure
are denoted as given below
Bolts in tension - NRd,u,1
End plate in bending - NRd,u,2
Supporting member in
bending - NRd,u,3
Beam web in tension - NRd,u,4
Figure A-1: Parameters and notations of an end plate
The notations and values of the parameters shown in Figure A-1 as it
Page | 70
APPENDIX A
corresponds to the model are given below:
Depth of straight portion of

the column web - dc 200.3 mm
Diameter of hole - do 22 mm
Width across the points of bolt
head or nut - dw 32.95 mm
Longitudinal edge distance
(end plate) - e1 40 mm
Transverse edge distance (end
plate) - e2 30 mm
Transverse edge distance
(column flange) - e2,c 83.15 mm
Ultimate tensile strength of
bolt - fu,b 800 N/mm2
supported beam - fu,b1 450 N/mm2
column - fu,c 550 N/mm2
end plate - fu,p 450 N/mm2
Height of end plate - hp 200 mm
Distance between bolt line and toe of - mp 42 mm
the weld (connecting the endplate to
beam)
Total number of bolts - n 8
Number of horizontal rows of

bolts - n1 3
Number of vertical lines of - n2 2
Page | 71
APPENDIX A
bolts
Longitudinal bolt pitch - p1 60 mm
Distance between cross
centres of bolts - p3 90 mm
Column flange thickness - tf,c 17.3 mm
End plate thickness - tp 10 mm
Thickness of supported beam
web - tw,b1 6 mm
Thickness of column web - tw,c 10.3 mm
Partial factor for tying
resistance - γM,u 1.1
A.1.1 Bolts in tension

The resistance is given by
N Rd , u ,1  nFt , Rd , u
where, n is the number of bolts
Table 3.4
k f A
F t , Rd  2 ub s EN 1993-
 Mu
1-8
where, k2 0.9
As, is the tensile stress area of the bolt = 245 mm2
Page | 72
APPENDIX A
Thus,
0.9800 245
Ft,Rd 
1.11000
= 160.36 kN
Therefore the total shear is given as,
NRd,u,1  8 160.36 = 1282.91 kN
A.1.2 End-plate in bending

The resistance for this mode of failure

is,
N  min( F ;F )
Rd , u , 2 Rd , u , ep 1 Rd , u , ep 2
For mode 1 and mode 2 respectively,
8n  2e  M  Table 6.2


p w pl ,1, Rd
FT ,1, Rd
2m n  e m  n 
p p w p p
EN 1993-
1-8
2M  n p  Ft , Rd 
FT , 2, Rd 
pl , 2 , Rd
m p  np 
where,
n p  min( e 2 ; e 2,c ;1.25m p )
Page | 73
APPENDIX A
( p 3  t w,b1  2  0.8a 2
mp 
2
dw
ew 
4
Now,
e2 = 30 mm
e2,c = 83.15 mm
For steel grade, 275
Throat thickness a > 0.39tw,b1 NCCI

0.39x6 = 2.34 mm SN014a-
EN-EU
Thus, a = 4 mm
So, (90  6  2  0.8  4 2 )

mp 
2
= 37.47 mm
and, 1.25mp = 46.84 mm
Therefore,
np = 30 mm
32.95
ew  = 8.24 mm
4
2
1 h p t p f u, p
M pl ,1, Rd ,u  M pl , 2, Rd ,u 
4  M ,u
1 200  82  450
 = 2045.45 kN
4 1.1  1000
Page | 74
APPENDIX A
Now,
From
F t , Rd , u  N Rd ,u ,1  nFt , Rd ,u = 1282.91 kN section ,

1.1 Bolts
Therefore, in tension
For mode 1:
FT ,1, Rd 
8 30 28.24 2045.45
237.4730 8.2437.47 30
= 270.12 kN
For mode 2:
FT , 2, Rd 
2  2045 .45  30  1282 .91
37 .45  30 
= 631.03 kN
The resistance is thus the minimum of FT,1,Rd and

FT,2,Rd
i.e. Nrd,u,2 = 270.12 kN
A.1.3 Supporting column web in bending

8m pl , Rd ,u
N Rd ,u ,3  (1  1.5(1  1 ) 0.5 (1   1 ) 0.5 )
(1  1 )
where,
2
1 f u ,c t w,c 1 550  10 . 3 2
m pl , Rd ,u 
4  M ,u 
4 1 . 1  1000 = 13.26
Page | 75
APPENDIX A
90
p
 = 0.45
1  3 200 . 3
dc
n1 3
( n 1  1) p 1  d0 ( 3  1) 60  22
2  2 = 0.434
1  200 . 3
dc
22 = 0.11
1 
200.3
So,
8 13 .26
N Rd ,u ,3  (0.434  1.5(1  0.45 ) 0.5 (1  0.11) 0.5 )
(1  0.45 )
= 286.01 kN
A.1.4 Beam web in tension

t w,b1 h p f u ,b1
N Rd ,u , 4 
 M ,u
6  200  450 = 490.91 kN

1 .1  1000
Therefore the overall tying resistance is taken as the value that is

least of the various modes of failures,
NRd,u = 270 kN
Page | 76
Page | 77

Steel Beam-Column Connections Designed For Robustness

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STEEL BEAM-COLUMN CONNECTIONS

DESIGNED FOR ROBUSTNESS

Dissertation submitted as part requirement for the Degree of Master of Science in

The University of Sheffield

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... v

Table of Figures ............................................................................................................. x

List of Tables .............................................................................................................. xiii

1.1 Aims and objectives ......................................................................................... 2

1.1.1 Aims ......................................................................................................... 2

1.1.2 Objectives ................................................................................................. 2

1.2 Methodology ................................................................................................... 3

1.2.1 Review existing design methods ............................................................... 3

1.2.2 Capacity of design method ........................................................................ 3

1.2.3 Analysis .................................................................................................... 3

1.2.4 Comparison of results ............................................................................... 4

1.3 Dissertation outline .......................................................................................... 4

1.3.1 Chapter 1 .................................................................................................. 4

1.3.2 Chapter 2 – Literature review .................................................................... 4

1.3.3 Chapter 3 – Description of the model ........................................................ 4

1.3.4 Chapter 4 – Analysis ................................................................................. 4

1.3.5 Chapter 5 – Results ................................................................................... 4

1.3.6 Chapter 6 – Conclusions and Recommendations ....................................... 5

2 Literature Review ................................................................................................... 6

2.1 General terms .................................................................................................. 6

2.1.2 Progressive collapse.................................................................................. 7

2.1.3 Disproportionate collapse ......................................................................... 7

2.1.4 Tying ........................................................................................................ 8

2.1.5 Relevant events and findings................................................................... 10

2.1.6 Progressive collapse findings .................................................................. 13

2.2 Present advancement in research .................................................................... 14

2.2.1 Robustness rules ..................................................................................... 15

2.3 Connections ................................................................................................... 16

2.3.1 Connection types .................................................................................... 17

2.3.2 Behaviour of connections and experimental investigations ...................... 20

2.4 Design approach to connections ..................................................................... 27

2.4.1 Indirect design ........................................................................................ 28

2.4.2 Direct design .......................................................................................... 28

2.4.3 Missing member strategy ........................................................................ 29

2.5 Scope of Eurocode (EN 1991-1-7) ................................................................. 29

3 Numerical Model .................................................................................................. 32

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 32

3.2 Components and Material properties .............................................................. 33

3.3 Design Features and considerations ................................................................ 35

3.4 Connection details ......................................................................................... 36

4.1 Methodology of analysis ................................................................................ 37

4.2 Design tying resistance .................................................................................. 38

4.2.1 Bolts in tension ....................................................................................... 40

4.2.2 End-plate in bending ............................................................................... 42

4.2.3 Supporting column flange in bending ...................................................... 46

4.2.4 Supporting column web in bending ......................................................... 46

4.2.5 Beam web in tension ............................................................................... 47

4.3 Static Analysis ............................................................................................... 48

4.4 Dynamic Analysis .......................................................................................... 49

5.1 Theoretical Analysis ...................................................................................... 52

5.2 Static Analysis ............................................................................................... 52

5.2.1 Axial Displacement ................................................................................ 52

5.3 Dynamic Analysis .......................................................................................... 55

5.3.1 Axial Displacement ................................................................................ 55

6 Conclusions And Recommendations ..................................................................... 58

6.1 Static Resistance ............................................................................................ 58

6.2 Dynamic Resistance ....................................................................................... 60

6.3 Tying Resistance and connection geometry .................................................... 63

A.1 Static tying resistance (Calculation sheet) .......................................................... 70