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 was born in Corsica. He trained as an artillery officer in France
and quickly he rose to prominence under the French First Republic, leading successful
campaigns. In October of 1799 Napoleon returned to Paris after having been in Egypt
with his armies. He took staged the ͟Ê
  

͟ which installed the
Consulate.
The Consulate led to Bonaparte's dictatorship and, in 1804, to his proclamation as
Emperor—
 0fter bringing
economic prosperity
and peace to France,
Napoleon set out to
conquer Europe. He
wanted to defeat the
European absolute
monarchs who had
allied years ago to
fight the French
revolutionary ideas
He wanted to defeat.
0s a skillful general,
he was able to
conquer significant
tracts of land.
By 1812 Napoleon
controlled most of
Europe, either
directly, or indirectly.
In 1808 Napoleon invaded Spain, and replaced Carlos IV with his brother Jose Bonaparte.
This led to resistance from the Spanish army and civilians in the Dos de Mayo Uprising.
Napoleon took command and defeated the Spanish 0rmy. Before the Spanish population
had been fully subdued, 0ustria again threatened war, and Napoleon returned to France.
The costly and often brutal
Spanish War of Independence
continued in Napoleon's
absence. 0lthough Napoleon
left 300,000 of his finest
troops to battle Spanish
guerrillas (helped by British
and Portuguese forces
commanded by the Duke of
Wellington) French control
over the peninsula again
deteriorated. Following
several allied victories, the
war concluded after
Napoleon's abdication in
1814. Napoleon later
described the Peninsular War
as central to his final defeat.
The nations that had been conquered by Napoleon resented being ruled by France.
One by one, these nations rebelled. By March of 1814, Napoleon had been defeated,
and forced to step down as the emperor of France.

0 year later in 1815 Napoleon

returned to Paris, and called for his
soldiers to return to him. He was still
popular among the people who had
enjoyed their quick rise to power
under his rule. For 100 days,
Napoleon again ruled France.
Monarchs in other European nations
feared that Napoleon would again
seek to control them. In a decisive
battle at Waterloo, France, Napoleon
was defeated in June of 1815, and
was forced into exile on the island of
Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.
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In 1815 Napoleon was definitively
defeated in Waterloo. It was the fall of
the French Empire and the end of the
Revolution. It would seem to indicate
that the old monarchies in Europe had
beaten the Revolutionary ideas. The
0bsolute Monarchies (0ustria, Russia,
Prussia, etc) managed to impose again
the old ideas of the Old Regime in the
Treaty of Paris, in the Treaty of the Holy
0lliance and, of course, in the Congress
of Vienna.
However, the seeds of the new revolutionary ideas had been spread, and all along the 18th
century these ideas gradually flourished.
0fter defeating the French armies, the major powers of Europe held a Conference in Vienna
from November 1814 to June 1815: the
   . The chairman was the 0ustrian
statesman Metternich. The four victorious powers (Russia, United Kingdom, Prussia and
0ustria) wanted to determinate the shape of Europe after the Napoleonic wars, with the
exception of the terms of peace with France, which had already been decided by the Treaty
of Paris, signed a few months earlier.
Every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna. More than 200 states and princely
houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of
cities, corporations, religious organizations and special interest groups. In June 9, 1815
the Final 0ct, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed. It included:

Î Russia expanded its territory to the west. The Congress confirmed its possession of
Finland as well as most of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw (Poland).
Î France lost all the conquered territories.
Î Prussia was given two fifths of Saxony, parts of the Duchy of Warsaw , Danzig, and the
Rhineland Westphalia.
Î 0 German Confederation of 38 states was created from the previous 360 of the Holy
Roman Empire.
Î The Netherlands and the Southern Netherlands (approx. modern-day Belgium) were
united in a constitutional monarchy.
Î The neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed.
Î The 0ustrian Empire regained most of the areas that had lost to Napoleon in Central
Europe. 0ustria became the core of Western Europe for 30 years thanks to this
congress.
Î Norway was transferred from Denmark to Sweden.
Î The Ottoman Empire granted some autonomy to Serbia, Montenegro, Wallachia and
Moldova.
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The Industrial Revolution brought many positive consequences. However, as we
learnt in the previous topic, it produced many social inequalities.
Many philosophers and thinkers denounced these injustices and proposed new
models of social organization:

Î uddites
Î Marxism
Î Communism
Î 0narchism
Î Trade Unions

The 

 were a social movement of British textile artisans in the nineteenth century
who protested ʹ often by destroying mechanized looms ʹ against the changes produced by
the Industrial Revolution, which they felt were leaving them without work and changing
their way of life. In modern usage, "uddite" is a term describing those opposed to
industrialization, automation, computerisation or new technologies in general
º  is a political philosophy, as well as an economic and sociological worldview,
which is based upon a materialist interpretation of history, a Marxist analysis and
critique of capitalism, a theory of social change, and a view of human liberation derived
from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The three primary aspects of Marxism
are:

Î 
   
   


 
Humankind's history fundamentally is a
struggle between social classes. The
productive capacity of society is the
foundation of society, that evolve
through this struggle of the classes
(primitive communism, slavery,
feudalism, capitalism). The legal,
political, ideological and other aspects
(e.g. art) of society are derived from
these production relations.
 Î     
  X Marx argues
that in capitalist society, an economic
minority (the bourgeoisie) dominate and
exploit an economic majority (the
proletariat). Marx argues that capitalism is
exploitative, specifically the way in which
unpaid labour (surplus value) is extracted
from the working class.

This forms the fundamental contradiction

of capitalist society. Without the
elimination of the private ownership of
the means of production, human society
is unable to achieve further development.

Î 0
  
     X In order to overcome the restrictions of private

property the working class must seize political power internationally through a social
revolution and expropriate the capitalist classes around the world and place the productive
capacities of society into collective ownership. Upon this, material foundation classes
would be abolished and the material basis for all forms of inequality between humankind
would dissolve.

  fundamentally, is a system of social
organization in which property is held in common.
The term i
 is applied to the movement
that aims to overthrow the capitalist order by
revolutionary means and to establish a classless
society in which all goods will be socially owned.
The theories of the movement come from Marx, as
modified by enin. Communism, in this sense,
should be distinguished from socialism, which (as
the term is commonly understood) seeks similar
ends but by evolution rather than revolution.

ë  general term for the political and economic theory that support a system of
collective ownership and management of the means of production and distribution of goods.
Because of the collective nature of socialism, it is to be contrasted to the doctrine of private
property that characterizes capitalism. Where capitalism stresses competition and profit,
socialism calls for cooperation and social service.
In the past 150 years there have been innumerable differing socialist programs. For this
reason socialism as a doctrine is ill defined, although its main purpose, the establishment of
cooperation in place of competition remains fixed.
0 
  or    is an organization of workers that have banded together to
achieve common goals such as better working conditions. The trade union, through its
leadership, bargains with the employer on behalf of union members and negotiates labour
contracts (collective bargaining) with employers.
This may include the negotiation of wages, work rules, complaint procedures, rules
governing hiring, firing and promotion of workers, benefits, workplace safety and policies.
Originating in Europe, trade unions became popular in many countries during the Industrial
Revolution.
0  (from Greek ›    ) is a
theory in which equality and justice are to be sought
through the abolition of the state and the substitution
of free agreements between individuals. Central to
anarchist thought is the belief that society is natural
and that people are good but are corrupted by
artificial institutions.
0lso central in anarchism are the belief in individual
freedom and the denial of any authority, particularly
that of the state, that hinders human development.
Since the Industrial Revolution, anarchists have also
opposed the concentration of economic power in
business corporations.
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  ë

While Spain and the 
 were struggling for its freedom
from France in the War of Independence, a national assembly
known as the Spanish Cortes gathered and drew up in 1812 the
Cadiz Constitution ( , as it was adopted on San Jose͛s
day).
The Constitution of Cadiz took the basic principles of political
liberalism: national sovereignty, separation of powers,
universal male suffrage and a bill of rights. It also abolished
many aspects of the Old Regime: abolition of the feudal
system, abolition of guilds and the suppression of the Holy
Inquisition.
0lthough progress was being made towards a liberal
government, Spain͛s 0merican colonies were in threat. The
Spanish colonists were demanding independence for
themselves and wished to exchange goods freely with all
nations and not only Spain. By 1826 only Cuba, Puerto Rico,
the Philippine Islands, Guam and several settlements in
Northern 0frica remained under Spain͛s flag. Spain had lost the
mainland colonies in the 0mericas and consequently their chief
resources.
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Î 1814-1820.- 0bsolutist Reaction (
Ê

 
): Fernando VII, was recognized as king in
1814. He opposed the Cadiz Constitution and liberal
ideology: the 0ncient Regime was restored and
many liberals were arrested and executed (Espoz-y-
Mina, Mariana Pineda, etc.)

Î 1820-1823: iberal Triennium (§ )

However the liberals (led by Colonel Riego)
demanded that the liberal Constitution of 1812 be
restored. 0 military uprising took place in 1820 and
the King Fernando VII finally agreed to the demands
of the revolutionaries and swore by the constitution.
0 liberal ( ) government was appointed,
though the king expressed his disaffection with the
new administration and constitution. Three years of
liberal rule (§ ) followed.
Î 1823-1833: The Ominous Decade ( Ê   ). The King Ferdinand VII
appealed to France for assistance. He applied the terms of the Congress of Vienna,
asking for the assistance of the other absolute monarchs of Europe to restore
absolutism. 60,000 soldiers, called ͞The Hundred Thousand Sons of St. ouis͟ were
mobilized by the King of France to restore King Fernando VII to the Spanish throne. 0s a
result, Fernando VII broke his oath and again repealed the Constitution of Cadiz. He
declared null and void all the acts and measures of the liberal government.

In 1830, Ferdinand decreed a Pragmatic Sanction

( Ê Ê). 0s a result of the sanction,
women were allowed to accede to the Spanish
throne, and the succession would fall on Ferdinand's
infant daughter, Isabel, rather than to his brother
Carlos.
When Fernando died in 1833, a Carlist group
opposed a woman as ruler and insisted that Don
Carlos, Ferdinand͛s brother, inherited the crown. This
Carlist group followed the traditional religious and
political ideals. Yet, Maria had a group of supporters,
the  , who were liberals. Civil war erupted
and the   defeated the Carlist in 1839.
 ÿÿ

   
ÿÿ

Î 1833-1843: The Regencies. In 1833, when Fernando died, his wife Maria Cristina became
regent for her daughter, who at that time was only three years old. The liberals became
divided between the    and the    . The   
supported a constitutional monarchy while the   demanded a Spanish
republic. 0fter a series of uprising, by 1837 a compromise was met and the Constitution
of 1837 was proclaimed. Then, a revolt ousted Maria Cristina, and General Espartero was
appointed Regent, but only three years later Serrano and Narvaez overthrew Espartero
and 13 years-old Isabel assumed the crown.

Î 1843-1868: Isabel II reign. During this period,

politicians as Narvaez, Serrano, Bravo Murillo
made serious efforts to advance Spanish industry
and commerce. 0 new constitution, authored by
the    was written in 1845. Due to her
turbulent rule the Queen was disposed in the
Revolution of 1868, because a coup d'état by
General Juan Prim.
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Î Provisional Government (1868-1870): General Juan Prim set up a government of

committees called Juntas, in major towns. Prim͛s provisional government brought
about the Constitution of 1869. 0lthough limited monarchy, universal male suffrage
and freedom of press and association were recognized there was still political
instability, in support for a constitutional monarchy.

Î Reign of 0madeo I (1870-1873): In 1870, Prim offered 0madeo of Savoy, a duke from
Italy, the throne and he was crowned 0madeo I. 0gitated by political and social conflict,
popular hostility and Cuban͛s revolt against him, he renounced the throne in 1873
Î First Republic (1873-1874): The Spanish
Cortes resumed leadership and tried for a
republican regime. Power was decentralized
to the provinces. Each province under the
First Spanish Republic was to assert self-
government, so Spain became a sort of
Federation. The First Republic was led by
four presidents (Figueras, Pi-i- Margall,
Castelar and Salmeron) However, a stable
government eluded Spain.
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By 1874 a group of Spanish generals (General Pavia) figured

the restoration of a Bourbon monarchy would put an end
to this struggle, and proclaims 0lfonso XII, Isabella͛s oldest
son, king of Spain. By 1876 he drafted the Constitution.
0 system of rotation called peaceful turnabout (

ÊÊ , allowed the parties to alternate in office at
regular intervals. Canovas led the Conservative Party, while
Sagasta led the iberal Party. 0griculture and foreign
competition were protected. Iron, steel and manufacturing
industries flourished. Major cities like Madrid and
Barcelona grew. Electrical systems were installed,
telephones, electric trams, and other modern
conveniences. The culture flourished also. 0rchitecture,
painters, and dancers became popular across Europe. Great
authors, novelist and playwright were produced in the area
of literature. 0lfonso XII died in 1885 and his wife Queen
Maria Cristina acted as regent until their son, 0lfonso XIII
became of age in 1902, by which time he took the throne.