1)Activity based costing.

2)Balanced scorecard.

3)Barriers to entry and exit.

4)Benchmarking.

5)Brainstorming.

6)Branding.

7)Business cycle.

8)Business modelling.

9)The Business Plan.

10)Cannibalisation.

11)Championing.

12)Change Management.

13)Cherry picking.

14)Clustering.

15)Competitive Advantage.

16)Convergence.

17)Cove Competence.

18)Corporate Governance.

19)Cost benefit Analysis.

20)Crisis Management.

21)critical path Analysis.

22)cross selling.

23)Decentralization.

24)Delayering.

25)double loop learning.

26)experience Curve.

27)coauve Theory.

28)Growth Share Matrix.

29)The Hawthorne effect.

30)Hierarchy of needs.

Activity based costing.

Activity-based costing (ABC) is a costing model that identifies activities in an organization and assigns the
cost of each activity resource to all products and services according to the actual consumption by each:

it assigns more indirect costs (overhead) into direct costs.

In this way an organization can precisely estimate the cost of its individual products and services for the
purposes of identifying and eliminating those which are unprofitable and lowering the prices of those
which are overpriced.

In a business organization, the ABC methodology assigns an organization's resource costs through
activities to the products and services provided to its customers. It is generally used as a tool for
understanding product and customer cost and profitability.

As such, ABC has predominantly been used to support strategic decisions such as pricing, outsourcing,

identification and measurement of process improvement initiatives.

Balanced scorecard.

The balanced scorecard (BSC) is a strategic performance management tool - a semi-standard structured
report supported by proven design methods

and automation tools that can be used by managers to keep track of the execution of activities by staff
within their control and monitor the consequences arising from these actions.
It is perhaps the best known of several such frameworks, and was widely adopted in English speaking
western countries and Scandinavia in the early 1990s. Since 2000, use of Balanced Scorecard, its
derivatives (e.g. performance prism), and other similar tools (e.g. Results Based Management)

have become common in the Middle East, Asia and Spanish-speaking countries also.

Barriers to entry and exit

Barriers to entry

In economics and mostly especially in the theory of competition, barriers to entry are obstacles in the
path of a firm that make it difficult to enter a given market.[1]

Barriers to entry protect incumbent firms from competition from newcomers.

Barriers to entry are the source of a firm's pricing power - the ability of a firm to raise prices without
losing all its customers.

The term refers to hindrances that an individual may face while trying to gain entrance into a profession
or trade. It also, more commonly, refers to hindrances that a firm (or even a country) may face while
trying to enter a market, industry or trade grouping. Barriers to entry restrict competition in a market.

Barriers to exit
In economics, barriers to exit are obstacles in the path of a firm which wants to leave a given market or
industrial sector. These obstacles often cost the firm financially to leave the market and may prohibit it
doing so.

If the barriers of exit are significant; a firm may be forced to continue competing in a market, as the
costs of leaving may be higher than those incurred if they continue competing in the market.

Types of exit barrier

The factors that may form a barrier to exit include:

* High investment in non-transferable fixed assets. This is particularly common for manufacturing
companies that invest heavily in capital equipment which is specific to one task.

* High redundancy costs. If a company has a large number of employees, employees with high
salaries, or contracts with employees which stipulate high redundancy payments, then the firm may face
significant cost if it wishes to leave the market.

* Other closure costs. Contract contingencies with suppliers or buyers and any penalty costs incurred
from cutting short tenancy agreements.

* Potential upturn. Firms may be influenced by the potential of an upturn in their market that may
reverse their current financial situation.

Benchmarking

Benchmarking is the process of comparing one's business processes and performance metrics to
industry bests and/or best practices from other industries. Dimensions typically measured are
quality, time, and cost. Improvements from learning mean doing things better, faster, and
cheaper.

Benchmarking involves management identifying the best firms in their industry, or any other
industry where similar processes exist, and comparing the results and processes of those studied
(the "targets") to one's own results and processes to learn how well the targets perform and, more
importantly, how they do it.

The term benchmarking was first used by cobblers to measure people's feet for shoes. They
would place someone's foot on a "bench" and mark it out to make the pattern for the shoes.
Benchmarking is most used to measure performance using a specific indicator (cost per unit of
measure, productivity per unit of measure, cycle time of x per unit of measure or defects per unit
of measure) resulting in a metric of performance that is then compared to others.
Also referred to as "best practice benchmarking" or "process benchmarking", it is a process used
in management and particularly strategic management, in which organizations evaluate various
aspects of their processes in relation to best practice companies' processes, usually within a peer
group defined for the purposes of comparison. This then allows organizations to develop plans
on how to make improvements or adapt specific best practices, usually with the aim of increasing
some aspect of performance. Benchmarking may be a one-off event, but is often treated as a
continuous process in which organizations continually seek to improve their practices

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large number of ideas for
the solution of a problem. In 1953 the method was popularized by Alex Faickney Osborn in a
book called Applied Imagination. Osborn proposed that groups could double their creative output
with brainstorming.

Although brainstorming has become a popular group technique, when applied in a traditional
group setting, researchers have not found evidence of its effectiveness for enhancing either
quantity or quality of ideas generated. Because of such problems as distraction, social loafing,
evaluation apprehension, and production blocking, conventional brainstorming groups are little
more effective than other types of groups, and they are actually less effective than individuals
working independently.[2][3][4] In the Encyclopedia of Creativity, Tudor Rickards, in his entry on
brainstorming, summarizes its controversies and indicates the dangers of conflating productivity
in group work with quantity of ideas.

Although traditional brainstorming does not increase the productivity of groups (as measured by
the number of ideas generated), it may still provide benefits, such as boosting morale, enhancing
work enjoyment, and improving team work. Thus, numerous attempts have been made to
improve brainstorming or use more effective variations of the basic technique.

Professor Olivier Toubia of Columbia University has conducted extensive research in the field of
idea generation and has concluded that incentives are extremely valuable within the
brainstorming context.

From these attempts to improve brainstorming, electronic brainstorming stands out. Mainly
through anonymization and parallelization of input, electronic brainstorming enforces the ground
rules of effective brainstorming and thereby eliminates most of the deleterious or inhibitive
effects of group work.The positive effects of electronic brainstorming become more pronounced
with group size.

Branding
The American Marketing Association (AMA) defines a brand as a "name, term, sign, symbol or
design, or a combination of them intended to identify the goods and services of one seller or
group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of other sellers.

Therefore it makes sense to understand that branding is not about getting your target market to
choose you over the competition, but it is about getting your prospects to see you as the only one
that provides a solution to their problem.

The objectives that a good brand will achieve include:

 Delivers the message clearly

 Confirms your credibility
 Connects your target prospects emotionally
 Motivates the buyer
 Concretes User Loyalty

To succeed in branding you must understand the needs and wants of your customers and
prospects. You do this by integrating your brand strategies through your company at every point
of public contact.

Branding may refer to:

 Livestock branding, the marking of animals to indicate ownership

 Human branding, as body modification or punishment
 Branding (BDSM), bonding of the partners and marking of a submissive
 Wood branding, permanently marking, by way of heat, wood (also: plastic, cork, leather,
etc.)
 Vehicle title branding, a permanent designation indicating that a vehicle has been
"written off"
 Brand, a name, logo, slogan, and/or design scheme associated with a product or service
o Brand management, the application of marketing techniques to a specific product,
product line, or brand
o Nation branding, the application of marketing techniques for the advancement of
a country
o Personal branding, people and their careers marketed as brands
o Co-branding, associates a single product or service with more than one brand
name
o Branding agency, a type of marketing agency which specializes in creating brands
o Faith branding, the application of marketing techniques to religious institutions or
individuals

Business cycle.
The term business cycle (or economic cycle) refers to economy-wide fluctuations in production
or economic activity over several months or years. These fluctuations occur around a long-term
growth trend, and typically involve shifts over time between periods of relatively rapid economic
growth (expansion or boom), and periods of relative stagnation or decline (contraction or
recession).

These fluctuations are often measured using the growth rate of real gross domestic product.
Despite being termed cycles, most of these fluctuations in economic activity do not follow a
mechanical or predictable periodic pattern.

Business model
A business model describes the rationale of how an organization creates, delivers, and captures
value[1] - economic, social, or other forms of value. The process of business model design is part
of business strategy.

In theory and practice the term business model is used for a broad range of informal and formal
descriptions to represent core aspects of a business, including purpose, offerings, strategies,
infrastructure, organizational structures, trading practices, and operational processes and policies.

Whenever a business is established, it either explicitly or implicitly employs a particular business

model that describes the design or architecture of the value creation, delivery, and capture
mechanisms employed by the business enterprise. The essence of a business model is that it
defines the manner by which the business enterprise delivers value to customers, entices
customers to pay for value, and converts those payments to profit: it thus reflects management’s
hypothesis about what customers want, how they want it, and how an enterprise can organize to
best meet those needs, get paid for doing so, and make a profit[2]. Business models are used to
describe and classify businesses (especially in an entrepreneurial setting), but they are also used
by managers inside companies to explore possibilities for future development, and finally well
known business models operate as recipes for creative managers

Business plan
A business plan is a formal statement of a set of business goals, the reasons why they are
believed attainable, and the plan for reaching those goals. It may also contain background
information about the organization or team attempting to reach those goals.

Business plans may also target changes in perception and branding by the customer, client, tax-
payer, or larger community. When managing a business, a business plan, or B-Plan, is often
confused with the term Marketing Plan. When the existing business is to assume a major change
or when planning a new venture - a 3 to 5 year business plan is essential.

Cannibalization
In marketing strategy, cannibalization refers to a reduction in sales volume, sales revenue, or
market share of one product as a result of the introduction of a new product by the same
producer.

While this may seem inherently negative, in the context of a carefully planned strategy, it can be
effective, by ultimately growing the market, or better meeting consumer demands.
Cannibalization is a key consideration in product portfolio analysis.

For example, when Coca Cola introduced Diet Coke, a similar product, this took sales away from
the original Coke, but ultimately led to an expanded market for diet soft drinks.

Another example of cannibalization occurs when a retailer discounts a particular product. The
tendency of consumers is to buy the discounted product rather than competing products with
higher prices. When the promotion event is over and prices return to normal, however, the effect
will tend to disappear. This temporary change in consumer behavior can be described as
cannibalization.

In e-commerce, some companies intentionally cannibalize their retail sales through lower prices
on their online product offerings. More consumers than usual may buy the discounted products,
especially if they'd previously been anchored to the retail prices. Even though their in-store sales
might decline, the company may see overall gains.

In project evaluation, the estimated profit generated from the new product must be reduced by
the earnings on the lost sales.

Another common case of cannibalization is when companies, particularly retail companies, open
sites too close to each other, in effect, competing for the same customers. The potential for
cannibalization is often discussed when considering companies with many outlets in an area,
such as Starbucks or McDonald's.

Championing

Change management
Change management is a structured approach to transitioning individuals, teams, and
organizations from a current state to a desired future state. It is an organizational process aimed
at empowering employees to accept and embrace changes in their current business environment .
In project management, change management refers to a project management process where
changes to a project are formally introduced and approved.

Cherry picking
Cherry picking is the act of pointing at individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular
position, while ignoring a significant portion of related cases or data that may contradict that
position.

The term is based on the perceived process of harvesting fruit, such as cherries. The picker
would be expected to only select the ripest and healthiest fruits. An observer who only sees the
selected fruit may thus wrongly conclude that most, or even all, of the fruit is in such good
condition.

Cherry picking can be found in many logical fallacies. For example, the "fallacy of anecdotal
evidence" tends to overlook large amounts of data in favor of that known personally, while a
false dichotomy picks only two options when more are available.

clustering is the gathering of various populations based on ethnicity, economics, or religion.

In countries that hold equality as important, clustering occurs between groups because of
polarizing factors such as religion, wealth or ethnocentrism. Clustering is often considered an
enriching part of free cultures in which one can visit a Chinatown or a French quarter for
restaurant choices. Other sociologists assert that clustering of like minded individuals leads to
political polarity and intolerance of contrary opinions, as the United States has allegedly been
trending since the 1950s.

Competitive advantage is a theory that seeks to address some of the criticisms of

comparative advantage. Michael Porter proposed the theory in 1990. Competitive advantage
theory suggests that states and businesses should pursue policies that create high-quality goods to
sell at high prices in the market. Porter emphasizes productivity growth as the focus of national
strategies. Competitive advantage rests on the notion that cheap labor is ubiquitous and natural
resources are not necessary for a good economy. The other theory, comparative advantage can
lead countries to specialize in exporting primary goods and raw materials that trap countries in
low-wage economies due to terms of trade. Competitive advantage attempts to correct for this
issue by stressing maximizing scale economies in goodsservices that garner premium prices
(Stutz and Warf 2009).

Competitive advantage occurs when an organization acquires or develops an attribute or

combination of attributes that allows it to outperform its competitors. These attributes can
include access to natural resources, such as high grade ores or inexpensive power, or access to
highly trained and skilled personnel human resources. New technologies such as robotics and
information technology either to be included as a part of the product, or to assist making it.