Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Making hypothesis
Planning an experiment
Controlling variables
Collecting data
Prefix
symbol
value
Kilo k 1000
Hecto h 100
Deca da 10
Deci d 0.1
Centi c 0.01
Milli m 0.001
5. The cytoplasm is thinner and more watery than the nucleus. The cytoplasm is defined
as the material between the cell membrane (plasma membrane) and the nucleus
envelope.
3. There are regions in the plant cell which do nt contain cytoplasm. These are called
vacuoles. Vacoules contain cell sap which is a very dilute solution of sugar and salt in
water.
4. In very young cells, the vacuoles may not be seen. But as the cell grows older, more
and more vacuoles are formed.
1. The function of cell structures are shown in the table and figure below:
Table: Function of cell structures
2. A living thing which can only be seen under a microscope is called a microorganism.
3. Microorganism are found everywhere such as in the air, water, soil, on plants and in
our
body.
4. Examples of microorganisms are:
a) bacteria
b) viruses.
c) algae
d) yeasts
e) amoeba
Examples of microorganisms
2. Unicellular organisms are usually found in water (ponds, lakes, rivers and sea) or on
moist areas (tree trunks and in the soil).
3. They are usually very active and are always moving about.
4. Each of them can carry out all the life processes that large organisms do such as
moving about, feeding and respiring.
6. Unicellular organisms which are microscopic in size are also called unicellular
microorganisms.
1. Some organisms consist of many cells. They are multicellular organisms.
4. Most multicellular microorganisms live in water such as spirogyra (plant) and hydra
(animal)
5. Multicellular organisms have different types of cell, each type serving a different
function.
1. Unicellular and multicellular organisms carry out all the life processes in order to
live, although they may be very small.
1. All organisms including human beings are built from basic units called cells.
2. The simplest organism such as an amoeba consists of only one cell, but is able to carry
out all the life processes.
4. The human body has different types of cell with each type carrying out a different
function.
Example:
The leg is an organ formed from different types of tissue (see figure) to
perform the same main function, that is to move the body from place to place.
2. Figure in the below shows the main organs in the body and their functions.
1. A system consists of a group of organs working together to carry out the
same function.
2. Figure in the below shows the main organs in some of the systems in the
human body.
Some of the system in the human body
2. The different systems in the body functiion and co-ordinate their activities
so that the body functions as one whole.
2. The human body is a complex system of cells most of which are grouped
into organ systems that have specialised functions. These systems
can best be understood in terms
of the essential functions they serve, deriving energy from food, protection
againts injury,
internal coordination and reproduction.
3. Humans are unique among Earth's life forms as they have language and
thought.
4. Humans have a better developed brain than other life forms. Human are able
to create and
learn from experience that far exceeds any other species. Humans can use
this ability to
create technologies and literary and artistic works on a vast scale, and to
develop a
scientific understanding of themselves and the world.
1. A book which weighs 1 kg and takes up space on you desk is said to have mass and
occupy space.
2. Non-living things such as books, water, soil and air have mass and occupy space.
3. Living things such as plants, animals, and human beings have mass and occupy space.
3. Atoms are the smallest particles. All substances are made up of the smallest particles
i.e. atoms.
2. Matter may exist in solid form, like gold, iron or soil; in liquid form, like oil or water,
or in the form of gas, like air or steam.
3. These forms of matter i.e. solid, liquid and gas are known as the three states of
matter.
1. The arrangement of particles determines the shape of matter i.e. whether it is a solid,
liquid or gas.
2. The following activity is carried out to study the arrangement of the particles in the
three states of matter and to explain the differences between them.
1. The particles in matter are always in a state of motion as shown in the figure below.
2. Diffusion occurs when molecules of one substance become mixed with the molecules
of another substance. This motion of molecules is called Brownian motion.
4. The following activities are carried out to study the movement of particles in matter.
The comparison of the three state of matter are summarised as shown below:
CONCEPT OF DENSITY
1.Different things of the same volume do not have the same mass.
2. For the same volume, iron, for example, has more mass than wood. Therefore, iron is
said to have a higher density than wood.
4. The unit of density is g per cm3 (g/cm3) or gram per cubic centimetre.
6. The density of water is 1 g/cm3 and the density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3. This means that 1
cubic centimetre of water possesses 1 gram of water and 1 cubic centimetre of gold
possesses 19.3 gram of gold.
7. The density of a substance depends on the mass of the substance and the arrangement
of the particles or the volume of the substance.
8. From the table above, it can be concluded that
(a) different substances have different densities.
(b) gold is the densest while cork is the least dense.
(c) substances can have similiar volumes but different masses.
10. Substances that are less dense will rise above or float in liquids that are denser.
11. The following experiments are carried out to find the densities of objects with
regular or irregular shapes and the densities of different liquids.
Eksperiment 1
12. The volume of objects that have a regular shape can be calculated. The volume of
objects such as cubes and rods or cylinders can be calculated using the following
formula.
Eksperiment 2
13. The following activities are carried out to compare the densities of substances.
APPLICATION OF THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1. The three different states of matter are gas, liquid and solid.
2. Each state of matter has its own characteristis properties which man uses for his own
benefit.
3. A gas is easily compressed and liquiefied under high pressure. So gases used for fuels
such as petroleum gas and butane are liquefied under high pressure and stored in gas
cylinders for easy use and transport.
4. Air is easily compressed. So it is pumped into bicycle tyres and motor car tyres to be
used as wheels.
5. A liquid takes up the shape of its container. People who sell perfumes and liquor such
as wine and brandy make very beautiful container of all sorts of shapes to keep
these liquids to attract customers.
6. Water finds its own level. This principle used in the spirit-level. This instrument used
to obtain a perfectly level surface such as for the top of a billiard table.
7. Logs are less dense than water. They floated down rivers to the saw-mills.
(b) Buoys float on the sea. They are placed in certain parts of the sea to keep ships away
from unsafe areas.
5. Trawling nets.
(a) A trawling net has floats attached to it so that it can stay upright in the sea for
catching fish.
(b) The floats are usually plastic balls which are big enough to hold up the net.
9. Submarines
(a) A submarines can move under the sea ot at its surface by changing its density.
(b) It has large ballast tanks. filling the ballast tanks with the sea water makes the
submarine denser than sea water and sinks. Emptying the ballast tanks makes it
submarine less dense and enables it to rise to the surface of the sea.
Sinking and floating objects
2. An object which sinks displaces a very small volume of water, which is less than its
weight.
4. The floating bowl displaces a large volume of water, which is equal to its own weight.
2. These resources must be carefully looked after abd used because they sustain life and
are used everyday.
3. All living things, including man, will die if there were no water or air.
Water
1. About three-quarters of the Earth's surface is covered with water.
Air
1. Our Earth is surrounded by a layer of air called the atmosphere.
2. This layer of air is important because it protects us from the harmful rays from the
sun.
5. Respiration
a) respiration is carried out by human beings,animals and plants.
b) It is the process of burning food in oxygen (oxidising) in the cells of the body to get
energy. During the process, carbon dioxide and water are set free as waste products.
c) The aim of respiration is to get energy for carrying out the life processes.
d) Any living thing enclosed in a container will die due to lack of air (oxygen).
e) Astronauts going into outer space bring oxygen (in cylinders) along with them.
f) Mountain climbers and deep sea divers carry along cylinders of oxygen for breathing.
6. Combustion
a) Combustion or burning needs air (oxygen).
b) No substance can burn without oxygen.
c) Burning produces carbon dioxide as well as water and energy in the form of heat and
light.
7. Decay
a) Decay is a process of breaking up a substance into simpler and smaller parts by
bacteria and fungi.
b) The process of decay uses oxygen.
c) Decay is important because it removes unwanted organic substances from our
surroundings.
8. Photosynthesis.
a) Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants make food in sunlight.
b) This processes uses water and carbon dioxide from the air, and produces glucose and
oxygen.
c) This process needs the presence of leaf-green (chlorophyll) and light energy.
2. Importance of soil.
a) Soil is the habitat for a large variety of plants and animals such as earthworms,
insects and microorganisms.
b) Soil form the foundation for human beings to build their homes.
c) Soil contains spaces which are filled with air or water. This enables plants and
animals to live in the soil.
d) Soil is rich with mineral salts such as the salts of potassium, calcium, magnesium and
nitrates, which are required by plants to grow well.
e) Soil is rich in humus (decayed parts of plants and animals.) Humus is a source of food
for animals such as earthworms and provides minerals for plants.
f) Soil is also a very useful substance for human beings. Soil is used for:
i- making bricks for building houses and factories.
ii- making utensils such as cups and saucers, bowls, teapots, vases ad flower pots.
g) Soil allows us to carry out farming and so produce food to feed and increasing world
population.
h) Soil stores important fuels such as coal, natural gas petroleum. These fuels support
many industries.
Minerals
1. Soil is rich in mineral ores.
2. Mineral ores are important because they are used to produce metals.
Fossil Fuels
1. Coal, natural gas and petroleum are called fossil fuels. This is because they were
formed in the earth long, long ago.
2. Fossil fuels were formed from plants and animals which became buried in the earth.
3. Fossil fuels are important because they are mainly used to run our industries.
4. (a) Coal is actually carbon which has been hardened by great pressure in the earth.
(b) Coal is used:
i- in furnaces for extracting metals from the ores.
ii- for heating boilers to get steam to turn dynamos and produce electricity.
iii- for warming bouses in winter in cold countries.
5. (a) Natural gas is found trapped in the earth.
(b) It is used as a fuel and also as a raw material for producing hydrogen, urea,
alcohol
and ammonia
6. (a) Petroluem supplies about half of the energy needed by the world.
(b) It is found as a thick, black liquid in certain areas of the earth.
(c) Pertoleum is the source for many products, some of these are shown in the figure
below:
1. The resources on Earth exist in three differet form i.e. as elements, compounds and
mixtures.
2. Generally, matter can be divided into elements, compounds and mixtures, and
classified as follows:
5. There are two types of molecules i.e. molecules that consist of one type of element, like
oxygen and molecules that consist of different types of elements, like ammonia.
5. Copper, iron, lead, gold oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, etc. are examples of elements.
6. Elements like copper, iron, lead and gold consist of atoms whereas elements like
oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen consist of molecules.
7. Elements can exist in three different states, i.e solid, liquid or gaseous.
2. All metallic elements are solid at room temperature except for mercury.
3. Non-metallic elements can exist in three states i.e solid, liquid and gaseous.
2. Metals are hard, malleable and ductile i.e. can be knocked into shape and drawn into
wires without breaking.
1. Non-metals have a dull appearance. The surface of non-metals does not shine.
2. Non-metals are soft and brittle.
7. The summary of the differences between metals and non-metals are shown on the
following page.
8. An experiment is carried out to study the properties of metals and non-metals.
Experiment 1
Below are some examples showing the uses of metals and non-metals and the properties
that make them suitable for use.
2. The properties of a compound are different from those of their constituent elements.
A
compound becomes an entirely new substance and the original substances do not
keep their original properties.
3. Examples of compounds are iron rust (iron oxide), magnesium oxide, carbon dioxide
and copper sulphate.
3. The constituents of a mixture keep their own original properties which are
unchanged.
2. The black iron filings and the yellow sulphur powder can be clearly seen with the
unaided eye.
3. The iron sulphide compound is prepared by heating iron filings with sulphur powder.
2. The following experiment can be carried out to show the differences between
compunds and mixtures.
Experiment 2
1. A mixture can be separated into its constituents without any chemical changes.
3. a) Mineral ores (such as tin ore and iron ore) and fossil fuels (such as coal, natural
gas and petroleum) cannot be renewed or non-renewable.
b) One day resources will be used up.
4. Our natural resources must be looked after and used carefully because life on earth
depends on them.
2. Conversation is the careful and wise use of earth's resources so that they are not
wasted and can last long.
1. Earth's resources have been badly affected by man's activities. They must be
protected before they become harmful (air and water), are used up (minerals ores
and fossil fuels) or extinct (plants and animals)
2. Some ways for preserving and conserving them are given in the table below.
COMPOSITION OF AIR
2. The atsosphere protects living things on the Earth harmful rays from the sun.
6.Nitrogen
(a) Nitrogen is a very inactive gas.
(b) Nitrogen does not burn and does not support combustion i.e it does not allow things
to burn ini it.
(c) Nitrogen dilutes oxygen in the air so that processes such as respiration, burning and
decay go on more slowly.
7. Oxygen
(a) Oxygen is used up during:
i- respiration
ii- burning
iii- decay
iv- rusting
(b) Oxygen is needed for living things to survive.
(c) Oxygen is set free during the process of photosynthesis.
8. Rare gases
(a) The rare gases in air are:
i- helium
ii- neon
iii- argon
iv- krypton
v- xenon
vi- radon
(b) these gases are very incative but have their uses.
9. Carbon dioxide
(a) Carbon dioxide is set free during:
i- respiration
ii- burning
iii- decay
(b) It is absorbed by green plants during photosynthesis
Eksperiment 1
Eksperiment 2
Eksperiment 3
Eksperiment 4
PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN AND CARBON DIOXIDE
7. It turns moist blue litmus paper to a faint red; hence, it is a weak acid.
3. The following experiment is carried out to study the properties of oxygen and carbon
dioxide from certain aspects.
Eksperiment 5
Eksperiment 6
Eksperiment 7
Confirmatory tests for oxygen and carbon dioxide are shown below.
1. Respiration is carried out in all living cells. It is a continuous process that takes place
day and night.
2. During respiration or breathing, oxygen is taken in from the air and carbon dioxide is
released.
3. Oxygen is needed for respiration. Oxygen is taken in to oxidise (burn away) the food
in cells to produce energy. This process is called respiration.
4. The term rspiration covers the breathing in and out of air and the use of oxygen in
the body.
5. Living things use oxygen and release carbon dioxide during respiration.
6. Simple carbohydrates, e.g. glucose, are broken down by making use of the oxygen
absorbed by the cells.
7. Energy, carbon dioxide and water vapour are the by-products of respiration.
8. The following experiment shows that living things use oxygen and give out carbon
dioxide.
Eksperiment 8
Eksperiment 9
1. In the process of breathing, air from the surroundings is inhaled or sucked into the
lungs. This air is known as inhaled air.
2. Air that is exhaled or breathed out from the lungs is known as exhaled air.
Breathing process
3. The exhaled air of humans can be collected by breathing out air through a rubber
tube into a container filled with water and overturned in water (method of water
displacement) as shown in the figure below.
1. The quantities of nitrogen and rare gases in exhaled air stay unchanged i.e. 78% and
0.9% respectively.
2. The quantity of carbon dioxide in exhaled air is 4%, which is over a hundred times
greater than normally present in the atmosphere.
4. Exhaled air is warmer than ordinary air due to the release of energy during
respiration.
Eksperiment 10
Eksperiment 11
Eksperiment 12
OXYGEN AND COMBUSTION
1. Combustion is a chemical reaction which takes place when a substance combines with
oxygen and produces:
(a) an oxide
(b) heat energy
(c) light energy
Examples:
(a) Carbon dioxide, heat energy and light energy are produces when carbon burns in
air.
(b) Magnesium oxide, heat energy and light energy are produced when magnesium
burns in air.
2. When a hydrocarbon (a compound containing hydrogen and carbon only) such as a
candle burns, the products are:
(a) water
(b) carbon dioxide
(c) heat energy
(d) light energy
3. The reactions in the above examples show that combustion needs oxygen. This can
also be shown in the following ways:
(a) i. If a gas jar of oxygen is inverted over a burning candle, the candle goes on burning
until the oxygen it used up.
ii. If a gas of nitrogen or carbon dioxide is inverted over a burning candle, the candle
flame is extinguished at once.
(b) i. If two glass jars, one small and one big, are inverted over two similiar burning
candles, the candle in the large jar burns longer. This is because the large jar
contains more oxygen than the small jar.
Eksperiment 13
1. Materials which are easily burnt are called fuels.
2. The fuels used come mainly from three materials, as given below.
5. The principle in fire fighting is to remove one of these factors from the fire.
6. (a) Oxygen
The supply of oxygen to a fire can be stopped by using a fire-extinguisher to spray
foam
or carbon dioxide on the fire. The foam or dense carbon dioxide surrounds the
fire and
prevents air (oxygen) from getting to it.
(b) Fuel
If a fire is caused by a gas, stopping the gas supply will put out the fire. For
example, a Bunsen burner flame is extinguished when the gas tap is turned off.
(c) Heat
A fuel cannot burn if its temperature is not high enough. Water can extinguish a
fire because it lowers the temperature of the fuel to below its ingition point i.e.
below the temperature at which it burns.
7. The method for extinguishing fire depends on the source of the fire.
Combustion plays a very important role in our everyday life.
AIR POLLUTION
1. Unwanted and harmful subtances are added to the air by factories, motor vehicles,
forest fires, the development of large housing estates and the extensive use of
chlorofluorocarbons.
2. The addition of unwanted and harmful substances to the air is known as air pollution.
4. The air such as dust and sulphur dioxide harm our health and the environment.
5. The air in industrial areas because there are more factories, motor vehicles and
development projects going on in industrial areas.
7. Man must control his activities so that they do not pollute the air, because clean air is
essential for a healthy life.
The main air pollutants, their sources and effects are given in the table below.
1. Air pollution causes harmful effects on living things, including man and on the
enviroment.
3. Health problems
(a) Harmful gases, dust and soot in the air cause several health problems such as:
i. headaches
ii. skin diseases
iii. asthma
iv. bronchitis
v. lung and throat cancer.
5. Destruction of habitats.
(a) Acidic gases such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide which dissolve in water to
form acid rain have destroyed large areas of forest and made ponds and rivers
unsuitable for plants and animals.
(b) As a result the natural habitats are destroyed.
6. Extinction of species
(a) Destruction of natural habitats has caused many plants and animals to die and
several species become extinct.
(b) Plants and animals in danger of going extinct include Rafflesia, orang utan, tapir,
hornbill and leathery-back turtle.
7. Destruction of property
(a) Acid rain is corroding buildings and important historic monuments.
(b) Smoke and soot have turned many buildings black.
8. Global warming
(a) The Earth's atmosphere now contains excess carbon dioxide. This is due to fewer
forests to absorb the gas and industries releasing a lot of it.
(b) This layer of carbon dioxide traps heat from the sun and prevents it from escaping
into outer space. As a result the Earth's temperature is rising. The phenomenon
is called the green house effect or global warning.
i. Cataract
The eye lens becomes opaque and the patient cannot see. He has to replace the lens
with a synthetic one.
ii. Skin cancer
Constant exposure to harmful ultraviolet rays can causes cancer of the skin. general
cancer of the skin, known as melanoma, cannot be cured.
iii. Lowering of the body's defence system
Harmful ultraviolet rays make the body less able to resist diseases such as
tuberculosis and diphtheria.
iv. Reducing the yield from plants
Plants crops such as paddy give lower yields when exposed to harmful ultraviolet
rays.
(c) Air pollutants mainly chlorofluorocarbon (CFC), have made the ozone layer very
thin, allowing a lot of harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the Earth.
1. Air pollution must be controlled so that its harmful effects can be reduced. Some
ways for controlling air pollution are explained below.
2. Rubbish
(a) Do not allow open burning in residential areas.
(b) Burning should only be done in approved sites or in incinerators built for the
purpose.
3. Motor vehicles
(a) Fix catalytic converters to the exhaust pipes of motor vehicles so that harmful.
exhaust gases can be converted to harmless substances.
(b) Use unleaded petrol in motor vehicles.
(c) Ensure that the engines of motor vehicles do not give out excessive exhaust gases
and black smoke.
4. Factories
(a) Build tall chimneys in factories so that smoke and waste gases are discharged high
up in the air and can be easily blown away by wind.
(b) Build electric precipitators on the chimneys to attract particles in the waste gases to
prevent them from escaping into the air.
(c) Treat waste gases in air cleaning systems before releasing them into the air.
5. Agriculture
(a) Advise farmers to reduce the use of pesticides.
(b) Encourage farmers to use biological control ways to kill pests. For example, suitable
owls can be reared in oil palm plantations to catch rats.
6. Chlorofluorocarbon
(a) Reduce the use of chlorofluorocarbon and other gases which destroy teh Earth's
ozone layer.
(b) Use ozone friendly gases such as hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC)
7. Nuclear subtances
(a) Store and throw radioactive wastes in the recommended ways.
(b) Ban nuclear tests through an international aggrement to be organized by the United
Nations.
8. Reforestation
(a) replant forest for absorbong carbon dioxide. This reduces global warming.
10. In order to control air pollution effectively, everyone in the world must co-operate
and play his part.
1. Smoking is the cause for many deaths through disease such as:
(a) bronchitis
(b) lung cancer
(c) heart diseases
(d) emphysema
2. Emphysema is a condition in which the air-sacs in the lungs are demaged by cigarrate
smoke and cannot function properly. As a result the patient is short of breath. It cannot
be cured.
3. Cigarette smoke contains over a thousand poisonous chemicals. Some of them may
cause cancer of the lungs.
7. A person who is a non-smoker may inhale cigaratte smoke given out by someone
smoking. This is called passive smoking.
9. Pregnant women who smoke heavily have the risk of having smaller babies,
premature birth or still-birth.
10. Smokers must be considerate and not smoke in public places or near non-smokers.
Eksperiment 14
1. There will be plenty of health problems without clean air. Patients suffering from
breathing difficulties, asthma, bronchitis and skin diseases will increases.
3. Less food will be produced as crops affected by acid rain, soot and dust cannot carry
out photosynthesis effectively.
4. The air will become warmer with more carbon dioxide in it, causing global warming.
5. Warmer air in temperate countries will cause tropical diseases to spread to them.
6. The ozone layer will be depleted and more people will suffer from cataract and skin
cancer.
2. Run campaigns to explain what individuals must do to keep the air clean.
3. Ban smoking in public places such as in hospitals, cinema halls, supermarkets and
offices.
6. Introduce laws to force factories to treat their waste gases before releasing them into
the
air.
3. Use less electricity. This will reduce the use of fuels in power stations and so reduce
air
pollutants.
4. Walk or cycle instead og going by cars. This will reduce exhaust gases from motor
vehicles.
5. Reduce the use of insecticide sprays and hair sprays. This will reduce
chlorofluorocarbon
(CFC) in the air.
6. Ensure your motor vehicles do not give out excessive black smoke.
2. The word "work" has a different meaning in science. According to scientists, work is
done when an object is moved over a horizontal or vertical distance.
Examples:
(a) Work is done when Fadhli pulls a tree runk away from blocking a road.
(b) Work is done when Fadhlina pick up a book on the floor and places it on a table.
4. All the activities that go on around us will come to stop if there is no energy.
Energy exists in different forms. The main forms are illustrated below:
1. A hot object has heat energy.
5. Heat energy flows from a place or material of high temperature to a place or material
of lower temperature.
3. We will not be able to see things if no light energy reaches our eyes.
3. This chemical energy from a chemical reaction may appear in different form such as:
(a) heat and light from a burning candle.
(b) sound (from an exploding fire cracker)
(c) electricity from a battery.
4. Our energy comes from the chemical energy in the food we eat.
2. Sound energy travels outwards in waves and can be detected with our ears.
3. Sound energy can travel through solids, liquids and gases but cannot travel through a
vacuum.
2. The greater the speed of a moving object, the greater is its kinetic energy.
3. The greater the spring is compressed or stretched (provided not overdone), the
greater is its potential energy.
6. The bigger the mass of a raised object, the greater is its energy.
1. Mechanical energy is the total potential energy and kinetic energy possessed by an
object.
4. Your legs have mechanical energy when you are pedalling a bicycle because your legs
are moving up and down.
5. A falling object has mechanical energy. Half way through its fall, it has both potential
energy and kinetic energy.
6. Examples of objects which have mechanical energy include:
(a) a swinging pendulum
(b) a see-saw in use
(c) a machine in use
3. Nuclear fusion is taking place in the Sun where hydrogen atoms combine to form
helium atoms.
5. Nuclear energy can cause great destructions, as happens when an atomic bomb
explodes.
Eksperiment 1
1. The primary source of the energy for the earth is the Sun.
2. The Sun generates a large amount of energy by nuclear fusion. During this reaction,
hydrogen atoms combine to form helium atoms, setting free a large amount of heat
energy and light energy.
3. The Earth receives heat energy and light energy directly from the Sun.
5. Energy in the wind, waves and rain comes indirectly from the Sun's. For examples,
wind is due to the Sun's heat energy causing air to move.
6. Energy in natural gas, petroleum and coal originated from the Sun.
7. Many appliances used in everyday life make use of energy from the Sun or solar
energy e.g. solar cells and solar heaters.
The Sun is the primary source of energy.
3. Solar cookers and heaters convent solar energy into heat energy.
5. Green plants use solar energy to make food and then store it in the food as chemical
energy.
1. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the Sun. This
causes air to move from a cool place to a warmer place, creating a wind.
1. Waves moving in and out from the seashore have potential energy and kinetic energy.
2. Waves can be used to turn turbines and then dynamos to produce electrical energy.
3. Tides flow in and out from the shore twice a day. These moving tides posses kinetic
energy while the high tides contain potential energy.
4. Some countries use tides to turn turbines and dynamos to produce electrical energy.
1. Water from a river can be blocked to form a dam.
2. Water stored in a dam has potential energy, and it has kinetic energy when it flows out
of it.
3. In hydroelectric power station, energy from the water in a dam is used to turn
turbines. The turbines turn dynamos for producing electrical energy.
1. "Geo" means "Earth" and '"thermal" means "heat". Geothermal energy is heat
energy obtained from deep in the Earth.
2. Hot springs, geysers and volcanic eruptions show that the Earth is very hot deep
inside it.
3. Sometimes steam or hot water trapped in the Earth is pumped to the surface by
boring holes in the ground.
4. Sometimes water from a lake is channeled inside the Earth to be heated by hot rocks
and is then pumped out again as steam.
1. Biomass energy is the energy obtained from plant and animal materials by:
(a) burning them
(b) decomposing them using bacteria.
2. In some countries, rubbbish from houses is burnt in special incinetarors and the heat
is used to produce steam to warm houses or drive turbines and dynamos to
produce electrical energy.
4. In Malaysia, organic materials from rubber estates and oil palm plantations are
decomposed in tanks by bacteria to generate methane gas for us as a fuel.
5. In, Brazil, sugar cane juice is fermented to produce alcohol for use as a fuel in
vehicles.
1.Fossils are the remains of plants or animals burried in the Earth long ago.
2. Fossil fuels consist of coal, natural gas and petroleum which were formed by the
remains of plants and animals buried in the Earth long ago.
3. More than half of the energy used today comes from fossil fuels.
4. Coal is used in temperate countries for warming houses. It is also burnt in some
power stations to get steam for driving turbines and dynamos to produce
electrical energy.
5. Natural gas is mainly used as a cooking fuel. It can be liquefied and stored in
cylinders. It is also piped to houses and factories for use.
3. The heat energy released is used to produce steam under high power. The steam is
used to drive turbines and dynamos to produce electrical energy.
4. In submarines using nuclear energy, the turbines drive propellers which move the
submarine.
1. The principle of energy conversation states the following:
(a) Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
(b) Energy can be changed from one from to another.
2. During energy changes, the total energy before changing equals to the total energy
after changing. So energy is conserved.
3. During an energy change, some energy may be wasted (usually in the form of heat),
but not destroyed.
1. Energy conversion or energy change is the changing of one form of energy into
another.
1. The sources of energy in the world can be classified into two groups.
(a) Renewable energy sources.
(b) Non-renewable energy sources.
2. Renewable energy sources are those that can be replenished or renewed when they
have been used.
3. Non-renewable energy sources are those that cannot be replenished or renewed and
will eventually be used up and exhausted.
7. Sources of energy that pollute and do not pollute the environment are shown in the
chart on the following page.
1. Since the Earth has limited amounts of non-renewable energy sources such as fossil
fuels, they must be conserved in order to avoid:
a) future energy crises due to a shortage or overuse of fossil fuels
b) a growing exploitation of natural resources
c) atmospheric contamination that causes global warming and climatic change, acid
rain and smog. The resulting impact damages water sources and groundwater, soils,
crops, wildlife and wildlife habitats, building materials and man's health.
4. Here are some ways to use and manage energy sources efficiently:
a) Recycle material
HEAT AS A FORM OF ENERGY
2. It gets its heat energy from nuclear reactions taking place in its centre.
3. The temperature at its centre is about 15 000 000oC, and its surface temperature is
between 10 000oC and 500 000oC.
4. The Earth receives heat energy and light energy from the sun.
6. Without heat energy from the sun, the Earth will be a very cold place.
7. Without light energy from the sun, the Earth will be forever in darkness.
8. Without energy from the sun, there will be no living things on the Earth.
1. Heat is a form of energy.
Examples:
(a) Heat causes metals to expand.
(b) Heat causes air to expand and rise.
(c) Heat can causes things to burn and give out light e.g. oil.
(d) Heat can cause a change of state e.g. ice to melt and water to boil.
2. As a result, heat can be produced in many ways from different forms of energy.
(d) Heat is produced when zinc reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid.
(e) Heat is produced when quicklime reacts with water to form slaked lime.
2. Heat is widely used in everyday life. Heat has made our work easier and so our life
more comfortable.
3. The temperature of an object rises when heat is added to it, but falls when heat is
removed from it.
12. Two objects in a room have the same temperature (the room temperature) but may
contain different amounts of heat.
Eksperiment 1
HEAT FLOW AND ITS EFFECT
1. Matter is made up of particles.
2. When matter is heated, the particles receive energy and move faster. This causes the
distance between the particles to increase.
4. When matter is cooled, the particles lose energy and move more slowly. The particles
become closer to one another. The volume decreases and matter contracts.
5. The summary about the expansion and contraction of matter is shown in the chart
below:
6. All forms of matter expand when heated, and contract when cooled.
7. Gas expands the most while solids expand the least, for the same amount of heat.
2. When a solid is heated, the heat energy causes the particles in the solid to vibrate
faster. The particles stay further apart. So the solid increases in length or size
(expand).
3. The expansion of a solid can be shown by a metal ball ring apparatus as shown in the
experiment below.
Eksperiment 2
4. Different metals expand at different rates as shown below.
5. Different metals expand unequally when heated to the same temperature. This is
illustrated by heating a bimetallic strip as shown in the figure below.
6. The laboratory activity below shows the expansion of the different metals.
1. Liquids expand when heated and contract when cooled.
2. The volume of all liquids changes as the temperature of the liquids is altered.
3. Like solids, different liquids expand and contract at different rates as shown below:
1. Gases expand when heated and contract when cooled.
Eksperiment 3
3. Different gases expand at the same rate.
5. The following laboratory activity shows that different gases expand equally when
heated.
Heat can be transferred from a hot to a cold place by the process of:
(a) conduction
(b) convection
(c) radiation
1. When heat flows through solids, the process of heat transfer is called conduction.
2. Conduction requires a medium for the heat energy to pass through.
3. Heat passes through a metal rod when one end of it is heated in a flame. For example:
(a) heat from a fire passes through the frying pan to cook food.
(b) a metal spoon in the hand becomes warm after sometime because heat from the
body passes to the metal spoon to warm it.
(c) a chair becomes warm after a person has sat on it for some time. Heat from the body
passes to the chair to warm it.
(d) the handle of a spoon becomes warm after some time if the spoon is left in a cup of
hot water. This means that heat from the water passes through the spoon to the
hand.
5. The particles which are in actual contact with the source of heat transfer some of the
heat to the neighbouring particles. This process goes on until heat is passed from one
end to the other.
6. The transfer of heat by conduction takes place from particle to particle in a solid and
is summarised as shown in the chart below.
Eksperiment 4
8. The following laboratory activity shows the transfer of heat through conduction.
1. Convection is the transfer of heat in fluids (liquids and gases) carried out by moving
particles.
3. Cold fluids that are denser move down to replace the hot fluids.
Eksperiment 5
8. The following laboratory activity can be carried out to show the process of convection
that takes place in gas.
1. Radiation is the transfer of heat from a source of heat to another area in its
surroundings without involving a medium.
3. In radiation, particles do not carry heat energy from one place to another. In other
words, particles are not needed for the process of radiation.
Eksperiment 6
7. The following laboratory activities show the transfer of heat through radiation.
1. Convection is the process by which heat is carried from one place to another by
moving fluid matter.
2. Heat that is carried from one place to another by moving hot liquid or gas can be
used to explain the occurrence of certain natural phenomena such as:
(a) land breezes
(b) sea breezes
(c) the morning of the Earth by the Sun.
3. Wind is caused by the uneven heating of air over the surface of the Earth.
4. Uneven heating of the land and sea causes land sea breezes.
4. The warm air above the surface of the sea becomes less dense, and rises.
5. The air above the land that is denser (cooler) flows in the direction of the sea, causing
what is know as a land breeze.
2. During the day, the land heats up faster than the sea.
1. The heat from the Sun reaches the earth by radiation through a vacuum in space (no
medium)
2. Some substances conduct heat readily. They are called good conductors of heat.
3. All metals such as iron, magnesium, aluminium and zinc are good conductors of heat.
4. The metal that conducts heat best of all is silver. Copper is the next best conductor,
followed by aluminium, brass, zinc, tin, iron and lead, in that order.
5. The following laboratory activities show that metal is a good heat conductor.
1. Substances that conduct heat poorly are insulators or called bad conductors of heat.
2. Non-metals such as glass, wood, cork air, water and wool are insulators.
4. The following activities are carried out to study the flow of heat through fluids
(liquids and gases).
Exampels of the uses of heat conductors in daily life are shown below.
Examples of the uses of heat insulators in daily life are shown below.
Examples of the uses of convection in everyday life are shown below.
An example of the use of radiation in every life is shown below.
EFFECT OF HEAT ON THE STATE OF MATTER
4. Physical processes that can be change the state of matter are named below.
1.Melting takes place when a solid is heated and changes into a liquid.
3. When ice is heated, its particles (molecules) receive more energy and viberate faster.
The energetic particles move away from their originally arranged positions. When
this happens the ice melts.
1. Boiling takes place when a liquid is heated until it changes to a gas at its boiling point.
1. Evaporation is the process of changing a liquid into a gas at a temperature below the
boiling point of the liquid.
3. When a little alcohol is exposed to the air, its particles receive more energy from the
heat in the air. The particles escape into the air when they gain sufficient kinetic
energy. This happens below the boiling point of the liquid.
4. Different liquids evaporate at different rates e.g. alcohol evaporates faster than water.
3. When steam (gas) is cooled, its particles (water molecules) lose kinetic energy and
come closer to one another. eventually the particles group together to form water.
3. When a liquid is cooled, its particles lose energy to the surroundings, move more
slowly and come very close to one another. When the particles arrange themselves
in an orderly manner, the liquid turns into a solid.
4. Different liquids turn into solids at different temperatures called freezing points.
- Freezing point of naphthalene = 80oC.
- Freezing point of water = 0oC.
- Freezing point of nitrogen = -210oC.
1. Sublimation is the process of changing a solid to a vapour and then from the vapour
into a solid, without going through the liquid state.
2. Heat is absorbed when the solid changes to vapour, and is lost when the vapour
changes to a solid.
4. Eventually the particles have sufficient energy to escape directly into the air without
forming a liquid.
5. When the vapour particles are cooled, they lose energy and regroup themselves into a
solid.
1. The expansion and contraction of matter is made use of in some gadgets such as
thermometer, fire-alarms and thermostats.
2. Mercury thermometers.
(a) A mercury thermometer has a bulb and a capillary tube filled with some mercury.
(b) On a hot day, the mercury expands and rises in the capillary tube, showing a rise in
temperature.
(c) When it is cold, the mercury contracts and falls in the capillary tube, showing a fall
in the capillary tube, showing a fall in temperature.
3. Fire-alarms
(a) An automatic fire alarm has an electric circuit as shown in the diagram below.
(b) In case of fire, the temperature in the room rises. The brass on the bimetallic strip
expands more than the iron, causing the strip to bend towards the metal contact.
(c) The circuit of the fire-alarm is closed and the alarm bell rings, warning people of the
fire.
5. Bimetallic thermometers
(a) Bimetallic thermometers are used in ovens and motor vehicles.
(b) A bimetallic thermometer has a bimetallic coil made of brass on the outer side and
invar on the inner side.
(c) When the temperature rises, the brass expands more than the invar causing the coil
to bend inwards. This action turns the pointer to show a rise in temperature on
the temperature scale.
6. Rivets
(a) Rivets are used to join two metal plates.
(b) The rivets are heated until red hot and are then harmmed into holes drilled through
the metal plates.
(c) The two metal plates become tightly joined when the rivets cool and contract.
2. Railway lines.
(a) Railway lines will buckle on a very hot day due to expansion of the lines.
(b) To solve this problem, railway lines are laid in sections with gaps between them to
allow room for expansion.
3. Steel bridges.
(a) The expansion of a steel bridge on a hot day can exert great force which may demage
the bridge.
(b) A steel bridge is built with one end fixed and the other end resting in rollers.
(c) This allows the bridge to expand on a hot day and contract on a cool day.
4. Telepgraph wires
(a) Telegraph wires are put up so that they sag on a hot day.
(b) This allows for the wires to contract at night when it is cold.
5. Concrete roads.
(a) Roads built of concrete expand on hot days and crack.
(b) To solve this problem, concrete roads are built with gaps in them to allow for
expansion on a hot day.
6. Steam pipes.
(a) Steam pipes made of metal become very hot and expand when they carry steam.
They contract when they are not carrying steam. This expansion and
contraction can break the pipes.
(b) So steam pipes have expansion joints. These joints allow the pipes to expand and
contract without breaking.
1. All objects can absorb, radiate (release heat by radiation) and reflect heat.
2. A black, dull object absorb heat better than a white, shiny object.
3. A black, dull object radiates heat better than a white, shiny object.
4. A white, shiny object, reflects heat better than a black, dull object.
Eksperiment 6
Eksperimen 7
1. In everyday life, white shiny surfaces are used to reflect heat or absorb less heat.
(b) Boilers
Boilers for keeping hot water are painted with shiny aluminium paint to reduce heat
loss by radiation from the hot water.
1. Heat flowing from one place to another is made use of to make our lives more
comfortable.
3. Air-conditioners
(a) An air-conditioner cools a room by convection.
(b) An air-conditioner is fixed on the uper wall of a room.
(c) The cold it produces is dense and moves downwards to push out the warm air in the
room.
(d) The warm air which is less dense rises and leaves through the air holes in the walls.
4. Chimneys in cold countries.
(a) In cold countries, the sitting room usually has a fire-place burning coal to warm the
room in winter.
(b) The heated air, being less dense, rises up the chimney and cooler air comes in
through windows to take its place.
(c) A convection current which is set up carries heat to all parts of the room.
(d) The room is also warmed by radiation from the fire.
^-^
Writing by