Chlorine 1

Chlorine
Chlorine

Appearance

pale yellow-green gas

General properties

Name, symbol, number chlorine, Cl, 17

Pronunciation /ˈklɔəriːn/ KLOR-een

Element category Halogen

Group, period, block 17, 3, p

Standard atomic weight 35.453(2) g·mol−1

Electron configuration 2
[Ne] 3s 3p
5

Electrons per shell 2, 8, 7 (Image)

Physical properties

Phase gas

Density (0 °C, 101.325 kPa)

3.2 g/L

Melting point 171.6 K,-101.5 °C,-150.7 °F

Boiling point 239.11 K,-34.04 °C,-29.27 °F

Critical point 416.9 K, 7.991 MPa

Heat of fusion (Cl ) 6.406 kJ·mol−1

2
Heat of vaporization (Cl ) 20.41 kJ·mol−1
2
Specific heat capacity (25 °C) (Cl )
2
33.949 J·mol−1·K−1

Vapor pressure

P/Pa 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k

at T/K 128 139 153 170 197 239

Atomic properties

Oxidation states 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, -1
(strongly acidic oxide)

Electronegativity 3.16 (Pauling scale)

Chlorine 2

Ionization energies 1st: 1251.2 kJ·mol−1

(more)
2nd: 2298 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 3822 kJ·mol−1

Covalent radius 102±4 pm

Van der Waals radius 175 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure orthorhombic

Magnetic ordering [1]

diamagnetic

Electrical resistivity (20 °C) > 10 Ω·m

Thermal conductivity (300 K) 8.9x10-3  W·m−1·K−1

Speed of sound (gas, 0 °C) 206 m/s

CAS registry number 7782-50-5

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of chlorine

iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP

Cl 75.77%
35 35
Cl is stable with 18 neutron
36
Cl trace 3.01×10 y
5
β
− 0.709 36
Ar

ε - 36
S

Cl 24.23%
37 37
Cl is stable with 20 neutron

Chlorine ( /ˈklɔəriːn/ KLOHR-een; from the Greek word 'χλωρóς' (khlôros, meaning 'pale green')) is the chemical
element with atomic number 17 and symbol Cl. It is a halogen, found in the periodic table in group 17. As the
chloride ion, which is part of common salt and other compounds, it is abundant in nature and necessary to most
forms of life, including humans. In its elemental form (Cl2 or "dichlorine") under standard conditions, chlorine is a
powerful oxidant and is used in bleaching and disinfectants, as well as an essential reagent in the chemical industry.
As a common disinfectant, chlorine compounds are used in swimming pools to keep them clean and sanitary. In the
upper atmosphere, chlorine-containing molecules such as chlorofluorocarbons have been implicated in ozone
depletion.
Chlorine 3

Characteristics

Physical characteristics
At standard temperature and pressure, two chlorine atoms
form the diatomic molecule Cl2. This is a yellow-green gas
that has its distinctive strong smell, the smell of bleach. The
bonding between the two atoms is relatively weak (only
242.580 ±0.004 kJ/mol), which makes the Cl2 molecule
highly reactive. The boiling point at regular atmosphere is
around -34 ˚C, but it can be liquefied at room temperature
with pressures above 8 atmospheres.[2]

Liquid chlorine, liquified under its own pressure at room
temperature, displayed in a quartz ampule embedded in
acrylic glass.
Chemical characteristics
Along with fluorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine, chlorine
is a member of the halogen series that forms the group 17
(formerly VII, VIIa, or VIIb) of the periodic table. Chlorine
forms compounds with almost all of the elements to give
compounds that are usually called chlorides. Chlorine gas
reacts with most organic compounds, and will even
sluggishly support the combustion of hydrocarbons.[3]

Hydrolysis

At 10 °C and atmospheric pressure, one liter of water dissolves 3.10 L of gaseous chlorine,[4] Solutions of chlorine in
water contain chlorine (Cl2), hydrochloric acid, and hypochlorous acid:
Cl2 + H2O HCl + HClO
This conversion to the right is called disproportionation, because the ingredient chlorine both increases and decreases
in formal oxidation state. The solubility of chlorine in water is increased if the water contains dissolved alkali
hydroxide, and in this way, chlorine bleach is produced.
Cl2 + 2 OH- → ClO- + Cl- + H2O
Chlorine gas only exists in a neutral or acidic solution.

Compounds
Chlorine exists in all odd numbered oxidation states from −1 to +7, as well as the elemental state of zero (see Table).
Progressing through the states, hydrochloric acid can be oxidized using manganese dioxide, or hydrogen chloride gas
oxidized catalytically by air to form elemental chlorine gas.
Chlorine 4

Oxidation Name Formula Illustrative compounds

state

−1 chlorides ionic chlorides, organic chlorides, hydrochloric acid

Cl−

0 chlorine Cl2 elemental chlorine

+1 hypochlorites sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite

ClO−

+3 chlorites ClO sodium chlorite

+4 chlorine dioxide ClO2

+5 chlorates ClO sodium chlorate, potassium chlorate, chloric acid

+7 perchlorates ClO perchloric acid, perchlorate salts such as magnesium perchlorate, dichlorine heptoxide

Interhalogen compounds
Chlorine oxidizes bromide and iodide salts to bromine and iodine, respectively. But it cannot oxidize fluoride to
fluorine. It makes are variety of "interhalogen compounds" such as the chlorine fluorides, chlorine monofluoride
(ClF), chlorine trifluoride (ClF3), chlorine pentafluoride (ClF5). Chlorides of bromine and iodine are also known.

Organo chlorine compounds

Chlorine is used extensively in organic in substitution and addition reactions. Chlorine often imparts many desired
properties to an organic compound, in part due to its electronegativity. Organochlorine compounds are also serious
pollutants, either as side products of industrial processes or as persistent pesticidess.
Many important industrial products are produced via organochlorine intermediates. Examples include
polycarbonates, polyurethanes, silicones, polytetrafluoroethylene, carboxymethyl cellulose, and propylene oxide.
Like the other halogens, chlorine participates in free-radical substitution reactions with hydrogen-containing organic
compounds. When applied to organic substrates, reaction is often—but not invariably—non-regioselective, and,
hence, may result in a mixture of isomeric products. It is often difficult to control the degree of substitution as well,
so multiple substitutions are common. If the different reaction products are easily separated, e.g., by distillation,
substitutive free-radical chlorination (in some cases accompanied by concurrent thermal dehydrochlorination) may
be a useful synthetic route. Industrial examples of this are the production of methyl chloride, methylene chloride,
chloroform, and carbon tetrachloride from methane, allyl chloride from propylene, and trichloroethylene, and
tetrachloroethylene from 1,2-dichloroethane.
Like the other halides, chlorine undergoes electrophilic additions reactions, the most notable one being the
chlorination of alkenes and aromatic compounds with a Lewis acid catalyst. Organic chlorine compounds tend to be
less reactive in nucleophilic substitution reactions than the corresponding bromine or iodine derivatives, but they
tend to be cheaper. They may be activated for reaction by substituting with a tosylate group, or by the use of a
catalytic amount of sodium iodide.
Chlorine 5

Chlorides
Chlorine combines with almost all elements to give chlorides. Compounds with oxygen, nitrogen, xenon, and
krypton are known, but do not form by direct reaction of the elements.[5] Chloride is one of the most common anions
in nature. Hydrogen chloride and its aqueous solution, hydrochloric acid, are produced on megaton scale annually
both as valued intermediates but sometimes as undesirable pollutants.

Chlorine oxides
Chlorine forms a variety of oxides: chlorine dioxide (ClO2), dichlorine monoxide (Cl2O), dichlorine heptoxide
(Cl2O7). The anionic derivatives of these same oxides are also well known including chlorate (ClO), chlorite (ClO),
hypochlorite (ClO−), and perchlorate (ClO), and chloramine (NH2Cl).[6] The acid derivatives of these anions are
hypochlorous acid (HOCl), chloric acid (HClO3) and perchloric acid (HClO4).
In hot concentrated alkali solution hypochlorite disproportionates:
2 ClO− → Cl− + ClO
ClO− + ClO → Cl− + ClO
Sodium chlorate and potassium chlorate can be crystallized from solutions formed by the above reactions. If their
crystals are heated, they undergo a further, final disproportionation:
4 ClO → Cl− + 3 ClO
This same progression from chloride to perchlorate can be accomplished by electrolysis. The anode reaction
progression is:[7]

Reaction Electrode
potential

Cl− + 2 OH− → ClO− + H2O + 2 e− +0.89 volts

ClO− + 2 OH− → ClO + H2O + 2 e− +0.67 volts

ClO + 2 OH− → ClO + H2O + 2 e− +0.33 volts

ClO + 2 OH− → ClO + H2O + 2 e− +0.35 volts

Each step is accompanied at the cathode by

2 H2O + 2 e− → 2 OH− + H2 (−0.83 volts)

Occurrence
In nature, chlorine is found primarily as the chloride ion, a component of the salt that is deposited in the earth or
dissolved in the oceans — about 1.9% of the mass of seawater is chloride ions. Even higher concentrations of
chloride are found in the Dead Sea and in underground brine deposits. Most chloride salts are soluble in water, thus,
chloride-containing minerals are usually only found in abundance in dry climates or deep underground. Common
chloride minerals include halite (sodium chloride), sylvite (potassium chloride), and carnallite (potassium
magnesium chloride hexahydrate). Over 2000 naturally occurring organic chlorine compounds are known.[8]
In the interstellar medium, chlorine is produced in supernovae via the r-process.[9]
Chlorine 6

Isotopes
Chlorine has a wide range of isotopes. The two stable isotopes are 35Cl (75.77%) and 37Cl (24.23%). Together they
give chlorine an atomic weight of 35.4527 g/mol. The half value for chlorine's weight caused some confusion in the
early days of chemistry, when it had been postulated that atoms were composed of even units of hydrogen (see
Proust's law), and the existence of chemical isotopes was unsuspected.
Trace amounts of radioactive 36Cl exist in the environment, in a ratio of about 7x10−13 to 1 with stable isotopes. 36Cl
is produced in the atmosphere by spallation of 36Ar by interactions with cosmic ray protons. In the subsurface
environment, 36Cl is generated primarily as a result of neutron capture by 35Cl or muon capture by 40Ca. 36Cl decays
to 36S and to 36Ar, with a combined half-life of 308,000 years. The half-life of this hydrophilic nonreactive isotope
makes it suitable for geologic dating in the range of 60,000 to 1 million years. Additionally, large amounts of 36Cl
were produced by irradiation of seawater during atmospheric detonations of nuclear weapons between 1952 and
1958. The residence time of 36Cl in the atmosphere is about 1 week. Thus, as an event marker of 1950s water in soil
and ground water, 36Cl is also useful for dating waters less than 50 years before the present. 36Cl has seen use in
other areas of the geological sciences, including dating ice and sediments.

History
The most common compound of chlorine, sodium chloride, has been known since ancient times; archaeologists have
found evidence that rock salt was used as early as 3000 BC and brine as early as 6000 BC.[10]
Elemental chlorine was first prepared and studied in 1774 by Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, and, therefore,
he is credited for its discovery.[11] He called it "dephlogisticated muriatic acid air" since it is a gas (then called
"airs") and it came from hydrochloric acid (then known as "muriatic acid").[11] However, he failed to establish
chlorine as an element, mistakenly thinking that it was the oxide obtained from the hydrochloric acid (see phlogiston
theory).[11] He named the new element within this oxide as muriaticum.[11] Regardless of what he thought, Scheele
did isolate chlorine by reacting MnO2 (as the mineral pyrolusite) with HCl:
4 HCl + MnO2 → MnCl2 + 2 H2O + Cl2
Scheele observed several of the properties of chlorine: the bleaching effect on litmus, the deadly effect on insects,
the yellow green color, and the smell similar to aqua regia.
At the time, common chemical theory was: Any acid is a compound that contains oxygen (still sounding in the
German and Dutch names of oxygen: sauerstoff or zuurstof, both translating into English as acid stuff), so a number
of chemists, including Claude Berthollet, suggested that Scheele's dephlogisticated muriatic acid air must be a
combination of oxygen and the yet undiscovered element, muriaticum.[12]
In 1809, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard tried to decompose dephlogisticated muriatic acid air
by reacting it with charcoal to release the free element muriaticum (and carbon dioxide).[11] They did not succeed
and published a report in which they considered the possibility that dephlogisticated muriatic acid air is an element,
but were not convinced.[13]
In 1810, Sir Humphry Davy tried the same experiment again, and concluded that it is an element, and not a
compound.[11] He named this new element as chlorine, from the Greek word χλωρος (chlōros), meaning
green-yellow.[14] The name halogen, meaning salt producer, was originally defined for chlorine (in 1811 by Johann
Salomo Christoph Schweigger), and it was later applied to the rest of the elements in this family.[15] In 1823,
Michael Faraday liquefied chlorine for the first time.[16] [17]
Chlorine was first used to bleach textiles in 1785.[18] In 1826, silver chloride was used to produce photographic
images for the first time.[19] Chloroform was first used as an anesthetic in 1847.[19] An elemental chlorine solution in
water (which was expensive), then the less expensive chlorine gas dissolved in lime-water (calcium hypochlorite)
was first used as an antiseptic to prevent the spread of puerperal fever in the maternity wards of Vienna General
Hospital in Austria in 1847,[20] . In 1850, chlorine in lime-water was used by John Snow to purify the water supply
Chlorine 7

in London after an outbreak of cholera. (Both uses preceded the germ theory of disease, and were based on
destruction of odors and "putrid matter").
The US Department of Treasury called for all water to be disinfected with chlorine by 1918.[19] Polyvinylchloride
(PVC) was invented in 1912, initially without a purpose.[19] Chlorine gas was first introduced as a weapon on April
22, 1915 at Ypres by the German Army,[21] [22] and the results of this weapon were disastrous because gas masks
had not yet been invented.

Production
In industry, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride dissolved in water. Along
with chlorine, this chloralkali process yields hydrogen gas and sodium hydroxide, according to the following
chemical equation:
2 NaCl + 2 H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOH
The electrolysis of chloride solutions all proceed according to the following equations:
Cathode: 2 H+ (aq) + 2 e− → H2 (g)
Anode: 2 Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2 e−
Overall process: 2 NaCl (or KCl) + 2 H2O → Cl2 + H2 + 2 NaOH (or KOH) In diaphragm cell electrolysis, an
asbestos (or polymer-fiber) diaphragm separates a cathode and an anode, preventing the chlorine forming at the
anode from re-mixing with the sodium hydroxide and the hydrogen formed at the cathode.[23] The salt solution
(brine) is continuously fed to the anode compartment and flows through the diaphragm to the cathode compartment,
where the caustic alkali is produced and the brine is partially depleted. Diaphragm methods produce dilute and
slightly impure alkali but they are not burdened with the problem of preventing mercury discharge into the
environment and they more energy efficient. Membrane cell electrolysis employ permeable membrane as an ion
exchanger. Saturated sodium (or potassium) chloride solution is passed through the anode compartment, leaving at a
lower concentration.[24] This method is more efficient than the diaphragm cell and produces very pure sodium (or
potassium) hydroxide at about 32% concentration, but requires very pure brine.

Laboratory methods
Small amounts of chlorine gas can be made in the laboratory by combining
hydrochloric acid and manganese dioxide. Alternatively a strong acid such as
sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hypochlorite or sodium
chlorate solution to release chlorine gas. In the home, accidents occur when
hypochlorite bleach solutions are combined with certain acidic drain-cleaners.

Applications

Production of industrial and consumer products

Chlorine's principal applications are in the production of a wide range of
industrial and consumer products.[25] [26] For example, it is used in making
plastics, solvents for dry cleaning and metal degreasing, textiles, agrochemicals
and pharmaceuticals, insecticides, dyestuffs, household cleaning products, etc.

Liquid Chlorine Analysis

Chlorine 8

Purification and disinfection

Chlorine is an important chemical for water purification (such as water treatment plants), in disinfectants, and in
bleach. Chlorine in water is more than three times as effective as a disinfectant against Escherichia coli than an
equivalent concentration of bromine, and is more than six times more effective than an equivalent concentration of
iodine.[27]
Chlorine is usually used (in the form of hypochlorous acid) to kill bacteria and other microbes in drinking water
supplies and public swimming pools. In most private swimming pools, chlorine itself is not used, but rather sodium
hypochlorite, formed from chlorine and sodium hydroxide, or solid tablets of chlorinated isocyanurates. Even small
water supplies are now routinely chlorinated.[3]
It is often impractical to store and use poisonous chlorine gas for water treatment, so alternative methods of adding
chlorine are used. These include hypochlorite solutions, which gradually release chlorine into the water, and
compounds like sodium dichloro-s-triazinetrione (dihydrate or anhydrous), sometimes referred to as "dichlor", and
trichloro-s-triazinetrione, sometimes referred to as "trichlor". These compounds are stable while solid and may be
used in powdered, granular, or tablet form. When added in small amounts to pool water or industrial water systems,
the chlorine atoms hydrolyze from the rest of the molecule forming hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which acts as a
general biocide, killing germs, micro-organisms, algae, and so on.

Use as a weapon
• World War I
Chlorine gas, also known as bertholite, was first used as a weapon in World War I by Germany on April 22, 1915 in
the Second Battle of Ypres. As described by the soldiers it had a distinctive smell of a mixture between pepper and
pineapple. It also tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat and chest. Chlorine can react with water in the
mucosa of the lungs to form hydrochloric acid, an irritant that can be lethal. The damage done by chlorine gas can be
prevented by a gas mask, or other filtration method, which makes the overall chance of death by chlorine gas much
lower than those of other chemical weapons. It was pioneered by a German scientist later to be a Nobel laureate,
Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin, in collaboration with the German chemical conglomerate IG
Farben, who developed methods for discharging chlorine gas against an entrenched enemy. It is alleged that Haber's
role in the use of chlorine as a deadly weapon drove his wife, Clara Immerwahr, to suicide. After its first use,
chlorine was utilized by both sides as a chemical weapon, but it was soon replaced by the more deadly gases
phosgene and mustard gas.[28]
• Iraq War
Chlorine gas has also been used by insurgents against the local population and coalition forces in the Iraq War in the
form of chlorine bombs. On March 17, 2007, for example, three chlorine filled trucks were detonated in the Anbar
province killing two and sickening over 350.[29] Other chlorine bomb attacks resulted in higher death tolls, with
more than 30 deaths on two separate occasions.[30] Most of the deaths were caused by the force of the explosions
rather than the effects of chlorine, since the toxic gas is readily dispersed and diluted in the atmosphere by the blast.
The Iraqi authorities have tightened up security for chlorine, which is essential for providing safe drinking water for
the population.
Chlorine 9

Chlorine cracking
The element is widely used for purifying water owing to its powerful
oxidizing properties, especially potable water supplies and water used
in swimming pools. Several catastrophic collapses of swimming pool
ceilings have occurred owing to stress corrosion cracking of stainless
steel rods used to suspend them.[31] Some polymers are also sensitive
to attack, including acetal resin and polybutene. Both materials were
used in hot and cold water domestic supplies, and stress corrosion
cracking caused widespread failures in the USA in the 1980s and
1990s. One example shows an acetal joint in a water supply system, Chlorine "attack" on an acetal resin plumbing
which, when it fractured, caused substantial physical damage to joint.

computers in the labs below the supply. The cracks started at injection
molding defects in the joint and grew slowly until finally triggered. The fracture surface shows iron and calcium salts
that were deposited in the leaking joint from the water supply before failure.

Other uses
Chlorine is used in the manufacture of numerous organic chlorine compounds, the most significant of which in terms
of production volume are 1,2-dichloroethane and vinyl chloride, intermediates in the production of PVC. Other
particularly important organochlorines are methyl chloride, methylene chloride, chloroform, vinylidene chloride,
trichloroethylene, perchloroethylene, allyl chloride, epichlorohydrin, chlorobenzene, dichlorobenzenes, and
trichlorobenzenes.
Chlorine is also used in the production of chlorates and in bromine extraction.

Health effects

NFPA 704

Chlorine is a toxic gas that irritates the respiratory system. Because it is heavier than air, it tends to accumulate at the
bottom of poorly ventilated spaces. Chlorine gas is a strong oxidizer, which may react with flammable materials.[32]
Chlorine is detectable in concentrations of as low as 0.2 ppm. Coughing and vomiting may occur at 30 ppm and lung
damage at 60 ppm. About 1000 ppm can be fatal after a few deep breaths of the gas.[4] Breathing lower
concentrations can aggravate the respiratory system, and exposure to the gas can irritate the eyes.[33] The toxicity of
chlorine comes from its oxidizing power. When chlorine is inhaled at concentrations above 30 ppm, it begins to react
with water and cells, which change it into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and hypochlorous acid (HClO).
When used at specified levels for water disinfection, the reaction of chlorine with water is not a major concern for
human health. However, other materials present in the water may generate disinfection by-products that can damage
human health.[34] [35]
Chlorine 10

See also
• Polymer degradation

References
[1] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds (http:/ / www-d0. fnal. gov/ hardware/ cal/ lvps_info/ engineering/
elementmagn. pdf), in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
[2] http:/ / www. nist. gov/ pml/ process/ fluid/ srd_134_chlorine. cfm
[3] Hammond, C. R. (2000). The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition. CRC press. ISBN 0849304814.
[4] "WebElements.com – Chlorine" (http:/ / www. webelements. com/ webelements/ elements/ text/ Cl/ index. html). Mark Winter [The
University of Sheffield and WebElements Ltd, UK]. . Retrieved 2007-03-17.
[5] Windholz, Martha et al., ed (1976). Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, 9th ed.. Rahway, N.J.: Merck & Co.. ISBN 0911910263.
[6] "Chlorine compounds of the month" (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ index. asp?page=678). Euro Chlor. . Retrieved 2007-08-29.
[7] Cotton, F. Albert and Wilkinson, Geoffrey (1966). Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd ed.. John Wiley & sons. p. 568.
[8] "Risk assessment and the cycling of natural organochlorines" (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ upload/ documents/ document236. pdf). Euro
Chlor. . Retrieved 2007-08-12.
[9] A.G.W. Cameron (June 1957). "Stellar Evolution, Nuclear Astrophysics, and Nucleogenesis". CRL-41. "http:/ / www. fas. org/ sgp/ eprint/
CRL-41. pdf"
[10] "The earliest salt production in the world: an early Neolithic exploitation in Poiana Slatinei-Lunca, Romania" (http:/ / antiquity. ac. uk/
ProjGall/ weller/ ). . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[11] "17 Chlorine" (http:/ / elements. vanderkrogt. net/ element. php?sym=Cl). Elements.vanderkrogt.net. . Retrieved 2008-09-12.
[12] Ihde, Aaron John (1984). The development of modern chemistry (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=34KwmkU4LG0C& pg=PA158). Courier
Dover Publications. p. 158. ISBN 0486642356. .
[13] Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis; Thénard, Louis-Jacques (1809). "On the nature and the properties of muriatic acid and of oxygenated muriatic
acid" (http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/ ~giunta/ thenard. html). Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie de la Société d'Arcueil 2: 339–358. .
[14] Sir Humphry Davy (1811). "On a Combination of Oxymuriatic Gas and Oxygene Gas" (http:/ / www. chemteam. info/ Chem-History/
Davy-Chlorine-1811. html). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 101: 155–162. doi:10.1098/rstl.1811.0008. .
[15] Snelders, H. A. M. (1971). "J. S. C. Schweigger: His Romanticism and His Crystal Electrical Theory of Matter" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/
pss/ 229946). Isis 62 (3): 328. doi:10.1086/350763. .
[16] "This Month in Physics History September 4, 1821 and August 29, 1831: Faraday and Electromagnetism" (http:/ / www. aps. org/
publications/ apsnews/ 200108/ history. cfm). . Retrieved 2010-05-08.
[17] "Michael Faraday" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Faraday. html). . Retrieved 2010-05-08.
[18] "History of Chlorine" (http:/ / members. aol. com/ manbio999/ chlorine. htm). . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[19] Jacqueline Brazin. "Chlorine & its Consequences" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060918145109/ http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ NR/ rdonlyres/
Earth--Atmospheric--and-Planetary-Sciences/ 12-091January--IAP--2006/ 0EF9264B-3205-44A3-8306-8E8364917DF0/ 0/ brazin. pdf).
Archived from the original (http:/ / ocw. mit. edu/ NR/ rdonlyres/ Earth--Atmospheric--and-Planetary-Sciences/ 12-091January--IAP--2006/
0EF9264B-3205-44A3-8306-8E8364917DF0/ 0/ brazin. pdf) on September 18, 2006. . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[20] "Chlorine Story" (http:/ / www. americanchemistry. com/ s_chlorine/ sec_content. asp?CID=1166& DID=4476& CTYPEID=109).
americanchemistry. . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[21] "Chlorine - History" (http:/ / www. drcordas. com/ education/ weaponsmassd/ Chlorine. pdf). . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[22] "Weaponry: Use of Chlorine Gas Cylinders in World War I" (http:/ / www. historynet. com/
weaponry-use-of-chlorine-gas-cylinders-in-world-war-i. htm). historynet.com. . Retrieved 2008-07-10.
[23] "Diaphragm cell" (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ animations/ diaphragm-cell. asp). Euro Chlor. . Retrieved 2007-08-15.
[24] "Membrane cell" (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ animations/ membrane-cell. asp). Euro Chlor. . Retrieved 2007-08-15.
[25] "Uses" (http:/ / www. eurochlor. org/ uses). Euro Chlor. . Retrieved 2007-08-20.
[26] "Chlorine Tree" (http:/ / www. chlorinetree. org). Chlorine Tree. . Retrieved 2007-08-20.
[27] Koski TA, Stuart LS, Ortenzio LF (1966). "Comparison of chlorine, bromine, iodine as disinfectants for swimming pool water" (http:/ /
www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pubmed& pubmedid=4959984). Applied Microbiology 14 (2): 276–279.
PMID 4959984. PMC 546668. .
[28] "Weapons of War: Poison Gas" (http:/ / www. firstworldwar. com/ weaponry/ gas. htm). First World War.com. . Retrieved 2007-08-12.
[29] Mahdi, Basim (2007-03-17). "Iraq gas attack makes hundreds ill" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ 2007/ WORLD/ meast/ 03/ 17/ iraq. main/ index.
html). CNN. . Retrieved 2007-03-17.
[30] "'Chlorine bomb' hits Iraq village" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 6660585. stm). BBC News. 2007-05-17. . Retrieved
2007-05-17.
[31] Bertolini, Luca; Elsener, Bernhard; Pedeferri, Pietro; Polder, Rob B. (2004). Corrosion of steel in concrete: prevention, diagnosis, repair
(http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=cEmq232h1zcC& pg=PA148). Wiley-VCH. p. 148. ISBN 3527308008. .
[32] "Chlorine MSDS" (http:/ / www. westlake. com/ datasheets/ MSDS_Chlorine. pdf). October 23, 1997 (Revised November 1999. .
Chlorine 11

[33] Winder, Chris (2001). "The Toxicology of Chlorine". Environmental Research 85 (2): 105–114. doi:10.1006/enrs.2000.4110.
PMID 11161660.
[34] "What's in your Water?: Disinfectants Create Toxic By-products" (http:/ / www. aces. uiuc. edu/ news/ stories/ news4724. html). ACES
News. College of Agricultural, Consumer and Environmental Sciences - University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. 2009-03-31. . Retrieved
2009-03-31.
[35] Richardson, D.; Plewa, J.; Wagner, D.; Schoeny, R.; Demarini, M. (Nov 2007). "Occurrence, genotoxicity, and carcinogenicity of regulated
and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water: a review and roadmap for research". Mutation research 636 (1-3): 178–242.
doi:10.1016/j.mrrev.2007.09.001. ISSN 0027-5107. PMID 17980649.

External links
• Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: Chlorine (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/substances/
toxsubstance.asp?toxid=36)
• Electrolytic production (http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-b01-brine.htm)
• Production and liquefaction of chlorine (http://www.amazingrust.com/Experiments/how_to/Liquid_Cl2.
html)
• Chlorine Production Using Mercury, Environmental Considerations and Alternatives (http://www.oceana.org/
chlorine)
• National Pollutant Inventory - Chlorine (http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/20.html)
• National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Chlorine Page (http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/
chlorine/)
• WebElements.com — Chlorine (http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cl/index.html)
• Chlorine Institute (http://www.chlorineinstitute.org/) - Trade association and lobby group representing the
interests of the chlorine industry
• Chlorine Online (http://www.eurochlor.org/) - Chlorine Online is an information resource produced by
Eurochlor - the business association of the European chlor-alkali industry
Article Sources and Contributors 12

Article Sources and Contributors

Chlorine  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=396222571  Contributors: 000n, 0612, 12dstring, 213.106.152.xxx, 28bytes, 2L84MEANDU, A5b, A8UDI, ABF, APendleton,
ATSDR, Aa35te, Aboutmovies, Acdx, Ace of Spades IV, Acroterion, ActivExpression, Adashiel, AdjustShift, Adrian.benko, Ageofthewolf, Ahoerstemeier, Ajrocke, Alan Liefting, Alan Peakall,
Alansohn, Alchemist-hp, Ale jrb, Alfie66, Aljasm, Allstarecho, Alureiter, Alxndr, Anand Karia, Anastrophe, Anaxial, Andres, Andrewc141, Andrewtindal, Anon0096, Antandrus, Anturiaethwr,
Any Moose, Archimerged, Aristotle28, Audiosmurf, Audirs8, Aussie Alchemist, Avicennasis, AxelBoldt, Az1568, Bcorr, Beetstra, Bejnar, Benbest, Bender235, Benjah-bmm27, Bennybp,
Bhadani, Big Bird, Bighalonut, Biodragon, BlueEarth, BlueOrb, BluefieldWV, Bobblewik, Bomac, Bonadea, Bovineboy2008, Bowlhover, Bradydavis, Brandonrush, Brian0918, Brvman, Bryan
Derksen, Bsadowski1, Bucketsofg, Bunchofgrapes, Buttonius, CL expert, CYD, Cacycle, Calabraxthis, Caleb303, Calmer Waters, Camw, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanisRufus,
CardinalDan, Carnildo, Causesobad, Cgingold, Chad.netzer, Chaoticfluffy, CharlotteWebb, ChemGardener, ChemNerd, Chemicalinterest, Chocoforfriends, Chris Capoccia, Chris Dybala,
Chrislk02, Christophenstein, Ckatz, Cliffb, ClockworkSoul, Cmapm, Colbuckshot, ColetteHoch, Cometome11, Cometstyles, Computerjoe, Conversion script, Coolhandscot, Covington,
Cybercobra, DH85868993, DStoykov, Damicatz, Daniel,levine, DanielCD, Danny, Dantheman531, Darrien, Dave Runger, Daveh4h, Davehi1, David Latapie, Davidfrodo, Ddunn3233,
DeadEyeArrow, Deano wig, Deflective, Deor, DerHexer, Derek.cashman, Dina, Discospinster, Diwas, Dogposter, Donarreiskoffer, Dorftrottel, Doulos Christos, DrBob, Drphilharmonic, Dureo,
Dwmyers, Dycedarg, Dysepsion, Dzubint, ERcheck, ESkog, EagleFan, Ebe123, Edgar181, Edsanville, Efringe, El C, Eliashedberg, Elkman, Emhoo, Emperorbma, Emre D., Epbr123, Eric119,
Erik Zachte, Espi, Evand, Everyking, Explicit, Farosdaughter, Fconaway, Femto, Fonzy, Footballfan190, Frankie0607, FranklinJ, Fraxxare, Fruge, Funkygurls@wikipedia.com, Fvasconcellos,
Gabethenerd, Gaius Cornelius, Galaxiaad, Gcsuchemistry, Gecg, Gegnome, Genesis28, Giftlite, Gilliam, Gman124, GngstrMNKY, Gogo Dodo, Graham87, GreatMizuti, Greenhorn1,
Grendelkhan, Gurps npc, Gustavb, Gwandoya, Gwernol, Gypsypkd, Gökhan, Hak-kâ-ngìn, Hall Monitor, Hankwang, Happenstance, Headbomb, Herbee, Heron, Heyitsalexander, Hmains,
Hobosteve, Homestarmy, INVERTED, IW.HG, Iamhim7789, Ian Pitchford, Icairns, Indiansprings, Iridescent, Isaac, Itfc+canes=me, Ithunn, Itub, IvoShandor, J Di, J-stan, J.delanoy, J8079s,
JForget, JSarek, Jackollie, James086, Jaraalbe, Javierito92, Jayron32, Jdrewitt, Jeff G., Jenniferrrxb, Jimjamjak, Jirt, Jmundo, Joanjoc, Jodupouy, John, John Millikin, Jonathan tcn, JonoBurger,
Jordanp, Jordi.1991, Jose77, Jovianeye, Jrobbinz123, Jrugordon, Julesd, Justin00220, Kaelia, Kakofonous, Karlhahn, Karuna8, Kazikameuk, Keenan Pepper, Kelly Martin, Kenz0198,
KevinCable, Kingcobra333, Kingpin13, Kirk Hilliard, Kntrabssi, KostasG, Kozuch, Krukowski, KuRiZu, Kukini, Kurykh, Kwamikagami, LA2, La Parka Your Car, LachlanA, Laughcosts,
LeaveSleaves, Leszek Jańczuk, LiDaobing, Lightmouse, LittleOldMe, Llort, Lockesdonkey, Logical2u, Longhair, LorenzoB, LuigiManiac, Luk, Luna Santin, Lupinoid, Luxdormiens, MPerel,
MSGJ, MSTCrow, MZMcBride, Magnus Manske, Majorly, Malcolm Farmer, Mani1, Manikwiki, Maozbj, Marc Venot, Martarius, Materialscientist, Mathboy965, Mav, Maximus Rex, Mbessey,
Mbeychok, McGoogalyBear, Meandmyself, Mechanical digger, Melaen, Mentifisto, Midgrid, Mikespedia, Minesweeper, Mion, Mitchell1987, Mithgil, Mrdice, MuZemike, Mwilso24, Mxn,
Myproblem999, N5iln, Naaa127, Nahat, Nakon, NawlinWiki, Neil916, NerdyScienceDude, Nergaal, Neverquick, NewEnglandYankee, Nibuod, Nihiltres, Nn123645, Noirum, Northumbrian,
Nssbrc123, NuclearWarfare, Nutriveg, Onco p53, Ortonmc, Oxymoron83, PFHLai, Paiev, Paine Ellsworth, PastaDruid, Patrick, Paul-L, Pb30, Pbijdens, Peter12220, PeterJeremy, Peterlewis,
Peytonbland, Pgan002, Phgao, PhiJ, Philip Trueman, Piano non troppo, PierreAbbat, Pikasneez27, Pinethicket, Pko, Poccil, Poolkris, Poor Yorick, Possum, Ppntori, Prissantenbär, Procellarum,
Professor water, Prolog, Psyche825, Pusher, Quadell, Quinsareth, Quintote, Quistnix, Qxz, R'n'B, RAM, RTC, Razorflame, Rebel, Redsnork, Remember, Rettetast, RexNL, Riana, Rich
Farmbrough, Richnotts, Rifleman 82, Rjccumbria, Rmhermen, Roberta F., Rofl3s, Romanm, Rominandreu, Ronhjones, RoyBoy, Ruddo2, Runnynose47, Rutherfordjigsaw, Ryan Postlethwaite,
Ryan Roos, Ryanrulz 11, SEWilco, SJP, Sagaciousuk, Sairen42, Sam Korn, Samaylivenews, Sanfranman59, Saperaud, Sbharris, Scarian, Sceptre, Scetoaux, Schneelocke, SciberDoc, Sciurinæ,
Scott14, Sean William, SeanMack, Seanwal111111, Securiger, Seddon, Sengkang, Sfgagnon, Shaddack, Shadowjams, Shimmin, Shoy, Shpoffo, Shrinkshooter, Shshshsh, Sikkema, Skatebiker,
Sl, Slowking Man, Smokefoot, Sodiumjan, Soliloquial, Solipsist, Soobrickay, SpaceFlight89, Spangineer, Specs112, Spiffy sperry, Squids and Chips, Squirepants101, Starry maiden Gazer,
Stephenb, Stone, Storm Rider, Subdolous, Subtractive, Suisui, Sunborn, Syncategoremata, Syrthiss, Szajci, T.vanschaik, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Tadas12, Tarquin, Tarret, Tedickey,
Teeeim, Teflex77, Tempodivalse, Tennekis, Tetracube, Texans37sox9, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheGrr, Thedreamdied, Themanoverthere, Thingg, Thinghy,
Thomas H. Larsen, Thricecube, Thumperward, Tide rolls, TigerShark, Timo25, Tiptoety, Tisdalepardi, Tom harrison, Tombomp, Tomdo08, Tomtheman5, Tovkam, Tpbradbury, Tregoweth,
Tresiden, Trevor MacInnis, Trevor223, Trigger820, Triona, Tristanb, Trougedoor122, Trusilver, Truthflux, Tslocum, Tttom, Tuspm, TutterMouse, Twas Now, Two hundred percent, Ugur Basak,
Ultratomio, UnaLaguna, Uyanga, VASANTH S.N., VX, Val42, Vancouverguy, Vandalwarrior, Versus22, Vsmith, Vssun, Waggers, Walkerma, Walkiped, Watch37264, WatermelonPotion,
Wavelength, Wayward, Wiki alf, William Avery, Wimt, Wknight94, Wmahan, Wolfdog, Woohookitty, Workingclass91, Wpktsfs, Wrp103, Wtmitchell, Xerxes b, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yerpo,
Yilloslime, Yyy, Zach4636, Zaui, Zvn, 1356 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

file:Chlorine-sample-flip.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chlorine-sample-flip.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Benjah-bmm27,
User:Materialscientist
File:Loudspeaker.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Nethac DIU,
Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, 6 anonymous edits
File:Chlorine liquid in an ampoule.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chlorine_liquid_in_an_ampoule.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:Alchemist-hp
Image:Liquid chlorine in flask.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Liquid_chlorine_in_flask.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors:
User:Workingclass91
Image:Chlorine attack1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chlorine_attack1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Peterlewis
Image:Skull and crossbones.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skull_and_crossbones.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andux, Andy0101, Bayo, Coyau,
D0ktorz, Derbeth, Franzenshof, Ies, J.delanoy, Juliancolton, Karelj, Ksd5, MarianSigler, Sarang, Silsor, Stepshep, Str4nd, The Evil IP address, Tiptoety, Túrelio, W!B:, Wknight94, 19
anonymous edits

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/