24

•

.,i, "'_ .

The Interpretation of Documents and Materi al Culture

IAN HODDER

THIS. chaptt-t ls eeneemed with Ihe in;!erprctltti()'i:I ()(r nru~:e e.",idenoe=th<ll ls; with Writt.fJll l.e:Kl~aflJ! lIrtifaclS" .flllc..n evid.el1o"" \11l:li:~t.:: the spoken werd, ~ndlilfes pi1;ysic.11y fi.ild lhus can be separated ~'1:oSS; .~pa'C~ and tim.e from its OliJ!IUmr, producer, or user, Material traces thus 'oft~!1 h~ye 'to be i:iltll'ql'r~~ed WUb(l1.1t tim hene.fit (if :ill<ligenolll$ ClDm.met.n~aty_ There is often n_.O po<s:sibility of in~encl1em 'witl! ~1Il(l~\'1;1I ernie "i:t\side-r" as opposed to elk; "outs(ld)~r" per$p~c-dves .. Bven when sueI'! interac~ilcm is pos~~ible. actors oDliteR s:eellj curio~~]J' laanlouIllite ~bollt ~~ re<lSliln~ (!'iey dress: 111. p!3!~licul .. :r way;:;, choose P'IIrticl!lar potwry designs. or discud dtJn.g if.1J p~N:icgbc locatiolls. Mm:eda] lrnC¢$ aad rnsid'Ul~lI1Js pose &pecial'p~Qblem_~ for q!i.!8Lilalive rei~t¢h. The maill disciplit1J:}s Ithiit have lried to. develop a:ppf'Qpd.ate theory and method am hisUl:ry. ll!rl hisl'Or)" :ardI;lIooiogy., IInl'titmpol()gy, siOc:iQ:IQgy,cogliLibve p~ychQ1Qgy. ~ec~m()]ogy, lind Ilimder.l1! m-"~erlal culrure studies, am:1 it ts hom this tauge iJ.f disd.plin.es that my ucoounl :ilsd!'a: ..... n,

L-incoln and Guba (1985, p .. 171) disliligu.ish. dQ,C!1Irnetl&S~Ild rec(lr1;i;s tQ!~ the bili~.i$ ~t wh~he; the tl;:I;IL was prepared t{! ~Uesi ttJ SQmG fomul m:U:lS-

lIcnr;lII. Thus records iilcluc:ll:'mmi:8ge certif.iieal:e..5,. dJriv[ng llcenses, bui:id.i[lii: cOlltmc~s. all,dj bwking staremerlts.. Document5.ontlh.~ other haad, 3!00c prepa.red fQ.! p.eIS9milrRtne:r than officia] [\!:'l)SOD:S <l:nd IJlclut!e di aries, memos, ]e~ter:s .• fie~,dI setes, and MJ 011. in fact, tile two terms are ·oft'ell1!u:·e-<l in.te;rcllangeab]y. although the (I,istil'lc-riQ!l is sn imponant- 000 and bWiiSiOme; paraUeh wi'th. the di:st!.lIctio[l l;Ie~w¢en writing and. S[leec-h. to he di:scllssed below. Documents, clost:r to spe;ecn, requilC,e more wlltextimlized liite>rp.U'!ltalioll_ R~oords., on the other hand., miill' have loc~l uses t1'L.ait become very dts:!:Ont [rom offici.a:ny :S<l1l:cUtm.ed meanings. Docu:rn.en:ts in volv11i.a 'Per.sorudteel1l1101. o~y • lliL'tdf(lcooos!'!. f-ull state rec:li.noiogy of power. The >i:H:stiocLiiifn ]s abo relev<lif:l.t. for qualitative :li'e.s.earcb, in that resei!:lirch.ers may o{te[l be ~ful,eoo !'!¢l aceess to dO{l:UI<wtlt::s., wiIer-e:ls aeeess to reo cords. may beresuictea 'by laws regar·t!:ill.g pri'!I'ley •. c(Jontidenti:ili.ty, <lad anonymlty.

Despite the. umity of the d1h:liIlCti.·~1i between dceu meillt~ and records, my eoncern here is more the problems of i.nt(lOl]fetatiQllof w[i.ttlm texts of all kinds. Such texts are ofirnll'Qrtallce [{If 'CJ~:tlIi. taHve research because, III general rerms, aceess can be easy and low cost. because the informll!'llon 'PfO,v~{I!ed ltlay differ from and !in~.y not be. IIvail- ' abk in spoken form, and because texM ·jl:ndure and (nils give histodcnl insight.

U has: One" beefil. asnlrne:d, fOT ex,a:mlJ~e.; in H'Ie. i~L'ch<~eolo;g)' ofhiswi"ica:1 period:>, that wiit'tet'l io1t.b

393

I,' .. ·.,... -, ..... ."...... ~~ ....... ~.~ .----- -.---.-.- .- - .- -'-~----.-.- .~ •• ,- ~.-.--.--.t:!-

than ;;:10 other tJ'P~ of i:·'i'~de!1{:''2. (to bee carts,dieted below). Indeed, WI1:.st~tn socia.] se;le~ce has king p'rivHeg·ecl the spoken over the wrhsen and the wrilt,ee'n over ~hc lloIlv!.:rb~,l (DcmQ)~, i97S}. Sorne·nqjCw it is assumed ttliatwordls ,get ·I!lS Closer t:fi n]Iimt~. Bu~ as Ii)(!nida has shown. :meaninl!!; does not rl1:,side in 11, ~xt but in the W'ITiting and reaJ!:ling of it:. A.s the text is: reread in different CQ}!H.exts 'it I:> given new meanings, often c(mtnldic:t.ory and ,,!ways :socially embedded, Tnu!: tllere is IlQ "odglnal" or "true"me~llilig of a text QilJtside specific: hi~l!ark:j}~ roIllte::tts. Hi~ooric<ll ilpchaeolQ<g~st.$ ha'o'e ecme W accoep'~ ~bat historical d@tlim~nl.s i'il'id reCQII:ds guve ·nOot a better but ~impl.y B. dif:lie1'if!l'll pl:ctllir.e from. that provid",d;.,b,y lHtifilct.5!MLd ~rc;b~- . tee,t~r¢. Textsean be used alongside oliht·!' fora!!;" , of evidenolO!>o that tile pa!'UcllJarbiases of each can be understood and ecmpered,

Eqjually, dif:fi'ielfen.1 t.J'P~' of leXt have M) be IUI= (le;[stooOd in tile CO!t'litel'llS of theirwml itiOIliS of preductlon and readlng.For C'x:ample, the analyst wm be eoncerned with w'IJciher:a text was written as :msu'lt of f"irstband e"pedw'ce ·O!l' from S~CQn.· dary SCl1J[C~5, wlllcU'iel' i~ W:l!~ so:l~cired or unsQ]k,.. lted, edited or ulIlooi~od. an(!ll~'mo·us 0'1'· signed, !l!!'id $0' Q!f.! (Webb, Campbe.]L" Scl!wartl, & Sechre~t, 1966), As Ricoeur (197]) demonstrates, eonerete texts diffier fr'om the abstract structures of liaiJg,ullge, in thilit they are wrIltel1l. to do somcUaing. 'Tilley can be l1lldM5,'!ood 'on!y·~ wll"lt they are-a. f()rm of a.~tira,~l~rodLllced li1nd~1i 'i:i:rtiLinmawdal WlJJd]!;iQriS (Ii()~ everyone cm wI.ite, or wdte in iii certain W:l! .... (]if ha.,c a-ccess to' retevant technolcgie<l> (I[ reprodllic,uon)e:mbedded \!l:ilidn sodal and ide6logic,;a1 :s)'~em.s.

W,ol:d~ arc, of course;. spoken tlJ do tliiil1Lg1> as well a5-~iO s~y 'tldng,s-tbey have. prnctkal am:!. sociat impact as well as t>ommuni,cattl(lin functlon, OnCel,w1!;;formed into a wr:Hten 'text 'the gapb~= i:wc:el'l (be " .. ~utbor" and. the "'le:ader" widens atid the, possibiHty of lfiii.lll'iple reinrerpIebtio:rtls iacreases. The tGxt,c~n "say"m:;m.y different things hi di'ffere!'ll leQlrliI.e.ld!l. Bllt. also Uili: W'liU1e't1i te,;;t ts an. arl'ifac:t, capwle ![If l'HlrtlSm]ssi,on. mSi!'li pul<l1- Hem, and :ali.elOlitlotl; used and discarded, r~u~ell atlldrecyded-"doillg" differe-nt tilj.ngs; contexrual.ly '1IlrQ\!.gDl Illll'e" The wrlting down Qe 'word$ often. aUows. lMgilage and!me~nings to be cont[o,l]ed :more elfecti ... eiy". and to be liIlkcd ~L:i strategies oh;.~ntn~l:ii!l.tiQ~ and cocHfic:alIQI1l. Tne wurd, concretized Or "m,a(!e flesh'" hi tim artif~cl. cliin transcend context alld. gather through li me exielided :symbolic connotations .. T.ne word made ¢liclu.r1!lg in ~rUfi!ctJ.~. has an impmt::iIlt [o,lc to pl!!i' ·i:rri both secslar aradr,eligioru..,()roce~s,~s !:If ~hG Jegll~ mation of power. "{ct. !hetic. hi ~~ftefl .~ t.er);sio't\ between Ute concrete nature of the written word, its em;!:lJri ng nat!.! rc. ;:m(l th~ G;ioil'li mums potel'll~tll. [01' re:r,eadill,C me:mings. ill IiI!:W cOIrlc:o;ts, l,Iude:r-

_W.-- ... -',cI .-_.- --- ••• -- .,"'" ~ __ •• ~ ..... ~ ....... __ •• _ ... '

t.e,;:l are III a. c(JIntUIIlIal stil'!:~ 01' t~lI1s:i![l.n •. ,e<ll;;ih d:ef:iming and red.efinilIg the, other,. sa.)"ing:mrl: doing things diiffc.fC'nUy lhrougb time.

lr! !!. ~lal~ed way, the writtell texts of anlhrQ>. po~ogJsts and areluleolog,ts.ts are increaSingly Cum· ing under ,~rulilJly Olis~m.ployin,g :rhetorka[ strategies 'ill or~~1i' 00 'e:5,!abliroh. pO$!ti,ollJS Q! a~tliorl.t,. (e.g .. , Tilley, 1989)" A[ch~QIOogi:s.ts araused to the idlea that their scienriflc actlvhiesleaveaaees and transform tile wodds they study. Bxca.v.ations CaJ~lI,ot'be [Gp~ted,illlcl there"i~,ues oHre.~·~$>~poj] Ups". and old beer c:ans·rl$lti,iull, 35 :speCific cxpoosrsi,ofls o,f a ]lIlIirtiCi!:lar way of Dooking ar til.£: wQ,rkl. The past hasbeell tUllilfmmcd i.tll,(! a ])fctoe:nt pr(uiud1. induding the field notes and sitG reports. EU!!l(lgr~bic field notes (S:mjek.,. 1990) also Ul1l1Sform th~ object of ,study illt'o a hi5l,olicaiJJ.y situ· ated product, '~c:a.pwriii;g·' the ·'oUter'·" wi.tIiJn It familii;!.'!:' routine, The; li!lih;f! tc;!;.t has 00 ~ OOiiits:ttlLlali,zo(J within specific 'h.istQ!I:icalmQlments".

lsElall in this. cIlaple:!' treat writte;n texts as speciOl.i 'cases of .a:ni£acts. subJect to similar inter· I,)!l',et'ive p:i'(I~d~fe~., III 'both texts and. artifacts the. :~mble.:m is one ofS:itllla.U:og!rulrerjaU cu]t:I!lre wiithill ;"a:ryi:ng COItl.t-XU wnil.e fl.'~ l1be SaJm.e time: ~wdng i:!lIto a dialectic re:latiQjj~hip oetwooo t]jo~c COfite.xts and the context of Um a,IL3lyst. 'I'l:i.]s ]i~mw. D'I}!.!Ucal ex.er'cjse,in which the Uvc:d, c:x.pCI':i.cnli:¢ slJrrQllltdin.g 'the rlHIitf:tial c-utlllire is 1r:L11s]atlld into a differetlit C'ol1lJtaxt of inliC'rpre'uUio:n,. ,~s (lamnum for' botb ·!:eXu, an~ other fQl'm~ of mw~,e-ria] CMltUI:'e.,. I will Mte 'l'ario'l1s diffeom:nOL'!8 lilIlltWC!.':D 181igiilili.F;e and material Cll]tUf(; ~!l what follows, bl!lit tho. iii· terpretive pal'aUel;s.oa'l,re liceill wIdely diiscusSied in tile comide:ratioll ofm:ati1in,a:l culture:[l,s ~e~[ (e.g..

Hol;!d,el', ] ~91 ; Moore, 1936i, Tiney, ~ 99Q). .

Artifact Analysis and Us Imp>ll,rhm(e fOIl:' tbe Inte:r-p:r.etatioll (If Soda. Experience

AKieilit an'\'!! moo'em hlllihlin.gs. and 31tl!faotSl, II~ iIlteudedand urn Il!el'lde.d residues. ofhm:nan ii.'C!1vtty" give al'iema.i.ive iin:sighls into Ithe Wil_fS in which paor1c [percel\led and fmihioned. {hew lives. Sihort.· euts aCNJ5S klwGs,in~licale p;i'e-l:er,re~ ·Ilruffic p:itt~, rflbeig;ll .. tangu~ signs iiWlicate thede~ o~ ~f\il!lo grotiOil of a n~iglrborhood, the Illumbcr ·of d.gil.ij'Cit~s, ln an a:;htnily betra}"~ anervou's tenslon, ruIdlhe ameunt of papClVili.uli: ·ii:1 an "ill" tray .is a me!lSll:reQC workload or of work ,efficiency and priority {LinOOI!lJ &; (lillba,1985, p. 2&0). Despik the in[crerni!l1 proh~em:> Slil'rOUradi,rI!l. !'!l!Ic1:i evldeace, ~wi!llb, '~(D csiab~ish at tfil,e oUltE/r:llhal matt:fl,::;.t trnce-iO ofbtilia'l'i(}f givean impurtani. aad di fferell.t Insight {l:Iom tf.l.at ·provided b~' any muubc!:' of [ltH!<~tiOlin~ires,

o>'Wh<lt peo'p~.c. say" is oiter. vcry, diHcrent from '''wh:!ll people do." This;poiill ha~ perhaps been most s~cc6ssfuU)' e~l.abl.i:shcd over rece..n:t ye:ar!1 IlJ 'rcs~ard~ S1c;minI1'lg_from ~)e 'work o:fB:in Rat~je (R3)thj'l1!, &. MUI'PIri~,19'92~ Rat1U: & Tllo:rnpsolI, i961). III studjes in Tucsoll, Anwl1:ll, and elsewher~, Rathje and his celleagues ooUoc.·ed doID,es,tic: giu:bagc bagt and itemized the contents. It bcc::mve dc;ilJf that, fQ[ example, pea'ple'lii estlmah~5 :lbo1ut the, amounrs of garbage ~l'Ie)' PfQth.u::ed wa!3 wildly incorrect; l1b~t discaxdled beer ~~!l~ '~mUc::lt'ed i!J higher I,eve] Qfalcohol COI1l!lI!lITIPitiCl~. tna'[\ was adiltl:[tittid [0, mull th;ll~ ir. l'ime~ (lif !Ileat &hollJlage(lcopie threw ;!l.W~l' m.ore meat than 1.!~Ij,lIl as!lI. :u~S11lt <of <lvtrbOiltcliing, Tim:sa fu:1t socio!JLogicoJ analysis eaunot 013 regU'lcred to,int'e!view d.iltiJi, It must elso consider the mOl.t«ial ttaoc-$.

--hI anothefSJeries of studies, the decoration of rooms as welt as pots !lind otiJ:GI:' conta:iners has be~Il iflte~p.relie;d as; a farm of silent dus:collue conducted by women, whose \!'O'Ic¢ ~3:S, been si~ I.encet:l by dominlmt. male ~nte:tc-~U" DocorathHI may be 1.!I5!~d to mild{ oi.iit., si.ler.t'I),. and 10 draw 3itililntiOf!.~. Illl.cidy.area~ of fem!iIe~ontoo], such as f'Clml!le ~OO<l~ Qfhollses: <1114 ~il,e· :il'~epa.t',~ti!)n anil proVi5,ioll of food inOOiU:"Mintr.s" The d~t:!Jra!:ion m1.l-Y ilIt O!De Leve] provide rriO~~tiO\n f:rom femille polllltiQ;n. but.a:l another Ie ... el ]t cxpre-sses female :P0WIM (B[:althw:(I~ Lof.l, ] 982; Donley, ] 98:2; llodde:r', ]99'1).

TIl.e study 'of 1l1aterial ¢uUure~s Ihus of impol" tance for qualita'liverescarctiJel's who wish 1:0 explQI:e m~ttiple and, tOllfficling voices, differing aml iru:erncting. i:nterJ:l'~etation:!l,: Mawy (UI~~ of experience are hidden fcol_l'l! languag~. 'PEu:tic~lady suoom'ioatee'lperlence.. r-l;rWi~g:ti (] 9!H) 005; shown how ,smayo! the im.i.IC-rial. traces o:l'food .llTIdpotll oCa:DJ provide ~nsiglhl :illlro how elaves oup.t,m.taUons in tile A:tn~·dca:n ,s,t)'llItn made sense of ~r.d. reacted t(l (tiJtir doniillatiOr[l. 'Tlie members M this nermally ;silellced ,gro·u.p GXp'r,~ssed. their own. per.~pective in th.e :i1IiilidflIilC- aetivlties or ev>eryd:ay

H~ .

Af.L!'!~ysjs of such traeesis :!Iot iii tdvlQl pur.S\!lit. as the mll:!Idar.e alnd fh>e everyday, beeauseuaimpwtanl t1;l gominm,t iil'itet~ts, m\lly be of gr~a.t im.pmtilIlOc; fO.r·ln.(l (lx.p'l'ess:iofi of lllle1'Il3ltive per'· s,p,ectj.'!!,e,s, The material exl're8'~ion of pOWe1i' (parades, resnlia. t.oOmbs, ~nd ;i/rt) cl!In 'be set: a;g[l!:nsl tM cxpress~oIl 0.:[ resistance. The :il'npo:rttl:l:Lce 0<[ ~!!l¢~ ;)tltliysis ts .in.cr·e[lsed.l:ly the reallzadon (hat lin,at,i:lJ:'!!\I culrere is not Shltp!y " passive by-p-rod!Yet {):f other ,areas of 1m:" Rather, material eulture is acti ve mo<ld~r" ] 9'&1), By this ] 'mellll thmt <M1ifacts ~u:·e produced so as '10. 'Lnll.~:f{l'm, materlally , soci any ~ aru1 ideologically. It is the exchange or arti facts· thelitf>d v,e·:; that c.oliIsl:rucls :social r,~la·, li{l!I!sbiIlS: it is the styl!e {If spe~r tlmt creates a re~ling (If comntL)1i ]dCflHty; It is the bacJgc of rJU thflri ty that i csel f confer'S authority. M.tl~crial

culn.l.,(;; ~:;; (hlll.s ne-'C~Si.~'Q.r'Y f'Or m()~t soc.iai CQIlSIUJCl,s. An acdequ.EUe study o:f sodal. ~llt'er~()lil)lIl thus depends on the incorporatioll. of inllHc mal'Ll:rial.evid!~.m:e.

To ward a Theory ilf' Ma.t.edaJ C~dtufe:

H0, viti!!'; ,~~~;ab]ishetl Ul!lt the ~tlldy ~'~ mat~ri,~l C'II]lt!lm~ ean :be an lmpOil'i;ant 1.0001 for 1lociolngical andat1f!lropo:lo;giclll al\lllysiSi, i¢ is nece$~ary to att.ernpl to bil:iLd a lh~ryQj:'I, wIl~(:;-h t.h(1. jHt!i(rpJ:'~tiL>uon gf material wlwre can be DiisrxI. A tlifflcuhy herG :has been the ,(Ji .. ~r$ity oflhL> COl.rego:ry "mat,eiial 'cult!.!r,e .... r-ilDging from wriuefl 'll;:~t~ ·~O material symbob surrounding death, drama, and rltual, te sttop'pmg oe:havioran(J to· tile Ci'J,tJ;5·t~iud~on of toads and airplanes. As Ii resu.lt,. llieo'1'1etlA;Ol!I directions ha",eoflen taken:ralhc!!' diFferent p!lIths, as· one Ciiln :Se~ by comparillg atteropt$ to b'IJild R oom~rnh~msive tHeory for ~ecbMlog.kliil iJ.ehav:ior (lem.qmiecr, 1 $!S.6)and ,attempts 110 eOIli:>ider material e~ttlilre as l¢xt {'I':i]ley. 1990) ..

Ulti:ma:!.elY,. mat.Gnal cuFture atw!I!ysh<l& tit) be i.rul.e:rpreted. ~n W.IiLtiOll to :II. sluiated comc::u of iProduetioR., U5i~, discard, and l'e1]I,Scil. .•. If! w~;d;:in!! ~owilr!:1 thOit contexnsal lnre('J)£etBtillli, i't may be llcl.pful to disti!l81.'1ish som.e gMleml .chamcl.e'f.~::;Ili~ !lJldl ai!lalo'glC-'s, for the different types (If material "ui1tllre;.-ln this aU~mpt'I.Q ~m;i]d a general Lheory., rec;el:i:t Ji'e:s.earchin II range ofdL'>ClpUnes has beg,un to s.ep3rn~~ tw'O ereas 'of materi.a] mearriri£; ..

Some ma~~j~l oolwre is dc:5;ag[J~ :>pIM:IJi,O[lIl1y to be oommunicative and reprG:sen[~i,j!on(lt TILe cl~~t. eKamph~i ls 8 w:r.iUe!Jl l>ext, bUl tl1l.is ~a~'e~i')' e:i::te.iids" for G::tarn.pl.e, to tile l:Iadg.e <lirld '~fii[orm of certail:l professi.'ons. to red and gresn stop and go tmOO.c Ughts" to smoK'e s:igmfls •. to lne i:mages '0:( Cli!:is~ QIl ·the; cross. Because th1$ ca~'gory l1idudes writte:n texrs, it is W be 'c;I;.peoted tnilit mcarnllg;in t.biscategory mi.ght b~ Qrst!ru.z.ed lfiwayssimihu: to ~angua-ile,. Thus, as wi.th words In a h~llg!.lage'. the ;maa:erual symbo]s' aee, {lilltside a hj.s:lOflC~[ C~,II~.ext. ofie.n 3l1l:iitrary. For e;i:,am.plc, !l.li'ij' d)~s~gnalii a nag could be 'Used ~$ lofiig 3.8 it di~f-fer~from tl!e- di;~ig;t'lr; On otlle-r flllg_;S and. ls l'ec();gniz~tlk: w~ith.its OWI:I idcIl,~it:i" Thlllsiflie ,~ystern (If ni.¢anirngs, Jn 'fue case 'Of n<lgs, Is oorlSltrnctOO ihtlo'lJgh 5.imilaritiesand dllfferencll:s ill II ~e.mi(Jti~ eode .. M]iler (lSi82) has shown how d'res&is organlzed bl;ith :SYflitagfrlilti,caUy and IlnmdigrnaticaUy_ The chlrlre of liat, 'Iie"sbjrt. ~rolls.ers, shoes, aod ${1 on for l'Iparticular occasion is iltformoo 'by ill syntllJ. that al1O' ..... ;II II. p:nticular' set o,r doth~s to bepul togethel', Of! tlie other htmd, Ihe di~tiile-tiijii$ <iltiiJ!tg diff~"Nnl tYlPes. of hats (bo,wkr, Straw. doth. base~· 1h,~H) or jackel~ cQns,H!,IJ~e pllr'ildig;mat,ic ch(1,ice:>.

.... 1 • "' ••• ~ !I!' ,~ ~ .".. ._ • __ ~_. ._ •• _ " •• ~ .

ilill'piied to this fi'l'Sl type of. material. meaning deri .... e 'frolll llllfi::lI::rn" .. tion ~ceh"ol.og)'., MaJl';tism, and ,~li:ril.ctura.'~i~:m .• ]t'! the first, the aim has Eleen to account for ll!!e ways in which material symbQU!lg can provide adaptiv',e, :Q_dv:.mtage to social gru.ups,,, TilUS the deve:l0pIDclJIl,QfcoQmplex. s'}'lnbolfng syst'l"imsallow:s IllQre :i[(~ornlati(!\111 to 00 processed l11J.OI.'ie effkienUY (e.g., Wob-st, 1977)" TIl,is type of apl?~Qacch ls oil' limi,tcu value ~Q qualltati ve reo search beeause it Is not concerned witli, theiuteeprernwon and txperie!1ce of meaningful.symbol.li. [11 theseooml. tihe id~(lIQgic:al oompOIu~1;lt of ~yIl'l~ .. bob isidic'ntifieil w.itni.ii felat~fi~ of power and dom:iIlat:ion (Leone, 19M,; Miller & Tilley, 19'34) ,arid in~~aliingly pow~ ~!:'!~ ~y$re:m~ Qf!,l'a!lli~ lind prcsti.ge ate· seen. as rn1J:ltiple 8n.ddi~le.clte:;l,] (Mille,r. Row];mds,&TUley, !9S'9;.Sh.anks & Tilwy, [981). Tile "~!l:1 of slnict't:lrnlbl :maly,sis bas been to ,~);. amin.e· dles:igJll! (e"g~,Wasbbllr!!1' 198:3) or s:parijiaL rela.tioIiiships (e,g., massi,e, 1'9'15:, McGhee" 1971) in terms of unde:r~yi~,g codes, aithougl1 here tDCI the letrldency bas 1il~e!~ 'Oll empiJ:IilS~zil1g multi.pie mcal!li.l'Igs,CO!!~e;sted withilla,c~i"'e wd!ll cenrexts as the vaDOU:!i dif~ljO:M .of postsinJ;ctu.mlist tbol;!lght have been deMl'ed (Tilley. 199>0')"

~~ much ofi:nis, wo,rk.the nie.:a:phoIFoflaI1lSluage bas beenll.pplisd 00 mate.ro Il.l eulture retati vely uIlpro~iieiQ'la~icaUy, Tile pot ap'~e-BI:S lQ "mean" ill the: same. wa)" as the wmd pot. Recent. wort has begun !to draw iLUet'll1'on to the limittlJtions of this i!.u.8:logylletw,e,en m;li!,cnal ~~~re ~md 141!l.g~age •. as will bC;(1o<rne clear ln my c.ol'iskler~tioi1 olf [he second type M materiah;uitun; IDIGlflling. One can oegi.rn. to ex'pIQ[1r; the ~kt~i.tati'olls onh~ at'iiilIQ~y ~)' cOIl.S,idieri:ng: that many examples of matGvial '001- 'lure are [I'or produced to "mean" at aU. In ottl6'r WQoos., th.ey (l,]lf: not produced wi:th $j'mboHc f~n.c-, t]~}ns. as prirnil!!'y_ 'Thus Um madeleine cookie discussed in f'roo.:lt's A III r;cchl!,rchc du .rempli perdu (Swarm '.S· \¥~y) W:~;S prool!,ced Molin enHcing food, made, in a $ha,pe repre:'l~ntin.g it fl~~d. $caUQP,. B.lIlit Prollst des~ribes it$ meaning 3S quire different foom tll.ts symb.olic ;r,e~w;en.tat~Oll. Ratnsr. tl'lc meaDi.llg was the. evo~a:~jQ!l Qf 3. whQ~.e. seeles of chHdl100d memories. sotlnds., hl$tes; $mells: surrQullcHng h,tr~iil1:g tea with his mottli~[ in winter.

Mrin)'ihl.Qt most mrat.el']al symbols dio nO't wort through role;-; of rcpresentll.!:!on,l[Isillg a .languagG' Hk~ synta);. R~!(her, lhl1:y WOJk.l;h[O'~g'li the, evcea~iQo!il: Q'f sets of pra.etlces withil!l.iudiivi,dllJal eo:xpe.rienee .. It would be reilliivel), diffic-tlH to constrect a grnmllli'lr Or ditJf:i'omu), ufrnllt.Gr'iiLl ,~ym.bo 1$ except in. the case of deHberately rep'f~¢lltatiOtln'~ or s,Ylmboliclit,ems, such as flag:; androad signs" This, i:i beCi~y:se mcsr nlaiteri,~] ~y~boh do not mean i Ib tne~arnc w""'J ,U$ 1:lllgllllJge, Ratner., t~ey Ofli'l'le to. l1,we abstract meartli1g through as:soc:ialiuu ililid r)]:~~ticle. [nsof:lr a'~ 'members of Slt)Clely ,e,):.peri. en.c~ common practices" m:Ji~:e:ri3il 5.ymbol~c,1;l1l

ltL~nin~. ",l!u~. for' example, the ways in wh.icn C!lFlain ty!P'C-s of food. drink, Illusic, and s.poTl are e.;;;,perieuced are e:moodde,{j wililin ooc'jal, 'CQfl'lI'e!nt,j,on and tI'iIl~ come to· have common IlllelllIiiing. A garlic emsher may nOt be used overtly im .Britain to r,epresejil,t Qr cs,ymboiize class, butlhrolJ!!h II complex S'Bl o'.l' PJlle~ti¢e$ !l.'i1t'iX)UiHIiIl:g foo'i:lmd lts preparationthe cmsharllas come to 1l1ean .class U'lm~gh oi}'iloc;<ll'iou.

Becaase objec,t~ enduse, Im.vle til,!ll.r own traces, their own grain,. i:ndiyidual 'ol:tjeclS with t1!1l.lque e~·ocati.!}m;can. be rtlcogla:izcd. The ,specific mem(j,ry 'traces, assoeiated W']l&umy p<[lrtioular object (iii particular garlic crusher) wm ~!!ry from iudiv:id,ui'll~o ~ndi ... idllli:rl. TIiLeparticu.li!iiUy {If Ol!tterial ~perie'l1c~ Sii'ld memin,g-d.erh'£s 'not ~j.n.ly fru'iI1 the div.er.'l:ity of h'Umoill life but al~QtfOm the identifl.·· :abili~y of mawri.al objects .. 'fhe idell.tiJi·:ili1.e :pM'ticu[Birity 'of nl.a~eri>Jil ,experie.ilo~ aJway:shas U~e potentia] to w(lrk agaiusl::md trllnsfor.rn socle.t.y. w.ide COI1lva:['It!Oiil:S through I,)raCli.ce. HIl:!:lfl!lseof lliiis di:de.>::tic bchvee:n stl!UCtlJr-c: ~d prn.ctiC'e, ;md because of the multipLe. local meamilBs tliat ~il be gwvc.n. to thimg~, it W'ouki I:J~ difficuU t'O canstmc'l d;iciJ:ollari~ afui ~r'Ul'lln~;u'~ fOil' l'f.l<lstm:t!I,C· dal. culture mlilllilllng'S,.

A_n~tllef reason for ttl!:; i11laoilifY ~Q produce dictiQn~!i;~ grf m::!teriai cu.k\UereturrLS us t.Q' the difficllUy With which p.eoplegiv~ dhcursi ... 'C. accm:mts of maleria'! 5ymbo1ism, t.he :meanil1lgs oOm r-"'m:ain~acitan.dimpikit" A !>rn.eU 01' tll~teof a madeleinc'oC()()k!emay awab strong f'eelings,bu: it Is l1otori'ou:1ly dlfticliU to describe a, las~e' !;If a fee_t lor l'O '~ilJi d!OWin. U'le emotions ,~!/ok¢d" \Vemay ktl!ow thil1~ in pUi,C..ti,ce lh!1:I or that item of clothi.!:!:g "lQo!t>$ geed," "woc.l;;s, w'cU,'" or "is, ,stylish. ... lJ.u:t we WOI;!I'ld be :at. a lass to S'3Y wh: .. t it "raeans" because the item does not m.(;:irn-rlllli.er. i~. ii> embedded ill ii .~et of pr,l!Io([ces that i:nc'lll1dc cJa.ss, ~tat~:s. goal:s.,aegr'hL1ltks,,, We may not know rnlu;h about art. 'but W~· }:;!tQ'!N what we ]jb. On tile basis -of a :set ofpracHca! assOCiations, we buHd liP aJ1 'im,pHc'it. kll.IJw:ledge, ae\'}ul the anociatiom5 a'tl!l ¢,'iQc:al'iO<rls of pa:ri~C1J!lilr artif1!icts or $ly~es .• Tl~b type of embedded .• practical. experience seems 1to, be d~fflOromt from!.l:te m:anipl!Ilati.on. ,of rilles of repreS!en!~ti.()(n a.f1id from. (;(iIlJ:dous i'li1:1l/l~t_ic llioll!gllt. M,ueri,dsymbolic: ~s In!U'get us close to 1~1I'Cd el~[ieiloe,. b~ ~be.1' canaet easii}' bcarlIcu~at,oo.

'rh~imp&r~IlCe of lmlcdc.e for the "'Ot);DIIII 81tl!d i]"mbol1cl'I1e;a.oings ,of artUacts bas been ,empl'i!l· s:LZied ~!l recent work on tedmolog]1 (S.chlii!l~~r. 1990). E~ch ted1ni,1:;a[ ~peraEion i:!i limkied! tootb· ers in. opc:rati,<lmdc'l'!Il_!p::> (Le.;roi·GQi~rb~fi. 1964) 'if!."Ol'1'i";gmalg[i3i~~. tllle!"iJ'y, ,and g;estur,es. flo! ,~xJ!.m"le. some da.ys'~.N~ bel.te:r 'f.or 'throwillg th(ln ottJ,c[.s,. sCI Uil~l ty\J'1} Q'( day con5lraill.~ wnetliSIi' 3. HUlIlllJacUJrcl" can make tl.1JO\:\t[1J '[:I{i~S Of ImOO·bllilt ~t:~I,~~~t;t;;;'5,_ Quamy of.' cia]' i.s. r'~ ~':lJM [0 I,ype~ (If

1e:IJlI)G'i: tilntSl'ltOIll'!d be used, All $I.lch olJ'l;r~liorlal ch~jli,s are IlOndetermini:stic., andsome degree of SDci~l choice is uIH'o,l ved (Lem[)mllie~, 1:936;, Mi ner, 198.5,,). AI] operati.oll1al 'c.hain5 involve aspects Qf prodlljjc:~i.on, exchange, and. ~o~s;llmpl,io'liI, ~:nd.s() i!'re part of a 1I(i;!work Q:f roJ8Itlons Hlcor.poraU:i1g lile materi,1l1; the ~c{)'n(rmi,c. the :socia]." and the CI;I[1.ceptlll3l..

Ti1I~ praetlcel np.e<t'aHQ,nal chains ofte.tli bave im.IplicatiO!l.s t'hal extend into not QIiI]Y soetal 11'\1 t aJ~Q iil10tllll re~ims. For examele, Latour (1988) discusses hY(!i:OIIi1]ic doorclolS:ets; d.¢vic(;s that autolllIa~iC1l!Uy ,close a door ;:IJUe:r someone has op~!'!et;! Ii. 1.'he material door closer dms ulkie:s the place ,or, o,~' dcb:~gat.e!!. the rote of ~ POfitex. S{lIl1l.eQ'J'l'.l who, ~,t~n(ls tns;r.e·tmd maRes 5"11"0 that the door $~IlIYi> sbut after pto~le lui"'!; Ql;:me tbmlllgh. B.ut lise of tl'1i:span~,cl.I:lar d,e,Le;,gale has "'~!QlUS: htLplicatio!1s, ene ofwt!ichis that 'l'cr}" young or 'infhm people m<1\'e d,ifficlltty gening i:hrorlgil tile door, A so(:i~1 \ltHil1ction is unw]Uingly imp'~ied by this techno>!·, Q:!lY. hn all!olrltl.:r example, LmWll~ discll!8:ses akey Ilcsed by some Jnho.t1itanl:S ,of Bc,rli:n. This d1rml)~eended key forces th.e u self to' lock the doo! i~i tm:l.er 1.0 get the l\;!!y Olll~, The k,ey delega~es fur stiLff~:r $"lgn~ that might order a pe:rSQn tQ "relock the door bellilld YOUi. ,; Staff or. ~,igtli$ 'W'Qu.ldbc ullrdiable.Ute}' coutd beoUJ!.wl:tted orignosed, The key enrO~$ >I mornli~y. In the same way "$]eeping poli~:eme-ll" (spooaDllunps,) force the ili~i,ve:r ofa Car ~~!be nll:lr:al !I!!l!d'lQ s]ow ,t;!QWil in (m'nt ora &ch~QI. .bU.1 this mor~iity is mot soda!]y en,llode(l. TII,!\~ v!.'Ould be ~.()O unreliable, lbe: mOi<JIlity is; embedded: wHhin the. p:rnctika] 'CO!rlC~eqll~l1,Qe-s !ljlf breaking lip one's car by driving: too, fast Q\I~r t'li.e bu:mps.Tile. sooiil!1 ~~ndl moral "lea~l:n.,gs, of the doorcloser, the Btli.ilil. k,e.y.. 'or 'U'le speed bump are i:homu.gJ111y em~aed ill tile i:mplicarlolls ,of material prl)atices.

~ have. ~UrM!~tod ~'b,at ln d.eve.lo[l'in.ga theory of Iii~eci~_l CilIltllJ.1.'El" the tlut tas;i;:ls to' a.istinglllish. at Ir:olliiU\,;,o differem wayilin w'iiich mllteriafclIltlJ!I'e h:1S llibslraet mealtiing beyond, primary IIliil1tllf!!:ll:'! Il:OO!Oems... The !'intis thmugtil rulesofrepre:seti.ta~,QrL The. :secoil.4 is. 11:l'rm.l.gn p'F!I!C.tIce alu'!! evoc~tkm= tnrollgh the i1Ertwo:rki:ng. inlerconnecl:ion, and mutlla~ impiic.attol'l of mMe:rii!iil ;;lind! nonrnaterts]. Wl:Iei)~cas it m~w b .. the case lilat written langqj.a;g~ is tile :pn:me example of the first ,category and! tools the prime e:ul!fllple of the seeond, language ~!$'() has 00 be wotll:e.d OtitllJJ practleesfeom whiclq III dieli V~~ fI'Illth ,of Its meani.ng. Eqll QUy, we hav,c. SCIlf! that TliIitte.:rilil .items com be p!.Mcd within laIlBt!il,ge.-~ike ,eOOes. B~~ there is some support froliIJ cogllitive pl>ycho]ogy for :8 g.en.ernl. dUler~flee b~twceil Ihe two type'S (It !:ul()wledgc. for 'CXill:liple, D~chtel (199{), p, 2M,) ilrgm'lS t'1:l.llt ruleb"sed model.sof cl)g£liH,(m are naturally goo<! at ~lIl te. di'rre:m~.fit types of aCli''I'ity from ¢Qml~c~iQ[]'· ~f>t model:.. WIIDe.re the first is all'proprhrte for pr,o"'. !em ~'I)~'\! ing, HC!e socond is t-e.:st at tas:ks SIlCJl as

Ilaile.:m recognililon ;~!ld motor c.oFluol. U seems likely then tnat (he. skills involved!n materlal rlrncHelll. and! t~'le sotlcial, !i)'mooUe, :lind mornl~e~l'i· ings t~tllf iue implh.::atedirn slDch praeticesmight !.r1'''Qlvedifferelll cognlttves.ys~.~ms. than i,"'I"olved tn ~ule5i1Il.d re.p(rc<selltat:io:lls_-

Bloch (19'9]) argues that pract.ic;QI knowledge hi fund'~ITi,i;:n;tlJliy aifferel'U; from. HF!guus~ic kuowl(ld:ge. in rlt~. wrr:i .~~ ls organized i.1ll the mUIlld. .. Practical ktl'(lwledie Is "chunke.di"i illito. highny CQ!ltel.· tl!.laliz.cd infor!tiA'iition about 11Qw tv "!.tel on" in t[i>ccific domains of ac,uQl!! .. Mllcl'I cl!.lt~rlll k:nCliwledge ts nonlinear and purpose cedicatte.d,fo!mcd th!'(l;ugRi the p~acUce. of closely r,e:Dated activities" I liI.aYea.rglled h~[e Uaa~ even tile lJ,ndicat world i n'l!'Q]vl;;~ $Qdal and !>yml:Hllic rnmm.in,f;l;s that are not Ofgiln:~z~d feiP'res¢tttatiomd codes but that are ctii!ultl.ktld or oClnte.'XI,ua:lly o:rgani.l..ed. realm!> of activity in which cmot:iQ'Il~, d,e.sifts, mol1!!~. and socii] :reiatiiolls are 'hwolved a!, the :Ueve.l of hn[)!icit tak'CIiIi·Cor·g1''9.flted !ikiil or know'':n(!lw;

It sliould pediap.5 !he emphasized that the It.""O ty!pes 'o[IDaJierlal symbolism-the: re,presmltatiol1lal. and ~h~ (:·'l!QCl.1tive or implic~Jti;r(l--oft(l!II wo(kiti close relation toeacll i')i~he.'.1'hl.l So a setof:practice~ ma.}' associate men aii'.d wOomen wilD dl,(fe.re.nt p~ds or houses O~ times of day ,bill r" ~r;n:a:ill social oorntex,t5 these as:i(ldati!ll:ti~might be bu.i]t upon tOCQ!1Stru(;l s~'rnbotic nIles of s.cp3rntion and e~clU!sioii a.nd: to build ;:Ul <I.o$"et represl1!lltltiollal :>ch~mo In wh.tel'! rnyti'JQiogy and cosl't\olQj!IY p:I:IIy 3 iPilIfIt.~e.g .. " Y!lIIt-S, 1.989}. Sllc-t sct!emC5 also have ideologle:al eO'mpmlEW;U: tl!al feed back to con~str.litl tlir..pract'Lces, TIilI1~ pmcti,()c, 'eI'I"oe'!l[iu.l:'I, !md ·r.ep!'!!:sentatiollilltel'pellottal.C and :r!.led off each ,other in many iif not 'aJl areas of ~ife .. Strlllcrure alld praeticeare ret;l1.ifSivli;ly Ielared i,f! tbe "~~:ruct1.1frn· tion"'; of ma.t,e:ri:d lifl! (Giddle:ns, i91'9; SlC!; abo Bourdiel!l; 1977)"

.Materi:l!1 Mean:i.n;gs in Tim;e

lLtl[lpems tl;;~t j!I$ople bl)'~hex.per.defiC~ Uft~ "read" materia] ,cultUI~ memlings., There !S:llmcil more lhiUc()ijld 00. ~aiCl abO'littliiow m~tc:rild. CU.1t1il1"e works:ull the :S(lcial. COtl~;(t. Forunstance. SOO1Je example!> work. 'oy direct and exp·licitmet!l!phor., where timiii!ilfiti.6s in fO!lm 'refer to historical ante" ce(!e:nts:, whl:·,n':3s otihers work lily being am!bigu. ous ~m.d a:bslr.i1IN, 'by llI~.i!i!g iillc;;:.t<le:le Ilr drama/tic effect, hy co:ntrolltllg tile approach of theon.Io()~e.r. by Ci.}tJMOl]ing perspecri ... e .. ,AJthol!gh there i:s !'lO't space h~l'e to expl'orc the hlU r,~ii'~w (If 1iIl.3lerial strntegier., it is Impnuant to eS[!'ijJti sh the. tempon.~ dimensiQiI of lived o:;;,periel:bce,

A~ already not·ed., J]i1~ted::l1 clllwre i~ (lllntb!,t; ~Uld cnll b~ given new menllings as it is, ::;·c,pa:mtod

all(lnin 1iUl8niIlg i~ often tcl:al1ed to CIHl!'lSe.5.in me~lIling across space and cultu:rc. Ar.chacologi~ (:31 or etht1Jog~ap.~lic m-iiill .. ets are eontinlJ,:lny ~e;h~g !aten out. of lheir CO!lte:tts ilnd rei!)lcrpreled w:itlri.n mu:~e.1,lm,s. within diiff~mllt ,S{lC,]ili[ and cultural COliite:d5. The Elgin M;arblc5 housed in tho B:dtb;D },.·t1JSelllfli. take on nll>w meanlngs thaI, are in tum re[fI!?:rpr.cJl:ed Illlhlgoill~s~lcaJly ill some circles iii Greece, American hld:i;m human and mi.ifacl rern18ins .mi1lylilav·e a sclentlflc .rneanittfI [o;.r archaeo lClgi.$ts .and!bLolog:lcal anthropologists, 'but they have important emotlveand :idcntity !lle:ilflli1gS. fo,.I:' lndigenous Pl:Opk~5 ..

MM.edal. items are. ciHUiilllally 'beitlgr~!n:ler" preted i n ne'l'l" oonte:t~ .. Also, [!'!!!lte-'rial culture C31l1. be a,!;Ided ·to or removed from,lca;viIlg the traces of reuses and reiDlt·e1rprelntu(lIIs. In some C"S~$,.ll\e se.que.nce ·of use can give in;si[gh'l~ntol.!le t.bollg·nt p:rocesser; f;)f !lit! :in.djv·fdu,31,.as when fliJ;lt fI~kes lhat have bee:t'l :st.Hlcl<: offa eeee 1[1 e~rlyp[cltust·ory are rcf:Lt.te>d by ar'l:ihae.QklCi~ts today (e.g., iPeb,;, fJ;1".in. ] 99Q) in (lrdle~ tOfebu:iId. (lilenunt cere lind to folLow the decisions :madeby ·the ongimll[ flilll ki'HIJ)p.r:r inproducing fl;mt;-ii. ami tools: ~n o/the!: ea~¢~, lOIll,g~r f~ame,'S. 0,[ Ume ~m. lnvolved •. a~ wMfi a monument such. as Stoneiieng.e is adapted,. ]'.I!>built, !'!!l<l fl;:-YSCg; fordi.'I'e:l'gen~ pl;lrpO~¢5 oyer mil· Ie:llni;a IlP to lhcpresimt day (CJtippind.ali3, 19·5S}. In :5.uch lJI[li .ex.amp:!e., the narrative he:ld will'ii.il traces 0111 the artifaJi~ :h::i.s. ancveeall fQi'!ll thilt bas beefiprod!..iccd by ml.lHiple ~lldlvidliJa:ls andgrou:ps. often un~Wll:nJ; of earlier fntet1!l'iolli.i) andrneani:ngs_ F'ew :pe;(JIp:le rod:.y, aUboughkilOwli!l~geal::lle ,,'ilJQut Christmas proctit~. are aware of the hl~l:Qrlc-.al reasons !;lebifld 'tlie ~~C (J(f Ch[htma~U'ee. S'iil'il<1 C!:a:us,. 'red coalS, and flying r,eiiltiee!'.

There iiil'e miln}' trajectories that m::UJ.l,[illl.i~ems can t •• kc lih:mugit shifting rnean\rags. POf e);amp:I~, many are made initially to referto m··e'lI'Clk..e mcta~ ph!Qn,eal ~Y. wl'icrcili5 thrnu gh lime Ih e ·orlgillal. :rneillrr· i'lig becomes lost. orlhe item beccmesa dfcM. hi! "'~n.g lost its nO'!l'elty. Ai1I i!i!'uifact ma.ys!.art. as !1 'focus b[:ll 'beoQrne simp,ly a frame, P8r:t of alii 3.ppropriatc ilim:k;grolllrnrln the skeoornorpllic pmcess a. :r'Ufic!:iomii oompQllen~ l:i~Qni~:S deOO~:Jili .... e, as when ill gas fir·e depicts bumulig wood I,)!:' ecal, In other (lases the 11oad] o,f itJ.~aning .in ... es!:Cd it! an <lrtt(act hil~n::~5. tiutttl.gk ti me, :a:sin 'the case M a talisman Of holy retic. Mate.rh:1 items Qre·ortel'l. central !",~e. b!1.dtwnrd-looktng in .... entlcucf'traditi<l!l. :~ w:hl;;,Il the halhm fas..;is:t. movement c.]e,· v~t¢d the Roman :symllol (If .a!!J~horily-a btl~d]e of :rod&--tQ pf{lv;i(le ~mtbori~y rOlf a new forill or centralized power.

This brief d~scl!lls.giOit'! i:ji! t[h.e tempofal di rneilsign. empilasize;!i. tlc~ec(mtl.:,l.hl.ali t.y of malenal clll-· tLJr.Jl'. meanin.S; .. As is dear fmm. some- ~)r i'h.!:. exam." ple~ given .•. cI:umging fneiuuilig~ through ti me are Qncn i n¥QIYedin. ML;;I;gonistic 1"i1:1atj,on,S. b~twce:rlJ

_'!I. .~ - - -- - _._ ~-- ...,.

'being cQntestlld and rei!~terpre'led. as part Qf sool:li aJ:1.d political strategies. Sucl1 ooJ:lffictover nt~llria] m~lIlling.!> i$ Qif [»I[tiwLrnr jlTteres~ to qUIIHt.b\thc feiii';itr·th ill that. it ex.p'te.s.se-s and focu$~ ~Iterllativa vi.e",",s ,UlU l.iltetestiS .. The feblllria~ 0'( Am'ilr.tcarn Indian .llIlId Australian aboriginal .remains lsan issue that .hase):.pres;siCd, but pe:r.itaps al:;.o belped to construct, a new sense of i:m:!:[!,;cIl()U!l l'igl'llll!iill Nonh. Amedc!1. and Al!Istiiilia. As "c;;llmi.c c:I.eail!S~ l.~,g" r,~~pjl!.liUS in Ell~'QPe; se ~OQ Glo altemlJts; ~o milll:·e;rpret dOClllll;r;·nl:S., monuments, and :lul:if:acts in ethnic terms .. But p.a.st :llftjfa(::~ ·elm. als.o· be U!;e<i to' help :loca1 {:(l!Ilmnmides in producti ve and prattical waY$. 01110, example o;r ihe: active use 'of the :p~st in Ute present .i$ provided by the wock of Erick.sml (1988) in tile area around l.ake Titicac~ ln PeN. lnfNoo.tioll from the. al:d'i~eA,)]ogicld .stndly of ra:i.scd :f'ieWs WtlS In~CI t'o' reconstruct ::Igrici!l. tural systelms OIl the ancient mod,li!. wilh the paT·' ti.cipniiol1l and (.Q ·~IIte; beilefHof ~cal farmen.

Method

Tile :inte.rpretatior[\ 0;1' inX!~t; m.ili.edlil. evidll!':tlCC puts. tl"(1) hl'te~~t.i·Qnii!t virew under pressure, Hiow email !lPPfoO!1.l(:hth:ltgi.ll~ con~idt}tt'lh.lc zmprn-tanGle. te Illteractiol1l w.itb :speaking stibjeds (e.g." DCiizin, 19:&9~ deal wlthmat:erinl tracel;f,I;l!:' whic!l inJorm,mts are lQllg .(lemJ or about which Infor.mants. :IIi[~. !lot arUc'llJatc?

I have already !:tOted the impart!l1me. M mM~al evidence ill pr,~yid!i[lg :ins'ighi iIl:~ 'otlier CQ:ltlpo· ne!t!S (if I:i\'cd expe£i¢ll(;e. The mell1.odo]ogical issues th:at 3.[6 rnized; B1!'.e ij,Q~. I'I.owe",er. ur:liqllJ~. 1m. aU tYl.lllS ·of :illkie:mc:U "'CI'C5'CiI[c,h me analyst liM ~'I) die:c'ide 'whether or IUlt to takecomrneni8£f lit ~~ v~lu.e am!. how to ev~lluWe: Spok.'eli Oir I.mspolien I:CSPOIlS!e:S" HQw dots what 'is said fit ilXl.Q Mille· g'enemllJ!Wet.slandi.ng~ .A.nalysts of miii'ei.iilll C'!!!~tare may not :IIII've mUlCh spotcn commclilta:ry ~.(I work with,. bot they do h~'i'~ pll.U;erIledi evid.e~ that has robe evaluated :~Il :relation to tile: filU fi1illgC, of a'i·aitabl.e i !lfbrmal:ictn, 'They' too have '10 f1t diffcrent. aspeets .oF the e~idel~'Clc l!lt~ a licrlil~~e~tical whOle (Hodder, 1991; Sl:tafib:& Tille.y., [,gS1). They ask .• HQW d<le5 what Js done fltiotQ .mo.le gene.ri:ll ufiC.!cl'~tandil1g?

Iii general tenns, the il1lterprct« of mll1Grinl wllime. wo-r'.k:s ·IiJe:lwe,l;:fI:pa~i. <'illdi present Of bet~r1 different cMamp]c5 of m::n·edal clIltll're, making analogh~$ ]).ctwcen them. Tlu: mater'.i,al evidllOlWt> ahv~ys hilS the PQte!!~i ai to btl. pattemed .int;Jine~· pe.cted ways_ Thus it provides 1m "otheiJ''' ag.i'iillSI which the. aJ:lalYCl'il'1> QWiQ ei~pej'ienoe of the wm-Ld has: to be e:va!rJ,I.atod andean 'be ef!]a:rged- AlthQugh the e ... idle-nee cnnHot "'sp~ak bil~;k," ~t can. ~cmfrom:t

fhe inlerpr,e'er i:n .... 'ay~ ~h,1I, enforce $e]f-Ie~P." plrli,~~111 ~l !.eas:! .wh~n a resea~b~r i& dealing wit?; pwIW'l(J['JC rem~m, lher~ arc i1iOm~mbH ctlecks beC8;i..DS!e the ~r~!fru;:t$ are themse.lves millie·, On the C!i111il~r h:ili'ld,; material clIIlture is the I!l;UadLH::t 'of :"'rld is enioe.dd&d in "'1n.~el'l'ili!" ex.perience. h\deed, it C{Hllid b.eart:~u;ed~ha;t some 1t'i!~N.:rja:lcuit!J,oo, pred:s~.Jy bcc.li/use it is not overt., stlf-co.f1S:C!QI,lS ~[)eecib, r.tl.'lY gi'i'c deeper i!1!sigMs lnto the iiitem~l mean~!l;g~ ;9c,cord:~Jlg t~} which people li o;.oe(l their lives, I. nored above S'l)mee:xa:mple-s of material cuUlllre ti)(;!ing l.I:s![;d to e,x,pr.en C;O'!!'Clt, me,mil!l~~. Thus the llick ofspoktn liIW:mbercihecbis co!!!nternct,ed b:y th-echec:ki) prnovid!e(JI by \l!!i~PQlen Hl!a~eri<llpat~ leming ~~l:tlt rom;~l nable to' ,c:(Inff(l!a:tand uadermine iliterpre'Ulllion.

A1!1!importlll1lt; i.llitillJl a~s;sunlpti{)!i made; by Iho!l.e lnt'l1)rpreU!):g material cl!Il'tluei'S that 'be-liet, ~de~. and [I1t.ention are impot'lan~ to aClion ;md .pr.!;c,1iee (see .abuv'~,)". Wt fQUQ''W:S that theo(lll(lepW~l has :some 11lll£lQct 011 dme pOlltemi'-8 of matel'ial re:m<in:li.'F.lle idealiQmlil rompcn]cnt ofmater1·:d patte.rningi~ not opposed 'to bin i;~ integral=cI wi~1i its . .m!i~,fai flilllcai,inin~. 1t It;p~'SsibIs therefore t.Q inflf:r bam I1tilitadm andlc.Oil1.OGplUlil mean ing from the patterning of ffiOll.eri!d evi.od~m:>e.

1i'~e fnlerp:rlM.er is fat;;<ed with material: data tl!~t ar,c PiUlCffiecl 8~Olig I'l number of dlifferetil diime;Il' ~iQoiH 5iffiylhuiOOu.s,ly" MiflimaJ!ly, I!Irch<liC(l,I.o'gists ,disHngubh l>CichfiOlogy., fUllotioll. !lind s''YLe, aad Ihey IJSe such attribares tQ ff.ifm ty:piJ~ogies and. to' . $c~ks'p':lIi:iia~ 3Jndremp(IIral Pqj.·t~l1~n:g" ~I:I pr~eti~

howeyer, as the: dii!lcl!<ssion above has ,s:'hQwlR; it has bec.OIIf.i.e increa.singty d:ifficu.l~ te sepural.e tech· :~ology from ~tyJe; ocr to seperata tJ'I?~-~ fro:rn thei.r spatiill Il,ii,d ~$mporai. OOIl~ex,~; In ot~ .. r words, tile. ~na]y~iCl !J~ pau.er.n·re!i)oj:!;i'iitiO:IiI sta,g'e ha;o; it.SleJ!f b~el'llidenlifi.ed $S. interpretive,

TlliJiS ~l all $ta~e$, from theidJl~fHifj.<:~tiOl1i of d~w!: and ,aM:r.ibutes 10 the IJInllcrs!a'liding of high. lee ... ",,1 $Qj,)ill.m proce.$$e·s,. the illi:el'preltCrha$ to d~~1 ~{multElMC!llsly wi:th, th:re!l' a'rclIs of e1l'a.11!l~ti(Hi. ~~f5t, tile interp!l'e>tCl h3SIO jo.elUUy tile ,CO'I'Iw,xts wi.hill whi.chtfli:I1gs bad simUe.rtfl..¢2il1illg. The bOYl]oal'ieg o:hl:t~ ecntext are t'Ii~l'1le:i"'~'giV>i;'I1"; they n:a)ve ~(lile i.liicrprete(1. Of course, '1physlcallraces <i~d :!lep.ar'ZitioIllS flligiU !lI5.sist the d.d:ill:itiO'r1 Q;f con· t!!~i;;tllal b()UIll:l,;II'1es. such as [he bOUild<lnes around Ii village or the separatiOIi ln thm:betw6!M.l sets of ~"'i::·I1ts. Ritual COl'!tc",:t!! might be more f(ln'n~iiled Illilli1l or l1u~y illve;rl muadane eonrexrs. B1!it d.uspite such cl ues thet~ is an .. infirlity ~f p(l.$5,ilJ.~~ con!te.:Ii:s llilill might IHl,venee.n ,consl:rncted ihy ili1ldi~enous aC'{!!r:" The iiotion 'of cOfltex.t is .a]ways releV<lIflt 'Whel'! different sets of dllta alfe bfl![ng ()ornpi!Rd ~~'!d \Io;'IH~rre all'r'hm.lf)' question is, whether ,:he elif·· I~H:lIil e~~rnp~e!> me c(lmpa;Tab~tl, whether the liP" 1l000J~i:lll :;.i.rrlll:li'ities arc I,caL

'. S,ecund, :i,U1 con;jtrm;lioll wHh <1m! ins.e,p'flrahlc ~ r'mm ~.1;~ identifi ~~.~o:n of ~i)It~ed i~ the reocogni·

tion ot simihuiti.'e,s and differences. Thcin'ler'preter ilIrg!ues fa·!' a cQni.el'!;.t by 8l!ow.ung ttinLtlhiti!}~ are done s:imHariy. 'i't18!tpeople. f'C'sp!md. simi.l;ady to similar Sltl1J3tions, wi:ltiin Its bOl!lndiil:ries, The :i'I~~t1mpti~~tis mad,e, th:llt witil]!l 'Il:ie 'oontext ~imH~r evellts ot thing.s had timilUir meaning. BU;j, I'hi.s; is true, oIlI.yi( ttle bOW'lclar'1~ or ltle c,om,ext. hav~ been cl»rreC'lly id~tifiecl. M"n:-y IIftifiLoCts i:llmaUy iden't! fied as ritual Of collie have, latc;r beefi $ilown ~ cerne from e;n.tirely u'ti.nUlri:tm CQIlte.:ti;t5. EquaUy, claimed! cri)S,s,~CUlmriii simi1a:riti,es; always .have W' be 'eV~h!i,iil!e,d. to see i£ tlleJr CiJfile:lU:s 1100 't::QIlI~a:ra·· ble, 'Thus lbc: int.e$ctalioils of CQfUext lind of IIle::m:ing[u] sirttiilar.itiell and d~ffie-tellc:es are DllJJl'1!l' alb' dt<:pe:ndent.

The· ida[l'liificat~Q'1i of COn:tliilxts, sim:iI,;u'Ui:es. and dlffen:n.~ withif.! p,ult.el:'f.lJl!d. 1l13.te.fl;alsdepend:s, 011 Ul~ IlipplicaUm:'l of appropriate :5(lcial and material culture theone,~.'lhe,lhitd ,e:valu:a.tion lhii!thO}~ W he nl!lide iby ~tJ..L; i:nl'~pre¢er ~!j ,of the :releV;linoo 'vr &oe'i1Cllil or ;~p~iiic htstoric,ai theories '10 th.G data at l:i3Jnd •. Obsef"O'l:lllfi1'i imd i.n'~'fpretMi.OIi. 3100 thec:lry laden; although tih.emies C!lil be ch:an~e.d jn eonfwntation Wil11 !l'Iia.~ma~ oyhilence ~Il ,1'1 dialectical fiOls:hi.on. Some of the ap:propri8Jte lype!; of gelleral tht:.Ol)' fO'f mMeti:liJ. cuUure trave been identified. ilb~ .. ~. Th.e m.ol¢: specific t1'Leode.~inch.de ~be inteotl(lR:5 and! seeial goals {d;liarticip:a:~II:s, Of tI~ natlilre Qf ritUi!.i. or culnc as {)PPo:led 10 S!ecll]~r 0'1" uiilittU'i!l!!l bella",iolf.

In. tet.ms ofthe tWi;l type~ of InilteriaiD meaning idielJl,nfi'l1:d earlier ,ro~s ,of rep:rces.entaliQiQ, !:'Ire, 'bru.ilt up f[om~pauer1ls of.associaHo'll ami exc]usi.olli. Fior . e.x.amp1e:, ~f a pin type ~s e:t~]u~i vel}' Ils;s;fJc:ial:e~. wi'!Hl 'WQme~n :in II wide ",ari,e:ty (If conteJ':b, then il might be. illlerpn~.tei:l as representing: women ill all ~it:ua.Hon;s" Th~ :JUl[)~t !)if woman.hoo<l tlii~t is :r'~pj·e:sented by this .as:sQciat:ioll wh~ pins. is derivedi from.othe1' a£"',Qc,iiilil:.i~m o:fthe pifiS=perhaps witl1 tOireign. nonloeal a[l!iract~ (Soren;$en., l'IlS;). The more rkhly netwol't,e:d Ih~ :assQci:!l!t'ion:s thatean be, fo:Uowe:<ll by '!.!.w i:llte.:rp rel,er. arid. Ole t'hkilrer the rle£criptil)ll:l (Denzi.n, 19891) th.-.l can be prod!lmed, the :stlb~]er the inl:erpre~at'Q~s that nn be miMlle;.,

Fot the otht:lT lype ofmatenill meruilo!l. gro@mloo iiii p'taci;ic~, the Ini:ll.a.~!.iil>k of tne l.nterpretor is 1.0 under'sl:<Ind ~Il tile ~oc..]a~ and m;(lte:riilli:mp]~,cations {if piilfticular practices. ''I his is gre<l!tfyellh(IJMetiby studies (If triC1d<Grn material cuUlJ!ro, ]liIcll!l:dill:!I eUt!'!JJi'lf¢h:tll>ol,I)!:U' (Qrme, 1981), Expe:rimelltalarcliallologists (Cotes. 1979') are new wc:]~ e)<~dC'li1Iced in reeenstrecting p~s.t prac~i~es. ftQni storage of CC(Cflls ill phs: ~Q f!il~"ng flint took Suet! reoon,stlf!Jct.iom, :always u.fJ;a.YoidaMy ani:ficial to sume degree; anow 50 me direct iflsighi, into 3notll.er lived ,experimlce. 0·[.1; the b~si;s <Of :SIllGhkoowlec!g~ the im!lncalkll~s (If .m:tlter.i:IJ~ practlOO$, ,eli;tc;nding iut.o the liocilliL anG the "mr!'!l, Can l!;e. lhoorizctl. But. a,gaiil ]~ i:s dctallMUnl.ck d~ :!;crip'tion of assoe:iMions md cOIlll:exl& thnl allow$.

L.L~'" ... U ..... IL,., ... ~ ...... ~~.-t.A1w., ..... ""~ 'hIM' U "'" 'ti.!.'!r.'!il •• """.U.I,1i "" 1.!" .......... ~ .. t!!~

h:I~to:l'ic.-a1. sHu~dom and theparth:u]aT evecetlons to Ibc l,.!nd!c.:n'tood ..

An example of the applic=ationof tn.esc methods is pwvided lOy Merdnlil!"!'s (981) lliterpre!<llio.1l Qf the jp:~!I~i'iJns b~il1ld rhe bulldhigof a waU around [he ellt~ s·ettlem~m Oot H,e.tlneberg •. Germ:my, in the, sli'>th cl;lntury B.:C. (an eXilmple simi· lar to that prQvi.dedDI' Col.tingwood, 1956)., in ct!l'Iurnl terms, tile Uillistau context ill cenrral Earope, iru;ludiing Gen:r:mny. (00 00 ~ep:i!r~~!}d frQ11l ,othe;r' cultural areas !llilch :L~ the Aegean ilt t!iis tlme .. And )let the ""'alts are made of I:u:~d. brick and they have 'basuQII:'i,. '60(" of whidl bave pllf.d!ei$ oi'l!:y ill the Aelilean- ~n pl~a.cltiee~ mud bdck would! not have been :1'111 cffeotiv,e ~QngAerr.n foem of defense ill the Herman clim a te, 'Thus .some pur~ pos'e: Qtllerthal.'ll de:fells,e is sliIP'"pos.ed .. 'I'1he W:AUs are dUre-rent from other CQIItempOUJl'j'w;~U:s, in O,.;rit'ii'iny :IJInQ ye;~ they ate !;imilarr'l'Q walls: feund in the Aecge~liI. co!t1t.c-xt. OUter :!ii.miladtlcs and. diCfi::f'" COOtS th~~ ~eem l\fiteVl'IlIl!t are th~ e-x.timplcs Qf ]lo!es,l.lgecxcllang~ .. ab.!:Ilble objects such as wins f1agOliLs traded. from LnG Aegean to German,y. Thi:s lr:Olde: ~~,ms relevant because ·(If iI 'lhooIY that e,Ule'S. i~ eentral Eumpe b:asoo tbGh power Or! the (Qn~Iol of ]:ire-~tigeQ;.ch_ange. willI the Medi.tlmanean, II, seems Ill:.e~y, it'! '!he C(lIIte.Xl of s:uctiJJ pres· tige exchaage, that, (be wal1",1m1li: iii a MedUe",a~ neal! i\ofm werew~() dC-$i,!,!netl. t.Q eOfi.l'(}r p~e~tige on the eLHe~ wn.o OfgmiZ'ed their eomtmcotiQI'I. In this e:ll:an1Lple tlilt 1Ilten'ti'o!l 'CIfthe wan building is interpreted as. 'lbeingfor "pre~Uge: father than for defense. The interpret3tioini~ based on the slmu]umCQUS eval.uadoll of shnil;uitiC$ and differ~II!~~, context arid ·!.!heory. Both oopr,G;Scntatioruil symboib:m (~o[lfS"mns ;pml~ge)aru:i p1'acl'kal meanings (th~ bui.'ldif.lg of waJls by e!.Ues hl a n.OIfIM wilelTal'I~~n dimato) are cun5idcwd. For o'tJrer e;:w:.iilnple;;s. oftheme:thooilppl:ied 1:0 modern mi'lt~·· I"lamCllihure. see; Hodder (1991) amI Moore (1986)"

How 15 h ;pQISsihIe to confirm :Sllch IlY:P'Oth~e:5, aoollt the mei'ltiirngs; of Inut'e material and written C~~t:lue? 'Why are some .i[lWrprot~tiQns m(!re"p~a'(IS:~Ib]c t'IiIa..n, others'? "fI1e al[J;'lWeIll ~l) s,uch questions arll! lilnlikely to diff-crrndiClillyfrorn the preeedares fo l- 1.0 wed. ill other' areas of int:t,;:rjpft-1:atioil, nail so [ will d'is~:s;s tt!~ rt:!1!l.tively oo;etu.y here (see Det!:r;iil, 1989: Lineoln &; Gt!ba. 1985). However, thereare some diffecem:.es ill ool:lfim:Liilgliyp(l~heS!e~reg.ard· irJig material objects" Pe:rhlllJ5 the m~,jor (!i rfiiCilUtl' is that m~J:eri>l!. culture, by its YiOry nature, str:i;lItllcs lIi~ djvhk. bCtWOl>I1IH a lmiver£~l, n.illl.lfill scie;l1cea.p· prmte h to mil~i(lri als and ~ hislotical., !l'Ilerpr.eti ve

'~"J:".t" ..... ~~ .. ~ .... ~ .•• ~.~.. • ... ~ •. ~ ,,~ ... ~,~ .. t'~""'~'W"~' ....

m~[kt:d Jack of: a..gree!lWtI~ in, th~ ~c·1entlficoommU[]ily about the appropda~e basis, fo[cm'lfirIl18· UO~ p'~l)cedures. In my -Vi'BW, an lnterpretlveposltlon can and :should otccommodate ~clei\dftc i.llfQrmatiQ:~ a:bOlil, forex.a'mp:le, natural processes oftrnn;st)tl'nlm.ittio'l'I and de.ca,y o.r :aftlf:ac~s. U ~s Ul!US all. il:l.terprllll'~ve p'o::li~:~on thai ~ d.!liscrlbe In.'CI~ ..

TIle twill $trots· (lif coofifmatiatlJ are coherence m.-dI CO!T~pol1!d!eiice. CQherel1ice is produced jf the 'p3rt.~ oohhe argumenl do not oorltilldict each other and if Ihe ,Cl)!)cIusilolis f(l,UQW from !he p:~eIl'lises. There is 11 "part.ia~, ,auti:lt,i.oo:rry ofdi ff~1'It types 'of theory, from (1i1e ~e;rvacional ill 1M globul., anOIa c:ol1(,\i!'eHlill.ter· pr!l .• ~tiQII i~ <me- in whi.ch, tl!~e difre·reflt I:eveb do, nat ,?roolWG ooIllradicl.Ozy ITi:>ult:.5' TIle paftlai aillQA· omy of diff-cre:nl types of tMOQf is ¢.$p~d(ill)' clear in reJlaUo:n to material 'CI.lltIlID. Beesuse maJt.e;l'i~!l 'e"Vi~f;nce M~Ure!i. !t C4l!1l ~Q!1ld!ll,lIlUy blil :reohse:r'l'ed" rcaii'ialyzed. ~.f!d rei Me rpreted ... ''fhe ebsesvatlons made .ill el.ul.i~'[ excavatiolls are continually ooi!:lg m:olli-~de.red wlthin new interpretiv& framewotks,. It is dear from these reconsiderations of eaelier work. that!l:ulim- I1hsefYiltiQIl5 C;m be iUSed to aU .. Q' ..... di.fferelll illtterprernti,ons.-the d;iffe:r{~Iii:I.tt"V(jL:!l of fheory ~ p:.utiaUy :ll!mlOOIOO11IS. 11u6 inte:m:ul (;Oh!::fel'ic:¢betwee.!:'!dif~~lll J:e'l'eh; Q£ t~wry is ronlimJ1ally being ranegoti!Wed.

As well as inoonlai coher,ence there ls external coh~n'i:::e-the d.eg~ to whkh t'ncinrerptetaU011l fits tbeoories accepted ir:l !IDd om.si.d13lne- dilidplliit. Of C~[~. the e'I'Ul!.!!!Uio!!! ,of ,a oCQ,h~ntargumem.t rlse'lf depetl& on (nc- appJ!leatioi:'i i'lif ttile~retlc:ill cd.· teria, and] havealready Mt.Gd Ihc lad: of.agreemcf!t ill srudies of materi.ai culUl.re about fouooatiooal i,SSPelO S4,lcb as the impm1lmce of a nat.unl[ scil:!:l1ce or :h~:mliu:Ii5tic ap,pr·OIMll. But w'bate\'er tlleir view,s '0111 suIC.h.is9Jl.les,. moo,t of tho:s¢ 'iI'Oi'king with !<I.::'ItenaI C]]]~llre seem to acce.ptimpli.citty t'llG iltlptltilM.ct at' simpJi.ictty !!Jld e!egtm.ce.. An argumellt in whk:b It<!O much sp«ial plcadiirlg is ,requ:iliOd 11'1 Oii'de'j" to c1\1im conerence is less I:i'ke'ly to 00 adopted UlIit!!iS:ii, S"irnllle Q:!' elegant theory. The nCJ"llor1l ,of oo'ne.mn.~ coliid ~l.!!:o IJ,g e1..tended -~O soci,,1 and. politkal. issues w.il.h..in and beJ{)];1;(l (fi.s.oipliV!!el.O~, but I ~.haJil. here treat, ~hl:-5iC ques.tioos sepiiriitely. .

The notion of ,eorres,pooden.cG 'between theory a'rld data does .not i.mply ab5!O~ute o'bjecti"Vi'ty .md

. independence. but 'rather embeds tim fit of dum :~Ild illeo[y w:ithin (:(lher~n.e~. TI!\t dau .. arem1l.dc 'k! eo!1.e[e hy being 'Ii.nke.dwitb.in theor~ti(;.\il arl!ll-' merits. Sl.ml.larly, -th.e co-he.r~t1c~ of the arguments is sup.ported by the m l.(I dnta. On the other htmd. data can collfront Iheory, as iilb'eady nQted. Cor· responde.n,eel1O"itt:L tile data. is. tbus. an G:Ss!mii.tlJ Ilart of ulgU!Ucnl$ of CQil:l!e\l'~f!r.;le. There 4I!re man.}' asp~JCts, of correspondence ilrg~lirle!'!~s ~hM :fiil,gM !be use[t One is the exactness o-f fit. perhaps m~"5~ IjIf,ed "ill ~tBti.S,lical Hmnlj ,. be~ .... 'een t.h.eo·ret.ical expll'clmio:n mH.I da'lt!, ~md this is a pml.k:lllarly im-

parta:nt as.~Cl ofargumenl:& ex.ploiti,ng: [the mute ils:p¢Cts. of~ml:ler~I;!I.1 ()~Itll:re. Other ar8Ilmellts,o( C:QiIT(}5pmllt!etiiC-e tiloCl;Ude ~1I'e :nulr.nber of \:aSJe's ahat ate ;aCOQUllted fot,tHeir r.!iIlg~. in ~'pac'eailld time, and th~Vi,!~ty of ~irre.rtan classes of d,ual'ha~ are e:J;,plained. Hil:FWcv·.er. s:ucli 1~l]':t1erica.1 Ind~c3lio!!l$ of .L':OiJ:l',csP'Qtldence alwaY50 bu(; ~o bs e'i·aluO\ted it"'ain:stCQiileX:tlll:aI relev2:n:ce and l!hick dcscnp· li~1l to d:et,ermille wile:tl'l'I!;r tile dIffer::nt examples 0f at are· .e.CevMl tc) each ether, hi '~thnogf,ap'hic ani! histotieaticoiitextscorr~ponde[lCi} with lndigenou.& accounts. can be part, ofllle ilrgll ment

l!hal SUPii0rt$ !OGnt:er.:lualrelli'i'ance.. .

O~e .. · c.ritGnalli3ltaff'ect die $lliCGeSS, oJ trr¢ocl.e.:s about materia] eulture mcani.ng funclllde. frultful- 1I.C$5.....:how m~y new ,di:rectionlS. n-ew lines of in~ 'Iilley. newperSpoctiw$ areopefledul'" Reprodii!;:)j· billty ~AIIl1.C4:imS wh'"'t~r o[11.er ~pIG, pc~h~ps wi:th dillbrtru perspective$:; tome to similaf ~\!llts. PerI1iaIis differollt ~:rneilts. ba~d UII differ,elllt slamn~ Il'Illnt5.p~g~'imtl.ar[e:Su]t:s.1 hav~,~rrell.~:rnote.d !hat. one o[ the; ad;vmta~e,~ of m<l~e:[]:ll le'l'td'ealC'e, I.S dIat it can confim.l3:11.ybe r,etur:ned. to. u:n.exlCavated piiM ofsi~ c);.'Cavaledi'nd !;lid 'If¢;ru;he:s dug Oul and reexmdti:~. Intc~llbjmdv>c- a~emnr:mJt i:S '01 c;o.m.idemilie importam:e althQ,ugll.t!il' P>'Irli.cuw difr1Cl!liW illlllll area i:h3t so eom.p~e~y 'bnd~~ Ule $deooe·hllm:mily dii,,!de., '!be :5il1C'C~ oQf Ime;rp.retatili):1'1!S de· prods. 01'1 peer !'l:!~ew (cithuilUum1Jal: o['ior.m~llyin. journals) and on '\he iillmber Oif people who believe, dc:c.1!ind 'build! on !hem.

811ft IliY;Ch. deper.!dl~ too 01[1 ~he In!!;t.'W-orthi.ne$s; prorcS51iollal credentials:, :and ,UlI:tllS or the author a!l:(i :sulrPDrH:.s of ilin in~e1'l){et!lti(m. Issues !tete ilicl.:udehow· ~ol:!i;S lIte interpreter $p~nt in ~~e :fi.:ld and hO"li"'lN'CUshe or he knOW1, ihe data: Ule:ir bi:ase$, prol:ile.m.$. ~nd. UimllS1l1ll examp1e.s. Has ~he :ruI!hOIf (I'EJroi:Oled :~ppm:priarl:e de;:reiZ5 and been admj~t~d, .inl@ p~of~!si'(mal sode-ticsj! ]:5 ~he i.ndi",iid,· uaf ;rn, esta'bl:ish.ec;l and ,C'O()s,~ste~t wntcr. m has. h~ 01[ she yet to prn"e ner--o,r tr.:imseilf1 'Does '(n~ :authr;r ke~ ~l:Iii.liIgi:ng' be .. or ~is mind?

ll!! fact, Ilbe !!,'jj)dl!mce docs i"i.{l!t res(lCi!1ld dirncdy ;OiUi imerprsl:a.tionbut to an :illlerpl!'etaitioll wrine.n '01 staged M. ant articalc. o. prcsliililt3ilioii. nit au:di· enot thll:src~:p01lds ~Il), and re[n~!ijirtts :II. maite.:rLal 3~ifactor e.ven.t.. The pmu .. si,v,e;[l~'S,~ of the s:rp· I1i'\ie:f;It isclosel:y ilied ~Q the t:Mtoric withln wh~ch it ls couched ~Get'o. 1 99l :; Hodder. i 9 89; Spector, 199 ~ • TrlLey • 1989'). Therhel'Ori.c.de~ermtncS. hem tho diWneMcompone.;ills, of Lb~di$cip:H:ne lalk ,about and ciefi{le probl.~ms and (Mit 5101uuio:ns,

Ma~er1iat '~1;!ltll:re., i:rlcl!.!.ding: wr.iue!1l te:(ts, poses a ch:llle[Jg>e for intf(rli[e.ttl,iie~~~rl>~ches that olf'te!'!!

$tres:s r:~e irnpon311,ceM dial.(!g:ul;'; wi'll~l!Ifld spoken cri.tic.aI coOmmen( from partic:ip'311t$. Mareti .. l, (;u.l· t~re eYid~tlic>e. ol1l~hc oHIGr hand •. may hOlive ~o ~i''I'iil\g P'~r.:tic,i.pllnt~ who calli ~po'nd ({' ils 'jl:ll:er-. pr~Jt<iti(ln. Even ih'llch p>adicipanlS eo lelf.ist" they may ofl:elillJcl.:lI1Iaole to !be articlila.t~ albout m<IJte· ri~l cul[l,Ite meanifllg;s.11!'I ,(!;I:I!f case, mal'Cr.ial. tu:~. ture endures, and so the (lri~i!l .. I: malber.s: and lisen may 'be :abie '10 ,gi'l'lC o.lIlly apartialpicture ,of the full hi.!lU)ry of n).e.;I;n.in,gs giVfiIl'IQ till Q'~jeC't. as; lit iis used and rointeqm.ted Itbrou~t.I ti.nI'e.

The 'c!nane~ll:ge po..sed,by Iilalterial culture is im[lOIilanr (Qr anihr.opologi.cal and .wci.o!og!cai anaIJ'· sis because :mal~rla1 iCU]tU{e is 'ilfl:ena moofl,lm in whk:b alternative atild 'IlAeii muted voices aliii be eJI:.(,n:essed. But the "rclldet"of ml!l.tl$l'ial. (:!.ll,ture must f<l:oo.sni1e Ihat otdy S()m~ aspects of malena.1 .cuLtll:re :rnetln~ng are lan:guage-]!~e, The; meUlilll,g of mlllch mai:er~!ll culture lCo~teS· about th«liig:h 'Use" and m3!tenM. (iUI~Uf¢ I«towledgo. i$Qft.en lda1l'ty oehwniked :and eonlex:tu<l.lized!. TcclmicalQpi:l13tions j,mpl[.c;.lIlic, a w~de network of m:Meri.a]; sacial •. Mil:! s),!rnboll!cwe.soufcC'S,imdthc IIbstr;)et m~.:liIll.ng:s;llitat result are closely Hed lilt withlitit iiiiiterial

T.he metl1lods of !nl:e1'1'!!ie.tQl~10Il of material cui· lure ,oet'llt~.r OiIl !he :!j,imlll]tallGmlS M~~\1l]ea] pmcedlUJm: 0{ ,COi1:l1:iiU defi!lit'.icm. the: COI1i$t!"Uctio:n 'of patterned ~bmil,a[1lic;5 and dltlt"[cllce;:, 300 lill.e lise of re!,e'i'an,t Siodal Oliiid :mwter,ia! cu]Ulre ttill1:ilrY. tll~ material ct.llW~ernay lIDot be able di[C!;tby' to "speak bael:,'" lm~ If ap(lropri,at.e P'lCl~dllre5 are foI]O\J.'~d tnm'~ ~s :r'Oorn. fer the datU!id for di'(fereDl~!eY~I$. o.f lheory to t!l;)!lffOllt liil\llrp!~etO!t:ioog. The interpreter' I,~arns from II'he e:X:j)~iell~ of rnatCfia[ [emaiM~he data an.d the i;literpretetb~in.g eaeh.odrer Into ~is~~.nC'ei Ln. ,d:ial(:ctj.~:!!1 filSluilJliI .• 1'heiateql!r¢tatnons, can be cO:l:ln.rnedol'made rncu:e. or l~ss p'la~$ilJle. thal1t othen usi.ng II fairly sts,nd:a.rd r3f4.{lC of' inlenal .mod ¢.:tter.Q;!I~ '(social) cril:eria.

Bechtel, W. U9<90) .. C:!!lM'I.iilllism and !he philosophy .ofrni!rld: Alii o.'I«Iliew. ~n W" O. L:rc'lI!1l (Ed,). M,lna ,a'nd C(igl'!~lf()JI: A ~ad~" OJir'Qi!lI: B:asi.l Ilbc:~wc'II" Blocli, M. (l9'!lt). Lus~·age. amiu'zypo'ICkgy ,:lind; ,c,o.gnltive; ~EenC!c. Man" 26, :183-'198"

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REiI~j~, W .. & T'h(;lrn[lso~" B,. {19:!11}. Tf!e Mflwamll' . G~rb.ag<!! P~;tlCi', Wiil$hingto:n. [lC: AI:L~erimm p~~ per lmstil.ut,e, Solid Wa:'ilt. COli!ncil of iht P,a'PCl" [iidLiSti'y,

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Webb, :E-. J _, Campbell" p, 'T., S'cnwoul:t., R. C ..•. &. ser;1~ 1.,·U9·o6l, Uiwb!·r~.!'i1J~ nt~a~UTe~~ l'l1N!~'af;#lIIeU' SOi(;i;!7('11: i'lllhe. .l;oci'at 8c:'jEJ'lCC~, Chig;:n,gt),: Un!voI;'I!!iii)' of'Cbka.lli;l I'~~~.

Woibs.t" M. (l97?) , g,lyl,i8'tic IicliEnrim and! 'in'fonll:uliOfi e::;:ch.1JJge. UlIiV<l'nr.ly o!Micliigml MUJ'eum o{Aro~llr(}y(J!oli'~ Aj'J.tjJ.t'i~lmJ(.!$k(ll P~!pf!rr,: 61, 11 ~ '.3..t:!.

Y~tc~, "'to (! ~89). H::lbH~1S ''J.f~d seeiul spucu, I:m I. UodOOr' (!Gd.), 111f IlIUJllill,!:,.:1 'f.lf.rllj[18:~ (pp, 2'l:i:h;?!fi,2). lOB' J()~; Unwin i'lYIII.:lIl.