Introduction To Space Systems

CR
EI
INTRODUCTION
TO SPACE SYSTEMS
© 1963 The Capitol Radio Engineering Institute E155

FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION TO SPACE SYSTEMS
Space is “out of this world,” both in size and in location. We know that space is upward and
outward from our earth, but in size, space is far beyond real comprehension.
A real comprehension of space is difficult because we comprehend by comparison—-we

compare one thing with another, or we extend our thoughts into the realm of the unknown only
in terms of what we already know. Our sense of proportion is always related to the earthly
environment in which we have always lived.
Having lived earth-bound for so long, we automatically appreciate the size of ordinary trees,
buildings, and hills. Traveling the earth, one appreciates the size of the giant redwoods, the
Empire State Building, the Egyptian pyramids, and other towering structures. Yet, those who
travel by air, even in conventional aircraft, at heights just a few miles above the earth, realize
how small and indistinguishable are these giants compared with the earth itself. And, while these
air travelers think they are flying high, in reality they have hardly left the earth’s surface. For
example, if the earth were represented by a six-foot sphere, travelers would find themselves
flying within the thickness of the paint with which this sphere is decorated.
The size and dimensions of what we call space are truly incomprehensible. Most of us have
lacked the experience of living in what we call “space environment.” Likewise, most of us
cannot appreciate the size and importance of space electronics because we have not yet “been
there.” Space electronics is truly a vast subject. Its size is directly related to the vast programs in
space exploration—and these programs are measured in billions of dollars.
We need an introduction to space electronics, but the vastness of the subject requires that we
make our acquaintance in easy stages. Our first stage, of course, is an introduction to space
systems wherein electronics is a vital contributing factor. Our “Introduction to Space Systems”
presents concepts of celestial mechanics, space environment, reliability, and similar subjects that
will be treated separately in much more detail as we progress through our space program.
Henry I. Metz
Vice President in Charge
of Engineering
E- 1 55a
- TABLE OF CONTENTS –
Page
INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1—1
CHAPTER I
EXAMPLES OF SPACE SYSTEMS........................................................................................1-2
THE SPACE SYSTEM....................................................................................................1-5
CHAPTER II
CELESTIAL MECHANICS....................................................................................................2-1
LAUNCHING A SATELLITE........................................................................................2-5
CHAPTER III
ENVIRONMENT.......................................................................................................................3-1
PRE-LAUNCH ENVIRONMENT...................................................................................3-1
LAUNCH ENVIRONMENT...........................................................................................3-2
ORBIT ENVIRONMENT................................................................................................3-7
CHAPTER IV
RELIABILITY............................................................................................................................4-1
CHAPTER V
SPACE COMMUNICATIONS.................................................................................................5-1
SYSTEM CALCULATIONS...........................................................................................5-2
COMMAND SYSTEM....................................................................................................5-5
TELEMETRY..................................................................................................................5-6
TRACKING......................................................................................................................5-9
COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITES...........................................................................5-11
E- 155
INTRODUCTION
The answer to the question. “Why do

we want to reach space?” seems to be In doing this, however, this sea of air
obvious but, like so many of the things that obscures many of the interesting scientific
seem obvious at first glance, the first phenomena of outer space. It is also difficult
answers that come to mind are apt to be — sometimes impossible—to investigate
incomplete. It is helpful to have a good certain aspects of an object when we are on
understanding of the goals of a program if its surface. In a sense, we must hold it at
we are to be working in it, or if we are to be arm’s length t9 see it properly. The sounding
associated with building, designing, or rocket and the earth-orbiting satellite have
testing components or subsystems of the made it possible for a man to transport his
equipment to be used in the program. instruments beyond the atmosphere and
In general, there are two reasons for probe some of the secrets of nature that have
wanting to rise above the earth’s been hidden from him.
atmosphere. The first is to allow us to make The second reason for wanting to reach
the basic scientific measurements that space is the use that can be made of artificial
cannot be made from the surface of the earth earth satellites, completely apart from their
or from altitudes that have been reached scientific uses. The two major application
through the use of airplanes or balloons. We made so far to benefit mankind in a real way
are living at the bottom of a sea of air that are the communications satellites and the
shields us from many of the harmful effects weather satellites.
of outer space, furnishes us with the oxygen
we need to breathe, and provides a means of
spreading the moisture necessary to sustain
both plant and animal life.
1-2 INTRODUCTION TO SPACE SYSTEMS
CHAPTER ONE
EXAMPLES OF SPACE SYSTEMS
Just as in any well-planned scientific This process requires careful design

experiment, there are usually more questions of the instrumentation (and the telemetry
generated than there are answers found. system) to ensure that it will survive the
Thus, a simple experiment leads to a more launch without any impairment of accuracy.
complicated one. A good example is the It also requires a sophisticated tracking and
discovery and investigation of the Van Allen receiving system on the ground to receive
radiation belts. Early in 1958, by the these signals, which become extremely weak
analysis of geiger counter data from the at the long ranges and low powers involved
Explorer I satellite, Van Allen discovered in these applications.
that there are layers of particles in the upper Communications satellites can be
atmosphere (these are now known as the thought of as microwave repeaters at
Van Allen radiation belts). These belts have extremely high altitudes. Conventional
since been found to extend out to about microwave relay stations consist of a
100,000 kilometers (about 62,000 miles). receiver and transmitter located on a high
Van Allen’s first discovery of the existence tower or mountain so that they can be “seen”
of these radiation belts led to many from two other stations between which
questions about them requiring detailed signals are to be sent. By using a chain of
investigations which involved a large these repeater stations, communications can
number of sounding rockets and satellites. be established between distant points that
These investigations have led to many are not in line of sight of each other. Many
refinements of the first ideas formed as a of the long-distance telephone networks and
result of Van Allen’s first experiment. practically all the television networks make
Until the present time, almost all use of these microwave relay links.
measurements made in space have been The maximum spacing that can be
made by instruments transported outside the used between successive stations is limited
earth’s atmosphere by means of sounding by different factors in various locations, but
rockets or on artificial earth satellites. The in no event can they be located beyond the
information gathered by the instrument is “line of sight” of each other. Because
converted to electrical signals which, in turn, microwave energy travels in substantially
are used to modulate telemetry transmitters. straight lines, it is easy to see that the
The transmitters, in turn, transmit the curvature of the earth and the maximum
information to data acquisition stations on height to which an earth-based repeater
the earth where it is received, recorded, and antenna can be elevated limits the distance
analyzed. that can be covered between two stations.
The greatest problem occurs when we wish
to communicate across the ocean. It is not
economical
EXAMPLES OF SPACE SYSTEMS 1-3
3440 − ( 0.924 × 3440 )

=
0.924
h
A B 0.076 ×3440
=
2700 n.m. 0.924
= 282 n.m.
22.5°
Thus, a repeater at an altitude of
almost 300 nautical miles is required. This
distance is well above the earth’s
R R atmosphere.
45° The above calculation was made to
illustrate a problem often encountered when
working with communications satellites—
the calculation of zones of mutual visibility
Fig. 1-1. —Drawing to show altitude considering a satellite at a given altitude and
required for mutual visibility. two fixed ground stations. It should be clear
that the only practical means of putting a
repeater at a suitable altitude is by launching
to build a chain of repeaters, and the
it into an earth orbit. From a practical view,
distance from the desired sending station to
of course, 300 nautical miles is much too
the receiver is several thousand miles. Let us
low for such an orbiting satellite. That is, it
assume that we want to communicate
would allow only a very short time during
between two locations 3000 miles apart
which communications could be carried on
(approximately the distance between New
as the satellite orbited about the earth.
York and London). How high must our
repeater be to be visible from both A second application of artificial
locations? satellites is that of weather satellites. The
advantage offered by an artificial earth
Reference to Fig. 1-1 will illustrate
satellite in this application is that it permits
what is meant. Points A and B are the two
us to rise over the weather and observe a
stations to be connected by a microwave
large area at one time. In essence, it permits
link. It is convenient to express the distance
us to photograph an entire weather map
between them in nautical miles (n.m.) since
without the necessity of plotting data
one nautical mile corresponds to one minute
gathered from all over the world on a point-
of arc on the earth’s surface. Thus, a
by-point basis.
separation of 2700 nautical miles subtends
an angle of 45° at the center of the earth. Figure 1-2 shows a representative
photograph taken by one of the Tiros
It is now simple to determine the
weather satellites. In this
required altitude of the repeater if it were to
be located midway between the stations.
From Fig. 1-l, we can write
R
cos 22 .5° =
R +h
Since the cosine of 22.5° is 0.924 and R (the
radius of the earth) is 3440 n.m., then
0.924R + 0.924h = R.
h = 3440 (1 −0.924 ) / 0.924

Courtesy NASA
Fig. l-2.—Tiros III photograph of Hurricane “Betsy” at 5 P.M. EDT, Sept. 7, 1961, at about 920
statute miles east of hatteras, North Carolina. The eye of’ the hurricane is clearly visible and is
approximately 200 miles in diameter. The surrounding mass of cyclonically swirling clouds
which surround the eye extend several hundred miles. The center of the eye was near 35° N, 59°
W. This picture was relayed from the Tiros III satellite and transmitted from the satellite to
special receiving and readout equipment to the NASA Wallops Station in Virginia.
E-155a
application, the satellite photographs the must be considered. How much power does
cloud cover and then transmits the picture to it require? Does the instrument require that
the ground via v—h—f telemetry on the spacecraft be pointed in a certain
command as the satellite passes over the direction or have a stabilized attitude? Does
ground receiving station. The altitude the information emerge in a form that is
employed ranges from 300 to 500 nautical telemetered easily back to the ground? Will
miles. This altitude is a compromise it withstand the launch and space
between the detail that can be seen and the environment? These questions are only a
area that can be covered. few that must be answered before a mission
can be successful.
The Tiros satellites contain
combinations of electronics and optics. Along with the instrumentation, the
Advanced weather satellites are more required spacecraft orbit must be considered.
complex, but it must be kept in mind that the Obviously, the instrumentation must be
satellite is only one part of the over-all placed at the proper point in space. The orbit
system in which it operates. The use of influences the other parts of the system in a
weather satellites has generated direct way; we shall discuss this point as we
requirements not only for satellite consider the other factors of a space system.
components but also for a large amount of The spacecraft must be capable of
ground equipment to process and utilize the maintaining a specified orientation or
data gathered by the satellite. attitude as required by the mission. For some
applications, it is sufficient to spin-stabilize
the spacecraft. With this type of
THE SPACE SYSTEM.—In the
stabilization, the axis about which the
above paragraphs we have attempted to
spacecraft spins (the spin axis) continues to
indicate some of the reasons for wanting to
point in a fixed direction in space. Thus, if
explore space and to advance space
the spin axis is in the orbital plane, the
technology. At this point, we shall briefly
satellite will be pointing directly toward the
examine the composition of a space system.
earth at one point in its orbit, and directly
A convenient way to do this is to consider a
away from the earth at the opposite point in
typical space project and its requirements.
its orbit. This type of stabilization is
The “typical” project to be considered is
illustrated in Fig. 1-3.
actually a composite of several, and possibly
no one project would require everything If the application requires the
under discussion. satellite to point toward the earth at all
times, it is necessary that the satellite rotate
First, let us examine the satellite
on an axis perpendicular to the orbital plane
itself. If it is to measure certain phenomena
at a rate of one revolution per orbit. In these
in space, it must be equipped with proper
cases, a
instruments; also, it must have provisions
for telemetering the gathered information
back to a data acquisition station on the
ground. In choosing an instrument to be
placed on a satellite, a number of factors
system is usually called upon to transmit

information on the state of the spacecraft
and its various systems to the ground
1 systems. The power output required from
the telemetry transmitter depends upon the
rate at which data are to be transmitted (the
amount of information, and the length of
time of transmission) and the distance
Earth
between the spacecraft and the data
4
2 acquisition station on the ground. Since the
weight and power available on the
spacecraft is necessarily limited by the thrust
Orbit potential of the launch vehicle, the data
3 acquisition ground stations employ large
Spin antennas and low-noise receiving systems.
axis Although a satellite orbits the earth,
Fig. 1-3.--Diagram showing the spin— type it is not always visible from one of the data
stabilization in spacecraft. acquisition stations, and it may not always
be in a position of desired interest. It is
circular orbit has been assumed for necessary, therefore, to have a command
simplicity. system on the spacecraft (with the necessary
In general, stabilization can be with auxiliary equipment on the ground) to
respect to one, two, or all three axes of the permit the spacecraft to perform certain
satellite. These axes are referred to as the functions.
pitch, roll, and yaw axes. The positions are The instrumentation, for example,
indicated in Fig. 1-3; in 1 and 3, the spin may have gathered certain information while
axis is the roll axis: in positions 2 and 4, the out of sight of a ground station and stored
spin axis is aligned with the yaw axis. The this information for later transmission to the
pitch axis is perpendicular to the orbital ground. The command system allows us to
plane; in Fig. 1-3, the orbital plane coincides turn on those subsystems at an appropriate
with the plane of the paper. A completely time and “read out” the data. This function
stabilized spacecraft is referred to as being is typical of a weather satellite. The
three—axis stabilized. spacecraft takes pictures over an otherwise
inaccessible region of interest and stores
them on magnetic tape until a command is
To the extent that the spacecraft is to received to have them read out to a ground
be stabilized, it must carry sensors to station. (In some sophisticated satellites, the
determine its orientation and to supply error command system is quite complex and is
signals to the attitude correction system. used
Also, the spacecraft must be supplied with a
system and the necessary fuel to re-orient
itself when its attitude drifts beyond the
allowable limits.
The telemetry system has been

mentioned previously in connection with the
instrumentation; in addition, the telemetry
improvement will decrease the probability

of requiring a back-up launch.
not only to turn various subsystems on and
off but also to initiate spacecraft maneuvers During the launch, the payload undergoes its
as well as re-orientations.) most severe shock and vibration. In
producing the hundreds of thousands,
sometimes millions, of pounds of thrust,
Special-purpose satellites require rocket engines also produce severe
other equipment as well. An example can be vibrations in the rocket body. As the
found in the communications satellites that velocity of the rocket increases and it
require a communications transponder. This approaches the speed of sound, it may go
device is used so that the satellite can through points where severe vibrations are
receive a wide-band signal from one or more set up due to mechanical resonances in the
ground stations, convert it to a signal at a rocket structure.
different frequency, and retransmit it to
another ground station. Such transponders
usually require an appreciable amount of The satellite equipment has only to
Power for their operation. survive the launch; it usually does not need
to operate during the time of powered flight.
The problem of designing simply for
By the time we have placed all these survival, however, should not be taken
systems in the spacecraft, we find that an lightly. Under conditions of extreme
appreciable amount of primary power is vibration, whole wiring harnesses have been
required. The power-supply system is quite literally torn apart, capacitors have been
often the limiting factor controlling the thrown out of clamps, and mechanical
operation of the other systems. It is also very failures have occurred in structural members
often the factor that limits the lifetime of the apparently carrying very light loads. The
spacecraft. importance of testing all assemblies,
including the final one, at the appropriate
After it has been decided what is to levels cannot be overestimated.
go into the satellite and after the desired
orbit has been determined, a launch vehicle Many months are usually required
must be found capable of placing the for designing, building, and testing a
resulting weight into the required orbit. satellite. The required orbit must be
Figure 1-4 illustrates the comparative size of carefully calculated and a vehicle chosen to
several launch vehicles. put the satellite into that orbit. All of these
efforts finally culminate in a launch. The
The choice of launch vehicle must be question to be answered next is, “Where is
made early in a satellite flight program the satellite and is it in the correct orbit?” It
because it is one of the long-lead items (in is at this point that the tracking network
terms of time for development), as well as becomes an integral part of
one of the most expensive. The high cost of
launch vehicles underlines the necessity for
high reliability in the payload. It is usually
more economical to pay for improving the
reliability of a payload than to pay for a
back-up launch in case of failure of the first
payload, especially if the reliability
1-8
Fig. 1—4.-—--A composite of launch vehicles. Courtesy NASA

the over-all operation. We will not describe separate system is sometimes used for this
this network in detail at this point. It must be purpose.
kept in mind, however, that this part of the
system is very necessary because practically The command system consists of a ground
all satellites must be tracked by highly transmitter that generates the desired
directive antennas on the ground if they are commands in terms of pulse codes, tone
to perform their intended function. This codes, or other special codes, and transmits
requires that the satellite position as a them to the satellite on the proper frequency.
function of time be known. A table giving The command signals are received by the
such positions is known as an ephemeris (e command receiver in the satellite and stored
fem’er is). in a memory device. They are then sent back
to the command station on the ground where
The satellite usually carries a they are verified. If they have been correctly
tracking beacon to aid the tracking stations received by the satellite, an “execute” signal
in determining its position and may carry a is sent to the satellite causing the previous
more sophisticated system known as “range command to be executed.
and range- rate.” A range and range-rate
system gives the distance from the tracking The complexity of the command
station and the rate at which the range is system depends upon the number of
changing or, more precisely, the radial commands necessary to cause the satellite to
component of the spacecraft velocity perform its intended functions, and the
measured from the tracking station. necessity for protecting the satellite from
spurious signals that might cause it to
After the satellite is in orbit, there are perform undesired functions or to perform
several different types of functions that may functions at the wrong time. The telemetry,
be required involving ground stations. command, and difficult job of tracking
Common to practically all satellites are the reaches the ultimate in the deep-space
tracking, telemetry, and command functions. projects where the range extends millions of
Continued tracking is necessary because miles and the signals are, therefore,
there are often orbit perturbations extremely small. Large antennas must be
(disturbances of the regular elliptical orbit or used and they must be capable of very
motion of a celestial body) due to outside accurate pointing. A photograph of the deep-
influences, such as gravitational attraction space station at Goldstone, California, is
by moon and sun, solar radiation pressure, shown in Fig. 1-5.
atmospheric drag (in low-altitude orbits),
and variations in the earth’s gravitational In some satellite systems, there are
field due to the fact that the earth is not a ground station requirements in addition to
perfect sphere. those outlined above. The ground station
requirements for the communications
The telemetry system sends satellite program are an outstanding
information to the ground stations on the example. In this case, the ground station is a
condition of the various systems in the part of the primary system and must be
satellite. Also, it often sends back the results
of the basic measurements for which the
satellite was sent into space— although a
Courtesy NASA
Fig. 1—5.—Photograph of the deep—space station at Goldstone, California.
designed with the over-all system in mind. Furthermore, the spacecraft must be
Figures 1-6 and 1-7 show typical large capable of maintaining a specified
communications satellite ground stations. orientation as required by the mission. That
is, the spacecraft must be stabilized. The
satellite must have necessary telemetry
In summary: Satellites are employed
equipment for contact with the earth except
for two basic reasons. They are needed (1)
for passive-type satellites (such as Echo
in order to see the earth “at arm’s length” for
balloons). Others must also contain
scientific measuring, and (2) they are needed
equipment for control and command
as aids to mankind for communications and
functions.
other practical applications. For either of
these reasons, the satellite must be equipped
with proper instrumentation.
Courtesy NASA
Fig. 1—6.-—British communications satellite ground station at Goonhilly Downs.
Courtesy NASA
Fig. 1—7.-—-The American Telephone and Telegraph communications satellite ground station
at Andover, Maine.
This space may be used for notes.

Exercise Problems:
1. A microwave relay satellite is to be used between two stations which are 2400 nautical
miles apart. What must the minimum height of the orbit be for effective operation?
2. That are the basic requirements of a satellite?
3. What are the three axes of a satellite?
4. What means are employed within a satellite to aid in tracking?
5. What one system within a spacecraft may be considered as being the most limiting on the
useful life of a spacecraft?
Answers to Exercise Problems:
2400
2400
1. Angle between points = = 40 degrees
60
3440 − ( cos 20 ° × 3440 ) 3440 − 3230

h= = = 224 n.m.
cos 20° 0.938
2. Requirements include proper instruments for measuring data, telemetry circuits to

transmit data and receive control signals, sources of power, and means of stabilization.
Also needed are compatibility between data and telemetering circuitry, certain
mechanical features, and orbit characteristic determination means.
3. The three axes of a satellite are the roll or spin axis, the pitch axis, and the yaw axis.
4. Tracking aids include a beacon or a range and range-rate system whereby the distance
from the tracking station as well as the radial velocity of the spacecraft relative to the
tracking station can be determined.
5. Limitations are the lifetimes of batteries and/or solar cells used as energy sources.
INTRODUCTION TO SPACE SYSTEMS 2-1
CHAPTER TWO
CELESTIAL MECHANICS
The question “What keeps the Practically all geocentric orbits of

planets in their assigned orbits?” has interest to us are elliptical or circular. The
concerned man from the earliest times. circular orbit is a special case of the
Almost everyone understands that the elliptical orbit. Sometimes a satellite will
centrifugal force produced by a planet traverse many orbits, sometimes only a few,
moving in a circle is just balanced by the and sometimes only a portion of one orbit.
gravitational attraction of the sun. If we are When only a portion of an orbit is traversed,
going to seriously study space systems, the term trajectory is sometimes used.
however, we should have a closer
acquaintance with the subject in order to An elliptical orbit is a closed orbit
better understand satellite applications and with the properties of a varying distance
the effect of the orbit on other parts of the from the earth and a satellite velocity that is
system. dependent upon the position of the satellite
in the orbit. The velocity is maximum when
It is only recently that there has been the satellite is nearest the earth and
a general interest in orbits around the earth, minimum when the distance of the satellite
since there has been only one earth satellite from the earth is greatest. The point of the
available for our study—the moon. Because orbit that is nearest the
we are now launching satellites into various
orbits around the earth and sun, it has
become necessary to specify the orbit in
terms of the body at the “center” of the orbit.
“Center” is set off here because, as we shall
see, it is not always the usual center of a circle
circle. Those orbits enclosing the sun are
referred to as heliocentric orbits while those ellipse
hyperbola
enclosing the earth are referred to as
geocentric orbits. The moon is in a
geocentric orbit while the earth and other parabola
planets are in heliocentric orbits.
To a first and often very good Fig. 2—1.—Development. of the conic

approximation, orbits are in the form of one sections as intersections between a cone and
of the conic sections. Figure 2-1 shows the a plane.
conic sections as intersections between a
cone and a plane oriented at different angles
with respect to each other. The circle and
ellipse are seen to be closed curves while the
parabola and hyperbola are seen to be open
curves.
2
earth is called the perigee and the point
having the greatest distance from the earth is
known as the apogee. Although by 3
definition, perigee and apogee are points in EARTH

1
space, they are usually given as altitudes, A C
especially for earth- centered orbits. Thus,
the satellite velocity is maximum at perigee D
and minimum at apogee. If one is speaking B
of a heliocentric orbit, the point of the orbit

nearest the sun is known as the perihelion
and the point farthest from the sun is the ape
lion. A circular orbit can be thought of as an
elliptical orbit in which the perigee and
apogee (or perihelion and aphelion) are
equal. 4
Fig. 2-2. —Representative geocentric orbits.

If a satellite is placed in an orbit with
a perigee that falls inside the earth, then it is An elliptical orbit, part of which lies within
obviously impossible for the satellite to the earth, is marked A. The point marked 1
complete an entire orbit. Even if the orbit is the apogee of this orbit. Obviously, only
lies entirely outside the earth, the satellite that part of the orbit outside the earth can be
lifetime may be only a few orbits if the traversed by an object. A circular orbit is
perigee is sufficiently low for the shown in B and two elliptical orbits with the
atmosphere to exert an appreciable drag on same apogee but different perigees are
the satellite as it approaches the earth. The shown in C and D. The perigees are
perigee altitude must be beyond about 100 indicated at points 2 and 3 and the common
miles if this drag is to be negligible in most apogee at point 4.
cases. In some special cases the effects of
atmospheric drag can be detected at much
higher altitudes. For example, the Echo I The time required for a satellite to
communications satellite showed these make one complete circuit of its orbit is
effects at an altitude of 1000 miles. (This known as its period. The higher the orbit, the
satellite is in the form of a large, lightweight longer the period.
balloon with a very large ratio of area to
mass. In addition to its usefulness in Figure 2-3 gives the period of an
demonstrating communications by means of earth satellite in a circular orbit as a function
a passive reflector, it furnishes valuable of its altitude. In addition, note that a
information on atmospheric density at very satellite will pass over a point on the earth
great altitudes.) only once per period because the earth is
Figure 2-2 shows some also moving while the satellite is traversing
representative closed, geocentric orbits. its orbit. For example, if a satellite is
launched from Cape Canaveral toward the
east, the earth will have rotated toward the
east during an orbit of the satellite and it will
require something more than one
2-4 CELESTIAL MECHANICS
PERIOD, T, SIDREAL HOURS
ALTITUDE, h, NAUTICAL MILES

2-4 CELESTIAL MECHANICS
Fig. 2-3.—The period of an earth satellite in a circular orbit as a function of Its altitude. Sidereal
time refers to time measured by the apparent motion of fixed stars. One sidereal day corresponds
to 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.09 seconds of mean solar time.
Figure 2-4 illustrates the inclination

θ of an orbit and Fig. 2-5 shows a ground
period for the satellite to pass once around
track of the orbits traversed by John Glenn
the earth. Thus, a satellite in a circular orbit
in his space flight. Note that the longitude at
at an altitude of 10,900 nautical miles has a
which the maximum latitude is reached (Fig.
period of twelve hours. If the satellite is
2-5) moves to the west on each successive
traveling from west to east, the earth will
orbit due to the earth’s rotation.
have rotated 1800 during one period and the
satellite will have only gone half-way
around the earth. At the end of two periods it The question of the application of the
will have completed its circuit around the various orbits has probably occurred to the
earth. At an altitude of slightly more than reader by now. The desired orbit is chosen
19,000 nautical miles, the period is twenty- to fit the application. To specify an orbit, the
four hours and the satellite orbits the earth in apogee, perigee, and inclination must be
synchronism with the earth’s rotation. If it is given. Where it is desired to measure some
in an equatorial orbit, it then appears to be quantity as a function of altitude, a highly
stationary to an observer on the earth. elliptical orbit is useful because the satellite
passes through all altitudes between perigee
and apogee. On the other hand, if it is
All geocentric orbits lie in a plane
desired to measure a phenomenon as a
containing the center of the earth. If the orbit
function of position over the earth at a
is circular, we can say that the center of the
constant altitude, a circular, polar orbit is
earth is at the center of the orbit if, for the
used because virtually the entire earth
moment, we neglect the departure of the
earth’s shape from a perfect sphere. Thus,
we speak of an equatorial orbit as one that Equatorial
lies in the plane of the equator. In such an plane
orbit the satellite is always over the equator.
If the orbital plane is inclined with respect to
the equatorial plane, we speak of it being an
inclined orbit with inclination equal to the
angle between the equatorial plane and the
plane of the orbit. Since the plane of the θ
orbit always contains the earth’s center, the
satellite must pass over points both north Orb
and south of the equator. it
Orbital
plane
The ground track of an orbit is the
curve traced out on the earth’s surface by a Fig. 2—4.----An inclined geocentric orbit.
line connecting the satellite with the center
of the earth. It is the locus of points on the
earth where the satellite appears to pass
directly overhead. If the orbit is inclined θ
degrees, the ground track will be bound by
north and south latitudes of θ degrees. An
orbit inclined 90° passes over the poles and
is referred to as a polar orbit.
CELESTIAL MECHANICS 2-5
Fig. 2—5.-----Ground track of Colonel John Glenn’s space flight showing key tracking stations
along the route. Note movement of successive orbits to the west due to earth’s rotation. (See
foldout for ground track of Mercury flight MA-9 consisting of 22 orbits.)
will eventually be covered by such an orbit. orbit passing through the point. The purpose
In general, the orbit is chosen to fit the job of the launch vehicle is to supply the energy
and the launch vehicle available. needed for this maneuver. A knowledge of
this principle is necessary to understand
what happens when a satellite is launched
Finally, just a word about parabolic
into orbit.
and hyperbolic orbits. Since they are not
closed orbits, they do not represent useful
satellite orbits as we have discussed them. Mechanical energy possessed by a
However, orbits followed by satellites body in orbit can be thought of as taking two
launched to leave the influence of the earth forms, potential energy and kinetic energy.
and to eventually assume orbits about some A body possesses potential energy by virtue
other planet or about the sun are very close of its position in a field of force. If the body
to hyperbolas while they are near the earth. changes position so that its motion has a
component in the
LAUNCHING A SATELLITE. —
Placing a satellite in a desired orbit consists
of lifting the satellite to any given point in
the orbit and then giving it the necessary
velocity (speed ma given direction)
corresponding to the velocity of the desired
direction in which the force field is acting, change in potential energy in going from the
the potential energy decreases. Conversely, pitcher to the catcher, but the fact that is
if the motion has a component in a direction possesses energy when it reaches the catcher
opposite to the direction in which the force cannot be doubted. The energy of a bullet
field is acting, the potential energy when it leaves the muzzle of a gun is kinetic
increases. This idea can be illustrated by energy and is usually expressed in foot-
considering the earth’s gravitational field pounds. The kinetic energy can be
acting on a mass. calculated from
Anyone who has walked up several Wv 2

Ek = (2-1)
flights of stairs knows that it requires energy 2g
to perform the task, and if he is carrying a Where
heavy load at the same time, more energy is W = weight of object in pounds
required than if a light load or none at all is
being carried. The energy expended in
raising a mass against the force of gravity v = velocity in feet per second
goes into increasing the potential energy of
the body. If a body is allowed to fall from g = acceleration due to the force of gravity
one height to a lower one, its potential
energy is decreased and energy must be
expended to raise it to its former position = 32 ft/sec2
and thereby increase its potential energy to
its former value.
As an example, let us calculate the kinetic
Potential energy is typically energy of a bullet from a certain rifle as it
measured in terms of foot-pounds or gram- leaves the muzzle. A 180-grain bullet
centimeters. For example, if a body weighs approximately 0. 0257 pounds and
weighing 10 pounds were raised through a has a velocity at the muzzle of 2700 ft/sec.
distance of 10 feet, its potential energy Thus,
would be increased by 100 foot-pounds.
This same body weighs 4536 grams,
2.57 ×10 −2 × (2700 ) 2
whereas, 10 feet equals 305 centimeters; Ek =
64
thus the work done would be 1,382.000
gram- centimeters and the potential energy
of the body would be increased by this = 2920 ft-lbs
amount. As the distance from the earth is
increased greatly, the gravitational force of
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed;
the earth decreases; consequently, we can no
it can only be changed in form. This
longer calculate energies in this simple
principle of physics indicates that it might
manner.
be possible to exchange kinetic for potential
energy under certain
The kinetic energy of a body is
energy possessed by virtue of its velocity.
The higher the velocity and the larger the
mass of the body, the greater the kinetic
energy. A baseball may not undergo a
where
F = force
conditions. If a ball is thrown straight up, it
has a certain kinetic energy as it leaves the m = mass
hand by virtue of the velocity imparted to it
by the thrower. As it ascends, its potential a = acceleration
energy increases and its kinetic energy
decreases by a similar amount. Finally,
when it reaches its maximum height, all its and k/r2 is recognized as being an
kinetic energy has been converted to acceleration. We can find k by substituting
potential energy and its velocity is zero. the proper numbers in Eq. 2-2 corresponding
Gravitational force now causes it to descend. to a solution at the surface of the earth and
As it does, its potential energy is converted noting that
to kinetic energy and its velocity increases
until it reaches the ground. If it were not for k
air friction, the velocity attained when it ag =
re2
reached the height from which it was thrown
would be equal to the velocity it had when it or
left the hand of the thrower. k = a g re2
where
Let us now direct our attention to the ag = acceleration due to the force of gravity
following problem: How much energy is at the surface of the earth = 32.2 ft/sec2
required to put a body beyond the influence
of the earth’s gravitational field? This is a
part of the so-called escape problem. We re= mean radius of the earth
begin with the knowledge that the force of
attraction between two bodies is directly = 3440 nautical miles
proportional to the products of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance separating them. Expressed = 2.09 X 107 feet
mathematically,
Therefore,
km1m2 k k = 32 .2 ×( 2.09 ) 2 ×10 14
F= = m (2-2)
r2 r2 =1.41 ÷10 16 ft 3 / sec 2
The constant k is used here to represent the Consequently, the expression for the force F
mass of the earth and any constant of (gravitational pull) on an object of mass m at
proportionality that may be required by the a distance r from the center of the earth
units used. We can, however, find the value becomes
of k without calculating the mass of the
earth by noting that Eq. 2-2 has the form of m
F = 1.41 ×1016 (2-4)
r2
F = ma (2-3)
1
E ρ∞ = 1.41 ×1016 × m ×
We next find the potential energy of re
an object an infinite distance from the earth
or, stated differently, the energy required to Remembering that the radius of the earth is
move an object an infinite distance from the 2.09 x 107 feet,
surface of the earth. This value is given by
the product of the force acting on the object
and the mass of the object. As long as the E ρ∞ = 6.75 m ×10 8
force can be considered constant over the If just enough velocity is imparted to
distance through which the object is moved, the object so it will have this kinetic energy
the simple product of the two factors can be as it leaves the earth, it will “escape” from
used because the mass of the object is the earth’s gravitational field and all the
constant. When, however, the distance kinetic energy will be converted to potential
becomes so great that the variations in the energy at an infinite distance from the earth.
force must be considered, as for the This thought, of course, disregards the
difference between the effect of gravity on effects of air friction and the effects of other
earth and the effect several hundred miles heavenly bodies so it is of limited practical
from earth, then the integral must be used. value; nevertheless, it is an important figure
Mathematically, the change in potential in rating space vehicles.
energy of an object moved from a distance r1
The kinetic energy equal to E ρ∞ is
to a distance r2 from the center of the earth
becomes
mv 2
E k∞ = = 6.75 m ×10 8 (2-6)
r2 r2 dr 2
Eρ = ∫
r1
F • dr = km ∫
r1 r 2
from which the escape velocity is found to
r2 dr be
= 1.41 ×1016 × m ∫r1 2
r
v e = 3.68 ×10 4 ft / sec
 1
= 1.41 ×1016 × m − rr2
 r 1 = 6.96 miles / sec
 1 1 = 6.06 nautical miles / sec

= 1.41 ×1016 × m − − 
 r 1 r2 
(2-5) This velocity is slightly more than 25,000
miles per hour.
From the foregoing discussion, we
If now we let r1 be the distance from the
can now deduce certain things
center to the surface of the earth and we let
r2 go to infinity, we can calculate the energy
required to remove an object of mass m an
infinite distance from the earth.
2π × 2.15 ×10 7
v = 2πr T =
about the requirements for putting a satellite 5.3 ×10 3
into orbit. For instance, to put a Mercury
capsule into an orbit 100 nautical miles in = 2.55 ×10 4 ft sec
altitude requires (1) that the potential energy
be increased to raise it to this altitude, and
(2) that it be given the required kinetic The kinetic energy can now be found from
energy to keep it there. The first Mercury Eq. 2-1.
spacecraft weighed 4265 pounds at launch
but only 2987 pounds of this was actually Wv 2 3000 × ( 2.55 ) 2 ×10 8
injected into orbit. The other 1278 pounds Ek = =
2g 2 × 32 .2
represents the escape tower which was
jettisoned before going into orbit and the
weight of the fuel burned by the posigrade =30 .4 ×10 9 ft −lbs
rockets used to separate the spacecraft from
the launch vehicle. Actually, the entire
The calculation of energies required
rocket body went into orbit so the actual
to put a spacecraft into orbit is of limited
payload was not the only mass that had to be
usefulness because it is also necessary to
boosted to orbital altitude and accelerated to
boost the rocket casing and its associated
orbital velocity. For purposes of illustration,
equipment to the orbital altitude and
however, let us consider a 3000-pound
velocity. From this consideration can be
spacecraft put into a 100-n.m. orbit.
seen the reason for using multistage rockets
rather than one large rocket to provide the
First, we can calculate the potential total energy required when it is necessary to
energy increase required to lift it to this attain high orbits. After burnout of the first
altitude. Using Eq. 2-5 where m = 300/32.2 stage, the casing is separated from
and 100 n.m. ‘608,000 feet, subsequent stages and does not have to be
boosted to the higher altitudes, thereby
E ρ =1.41 ×10 16
effecting a saving in power.
3000  1 1 
×  −  The energy concept is, however,
32 .2  2.09 ×10 7 7
2.15 ×10  very useful in considering what happens to a
satellite after it is placed in orbit. Let us see
=1.77 ×10 9 ft −lbs what happens to a satellite in an elliptical
orbit with a perigee of 715 n.m. and an
apogee of 4020 n.m. These figures
The kinetic energy can be found from Eq. 2- correspond to the orbit of the first Relay
1, but first we must find the velocity of the communications satellite. At these altitudes
spacecraft in the orbit being considered. air friction is absent, so we can
From the table given in Fig. 2-3 we see that
the period of a satellite in a 100-n.m. orbit is
1.47 hours or approximately 5300 seconds.
The velocity v is found by dividing the
circumference of the orbit by the period of
the orbit.
measured from the center of the earth, while

Vc the kinetic energy of a body in the elliptical
orbit is equal to that which would be
acquired by a body falling from a distance
ve from the center of the earth to the altitude at
(a+c which the kinetic energy is to be found. As
) an example, let us calculate the velocities at
a-
c apogee and perigee for the orbit previously
given for the first relay spacecraft. At
2c a 2c
c apogee we compute the kinetic energy
2a attained in falling from a distance 2a to a
distance (a + c) or through a distance of (a -
c). First, calculate a and c.
Fig. 2-6.—Elliptical and circular orbits

having the same apogee. A a = a + c − re
consider that no energy is dissipated and Ap = a − c − re

energy can be transferred from potential tb
kinetic and vice versa without loss. In
decreasing altitude from apogee to perigee,
the potential energy is decreasing and the where
kinetic energy must, therefore, be increasing Aa = altitude at apogee = 4020 n.m.
to result in a higher velocity at perigee than
at apogee. = 24.4 X 106 ft
Ap = altitude at perigee 715 n.m.
Figure 2-6 shows an elliptical orbit
and a circular orbit having the sane apogee.
= 4.35 x 106 ft
(Of course, apogee and perigee are the same
for a circular orbit.) From the consideration
of the energy of a body in a geocentric orbit, a = semi-major axis of ellipse
let us determine the velocity of a satellite in
the orbit described above. c = distance between center of earth and
center of the orbit
It can be shown that the velocity at a re = radius of the earth = 3440 n.m
given altitude of an object in orbit
corresponds to the kinetic energy acquired
by a body falling from rest toward the earth = 20.9 x 106 ft Solving for a from Aa
from a distance equal to twice the semi- and Ap,:
major axis of the orbit measured from the
center of the earth to the given altitude. In
Fig. 2-6. the radius of the circular orbit is (a
a=
1
2
( )
A a + A p + re (2-7)
+ c) and the semi-major axis of the ellipse is .
a. The kinetic energy of an object in the
circular orbit is that kinetic energy that
would be acquired by a body falling from a
distance 2(a + c) to a distance (a + c)
1 10 −7 10 −7 
c= ( A a − A9 ) (2-8) v a = 1.41 ×10 16  − 
2  4.53
 7.06 

It is convenient to express all distances in

= 1.12 ×10 8
feet.
[( )]
=1.055 ×10 4
) (
ft sec
1
a= 24 .4 ×10 6 + 4.35 ×10 6 + 20 .9 ×10 6
2
The velocity at perigee vp, is found in the
same way. Now we consider the satellite
= 35 .3 ×10 6
having fallen to a distance (a - c) from the
center of the earth.
c=
1
2
[( ) (
24 .4 ×10 6 − 4.35 ×10 6 )] 10 −7 10 −7 
v p = 1.41 ×10 16  − 
 2.53
 7.06 

= 107 feet
= 3.58 ×10 8
Next, compute the kinetic energy attained in

falling from a distance 2a to a distance (a + =1.89 ×10 4 ft sec
c--+Next, compute the kinetic energy
attained in falling from a distance 2a to a
where a - c = 2.53 x 107. If it had been
distance (a + C) from the center of the earth,
desired to put this satellite into a circular
and from this value of energy, calculate the
orbit at an altitude of 4020 n.m., it would
velocity acquired at apogee.
have been necessary to give the satellite a
higher velocity at apogee.
1 km  1 1
mv a2 =  − 
2 2  a + c 2a 
10 −7 10 −7 
v c = 1.41 ×10 16  − 
 2.53
 9.06 

and solving for va,
= 1.55 ×10 8
 1 1
va = k − 
 a + c 2a 
=1.25 ×10 4 ft sec
where
where vc = velocity in the circular orbit.
Va = velocity at apogee
k = 1.41 X 1016 (the constant of

proportionality for the mass of the earth)
Substituting,
Exercise Problems:
1. What is the difference between a heliocentric orbit and a geocentric orbit?
2. A 0.035-lb bullet that is shot from a gun reaches a kinetic energy of 3750 ft—tbs. What is
the muzzle velocity of the gun?
3. Consider a spacecraft that is to be designed to orbit at 150 nautical miles above the earth.
What will be the period of the orbit? (Refer to Fig. 2-3. )
4. Refer to Exercise 3. What is the velocity of the spacecraft?
5. Refer to Fig. 2-6. What will be the velocity at the apogee and perigee if the altitudes are
650 n.m. at the perigee and 3000 n.m. at the apogee?

1. Any body in orbit about the sun is in a heliocentric orbit. A body which orbits the earth—
for example, the moon or an earth orbiting satellite— is considered as being in a
geocentric orbit.
2gE k 64 × 3750
2. v= = = 6.86 × 106 = 2620 ft − lbs
W 0.035
3. T = 6.987 ×10 −6 ( h + 3440 ) 3 2 = 1.51 hours = 2620 sec onds
4. Radius of orbit = radius of earth + altitude of orbit
= 2.09 ×10 7 +0.0912 ×10 7
= 2.18 ×10 7 feet
2πro 6 / 28 × 2.18 ×10 7

v= = = 2.52 ×10 4 ft sec
period 3
5.436 ×10
5. A a = 3000 × 6080 = 18 .2 ×10 6 ft
A p = 650 ×6080 = 3.95 ×10 6 ft
a=
1
2
( )
18 .2 ×10 6 + 3.95 ×10 6 + 20 .9 ×10 6 = 32 ×10 6
1
( )
c = 18 .2 ×10 6 − 3.95 ×10 6 = 14 .2 ×10 6
2
a + c = 4.62 ×10 7
a −c =1.78 ×10 7
2a = 6.4 ×10 7
10 −7 10 −7 
va = 1.41 ×10 16  − 6
 = 84 .6 ×10 = 9.2 ×10
3
ft sec

 4. 62 6. 4 

10 −7 10 −7 
v p = 1.41 ×10 16  − 8
 = 5.73 ×10 = 2.4 ×10
4
ft sec
 1.78
 6.4 

CHAPTER THREE
ENVIRONMENT
deserve some attention. It is instructive to

In space systems, electronics start our consideration with the very begin-
engineers are mainly concerned with the fling of the equipment environment; and it
environmental conditions that must be must be remembered that we are talking not
considered in the design, test, and operation only about equipment that is to go on a
of electronic equipment. It is necessary to spacecraft but also about vehicle systems as
consider much more than just electronic well. We will begin with the fabrication of
equipment design; the effects of the the components and carry on through to the
environment on other parts of the system point of launch.
can also affect the operation of electronics
components in some unexpected ways. In working with conventional
electronic equipment, one seldom considers
At no time in the history of the manufacturing environment as a
engineering and technology has there been problem. In space electronics, however, the
the close dependence of the different fields manufacturing environment might have a
of engineering, science, and technology on great deal to do with the ability of an
each other as there is now. One of the major equipment to perform as required. Probably
difficulties faced in coordinating these the outstanding example of control of this
various fields is in enabling the individuals environment is the use of “clean” rooms
involved to talk the same language. The where most of the assembly and testing of
electronics engineer, therefore, must critical equipment is carried out. Reliability
familiarize himself with related is so important in our space work that it
environmental situations, at least to the should be considered in practically every
extent that he can converse intelligently with item that goes into a space system. The only
experts in these fields and interpret data as it way to assure the required reliability is to
applies to his problems. It is a challenging build it into every component, subassembly
problem and a difficult one. and assembly.
Three phases of environmental The environment in which

conditions must be considered by men in construction is done can contribute
electronics: (1) the prelaunch environment, appreciably to the reliability. The
(2) the launch environment, and (3) the importance of cleanliness cannot be
space environment. overemphasized. In orbit, the spacecraft is in
a zero G condition; that is, the effect is the
same as if there were no gravity acting. On
PRE-LAUNCH ENVIRONMENT. the
— Pre-launch environment means, of
course, the conditions under which the
components are fabricated, assembled,
installed, tested, and prepared for flight.
These conditions normally cause no unusual
difficulty but there are certain aspects that
ground, a loose piece of solder or a metal The balloon is packed in a canister in the
chip can be dislodged by a sharp jolt and shape of an oblate spheroid (a sphere
will drop out. In orbit it would continue to flattened at the poles). The two halves of the
float around within the equipment and might canister are separated by an explosive
lodge any place. In orbit, the chip remains as charge after orbit has been attained. The
a potential problem. balloon is packed in the canister with a solid
material that sublimes at the temperatures
and pressures encountered in orbit. (A
After the assembly is finished, it material is said to sublime when it passes
must be handled through testing, shipping from a solid state directly to a gaseous state
and mounting on the vehicle. There is no without passing through the liquid state. )
difficulty in designing the equipment to After the canister is closed it is evacuated. If
withstand this normal handling, although it this were not done, the balloon would
is sometimes advantageous to control this explode when the canister was opened in
environment also. For example, air space. After the balloon has been packed
transportation can expose the equipment to and the canister evacuated, it is necessary to
temperatures as low as -65 °F while keep the temperature from becoming
temperatures during storage at a semi- excessively high since a sufficiently high
tropical launch site can range from 32 °F temperature could cause partial sublimation
(freezing) to 125 °F. After a spacecraft is of the packing material. If the balloon were
mounted on a booster rocket or launch deployed in orbit under these conditions
vehicle, enclosed in a nose cone or space (with a small amount of gas), it would
capsule prior to launch, and then exposed to explode just as though the canister had not
solar heating, the temperature may reach been evacuated.
165 °F. This temperature range is well
beyond the range encountered after the
equipment appears in an earth orbit with LAUNCH ENVIRONMENT. —The
proper temperature controls. most severe environmental conditions are
encountered during the launch phase.
Vibration, thrust, acoustic noise, and
Care must be taken to ensure that all temperature are all encountered at levels that
the components in the spacecraft can survive can be troublesome. The levels vary with the
under these conditions; that is, during type of launch vehicle and must be
manufacture and test (pre-launch), during determined for the type of vehicle to be
launch (and often during re-entry into the used. If modification is made to the vehicle,
earth’s atmosphere), when temperatures may it is
be the highest, and while in orbit when
automatic temperature control is not
extremely difficult. While on the booster,
the electronic equipment will be operated for
check-out and it may be necessary to cool it
with blowers or even air conditioning.
An example of the importance of

temperature control prior to launch is given
by passive satellites such as Echo I. The
Echo satellites consist of large balloons
made of Mylar film covered with aluminum.
ENVIRONMENT 3-3
important that the environmental conditions ordeal is analogous to designing a precision

be rechecked for any variations that could electrical instrument to withstand the rigors
cause trouble. of a football game (the ball) with no loss in
accuracy.
Some typical levels of acoustics and
vibration may be of interest at this point and One of the major difficulties
serve to convey an understanding of the encountered in building equipment to
severity of the conditions encountered. A withstand high vibration levels is in the
typical acoustic level at the avoidance of mechanical resonances or,
where they cannot be avoided, designing the
various points along the axis of a missile is
structure to withstand them. Figure 3-2
shown in Fig. 3-1.
shows this effect as it occurred in the Telstar
satellite.
An appreciation for these levels can
be had by noting that a level of 125 db is at
The frequency is plotted on a
the threshold of pain for humans. At a point
logarithmic scale along the abscissa and the
55 feet from the rocket motor, the level is 40
accelerations are plotted as ordinates. The
db above the threshold of pain or 10,000
input acceleration was 2 G from 10 to 50
times the pain level. Such a level can induce
c.p.s., 12 G from 50 to 500 c.p.s. and 20 G
severe vibrations in the structure of the from 500 to 2000 c.p.s. (1 G is the nominal
vehicle. value of acceleration due to the force of
gravity on the surface of the earth.) In
The vibration levels encountered during addition to the input G level, the
launching are particularly severe, but accelerations experienced by the electronic
fortunately they last for only a few minutes. package and the solar cell modules (energy
Satellite equipment does not need to operate sources for the equipment) are shown. At 40
during this period, but guidance equipment c.p.s. a resonance in the electronic package
on the vehicle does. Designing a satellite to is evident with a peak acceleration of 20 G
endure this indicating an amplification of 10. This gain
160db is due to the nylon lacing holding the
100ft. electronics package in the structure and is at
too low a frequency to be troublesome,
because electronic components do not have
resonances at such low frequencies.
165db
55ft.. Over the rest of the range, the
electronic package accelerations were very
low, indicating good mechanical design and
170db damping characteristics. The solar cell
30ft.. modules, however, present quite a different
180db picture with regard to acceleration levels.
10ft..
200db They are rigid structures firmly mounted to
1ft..
Fig. 3-1. —Typical vehicle sound levels.
Reprinted by permission of the Copyright Owner, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., and the
authors. This graph originally appeared in the April 1963 Bell Laboratories Record, Vol. 41. No.
4.
Fig. 3—2.-—-Vibration response of Telstar satellite.
the magnesium frame. Beginning at 200

c.p.s. these modules pass through a number After lift-off from the launching pad,
of resonances with amplification factors as the missile accelerates quite rapidly and
high as 10 : 1. For example, at 400 c.p.s., subjects the entire structure including the
where the input level is 12 G, the solar cell spacecraft itself to large constant
modules experience accelerations up to 120 accelerations. Typically, this acceleration
G. Here, mechanical resonances occur in the can reach 27 G which, because it is
structure and are characteristic of large sustained for a comparatively long time, can
structures. do more harm to some equipment than can a
high-frequency vibration. The effect of such
The amount of amplification is a an acceleration is to require the mountings
factor of the damping of the structure and for the various units to support 27 times the
can sometimes be used to reduce the levels normal weight of the components for the
of critical components. The phenomenon is duration of the acceleration.
analogous to electrical resonance, where it is
possible to develop voltages much higher The spacecraft is mounted in the
than the input voltage to a network when nose of the missile inside a fairing to help
resonant circuits are present. Just as the protect it from aerodynamic heating and
amount of voltage amplification is buffeting during the period of high velocity
dependent on the resistance in an electrical in the atmosphere. Figure 3-3 shows a
circuit, so does mechanical amplification cutaway view of the Delta vehicle with the
depend upon the damping present. In Telstar satellite installed. The fairing as well
general, it is necessary to design as other major parts of the vehicle are
components and structures to withstand plainly shown.
accelerations well above the input level to
allow for such amplification due to
mechanical resonances.
ENVIRONMENT 3-5
Reprinted by permission of the Copyright Owner, Bell Telephone Laboratories. Inc. • and the
authors. This photograph originally appeared in the April 1963 Bell Laboratories Record, Vol.
41. No. 4.
Fig. 3—3.—Cutaway view of’ the Delta vehicle with the Telstar satellite.
Temp in °C
400
1
300
1
200 2
100
0 2
0 50 100 150
Time in seconds
Fig. 3-4. —Nose cone surface temperature due to aerodynamic heating.
Figures 3-4 and 3-5 show the be much more severe if they were not
magnitude of aerodynamic heating on the controlled.
nose cone during flight through the
atmosphere. Figure 3-4 shows the increase Another factor that must be considered
in temperature at two points on the nose during the launch phase is the possibility of
cone and Fig. 3-5 shows the internal arc-over in high-voltage circuits. The
temperature as a function of time. Note the present use of transistor circuitry has
lag between the two figures due to the time reduced the use of high voltages, but in
required for the heat to be conducted some cases it is still necessary to use
through the nose cone. magnitudes of several hundred volts. When
it is necessary to have these voltages
This data was taken on the Explorer I actuated during launch, such circuits should
launch in 1958 which employed a four-stage be encapsulated or enclosed in some form of
Jupiter-C vehicle. As indicated in these shielding material. When the same
figures, the temperature rise is appreciable, components are required to operate in orbit,
and in some cases insulation must be used to the encapsulating material must be carefully
protect the spacecraft during this period. The chosen. The most unfavorable conditions
thermal problems encountered by the occur at approximately 100, 000 feet where
satellite after it is launched into orbit could
260
240
Temperature °C
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640
Time in seconds
Fig. 3—5. —Internal nose cone temperature due to aerodynamic heating.

ENVIRONMENT 3-7
the possibility of flashover is almost a incident on the spacecraft, and emissivity is

hundred times what it is at sea level. At a function of the temperature of the
higher altitudes the situation improves and is spacecraft skin.
almost nonexistent in the vacuum of space.
The thermal control system used on
ORBIT ENVIRONMENT.—After the Telstar satellite serves as a good
the satellite is placed in orbit, the example for study. The outer skin of the
environmental conditions are changed satellite was designed to operate at near 32
radically from those encountered on the °F, which is a sufficiently low temperature
ground and during launch. Three aspects of for the solar cells that convert solar energy
the environment account- for the troubles into electrical energy. (For high efficiency,
experienced with material in space. These these cells should be operated at the lowest
factors are: (1) vacuum, (2) particle possible temperature.) In contrast, the
radiation, and (3) meteoroids. In addition, electronics package was designed to operate
solar radiation combined with the high as near as possible to room temperature,
vacuum of space requires special attention since it was at this temperature that
where it is important to restrict the component life testing was done. The
temperature excursions. designers felt that it was advantageous to
hold the electronics package as near as
possible to the temperature at which testing
Thermal problems encountered in and fabrication were carried out.
space differ from those on the ground
because there is no air-in space to provide
cooling or redistribution of the heat by These two requirements, 32 °F for
convection. Therefore, conduction and the skin and room temperature for the
radiation must be considered for this electronics package, hardly seem
purpose. Conduction is only useful in compatible, but it was accomplished quite
redistributing the heat within the spacecraft. successfully in Telstar. A schematic sketch
If it becomes necessary to change the total of the satellite is shown in Fig. 3-6. The
heat content of the spacecraft, radiation to or solar cells are mounted on the satellite skin
from the spacecraft must be relied on. By and that part of the skin not covered by solar
controlling the rate at which the satellite cells is covered with aluminum oxide. This
loses or gains heat, its temperature can be type of oxide has a low absorptivity for solar
controlled. radiation and a high emissivity for the heat
radiated from the satellite surface which is
in the infrared region of the frequency
The sun is the major source of spectrum. This arrangement keeps the skin
radiant energy for most satellites. The close to
amount of heat received from the sun
depends on the absorptivity of the satellite
skin, while the amount of heat lost to space
depends on the emissivity. Absorptivity is
an index of the amount of total radiation of a
given kind that a body can absorb;
emissivity governs the rate at which heat is
radiated from the surface of the body.
Absorptivity is, therefore, a function of the
temperature of the source of radiation
Reprinted by permission of the Copyright Owner, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. • and the
authors. This drawing originally appeared in the April 1963 Bell Laboratories Record vol. 41,
No. 4.
Fig. 3-6.—Schematic sketch of Telstar satellite.
the design temperature when the satellite is

ma fully sunlit orbit. At certain times of the The relative insensitivity of the skin
year the satellite will spend up to 45 minutes to temperature variations is not shared by
of its approximately 160- minute period in the electronics package. Solar energy is
the shadow of the earth (eclipse). During absorbed by the solar cells and converted to
this period, it radiates heat into space and electrical energy, which in turn is dissipated
the skin may cool by as much as 80 °F in a in the electronics package and produces
single eclipse. A poor choice of skin coating heat. The electronics package has a
could result in skin temperatures as high as minimum surface area from which heat can
500 °F or as low as -225 °F. The importance be radiated to the outer skin. To reduce the
of the proper skin coating is obvious, but loss of heat from the electronics package to
equally important is the requirement that it a minimum, it is insulated with many layers
maintain its properties after prolonged
exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation in
the high vacuum of space.
Reprinted by permission of the Copyright Owners Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc., and the
authors. These graphs originally appeared in the April 1963 Bell Laboratories Record, Vol. 41.
No. 4.
Fig. 3-7.—Telstar electronics package temperature after launch.
of aluminized Mylar alternated with layers open, exposing the black surface under
of fiberglass spacers. To minimize thermal them. This surface is an efficient radiator of
conduction from the electronics package to thermal energy and cools the electronics
the skin, it is suspended in the frame by package by radiating heat to the outer skin.
nylon lacing. This lacing also serves to The effectiveness of this arrangement can be
isolate the electronics package from the seen from a plot of the package temperature
vibrations of the frame during launch. Its after launch, as shown in Fig. 3-7. The time
effectiveness is evident from Fig. 3-2. in eclipse is also shown; the decrease in
On the top and bottom of the temperature during eclipse is evident.
electronics package, there are shutters Prior to launch, the package
activated by thermostatically controlled temperature was 83 °F; within nine orbits it
bellows. If the electronics package dropped to 74 °F, where it remained stable
temperature ever goes down to 55°F, the until the satellite entered eclipse for part of
shutters close fully and the heat loss is held its orbit. The change in temperature in
to a minimum. As the temperature rises due January 1963 from that in July 1962 is
to the dissipation of electrical energy inside attributed to three factors:
the electronics package, the shutters (1) the solar constant was higher by seven
per cent in January than
it was in July; (2) the absorptivity of the
Altitude N.M.
aluminum-oxide coating had probably
increased due to ultraviolet light and
radiation as predicted by laboratory tests;
and (3) the power dissipated in the package
dropped due to degradation of the solar cells
in the Van Allen belts. The first two factors
would tend to increase the temperature while 150
the third would tend to decrease it. The 0
over-all result is to increase the temperature 100
by about 6 °F when in full sunlight. 0
500
In addition to the thermal problems
caused by the high vacuum in space, there
are problems with materials that are not 10 10 101 101 102
1 4 8 2 6 0
experienced on the ground. Furthermore, the Particles per cm3
spacecraft now being planned for extended
orbital and deep-space operations must be Fig. 3—8.—Particle density versus altitude.
tested under simulated space conditions.
These conditions are extremely difficult to Some materials sublime or evaporate
reproduce, that is, it is hard to reproduce the under conditions of high vacuum or in
high vacuum on the ground that is combination with other conditions
encountered in space. There have been some sometimes encountered in space. Laboratory
facilities installed at the Goddard Space tests have shown that this problem does not
Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland, that occur with structural materials such as steel
come close to the required level and are and aluminum alloys, where the concern is
capable of holding the largest planned the loss of strength. In those cases where
spacecraft. One of these tanks also includes thin films are used to obtain some particular
solar simulation equipment capable of surface characteristic, sublimation can be a
reproducing the solar radiation incident on a problem because the surface characteristic
spacecraft in orbit. may change with time.
When speaking of these vacuums, it Sublimation or evaporation presents

is more meaningful to speak of the number much more serious problems in connection
of particles present rather than the pressure, with electronic equipment in space. For
which is negligibly small. Figure 3-8 is a example, the lead in tin-lead solders
plot of the number of particles per cubic evaporates quite readily and, if used, the
centimeter as a function of altitude in equipment must be safely embedded in a
nautical miles. The width of the graph is due non-evaporating plastic. Silver solder must
to the difference in density from night to also be used with care, and should be either
day. embedded in a plastic or gold-plated to
prevent sublimation.
The problems caused by sublimation

are more than simply the loss of material.
The material that evaporates may be

deposited on other parts of the spacecraft. If
the evaporating material is a metal and is
deposited on an insulator, the
ENVIRONMENT 3-11
leakage across the insulator can increase to a

SOLAR-FLARE
troublesome point in a relatively short time.
PARTICLES
Another phenomenon that occurs in

high vacuums is the tendency of materials to COSMIC
adhere to each other. This effect is RADIATIO
sometimes referred to as cold welding. N
Under normal conditions at atmospheric
TRAPPED
pressure, metals have a certain amount of
RADIATION
condensed gas that adheres to the surface.
These layers of adsorbed gases prevent two
Courtesy NASA
pieces of metal from sticking together when
they are brought in contact with each other. Fig. 3-9.—Schematic diagram of space
In a vacuum, the adsorbed gases are lost and radiation.
the metal becomes “clean.” When two clean as a percentage of the force required to
pieces come together they may cold weld break it the first time.
and form a permanent bond. The use of the
usual lubricants is useless in preventing this
At 500 °C the specimen is almost as
effect because such lubricants evaporate
strong as it was originally, while at the
rather quickly under space conditions.
lower temperatures the strength of the cold
weld is reduced appreciably. However, even
The effect depends to a certain extent at 25 °C (approximately room temperature)
on temperature, as indicated in Table 3-1. the cohesion is sufficiently great to prevent
This data is given as a result of certain tests proper operation of a bearing or a sliding
made on a particular type of steel (1018 contact. Where low-speed rotation or sliding
steel). The specimen of steel was broken in a friction is required, nylon or Teflon bearings
vacuum at the stated temperature; then the can sometimes be used. Under some
broken faces were placed in contact again. circumstances, it is possible to provide a
The second column of the table gives the pressurized container for the bearings.
force required to break the specimen the
second time expressed
Certain studies have indicated that
the vacuum environment is not always
TABLE 3-1 harmful to metals. Laboratory measurements
show, for example, that stainless steel is
Temperature Maximum cohesion appreciably more resistant to fatigue and
°C in per cent creep rupture in a vacuum than in air at
500 96.0 normal atmospheric pressure.
150 35.9
In 1958, the Explorer I satellite sent
25 18.5 back data indicating the presence of a belt of
trapped radiation above the earth. This belt
of trapped radiation has
YEARS IN
come to be known as the Van Allen
NORMALIZE
1. 1 ORBIT2 3
CURRENT
D SMALL-
radiation belt. The intensity of the radiation
SIGNAL
1.
4
GAIN
varies throughout the belt and the HIGH FREQUENCY
2
1. (2N743)
boundaries are not well-defined. Figure 3-9
shows a diagram of space radiation 0
.8
including not only the trapped radiation in .6
the Van Allen belt but also cosmic and LOW FREQUENCY
.4 (2N337)
solar-flare particle radiation as well.
.2
1. 1.
0 .8
.4 PROTONS/c 2.0 x 1012
The cosmic radiation is of minor 2 6
importance to us because it can cause little m2
Fig. 3-10. —Effect of exposure to 40-mev
damage except possibly to man on flights protons on current gain of two transistors.
lasting several years. The radiation produced
by solar flares is of little importance as far damaging radiation doses to man on
as material damage is concerned, but can missions of several days.
produce
Reprinted by permission of the Copyright Owner, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. and the
authors. These photographs originally appeared in the April 1963 Bell Laboratories Record, Vol.
41, No. 4.
Fig. 3-11 —Make—up of the Telstar Solar cell.
3-14 ENVIRONMENT 3-13
By far the most damaging radiation, Figure 3-11 shows the make-up of the
however, is the trapped radiation in the Van Telstar solar cells. The sapphire plate is
Allen belt. The greatest damage is caused to applied over the unit shown. Solar cells of
semiconductor devices such as solar cells, the n— type (an n-type layer diffused into p-
transistors and diodes. Transistors and type silicon) were used on Telstar, but
diodes can be shielded, although shielding subsequent tests have shown that —n type
sometimes imposes a weight penalty. With cells are appreciably more resistant to
efficient design, however, it is usually radiation damage and will probably be used
possible to place the sensitive elements where the satellite must spend long times in
where they are protected by other parts of high-level radiation fields.
the spacecraft. In general, high- frequency
transistors are less susceptible to radiation The last subject to be considered
damage than low-frequency transistors. under the space environment is that of
Figure 3-10 shows such a comparison. meteoroid damage. The outstanding point in
connection with this hazard is the lack of
The most troublesome damage information available. Larger meteoroids
caused by radiation is that caused to solar can be expected to penetrate the skin of the
cells. This damage is compounded by the spacecraft and cause catastrophic damage
difficulty in shielding the cells against the but, fortunately, the probability of such
radiation. The cells must be located on the collisions is extremely low. The smaller
skin of the spacecraft; any shielding must meteoroids cannot be expected to penetrate
transmit the solar spectrum and must the skin but will have a sandblasting effect
continue to do so after a prolonged time in on the surface. This effect can change
orbit. The Telstar satellite used a thin surface characteristics which in turn can
sapphire plate cover on each solar cell. cause thermal problems.
Exercise Problems:
1. Why is reliability so important in space systems?
2. At what time during the flight of a spacecraft is the most strain and vibration realized?
3. How does the thermal problem of a spacecraft differ from that of an aircraft or of a
ground vehicle?
4. What are the two most probable sources of damage to solar cells in a spacecraft, and how
can this damage be minimized?
3-14 ENVIRONMENT 3-13

1. Reliability is important simply because of the fact that repairs in space are impractical.
Even though repairs can be made by incorporating redundant components and systems, it
is much more desirable to have highly reliable circuits which present no in-flight
difficulties. Quite often a serious malfunction can occur due to some oversight that may
have seemed insignificant at the time. As an example, one such malfunction occurred due
to two diodes being physically placed too close to each other. As a result, their cases
shorted during the high vibrations that were encountered during the launch of the space
vehicle, resulting in loss of control and destruction of the flight.
2. The highest strain and vibration occur just after lift-off, when the greatest acceleration is
experienced. At this time, the components are subjected to the greatest strains and
vibrations. The ability to withstand this strain is of prime importance in a space system.
3. The thermal problems of a spacecraft differ from those of an aircraft or a ground vehicle
in that there is an absence of air, or atmosphere, in space to provide cooling or
redistribution of the heat. As a result, heat must be controlled by radiation to or from the
spacecraft. This is accomplished with special types of spacecraft skins to control the
absorptivity and conductivity of the surface of the spacecraft, thereby controlling its
temperature.
4. The most serious source of damage to solar cells is from radiation. Since the solar cells
must be located on the outer surface of the spacecraft, they are most susceptible to
radiation damage. Meteoroids that strike the spacecraft, while small in size, can cause
damage to unprotected solar cells. These problems can be minimized by using a thin
sapphire plate over each solar cell.
CHAPTER FOUR
RELIABILITY
The use or electronic equipment in Neither of these assumptions may be

applications requiring a high probability is justified, but for the purpose of our
an aspect of most of the equipment of space illustration, let us assume that they are. The
systems. Because satisfactory operation problem also assumes that the term
must be had at any particular time, the “inoperative” can be defined. If the picture
subject of reliability is an important study; is essentially perfect or if there is no picture
yet, it is often misunderstood. The purpose at all, then there is no problem. But how do
here is not to present all the information the we evaluate the in-between cases? Again we
engineer needs in order to make a assume that the point where the picture is
comprehensive analysis of the reliability of a unacceptable can be defined.
system; instead, the purpose of this
discussion is to present some of the factors It is now time to ask the question:
that enter into making a reliable system. What does the figure 0.97 mean? The
First, however, it is necessary to define what answer can be given in several forms, but
is meant by reliability in space applications for our purposes we can say that if there
and to see why it is so important. were 100 receivers, all like the one being
considered, the most probable number of
“Reliability” is expressed as a sets that would be inoperative at the end of
decimal indicating the probability that a next year would be 100 - 97 = 3. The next
given device will operate under certain question then becomes, “What does an
specified conditions. Thus, the probability answer such as 3 out of 100 mean for only
that a television receiver will be in operating one receiver?” The answer actually means
condition one year from now can be found very little unless a purchaser is comparing
by dividing the number of days in the past sets with different reliabilities to determine
year it was inoperative by 365 and which one he should buy.
subtracting that quotient from 1. If the
receiver were inoperative 10 days, then the What happens if, after all his
probability that the receiver will operate one statistical analysis, the buyer obtains a
year hence is, receiver that is continually in need of repair?
The statistics are still good; the
10
P =1− = 0.9726 ≅ 0.97
365
assumptions. First, it assumes that

the set is not going to deteriorate during the
next year; that is, the past year is assumed to
be truly representative of the condition of
the receiver during the coming year. Second,
it assumes that the operating conditions will
be the same in the next year as in the past.
stage of the rocket will operate properly.

Similarly, let the probabilities of the other
stages and of the satellite itself be 0.90.
buyer simply did not produce a sufficient What is the probability of a successful
number of television receivers to mission? These are independent events, so
demonstrate that they were. The above, in a that, mathematically, the over-all probability
crude way, illustrates the fallacy of applying of success is
statistics to one unit, for example, to one
satellite. Just as the statistics on the decrease
of infantile paralysis in the United States are Pt = P1 × P2 × P3 × P4
of little comfort to the parents of a crippled
child, so is the computed reliability of a = 0.9 × 0.9 × 0.9 × 0.9
spacecraft of little comfort to the designer
when it fails.
= 0.6561
Of what use are statistics then in

expressing the reliability of one spacecraft? Thus, there is only a little better than
Again, the answer is, “very little as far as a 65 per cent chance of success. If the
expressing the probability of success,” reliability of each unit is increased from 0.90
primarily because the engineer is not to 0.95, what happens to the over-all chance
interested in having a high probability; of success? Now
instead he wants a certainty. A probability of
0.99 means that there is one chance in one Pt = ( 0.94 ) 4 = 0.8145
hundred of failure. If it is possible, even this
one chance of failure must be eliminated.
With this increase in reliability, the chance
for success has improved, but it is yet far
Following the same line of thought,
from satisfactory. Next, consider the case in
we might ask ourselves, “What specification
which the individual probabilities of success
should be set for the spacecraft reliability?”
are 0.99. For this case,
If we set it at 0.999, we say we will accept
one failure out of a thousand. First, we must
realize that such reliabilities are not Pt = ( 0.99 ) 4 = 0.961
attainable at the present time. Such a
specification would, therefore, be
unrealistic. Second, there is no way in which Normally, of course, not all
we could really know if the specification components have the same reliability. For
had been met. Third, it would mean nothing example, suppose that the third stage of the
by itself applied to one spacecraft. Finally, vehicle has a reliability of only 0.90 whereas
we would not wish to accept a spacecraft the other components have a reliability of
with any possible chance of failure. 0.99. What happens to the over-all
probability of success?
By this time the reader has probably
concluded that statistics have no place in the
expression of reliability in space projects.
Such is not the case. Consider a satellite to
be launched using a three-stage rocket.
Assume a probability of 0.9 that the first
RELIABILITY 4-3
Here, reliable,” we mean one that does not fail

very often.
Pt = ( 0.99 )3 × 0.90 = 0.873

Compare this system with a
communications satellite. Again, the
Consequently, the probability of success has equipment is built using the best
been reduced from 0.961 to only 0.873 components available. A statistical
because of one “unreliable” component in inspection of the components that go into
the system. Herein lies one of the important the flight model is no longer relied upon.
uses of the reliability analysis of a space Each component is individually checked.
system. It can point out to the designer But components cannot be tested for failure.
where he should be applying effort to An analogy would be to test flashbulbs in a
increase reliability and indicate when the camera flash attachment to see if the bulbs
emphasis should be shifted. are serviceable. You may find out that they
were serviceable. We must rely on a
thorough inspection of the raw materials and
To understand the importance of
the workmanship along with carefully
reliability in space systems, it is useful to
chosen tests to ensure component quality.
compare two systems designed to do
approximately the same thing. One involves
a vital component in space and the other After assembly, system tests are
does not. The first is an orbiting performed where the final adjustments are
communications satellite system, and the made. Of course, any failures that occur
second is a ground-based surface microwave during these tests are repaired. Thus, all
relay link. systems of the satellite sent to the launching
pad have been thoroughly tested and
repaired. It is then taken to the field for
For the surface microwave link, the
installation; that is, it is launched. It is at this
equipment is designed and built using the
point that the procedures become quite
most reliable components available. These
different.
components are inspected on a statistical
basis which does not guarantee that all the
components used will exhibit a long As soon as one critical component in
operational life; that is, components are not the satellite fails, we have failed in our
tested individually. After assembly, mission. If a satellite itself costs one million
however, the equipment is thoroughly tested dollars and it costs five million dollars to
and any detected failures are repaired; the launch it, then we have a six million dollar
design may even be changed if the failures replacement job. Furthermore, we may not
indicate a design weakness. Finally, the know exactly what caused the failure or
equipment is installed in the field, where it which component failed. This kind
is again tested and final adjustments made.
During the first few months of operation the
remaining operational defects are worked
out, and thereafter periodic checks serve to
keep the system operating. Records can
easily be kept to indicate which components
are most liable to fail. Programs to improve
these components are begun and eventually
a highly reliable system results. By “highly
To be certain that the design used is

capable of operating as desired in space, it is
of operation is comparable in some respects
necessary to test the design in a realistic
to that encountered by submarine cable
way. This implies that the conditions in
repeaters, except that the satellite is more
space are known. There are a number of
complex. Considering the economic factors
programs now being carried out to provide
involved, it has been estimated that a
such information. As this information
satellite lifetime of from three to five years
becomes available, it must be incorporated
is required in order to make a
into the testing procedures used to qualify
communications satellite system profitable.
spacecraft designs. Only insofar as the test
conditions are realistic can we say that the
As can be seen from the above equipment has been properly qualified. The
discussion, the cost of the failure of a vital specification of test conditions is one of the
component in a surface microwave link is most important steps in managing a space
the cost of the loss of the link during the project.
outage time (inoperable) plus the cost of
repairing it. Certainly, economic operation
When the conditions are not
requires that these outages be held to a
completely known or when it is impossible
minimum. The failure of a vital component
to test a spacecraft for a sufficient period of
in a satellite, however, requires replacement
time for the necessary assurance of the
of a major part of the system at a large cost.
design, it is sometimes possible to maintain
Thus, almost anything that we can do to
essentially the same conditions in space as
increase the probability of success of a space
prevail on the ground. An example is given
project is justified in view of the very large
by the Telstar communications satellite. The
cost of putting a satellite into orbit.
entire electronics package is sealed in a
container with the components positioned in
There are several ways in which to a hardened foam. The residual space is then
increase reliability. The first of these filled with dry carbon dioxide and the
pertains to a knowledge of environmental canister sealed. An effective thermal control
conditions. Many materials quite useful on is used to keep the entire package at
the ground are completely unsatisfactory in approximately room temperature. Thus, the
space. Ordinary tin-lead solders, of course, ground environment is, to an extent,
are one example. If not protected, the lead transported into space.
sublimes quite readily in space. The result
can be failure of a solder joint or failure of
Shortly before the first Telstar
an insulator caused by lead condensing on it.
launch, however, the radiation level at
Certain plastics are of no use because the
altitudes of interest to Telstar was increased
plasticizer used evaporates in space. One of
greatly by
the important hazards to space-system
components is that of radiation. Much
research is being conducted at the present
time to better define the level of radiation
encountered and the best ways to shield
against it or to otherwise make components
resistant to it.
RELIABILITY 4-5
Fig. 4-l. —Typical failure-rate versus time

curve.
a high-altitude nuclear explosion. Whether
the explosion was primarily responsible or
whether the normal radiation would have a minimum. After a relatively prolonged
had the same effect is not known, but a period, the failure rate begins to rise again
transistor in the command receiver was because of failures due to aging. The two
•affected and caused a malfunction of the regions of high failure rate are referred to as
receiver. Since then, there has been an the regions of infant mortality and old age
intensified effort to learn more about the mortality (corresponding to a human life
radiation environment and how to make cycle). The useful life of the component is
components, particularly transistors, more the time between these two regions. For this
radiation-resistant. reason, many components are given the
beginning of a life test to allow rejection of
those units that would fail early in life. This
If a large number of high- quality
process is sometimes referred to as “burning
components are subjected to life tests after
in” components.
having been carefully inspected and tested to
assure initial compliance with specifications,
and the failures plotted against time, a Apart from defining the space
characteristic curve is the result. Figure 4-1 environment and developing longer- lived
shows the form of a typical failure-rate and more reliable components, the engineer
curve. can do much in the design to assure a high
reliability. Components should be
conservatively rated with consideration
At the beginning of the life test, the
given to the maximum temperatures to be
failure rate is high due to the defective units
encountered. The normal rating should in
that pass the first inspection. When selecting
many cases have an additional safety factor,
components for a critical application, all
particularly when the exact conditions to be
components that show any form of abnormal
encountered are not known or where long
behavior are rejected during this time. Such
life is a prime requirement.
abnormalities include drift, temperature
sensitivity, sensitivity to vibration, noisy
units, and so on. The failure rate then In addition to using the correct
decreases to component, the designer must carefully
examine the circuit. How can the various
Failure rate
components fail? What is the effect on the

circuit if they fail? Which components are
Region of Region of
vital? Which components will only partially
infant Old-age
degrade operation if they fail? What is the
mortality mortality
effect on other circuits in case of failure?
Where possible, the design should allow
graceful degradation of operation rather than
an abrupt failure. As an example, assume
that the addition of a low-noise preamplifier
to a communications repeater is being
considered. One
Time
used for high reliability; instead, the

examples are given to show that thought
of the first questions to be asked is, “How
given to failure modes and circuit
does it affect the reliability?” If it results in a
interactions in case of failure can increase
significant decrease in reliability or over-all
over-all system reliability.
equipment lifetime, it must be very carefully
considered. On the other hand, if its
probable failure mode still allows the rest of Another technique often used to
the circuitry to be used as though the increase reliability is that of redundant
preamplifier were not present, it might still components and circuits. This principle must
be used. be applied with caution, however. An
example will illustrate. Suppose it is desired
to increase the reliability of a switch by
As another example, consider the
using two switches. There are two ways in
case of the proposed use of a fuse to protect
which the switches may be connected—in
a power supply in case of a circuit failure
series or in parallel. The question is, “How
that would put a large constant drain on the
should they be connected for greatest
power supply. The first question to be asked
reliability?”
would be, “What is the reliability of the
fuse?” and then “Is the fuse more apt to fail The answer depends on several factors. If
open or shorted?” Assume that the most the circuit is always on, is the failure equally
probable failure mode would be for the fuse as serious as one where the circuit is always
element to break during the vibration of off? What is the relative probability of the
launch. In case of failure, then, the circuit switch failing closed and the probability of it
being fused would be lost but the power failing open? In most applications, safety
supply would be protected. The problem against failure occurs when the switch fails
would have to be carefully considered after in the open position. In this case, it would be
an evaluation of all the alternatives, with and only logical to put the switches in series.
without the fuse. Figures 4-2(A) and (B) show the ways in
which two switches can be connected—
either in series or in shunt.
Some additional study, however,
might suggest a more reliable approach to
the problem. A resistor might be used in Continuing with this example, we
place of the fuse and the engineer might might ask, “With the switches connected in
even combine this resistor with some other series, what is the probability of both
vital function. In this case, it would be switches failing in the closed position?” To
necessary to use the resistor very close to the answer this question, we must know more
rating required for circuit operation (only a about the switches and the way in which
nominal additional safety factor). Such an they are used. Assume that
arrangement has the added advantage of
giving the fault an opportunity to correct
itself, because a resistor, in general, does not
open immediately. In some other cases a
simple current-limiting resistor might be
sufficient.
The above discussion is not meant to

illustrate particular circuits that might be
RELIABILITY 4-7
(A) (B)
Fig. 4-2.—-Switch combinations for reliability.
they are ganged and have equal probabilities apt to fail on the first operation as on the
of failing open or closed. If they are 1000th.
operated to failure, what is the probability of
them both failing closed? They can fail in The three same failure modes exist
the following ways: (1) On the first failure as before. Assume that they are as apt to fail
either one of them fails open, in which case open as closed. The probability of the first
the second has no effect. (2) On the first failing closed is 0.05 and, after that, the
failure, one of them fails closed and the probability of the second failing closed is
second one is used until it fails either open also 0.05. Therefore, the probability of both
or (3) closed. In only one case out of four do switches failing closed is
they both fail closed because failure (1)
contains two possibilities.
0.05 x 0.05 = 0. 0025
The probability of a failure with the
switch closed has, therefore, been reduced If wear is not negligible, then the
from 0.5 with only one switch to 0.25 with probability of failure is a function of the
two switches. A similar analysis would be number of operations completed, and the
used if it were required that the switches fail probability of failure of the second switch
with the circuit on. In this case the switches depends on the number of cycles remaining.
would be connected in parallel, as shown in Furthermore, the reliability of the second
Fig. 4-2(B). switch might be adversely affected by its in
operation—for example, by cold- welding of
its contacts. All such factors must be
Much more complicated situations considered.
can occur in practice. For example, the
problem might be to determine the
probability of failure of both switches in the If a failure in either the open or
closed position after 1000 switching closed position is equally serious, how
operations. If the probability of failure (open should the switches be connected? Assume
or closed) of one switch is 0. 1 and the that 1000 operations are again required and
second switch is kept closed unless the first the same reliability figures hold. The two
one fails, what is the total probability? switches will be considered ganged and
Assume that wear is a negligible factor for connected in series as in Fig. 4-2(A). Failure
this number of operations so the probability can occur
of failure is constant; in other words, it is as
Since the power supply was incapable of

in the following ways: (1) either switch fails operating the transponder continuously, the
open or (2) both switches fail closed. Since battery voltage dropped from the nominal
the probability of one switch failing open is voltage of 28 volts to about 15 volts after
0.05, then the probability of one of the two approximately one day of operation. At
failing open is 0.05 + 0.05 = 0.1. The about this time, the transponder went off
probability of (2) above is 0. 0025, as shown without command due to the low battery
previously. The total probability of failure is voltage. Since that time, the #2 transponder
then 0.1 + 0.0025 or 0.1025. By using two has been used for many tests and the project
switches in this manner, the reliability is less has been highly successful. This success
than if only one switch is used. A similar would have been impossible without
analysis shows that the same thing holds redundant transponders.
true for switches connected in parallel.
The subject of reliability is a very
These examples are given to show complex one and one that is impossible to
that the addition of more components to treat in a few pages. In summary, the
accomplish a particular purpose does not primary contributor to high reliability is the
necessarily assure a higher probability that care and craftsmanship that goes into the
the function will be performed satisfactorily. fabrication of the components making up the
Properly applied, however, redundancy is a spacecraft, and the care with which they are
powerful tool. An example is given by the assembled. Very close in importance to this
relay communications satellite. This satellite careful component selection is the design of
was equipped with redundant transponders. the spacecraft. Properly done, the design
The power supply was only capable of ensures that no part of the structure or
operating one transponder part-time, but by circuitry is subjected to temperatures,
this means it was hoped to increase the mechanical conditions, or electrical
satellite lifetime in the event of a conditions that adversely affect its ability to
transponder failure. Shortly after launch, the perform its intended function.
#1 transponder was turned on by command
but it could not be turned off.
RELIABILITY 4-9
Exercise problems:
1. Consider three pieces of electronic equipment that are being tested for use in a spacecraft
system. What over-all reliability can be expected if the units have a failure rate per 100 units
tested of 2, 4, and 7 respectively?
2. What are the primary factors which contribute to high reliability?
3. What is often done in a highly critical unit within a system to afford additional reliability of
the over-all system than is normally obtained?

1. Pt = 0.98 x 0.96 x 0.93 = 0.875 or 87.5 per cent
2. The primary factors that contribute to high reliability are care and craftsmanship, component
selection, and design.
3. Whenever possible, a component or equipment whose operation is essential to the success of

the mission is made redundant. That is, two components or equipments are employed, so that if
one should fail the other can be automatically switched to replace it. As a result, a much higher
reliability can be expected.
CHAPTER FIVE
SPACE COMMUNICATIONS
For any satellite to serve a useful

purpose, there must be communications A third factor associated with space
between the satellite and ground stations. communications concerns tracking. For data
Therefore, the useful data developed as a gathered by a satellite to be of use, the point
result of a space project must, at some point, in space where the data was taken, and the
be transmitted from the satellite to the time it was taken, must be known. The time,
ground. in the case of stored data, is usually
determined by time signals recorded with
The range of experiments can be the data. The location of the spacecraft must
very wide and a single satellite may carry be determined by tracking it from ground
many experiments. For example, the stations. Spacecraft sometimes carry special
elliptical orbiting geophysical observatory beacon transmitters to permit accurate
(EGO) will carry about twenty separate tracking, and in some cases the telemetry
experiments to measure radiation of various transmitter is used for this purpose.
types, geomagnetic fields, radio propagation
characteristics, v—l—f noise, and solar radio Tracking of navigation and
noise. The results of all these experiments communications satellites is important for
are converted to electrical signals and then other reasons. The position of the
stored on magnetic tape in the spacecraft. navigational satellite must be known to
When the satellite is within range of one of determine the position of the ship or aircraft
the data-acquisition stations on the ground, using the satellite. In the case of a
the tape recorder output is connected to the communications satellite such as Telstar, it
telemetry system by command from the is necessary to employ the satellite as soon
ground, and the accumulated data are played as it appears over the horizon. The purpose,
back to the ground station. of course, is to obtain maximum use of the
mutual visible time available at the two
In this discussion of space stations using it. In general, we can say that
communications, therefore, we must also tracking data are necessary for predicting the
include another system carried by most position of a spacecraft at some particular
spacecraft—the command system. The EGO time in the future, or to determine its
satellite utilizes a digital command system position at some time in the past.
capable of receiving and decoding 254
commands. In addition, a tone command
system has a capability of 15 commands and
is used as a backup to the digital system.
(The tone system duplicates the most
important commands. ) These systems
permit control of the spacecraft and its
experiments from the ground. Sufficient
flexibility is provided to allow certain
groups of experiments to be operated when
phenomena of special interest occur.
was approximately 10 milliwatts. The

maximum range to the satellite can be taken
Communications satellites act as
as 2000 nautical miles.
microwave repeater stations, or, in the case
of passive satellites, as simple reflectors.
The distances over which the signals are First, consider the space attenuation;
transmitted are much longer than for surface that is, the reduction in signal strength due
relay links and the path attenuation is much to the separation of the transmitter and
higher, Consequently, the use of large receiver. For this purpose, consider that both
antennas and low-noise receivers is the transmitting and receiving antennas are
absolutely necessary. isotropic; in other words, they radiate or
receive equally well in all directions
(isotropically). If we consider the transmitter
SYSTEM CALCULATIONS.-The
located at the center of a sphere and
communications system, the command
radiating Pt watts, then all this power must
system, and the tracking system all have one
pass outward through the sphere.
thing in common: They all depend upon the
Considering that the power is radiated
transmission of intelligence via radio from
isotropically, then the power passing
the spacecraft to ground and in some cases
through a unit area of the sphere equals the
from the ground to the spacecraft. The
total radiated power divided by the area of
characteristics of these systems must be
the sphere of radius R:
determined early in the planning for a
satellite project. For example, the amount of
signal power available at the receiver Pt
ρ= (5-1)
determines the amount of information that 4πR 2
can be transmitted over the channel with a
given probability of error. Furthermore, the
maximum error probability that can be The power received at the receiver Pr, then,
tolerated is different for the different is the effective area of the receiving antenna
systems; for example, the command system multiplied by the power density (power per
is permitted only a very low error rate and unit area ρ) at the surface of the sphere. The
great care is taken in order to prevent effective area of an isotropic antenna is
erroneous commands from being executed.
On the other hand, some telemetry signal λ2
channels are quite different in this respect, Ai = (5-2)
4π
although in some channels a low error rate is
very important.
System calculations can best be

illustrated through use of realistic examples.
Let us calculate the received signal power at
the receiver of one of the original Minitrack
stations (a particular type of ground-based
automatic tracking station). Explorer I can
serve as a good example for this purpose, A
small transmitter operating at 108 Mc served
the purpose of supplying a tracking signal to
the Minitrack station and also as the
telemetry transmitter. The transmitter output
SPACE COMMUNICATIONS 5-3
Therefore, the received power is P

10 log t = 20 log 24 .7 π + 20 log R + 20 log f
Pr
2
 λ 
Pr = ρAi = Pt   (5-3)
 4πR  Consequently, the space attenuation, Lfs
becomes
However, since we are looking for the free
space attenuation, Eq. 5-3 serves a more Lfs ( db ) = 37 .8 + 20 log R + 20 log f
useful purpose if it is rewritten as follows: (5-6)
2
Pt  4πR  where
=  (5-4)
Pr  λ 
L fs ( db ) = free space attenuation in decibles
Also, the wavelength, λ, and the range, R,
must be expressed in the same units, and R = range in nautical miles
because the range is usually given in
nautical miles, we shall use this unit
throughout. It is further convenient to f = frequency in megacycles
consider frequency rather than wavelength
and to convert wavelength in nautical miles We can now calculate the free space
to frequency in megacycles per second; thus, attenuation of a 108-Mc signal for a range of
2000 nautical miles.
0.162
f =
λ 20 log 2000 = 66.02
0.162 20 log 108 = 40.67

λ=
f
Now the ratio of transmitted to received 20 log 24.7π = 37.80
power becomes
--------
Lfs = 144 .49 ≅ 144 .5 db
( )
2
Pt  4 
= πRf  = 24 .7 πRf 2
Pr  0. 162 
To find the signal at the receiver, we
(5-5) must also consider the transmitting and
receiving antenna gains. The satellite
Free space attenuation is normally antenna is nearly isotropic, but it is not
expressed in decibels. This can be done by possible to reduce all nulls in the pattern to
taking the logarithm of both sides of Eq. 5-5 negligible proportions. Therefore, we
and multiplying by 10. At the same time, assume a gain of -3 db for the satellite
squaring the right-hand term yields
Noise power can be expressed in decibels

with respect to one watt in a manner similar
antenna. The receiving antenna on the
to that used in finding the signal power at
ground will have a typical gain of 12 db (as
the receiver. Thus,
compared to an isotropic radiator). Line
losses and atmospheric attenuation are
assumed to be negligible although negligible Pn ( dbw ) = 10 log K + 10 log T + 10 log B
losses here are not always justifiable. Since
the transmitted power is taken as 10
milliwatts, the received power can be found = -228.6 + 10 log T+ 10 log B
as follows: (5-8)
Transmitted power -20. 0 dbw Included in the noise power is

Satellite antenna gain -3.0 db temperature T. Noise temperature depends
upon the antenna efficiency, the number and
Free-space loss -144.5 db level of the side lobes of the antenna
Receiver antenna gain 12.0 db radiation pattern that allow energy from the
--------- ground to reach the receiver input, and the
Received power -155.5 dbw noise generated by the receiver input
circuits. System noise temperatures range
from less than 50 °K for the best antennas
When the reference power is 1 watt as in and cooled maser low-noise receivers to
this example, db is often expressed as dbw. 3000 °K for the less acceptable system.
For a 1-mw reference, the abbreviation is
often dbm so that 10 mw corresponds to
The noise bandwidth is a function of
the receiver bandwidth, which is usually
10 log (0.01/0.001) = 10 dbm kept as narrow as possible but within the
or limits necessary to handle the required
10 log (0.01/1) = -10 log (1/0.01) amount of information. For purposes of
= -20 dbw illustration, assume a noise temperature of
300 °K and a noise bandwidth of 10,000
cycles per second. From Eq. 5-8,
The received power alone is not sufficient to
evaluate the system; it must be compared
with the noise at the receiver input. That is, Pn ( dbw ) = −228 .6 +10 log 300 +10 log 10 4
a signal-to-noise ratio is more indicative of
the reception capabilities of the system. The = -228.6 + 24.8 + 40
noise power depends on two factors—the
noise bandwidth and the noise temperature.
The noise power at the receiver is given by: = -163.8 dbw
Pn = KTB (5-7) Using a received power of -155.5 dbw

where
K = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38X1023
T = temperature in degrees Kelvin
B = bandwidth in cycles per second
as calculated, the signal-to-noise ratio is sequence to initiate the desired functions in

Ps ( db ) Pn ( db ) , or the spacecraft. They also required a 20- to
30-db signal-to-noise ratio for reliable
operation. The systems are still in use and
S/N = 163.8 - 155.5 = 8.3 db Minitrack stations are equipped with
command consoles and transmitters for this
which is marginal for telemetry reception. purpose.
(Because db values are logarithms and
division of logarithms is done by This system provides for fifteen
subtraction, the ratio is Ps − Pn . Also, address tones used to actuate the specific
-163.8 db is 8.3 db less than -155.5 db. satellite or decoder in a satellite. Seven
Preferably, execute tones that can be used in sequences
the S/N ratio should be greater.) of one, two, or three tones are provided for
specific command functions. The
transmitted tone sequence consists of an
COMMAND SYSTEM.—There are address tone followed by one, two, or three
a variety of requirements for a command execute tones. The decoder in the spacecraft
system in connection with space projects. A is in a quiescent state until the recognition of
typical function would be to command the an appropriate address tone. It then operates
playback of a magnetic recorder that has for a period sufficient to allow reception of
recorded signals slowly throughout the orbit. the execute tones. As soon as it returns to
The information is played back at high the quiescent state, its memory of the tones
speed over the telemetry link for reception at received is erased. Thus, if there is a break
a data-acquisition ground station. in the transmission, the entire sequence must
The number of commands required in a be started over.
system depends upon the requirements of
the particular mission, of which no two are
A digital system is used on the more
the same. As satellites become more
complex spacecraft. This system permits a
complicated, the number of required
larger number of commands and provides
commands also increases. The security of
more safety from unintentional commanding
the command system is also important.
of the spacecraft by interfering signals than
Intentional interference with the operation of
does a tone system. A digital system
our satellites through the command channels
provides for fifty-six separate eight-bit
has not been a problem. It is unintentional
address codes and seventy separate eight-bit
interference from ground stations such as
execute codes (a bit is a binary digit). It
FM broadcast stations that has caused most
consists basically of a four-state signal
of the difficulty. On occasion there has been
(synchronizing, 1,0, and blanking) that is
interference with the command channel
pulse-duration modulated (PDM) with
from some internal spacecraft circuitry,
constant bit-ratio word-coding
Switching functions sometimes cause pulse-
like transient signals that find their way into
the command circuitry, thereby causing false
commands.
Early command systems utilized

elementary tone-actuated devices. They
utilized various tones transmitted in a given
Let
and repetitive word formation. A digital 1
Tc = (5-9)
decoder address is required. Usually five fc
words sent sequentially comprise one where
command. The series usually consists of a Tc = one period of the tone
unique address word (sent twice) followed
by the execute command (repeated three frequency
times). To effect a command, the decoder in
the spacecraft must receive one correct f c =tone frequency
address word followed by one valid execute Then the four pulse states have the
word. This technique increases the following lengths:
probability of receiving the correct
command under weak signal conditions.
Blank: off for one pulse period = 72 Tc
Each word consists of one blank Sync: on for 3/4 pulse period = 54 Tc
period, one sync-period (the usual One: on for 1/2 pulse period = 36 Tc
terminology for synchronizing- period)
followed by an eight-bit code word made up Zero: on for 1/4 pulse period = 18 Tc
of a fixed number of zeros and ones, short
time- duration pulses and longer time- Figure 5-1 shows a typical eight-bit
duration pulses. The address code consists execute word consisting of a blank B, sync
of a combination of six ones and two zeros S, and 10011010. It is shown as blocks of
or two ones and six zeros. Any other the tone frequency. The tone frequency is
combination of ones and zeros is rejected. used to modulate the carrier of a v—h—f
The execute code always consists of four transmitter working in the range of 148 to
ones and four zeros. Any other combination 150 Mc. Figure 5-2 shows a complete
is rejected. Thus if a one is read as a zero, command frame format consisting of two
then a zero must be read as a one to form a address words followed by three execute
valid execute word. In this way, all odd words.
errors are detected; there must always be an
even number of both ones and zeros in a
TELEMETRY.—The requirement
valid execute signal. No address or execute
for telemetry (which means “to measure
word may be decoded unless a sync pulse is
from afar”) from a satellite depends on the
detected, and when the address has been
kind and amount of information to be
detected, a valid execute word must be read
transmitted from the satellite to the ground.
within a fixed time period.
In some cases, this link is vital in the system
if the satellite is to fulfill its primary
In addition, each pulse is made up of mission. In other cases telemetry is an
a specific number of cycles of a tone auxiliary system. For instance, the EGO
frequency between 7000 and 11,024 cycles satellite will serve no useful purpose if it
per second. One tone is assigned per fails to telemeter information back to earth.
spacecraft The Relay communications satellite, on the
other hand, utilizes telemetry to transmit
information on the
Pulse 18 36
Period54
TC TC
TC
Blank
72
TC 1
Sync 1 0 0 1 0
One word = 10 Pulse
1 0
Periods
= 720 TC
Fig. 5-1.—Word structure of digital command system.
conditions of its various subsystems. This be sent back at a very slow rate because of
information is necessary to allow the most the extremely narrow bandwidths that must
efficient use of the satellite. However, the be used to detect the weak signals in the
communications transponder carries out the presence of noise. Considering these
primary mission. problems, it is not surprising that telemetry
The telemetry requirements must be systems take several different forms and, in
determined carefully. All data are not of some cases, are quite complex.
equal importance. Some are required in real Most systems being considered for current
time, that is, without delay, whereas other satellite projects employ a pulse-code
data can be processed at leisure. The modulated (PCM) telemetry system. The
accuracy for all data is not the same and the quantity to be measured is given in terms of
frequency at which a particular a voltage by a transducer that converts
measurement must be made depends upon mechanical movement into electrical
the rate at which the particular quantity variations. This voltage is converted to
changes. In some cases, data must be taken digital form and is expressed in binary form.
at a time when the satellite is not within It is then transmitted by means of a pulse
range of a ground data-acquisition station. code to the ground station.
At such times, it must then be recorded in There may be many quantities to be
the spacecraft in order to be played back to transmitted. These are sampled by means of
the ground station when the satellite comes a commutator
within range. Interplanetary probes travel to
extreme distances and the information has to
One Frame= 5 Words + Sync

= 3744 TC
BS BS BS BS BS
BS
11110011 11110011 10011010 10011010 10011010
6x2 6x2 4x4 4x4 4x4
Address Address Execute Execute Repeated
Execute
Repeated Repeated
Again
Fig. 5-2.—Command frame format of digital command system.
demonstration. Other information is useful

only after it is plotted over a long period of
that, in essence, is a multiple contact
time. It is not surprising, therefore, that
rotating switch. If there are more quantities
different channels are processed differently
than there are positions on the commutator,
on the ground. For purposes of processing
the quantities that are expected to vary
and recording at the ground station, the data
slowly are sub-commutated. For example, if
are divided into Class I, Class II, and Class
the commutator is capable of handling 128
III.
channels and there are 138 channels to be
transmitted, then 10 of these channels can be
sub-commutated to a single channel. Each Class I data are converted to analog
time the commutator samples this channel it form and fed to strip-chart recorders where
samples a different quantity, so that it they are read out in real time at the test
requires 10 cycles of the commutator to station. These data consist of a small number
sample all channels. of highly critical measurements which will
indicate any immediate difficulties in the
operation of the spacecraft requiring
The Relay satellite can serve as a
immediate attention. This can be
good example of multiple measurement
accomplished at the test station.
transmission. The bit rate is 1152 bits per
second, which is a relatively low rate—bit
rates may be as high as 370,000 bits per Class II data are certain
second. The word length is nine bits, which measurements selected at the output of the
permits a quantization of 511 levels or, in decommutator at the test station and fed to a
other words, a resolution of 10 millivolts computer for conversion directly to decimal
over the 0 to 5-volt range of telemetry form. The computer produces a punched
voltages. There are 128 words in a complete tape which is fed directly into a teletype
message. The main commutator completes a page printer that simultaneously prints out
cycle in one second so that each main word the data and transmits them to the
is sampled once each second. The words in Communications Satellite Operations Center
sub-commutator number 1, which has 32 at Goddard Space Flight Center in
slots, are sampled once every 32 seconds. Greenbelt, Maryland. It allows a
Sub-commutator number 2 has 64 slots, and determination of the condition of the various
these words get sampled once in 64 seconds. subsystems in the spacecraft in
Two channels are used to transmit communications experiments and
calibration signals, one corresponding to demonstrations so that daily use of the
full-scale and the other to half-scale. spacecraft can be planned.
A primary purpose of telemetry on All telemetry data that comes in are

the Relay satellite is to furnish information processed as Class III data.
on the condition of the spacecraft. A
secondary, but important, function is to
furnish information on the radiation levels at
the Relay altitudes and on the rate of solar
cell degradation. Some of the information is
required at the beginning of a pass to allow
determination of the spacecraft condition
prior to its commitment to a
communications experiment or
firing the retro-rockets to produce a landing

within reach of the recovery forces.
All data are recorded on magnetic tape upon
reception for further reduction and analysis.
An example of the second
requirement can be found in the Syncom
Other satellites have different
communications satellite. This satellite goes
requirements both as to the amount of data
into a 24-hour orbit, so that it appears to
to be obtained and its processing, but the
remain over the same general part of the
principles are the same.
earth’s surface. Such an orbit is at an
altitude of over 19,000 nautical miles. The
TRACKING.—One of the major launching rocket is not capable of putting
tasks to be performed after a satellite is the satellite directly into this orbit but,
launched is to determine its orbit and to instead, is used to place it in an elliptical
construct an ephemeris for the satellite. Data transfer orbit with an apogee equal to the 24-
obtained by a satellite must be related to the hour altitude.
position of the satellite at the time the data
was obtained for this data to be useful. For
An apogee “kick” motor is fired as
example, the Tiros weather satellites take
the spacecraft reaches the proper point to
pictures indicating the weather patterns over
optimize the period of the orbit to 24 hours.
the surface of the earth. This information is
After the third stage of the launch vehicle
recorded as it is taken and the time is
has burned out, the spacecraft goes through
indicated. As the satellite passes over a
an unpowered coast period lasting about five
ground station, the information is played
hours. During this time, tracking
back and recorded at the ground station. The
information from the tracking stations is
location of the satellite at the time the
used to determine the transfer orbit and
pictures were recorded is determined from
compute the optimum time to fire the
the ephemeris.
apogee motor. The degree to which a 24-
hour orbit is achieved is dependent upon the
For communication satellites to be accuracy of the tracking data and the
useful, it is necessary for the ground stations computations which are based upon them.
to know when the satellites are to appear
over the horizon and where to point the
Two techniques are presently being
antennas to utilize the satellite as soon as
used for tracking purposes. The first
possible. With antenna beam widths of a few
employs the radio interferometer principle
tenths of a degree, positioning or aiming an
and is known generally as the Minitrack
antenna becomes an exacting requirement.
satellite tracking system. Many of the
stations equipped for Minitrack are now
There is a demanding requirement being equipped with the Goddard Space
for tracking data when predictions of Flight Center range
position must be made with high accuracy
for the purpose of satellite recovery after re-
entry, or for the purpose of making
corrections to orbits. The Mercury project
flights are examples of the first requirement.
Both the astronaut and the command stations
had to be supplied with the proper times for
and range-rate system, which has certain To Satellite

advantages over the Minitrack system.
The National Aeronautics and Space

Administration operates a network of
stations all over the world to provide
tracking and data- acquisition functions for
the U.S. satellites. They are located at:
Blossom Point, Maryland
A Φ
Ft. Meyers, Florida
x y
Quito, Ecuador ηλ
Lima, Peru Fig. 5-3.—Illustration of radio
Antofagasta, Chile interferometer principle, where ηλ = base
line in wavelengths, A = total phase
Santiago, Chile
difference in wavelengths, Φ = angle from
Woomera, Australia base line to satellite in plane defined by
Esselen Park, South Africa antenna X, antenna Y, and satellite antenna.
San Diego, California* Basic interferometer equation: cos Φ = A/ηλ
St. Johns, Newfoundland
East Grand Forks, Minnesota accuracy, several pairs of antennas are
Fairbanks, Alaska sometimes used. At least one pair are
sufficiently close together to give
Winkfield, England
unambiguous information. Antennas on one
base line serve to define the angle in a plane
Figure 5-3 illustrates the radio defined by the base line and the satellite.
interferometer principle. Two antennas are Antennas on a base line perpendicular to the
located a ηλ apart. A radio signal received first define the angle of arrival in another
by these two antennas arrives with a phase plane containing the spacecraft and,
difference that depends upon the difference therefore, the direction of the spacecraft
in path lengths, A, to the two antennas. The from the station. Data from two or more
phase difference for a given angle of arrival, such stations then serve to fix the satellite
Φ, is proportional to the base-line length, i7. position.
If this distance is sufficiently great for high
accuracy, it is also possible to have points of
The range and range-rate method
ambiguity; that is, the same phase difference
uses a side-tone ranging system to determine
will be obtained for several angles of arrival.
the slant range to the satellite and the rate at
To resolve this ambiguity and still maintain which the range changes. This tracking
the necessary method
‘Station to be relocated to Goldstone Lake,

California.
watts which was achieved in the Relay

satellite.
involves modulating a carrier with several
frequencies and noting the phase shift in
transmitting to the spacecraft and back. The The disadvantage of frequency
lower frequencies serve to resolve any modulation is that it only allows one
ambiguities while the higher frequencies transmitting station to have access to the
produce the required precision. The transponder at a time, thus severely limiting
availability of both range and range-rate the flexibility of the satellite. To alleviate
from several stations permits a precise this difficulty, it has been proposed to use
determination of the orbits of a satellite. single-sideband transmission on the up link
and frequency modulation out of the
spacecraft. Thus each station could have its
COMMUNICATIONS own frequency slot for the up link and all
SATELLITES. — One of the major stations could receive the return signal.
applications of satellite technology has been
in the field of communications satellites.
The world-wide communications system is The ground station requirements are
far from adequate. Many circuits rely on particularly severe. Large. high-gain
high-frequency radio circuits for parts of antennas capable of very precise tracking are
their link. These circuits are subject to required. Furthermore, the station must be
fading and various other types of located in a quiet area away from surface
interference. Cables have fixed end-points microwave links and other interfering
and require a high volume of traffic to signals. The orbits must be high if the
justify them economically. Communications satellites are to be mutually visible for long
satellites can be used from any point that can periods from two ground stations.
justify a ground station. For these satellites
to be economically feasible, they must have
a long life.
The recent “comsats” (as many

communications satellites are called) have
employed (or will employ) ground stations
transmitting a frequency-modulated signal in
the 6000-Mc common-carrier band to the
satellite. In the satellite, the signal is
translated in frequency to the 4000-Mc
common-carrier band and retransmitted to
earth. Frequency modulation is used on both
the up and down links because it has the
advantages of allowing an increase in output
signal-to- noise ratio in return for a larger
segment of the radio spectrum. This
advantage is particularly helpful on the
down link because it is here that the system
is limited. Power and weight limitations in
the spacecraft have held the power output
from the spacecraft to the maximum of 10
This space may be used for notes.

Exercise Problems:
1. Consider a satellite communications system that must have a range of 5000 nautical miles
and operate at a frequency of 144 Mc. What will be the free-space attenuation of the
system?
2. Refer to Exercise 1. If the satellite transmitted power is 100 milliwatts, the satellite
antenna gain is -5 db, and the receiving antenna gain is 10 db, what is the total received
power in dbw?
3. What information is obtained from each of the three classes of telemetry data?
4. Briefly describe the principles of operation of the two techniques that are being employed
for spacecraft tracking.
5. What is a “comsat”?

1. 20 log 5000 = 73.98
20 log 144 = 43.17
20 log 24.7π = 37.80
--------
Lfs = 154 .95 ≅ 155 db
2. Transmitted power -10 dbw

Satellite antenna gain -5 db
Free-space loss -155 db
Receiver antenna gain +10 db
--------
Received power = -160 dbw
3. Class I data provides highly critical information concerning the operational

characteristics of the spacecraft. This class contains the most essential data from the
viewpoint of spacecraft operation. Class II data is that from the various subsystems which
are concerned with the experiments and demonstrations being accomplished. Class III
data is that which is to be recorded for future analysis and is not of immediate importance
to the mission.
4. The two techniques that are being employed for spacecraft tracking are the radio
interferometer (Minitrack) and the range and range-rate method. The Minitrack system
utilizes the phase difference between a signal arriving at two antennas that are separated
by a great distance. The range and range-rate system uses a multi-frequency modulated
carrier and measures the phase shift produced as the signal is transmitted to the spacecraft
and back to earth.
5. “Comsat” is the term applied to any communications satellite.

Introduction To Space Systems

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Introduction To Space Systems

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CR

© 1963 The Capitol Radio Engineering Institute E155

A real comprehension of space is difficult because we comprehend by comparison—-we

The answer to the question. “Why do

EXAMPLES OF SPACE SYSTEMS

Just as in any well-planned scientific This process requires careful design

3440 − ( 0.924 × 3440 )

h = 3440 (1 −0.924 ) / 0.924

system is usually called upon to transmit

The telemetry system has been

improvement will decrease the probability

Fig. 1—4.-—--A composite of launch vehicles. Courtesy NASA

This space may be used for notes.

2. That are the basic requirements of a satellite?

3. What are the three axes of a satellite?

4. What means are employed within a satellite to aid in tracking?

Answers to Exercise Problems:

3440 − ( cos 20 ° × 3440 ) 3440 − 3230

2. Requirements include proper instruments for measuring data, telemetry circuits to

The question “What keeps the Practically all geocentric orbits of

To a first and often very good Fig. 2—1.—Development. of the conic

definition, perigee and apogee are points in EARTH

of a heliocentric orbit, the point of the orbit

Fig. 2-2. —Representative geocentric orbits.

PERIOD, T, SIDREAL HOURS

ALTITUDE, h, NAUTICAL MILES

Figure 2-4 illustrates the inclination

Anyone who has walked up several Wv 2

 1 1 = 6.06 nautical miles / sec

measured from the center of the earth, while

Fig. 2-6.—Elliptical and circular orbits

consider that no energy is dissipated and Ap = a − c − re

It is convenient to express all distances in

Next, compute the kinetic energy attained in

k = 1.41 X 1016 (the constant of

1. What is the difference between a heliocentric orbit and a geocentric orbit?

4. Refer to Exercise 3. What is the velocity of the spacecraft?

Answers to Exercise Problems:

= 2.09 ×10 7 +0.0912 ×10 7

= 2.18 ×10 7 feet

2πro 6 / 28 × 2.18 ×10 7

5. A a = 3000 × 6080 = 18 .2 ×10 6 ft

A p = 650 ×6080 = 3.95 ×10 6 ft

deserve some attention. It is instructive to

Three phases of environmental The environment in which

An example of the importance of

important that the environmental conditions ordeal is analogous to designing a precision

the magnesium frame. Beginning at 200

Fig. 3—5. —Internal nose cone temperature due to aerodynamic heating.

the possibility of flashover is almost a incident on the spacecraft, and emissivity is

the design temperature when the satellite is

it was in July; (2) the absorptivity of the

When speaking of these vacuums, it Sublimation or evaporation presents

The problems caused by sublimation

The material that evaporates may be

leakage across the insulator can increase to a

Another phenomenon that occurs in

1. Why is reliability so important in space systems?

Answers to Exercise Problems:

The use or electronic equipment in Neither of these assumptions may be

assumptions. First, it assumes that

stage of the rocket will operate properly.

Of what use are statistics then in