Are All Cells Alike?
nucleus is the nucleolus where the assembly of
• All living things are made up of cells. Some
organisms are composed of only one cell. Other
organisms are made up of many cells.
Early microscopes
• Robert Hooke
• Looked at a thin slice of cork under a compound
microscope.
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek
• Viewed at pond water.
What is the cell theory?
• The cell theory states:
• All living things are composed of cells.
• Cells are the basic units of structure and
function in living things.
• New cells are produced from existing cells.
Electron microscopes
• Details as much as 1000 X
• Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM)
• Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM)
What are the characteristics of prokaryotes and
eukaryotes?
• Prokaryotic cells have genetic material that is
not contained in a nucleus.
• Eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus in which their
genetic material is separated from the rest of the
cell.
• A nucleus is a structure that contains the cell’s
genetic material in the form of DNA.
prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes
• Prokaryotes carry out every activity associated
with living things…..generally are bacteria.
• Eukaryotes are generally larger and more
complex…..generally are plants, animals, fungi,
and protists.
Division of Labor
• A cell is made up of many parts with different
functions that work together. Similarly, the parts
of a computer work together to carry out
different functions.
What are the functions of the major cell structures?
• Nucleus: contains nearly all the cell’s DNA and
the coded instructions for making proteins and
other important molecules and is surrounded by
the nuclear envelope made of two membranes.
• The DNA combines with protein to form
chromatin, which is found throughout the
nucleus. Chromatin condenses to form
chromosomes that have the genetic information
that is passed on. The small dense region in the
ribosomes begins.
What are the functions of the major cell structures?
• Ribosomes: where proteins are assembled based
on instruction sent from the nucleus.
• They are small particles of protein in the
cytoplasm.
What are the functions of the major cell structures?
• Endoplasmic Reticulum: the site where lipid
components of the cell membrane are
assembled, along with proteins and other
materials that are exported from the cell.
• Rough ER synthesizes proteins – called rough
because there are ribosomes on the surface.
• Smooth ER synthesizes lipids, detoxifies drugs
– called smooth because there are no ribosomes
on the surface.
What are the functions of the major cell structures?
• Golgi apparatus: modify, sort, and package
proteins and other materials from the ER for
storage in the cell or secretion outside the cell.
What are the functions of the major cell structures?
• Lysosomes: small organelles filled with
enzymes.
• Digest and breakdown lipids, carbs, and
proteins. Also breakdown used up organelles.
What are the functions of the major cell structures?
• Vacuoles: saclike structure that stores materials.
In plants the storage helps to keep the plant
upright.
What are the functions of the major cell structures?
• Mitochondria: convert the chemical energy
stored in food into compounds that are more
convenient for the cell to use.
• Have an inner membrane and an outer
membrane that are folded up inside. Has its own
DNA.
• Chloroplast: capture light energy from sunlight
and convert it into chemical energy by
photosynthesis.
• Surrounded by inner and out membrane with
stacks of membranes located inside. Has its own
DNA.
What are the functions of the major cell structures?
• Cytoskeleton: network of protein that maintains
shape and movement.
• Microfilaments: made of protein called actin.
• Microtubules: made of proteins called tubulins.
Also important for cell division where they form
centrioles that are only located in animal cells.
• Help build cilia and flagella….arranged in a 9+2
arrangement.
What are the functions of the major cell structures?
• Cytoskeleton: network of protein that maintains
shape and movement.
• Microfilaments: made of protein called actin.
• Microtubules: made of proteins called tubulins.
Also important for cell division where they form
centrioles that are only located in animal cells.
• Help build cilia and flagella….arranged in a 9+2
arrangement.
Prokaryotes and nuclei…
• Prokaryotes do not contain a nucleus. So, if the
nucleus controls most cell processes in
eukaryotes, how can prokaryotes live without a
nucleus?
What are the main functions of the cell membrane
and the cell wall?
• The cell membrane regulates what enters and
leaves the cell and also provides protection and
support.
• Cell membranes are made up of a double
layered sheet called a lipid bilayer.
• The main function of the cell wall is to provide
support and protection for the cell.
What happens during diffusion?
• Because diffusion depends upon random
particle movements, substances diffuse across
membranes without requiring the cell to use
energy.
• When the concentration of the solute is the same
throughout the system, the system has reached
equilibrium.
• Particles tend to move to an area of less
concentration until equilibrium is reached.
What is osmosis?
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a
selectively permeable membrane.
• Isotonic: “same strength”, concentrations are the
same on both sides of the membrane.
• Hypertonic: “above strength”
• Hypotonic: “below strength”
From Simple to More Complex
• Many multicellular organisms have structures
called organs that have a specific function and
work with other organs. Working together, these
organs carry out the life processes of the entire
organism.
What is cell specialization?
• Cells throughout an organism can develop in
different ways to perform different tasks.
• Unicellular organisms can do everything a
living organism can do except with one cell.
• Multicellular organisms depend on
communication and cooperation among
specialized cells.
What are the four levels of organization in
multicellular organisms?
• The levels of organization in a multicellular
organism are individual cells, tissues, organs,
and organ systems.
• Tissues: similar cells grouped into units.
• Organs: many groups of tissues working
together.
• Organ systems: group of organs that work
together to perform a specific function.
Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
• Plants and some other types of organisms are
able to use light energy from the sun to produce
food.
• Autotrophs produce their own food.
• Heterotrophs cannot use the sun directly so they
must obtain energy from the foods they
consume.
Chemical energy and ATP
• One of the principal chemical compounds that
cells use to store and release energy adenosine
triphosphate or ATP.
• ATP is adenine, a 5-carbon sugar called ribose,
and three phosphate groups.
• Energy is release by breaking the bond between
the 2nd and 3rd phosphate during a reaction.
Investigating Photosynthesis
• Van Helmont: after careful measurements of a
plant’s water intake and mass increase, he
concludes that trees gains most of their mass
from water
• Priestley: using a bell jar, a candle, and a plant,
he finds that the plant releases oxygen.
• Ingenhousz: find that aquatic plants produce
oxygen bubbles in the light but not in the dark.
 Concludes that plants need sunlight to produce
oxygen.
What did the experiments of van Helmont,
Priestley, and Ingenhousz reveal about how plants
grow?
The experiments performed by these scientists led
to work by other scientists who finally discovered
that in the presence of light, plants transform carbon
dioxide and water into carbohydrates, and they also
release oxygen.
What is the overall equation for photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis uses the energy of sunlight to
convert water and carbon dioxide into high energy
sugars and oxygen.
Light and pigments
In addition to water and carbon dioxide,
photosynthesis requires light and chlorophyll, a
molecule in chloroplasts.
Plants gather the sun’s energy with light absorbing
molecules called pigments. The principal pigment
is chlorophyll.
Inside a chloroplast
• Chloroplasts contain saclike photosynthetic
membranes called thylakoids.
• Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana.
• Proteins in the thylakoid membrane organized
chlorophyll and other pigments into clusters
called photosystems.
• The stroma is the region just outside of the
thylakoid membrane.
Electron carriers
• A carrier molecule is a compound that can
accept a pair of high energy electrons and
transfer them along with most of their energy to
another molecule in a process called the electron
transport chain.
• One of these is called NADP+
What happens in the light dependent reactions?
• The light dependent reactions produce oxygen
gas and convert ADP and NADP+ into the
energy carriers ATP and NADPH.
• Take place in the thylakoid membranes of
chloroplasts.
What is the Calvin cycle?
 The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH
from the light dependent reactions to produce high
energy sugars.
• Uses 6 molecules of carbon dioxide to produce a
single 6-carbon sugar molecule. As
photosynthesis proceeds, the cycle works
steadily removing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and turning out energy rich sugars.
Factors that affect photosynthesis
• Availability of water
• Temperature
• Intensity of light
Chemical energy and food
• A calorie is the amount of energy needed to
raise the temperature of 1g of water 1 degree
Celsius.
• Living things get the energy they need from
food. Both plant and animal cells carry out the
final stages of cellular respiration in the
mitochondria.
• The process of breaking down energy from
calories begins with glycolysis of cellular
respiration.
What is cellular respiration?
• Cellular respiration is the process that releases
energy by breaking down glucose and other
food molecules in the presence of oxygen.
• 6O2 + C6H12O6  6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
(LOOK FAMILIAR?)
What happens during the process of glycolysis?
• Glycolysis is the process in which one molecule
of glucose is broken in half, producing two
molecules of pyruvic acid, a 3-carbon
compound.
• After glycolysis the cells ends up netting 2 ATP
molecules – the cell invested 2 molecules of
ATP to begin the process and finished up with 4
ATP. One of the reactions sends 4 high energy
electrons to an electron carrier called NAD+ and
on to the electron transport chain.
What are the two main types of fermentation?
• The two main types of fermentation are
alcoholic fermentation (responsible for bread
dough rising):
• Pyruvic acid+NADH alcohol+CO2+NAD+
and lactic acid fermentation (responsible for many
foods):
• Pyruvic acid+NADH lactic acid+NAD+
The Krebs Cycle
• During the Krebs cycle, pyruvic acid from
glycolysis is broken down into carbon dioxide
in a series of energy extracting reactions.
• Carbon dioxide from this is the source of all of
the carbon dioxide in your breath.
• ATP that is produced is used for cellular
activities.
Electron transport chain
• The electron transport chain uses the high
energy electrons for the Krebs cycle to convert
ADP to ATP.
• NADH and FADH2
Totals…
• The total number of ATP molecules formed
during cellular respiration = 36 ATP!!
Getting Through
• Materials move through cells by diffusion.
Oxygen and food move into cells, while waste
products move out of cells. How does the size
of a cell affect how efficiently materials get to
all parts of a cell?
What problems does growth cause for cells?
• The larger a cell becomes, the more demands
the cell places on its DNA. In addition, the cell
has more trouble moving enough nutrients and
wastes across the cell membrane.
• As a cell increases in size, it usually does not
make extra copies of DNA.
• Rate of exchanging materials changes.
Division of the cell
• A growing cell will divide forming two
daughter cells in a process called cell division.
• Before this can happen the cell has to make
copies of its DNA.
Cell Cycle
• The cell cycle represents recurring events that
take place in the period of time from the
beginning of one cell division to the beginning
of the next. In addition to cell division, the cell
cycle includes periods when the cell is growing
and actively producing materials it needs for the
next division.
Chromosomes
• Human cells have 46 chromosomes that are
made up of DNA.
• Are not visible except during cell division (the
phases of mitosis).
• Made up of two identical sister chromatids
attached by a centromere that is located in the
center. Shaped like an ‘X’ held together at the
center with a “.”
What are the main events of the cell cycle?
• During the cell cycle, a cell grows, prepares for
division, and divides to form two daughter cells,
each of which then begins the cycle again.
• We call this entire resting period Interphase.
• The cell cycle consists of four phases – the M,
S, G1, and G2 phases.
• The first stage of the division of the cell nucleus
is mitosis.
• The second stage of division of the cytoplasm is
called cytokinesis.
What are the four phases of mitosis?
• Biologists divide the events of mitosis into four
phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase.
• Prophase: chromatin condenses into
chromosomes. The centrioles separate (only in
animal cells, there are no centrioles in plant
cells), and a spindle begins to form. The nuclear
envelope breaks down.
• Metaphase: the chromosomes line up across the
center of the cell. Each chromosome is
connected to a spindle fiber at its centromere.
What are the four phases of mitosis?
• Anaphase: the sister chromatids separate into
individual chromosomes and are moved apart.
• Telophase: the chromosomes gather at opposite
ends of the cell and lose their distinct shapes.
Two new nuclear envelopes will form.
How is the cell cycle regulated?
• Cyclins regulate the timing of the cell cycle in
eukaryotic cells.
• Proteins that respond to events inside the cell
are internal regulators.
• Proteins that respond to events outside the cell
are external regulators.
How are cancer cells different from other cells?
• Cancer cells do not respond to the signals that
regulate the growth of most cells.
• They divide uncontrollably and form masses of
cells called tumors.