SINGLE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS The objective of this chapter is to explore ac circuits and power in ac circuits. In ac circuits, the voltage and eurrent vary sinusoidally. The passive parameters of ac circuits are resistance R, inductance £, and capacitance C. The effect of each passive parameter is first considered before studying series or parallel ae circuits R 5.1 PURE RESISTIVE CIRCUIT = Figure 5.l(a) shows a circuit consisting of a resistance @ and an alternating voltage source. Let the alternating voliage = pcs wy be given by @ © €= E, sin at (5.1) Figure 1 (a) Raise cit are ‘The instantaneous current fin the circuit is given by Ohm's )Phes0° dager. aw as 62 where (5.3) Comparing Eqs. (9.1) and (5.2) it can be said that the phase angle between i and ¢ is zero. ‘Therefore, ¢ and / are in phase. Figure 5.1(b) shows the phasor diagram of the voltage and ‘current for the circuit given in Figure 5.1(a). Now if Zmm and Emmy be the rms values of and ¢, respectively, the maximum value of voltage and current can be written as Ig JT and Eq = J2E me Eos = Rms 4) Equation (5.4) represents the Ohm's law for a purely resistive circuit. The resistance offered by a conductor to flow of ac is greater than that offered to flow of de. This is due to the skin 12Single Phase AC Circuits U3 effect in conductors. The distribution of direct current over a conductor is uniform whereas it is not so for alternating current. There is a tendency for the alternating current to concentrate fon the outer surface of the conductor. It has been found that the high frequency alternating current is almost confined to the surface layer of the conductor. For example. in case of a bare copper wire of diameter 0.03149 em, the resistance to flow of altemating current of frequency LO8 MHz is 1.45 times that for direct current, If R, is the effective resistance offered by a conductor to alternating current flowing through it. it is given by (35) L 5.2 PURE INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT snot e Let us consider a pare inductor of inductance L D connected across an altemating voltage as shown in Figure 5.2(a). Let the current drawn by the circuit o » (instantaneous value) be represented by Figure S.2 (2) inducive cit end) phasor azpan i= Jy sinor 6.6) ‘The self-induced emf ey in the coil due to flow of current is given by ea (de LT ,008 01 (56a) Using KYL, e+ e=0 or € =~, = WLFy, C0801 or = WL fy sini + 90°) = Eq, sin(cot + 90°) 67) where Eq= OLly (5.8) From Egs. (5.6) and (57 from Eq, (5.8), we get Fy = Olly of YPEgy = OL PFs) Ln = Xl 69) it can be said that the current lags the voltage by an angle 90°. Now where X, = ob is called the inductive reactance of the inductor which opposes the flow of alternating current in the circuit, and Eq. (5.9), thus, represents the Ohm's law for a purely inductive circuit, Figure 5.2¢b) shows the phasor diagram of 2 purely inductive c L 53 PURE CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT - In Figure 5.3(a), a pure capacitor having capacitance E C is connected across ac supply voltage. Let the ac Se supply voltage be given by “s » e= Eq sina G10) Figures. {a) Capacitive circuit and (b) phasor cayan.LIA Newark Theory: Analysis and Synthesis ‘The instantaneous value of current in the circuit ot any time 1 is given by = 4924-4 ‘=a = GCd= CTO = CHE, inf = WCE y cOsoF = OCEq sin(er + 90°) (an) = I, Sin(or + 90°) (5.12) where In = OCEm (5.13) From Eqs. (5.10) and (5.12), it can be concluded that the current leads the voltage by an angle 90°, If Eqns A00 Iyng be the rms value of ¢ and i, from Eq. (5.13), we get Blam = @C(Y2 Eom) or nme = OCE me Em 21. or TE = acr% (5.14) Ens = Xeles (5.15) In Eq. (5.14), Xc is called the capacitive reactance. Equation (5.15) represents the Ohm's Jaw for a purely capacitive cireuit. Figure 5.3(0) shows the phasor diagram for a pure cupacitor. 5.4 SERIES AL CIRCUIT Let us consider an ac circuit having a non-inductive resistance R and an inductance L (without resistance) in series as shown in Figure 5.4. Let an ac voltage ¢ be applied across the series RL combination and the current at any instant inthe circuit be represented by /= Jy sin a, where {lis the instantaneous value of current at amy instant f, Iq is the maximum value of current and w= 2nf, f being the frequency of the alternating current. R L ¢ 7 o © Figure. (a) Seres RLcreit and () phasor diagram, 1k ‘The back emf induced in the inductor is, ¢, = ~L(di/dt). The applied emf e will overcome the voltage drop across the resistance (ex = i) as well as ¢,. Using KVL, we getSinge-Phase AC Circuits 115 a Rea or oF ee ene Since f= J. sin we, lq C08 01 * C= IR sin@t + OLl_ coswt = [4(R sino + ool cose’) = In(a 089 sinwt + a sin cosa) = Ina sin(or + 9) (5.16) where a cosp=R (5.17) and asing = ob 6.18) Squaring Eqs. (5.17) and (5.18) and adding, we get aeR+ al? a: {Poor 6.19) where tan g = OEor (5.20) Now from Eq. (5.16), = Ia sinor+ 9) = (Bae D 1, sinlor+tan 2 SARTO tyson ens 22) Bsr sun? #2) oa where Eq = YR 40D ty (9.22) The cue ers age ag yan ange wn (22 If Egm and Joy be the rms value of ¢ and i, from Eq. (5.22), we get qe =F aor (+ te) (multiplying both sides by 1/2) or Enns = VRE FOE lens faa 2 (Pea 22 oxy 116 _Necwork Theor: Analysis and Symihesis where Z is called the impedance of the circuit defined by the ratio of the rms value of voltage to the rms value of current. ‘The inverse of Z is called the admittance ¥, ie. ¥ = 1/2. Equation (5.23), 2= YR? + 0°? .is represented by a triangle as shown in Figure 55. 2 tart ME gggt Bo sign) OL woot Here, ¢ = tan RT OOS! Zz = sin! Rg R Power factor = cos @= > = Rg 2" ea +e Figure SS _Irpodance tangioot where X= wh. seties AL circuil. Example 5.1 A series RL circuit having R = 5 and L = 12 mH is connected to 230 V, $0 Hz single-phase supply. Calculate (i) the reactance, (ii) the impedance, (tit) the current drawn by the circuit, and (iv) the power factor of the circuit. Solution: (i) X = OL = 2xfL-= 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 12 x 10 = 3768 @ Gi) Z= (RP +x? = J5* +8768" = 6260 «iy p= 20 Gi) r= 29 2 36.748 COTS 676(iv) Angle between voltage and current, ¢ = tan” 2 Power factor = cos @ = cos 37° = 0.798 (lagging) 5.5 SERIES AC CIRCUIT Let us consider an ac circuit having a resistance R and a capacitance C in series. Let an alternating emf e be applied across the RC combination as shown in Figure 5.6. Let i be the current at any instant in the cireuit and q be the charge on the capacitor at the same instant. @ © Figure 58 (2) Seres ACcteuit and () phasor ciagra. I, sino (6.24) where Jy is the maximum value of current.Sirgle-Pase AC Cireuis_ 117 Applying KVL, we get aRis enRis d « nis} fidenis bf snore = Ri- GE coor 4, = Rl, sinor~ 7" cos@r ac oi (esnar- ease) 2 Let us put cos (5:26) and ah =asing 21) oc From Eqs. (5.26) and (5.27), we obtain 22 Re @ers oea ocr Using Eqs. (5.26) and (5.27), Eq, (5.25) can be written as € = In(a 0059 sineat ~ a sing cos wt) In(sin@t cos ~ cos a1 sing) or j= tan! eet OCR and tan Pais» ={ fea sin(oor — =(feoaia Ji snor- = -@ (5.28) we = (feols pe 29 at Malitying bot sides of Ba, (529) by Js, we ae odo (4 rest, “oe (e -) (fae = or118 Network Theory: Analyst and Synthase From Eqs. (5.24) and (5.28) thatthe pun ease vols ty a ange # whee 4 tan! (1/@9CR) as shown in the impedance triangle Sf Figure 37 om tie impedance angle th poner 1 factor ofthe circuit is given by cos @= R/Z (leading). > wed Example $.2 A series RC circuit having R= 49 and (C= 120 UF is connected to 230 V, 50 Hz single-phase supply. Calculate (i) the reactance, (ji) the impedance, Fgwe8.7 Inpodance tangle ol serios AC cist. the current drawn by the circuit, and (iv) the power factor of the circuit, 1 1 1 pO Xedos hes eas maw Solution: G) X Inf ~ Insiaxsoximxio> 6% iy Zz 4? + (26.54)? = 2684 2 230 w 1 857Awo gear (2) = ta! (2684) A, ¢ is postive. In this case the voltage leads the curent by an angle ¢. Figure 5.9(a) shows the phasor diagram, GD WoL < Ae. 6 is negative In this case the curent leads the voltage by an angle 4. ‘The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 5.9(b). Gi) If ane = 0°. In this case the voltage and the current are in phase. The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 5.9(c) When $= 0, Z= R. The impedance is purely resistive and minimum. On the other hand, the current is maximum. This is the condition of resonance for a series resonance cireuit. The phenomenon of resonance will be discussed in Chapter 6.120 Network Theory: Analyis and Synchests & & a 1 Ex} F:- Ee a ! le-ey fx pfFenB Fe fe fe © 1 1 1 Figure 9 Phasor dagrm of sees ALC crew: (a) aL > Te, e) ol < e, and(e) ob = Example $.3 A series RLC circuit is connected to a 230 V, $0 Hz single-phase ac supply. The value of R= 5 02, L = 13 mH and C= 140 HF. Find (i) the total reactance, (ii) the impedance, the current drawa, and (iv) the power factor of the circuit. Solution: (i) X_= @L=2 x 3.4 x 50 x 13 x 107 = 408 @ Xeo 1 = —___1 ___ ©° OC © 2 «314% 50x 140 x10 Since X¢> X,, the circuit is capac fc ~ X= 18.66 9 ee 5? +1866" = 1932 0 2274 @ 25 (leading) 5.7 PARALLEL AL CIRCUIT Figure 5.10 represents a parallel RL circuit excited by a sinusoid, ia v= Vq Sint, Since i= ig + ij, we can write eo Figuros.10. Pareel FL crc,Single-Phase AC Circuits 121 If R >> OL, 0 -+ 90% then sin(cot — 90°). With this relatively high resistance, the OL current drawn by the resistanee branch is low and then i ~ i; 5.8 PARALLEL ACCIRCUIT Figure 5.11 represents a parallel RC circuit excited by a sinusoid, v= Vq sinor. t vcd Mn + ac, cost Now, i= igh ice £4 C T= sina + WCVq, cose Q + Figures.t1 Perle! RGoreut (B= 00F vsttors 7 Rep ch, 0+ 9 then 1» ie= CV sin(at + 90°) - 1 Va gi and if, Ree Ge, 09 O% then i= je = FE sinor59 PARALLEL ALCCIRCUIT ‘The parallel RLC circuit is shown in Figure 5.12. 1 dv Here, Zfomecs 5 Meg, Vis . = sina - 2% cosar+ @CVy cose Figure 12 PeralelALCoreu Let i= sin(at + 8) =A sin@ot cos + A cos wt sind. Equating the coefficients of sin wr and cost, we get 1 ac-2 Ja Asina, and n= —2E x) Va sin(wr + 8) Obviously, the sign of the phase angle 0 depends on the relative values of eC and =~Single-Phace AC Circutte 123 From Eqs. (5.43) and (5.44), the instantaneous power is given by Poet = Endy Sin? FEala(l = c0s20 6.45) “The active power is given by pet [eid T g, mdm fF ste [ — cos2ondt (+ [[eos2m1ar=0) ] = Emme ‘The power waveform is positive throughout the cycle. This is because voltage and current are in phase. The power flows only in one direction. It is consumed in R and appears in the form of heat.5.12 POWER IN PURE INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS “The voltage leads the current by 90° in a pure inductive circuit. Let the voltage and current at any instant be respectively represented by n sin(oe + 90°) 646) sin (3.47) and is ‘The instantaneous power is given by peel = Enly Sin(at + 90°) sino = FE .b(2 cosor sinor) = FEnd sin 201 (5.48) Active power ff sno a 1 1 7. En = Zp Fale sh [cos 2or], = “Bate os2w7 ~ cos IPF alm ses [-c0s2enr], = F2* (cos2aT ~ cos0) 124 Nework Theory: Analyis and Symchesis Eales (cos 4x - cos Enbm cy _ PEF (oot 4x ~ cos 0) = FEB) = ‘Therefore, in a pore inductive circuit the active power supplied over a complete cycle averages out to zero. Reactive power ‘The power supplied to a reactance (inductive or capacitive) is termed reactive power. Unlike active power denoted by symbol P, the resetive power is denoted by symbol Q and given the name volt-amp-reactive (var). Let us now see how the reactive power is calculated. From Eq. (5.48), the peak value of instantaneous power is given by Ena - En tn One Fale = EF = Elie For a pure inductive circuit, Ex = Emm = Xili oF = Ee (5.49) =k 6.50)Also, a= 3 (8.51) Here Q, is the rate of change of reactive energy between the load and the source. By convention, Q1 is taken as positive and is called the lagging reactive power. 5.13 POWER IN PURE CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS ‘The voltage lags the current by 90° in a pure capacitive circuit. Let the voltage and current at any instant 1 be represented respectively by = E, sino (5:52) and i= J, sin(wr + 90°) (5.53) +. The instantaneous power can be written as pa cim LE gfal2 sina sit + 90°) dey, sin 207 (5.54) ‘Active powerSigle-Prate AC Grevits_ 128 A am(1— 1) = (5.55) Reactive power From Eq, (5.54), the peak value of instantaneous power ean be written as Enln _ Ex I Pos Sate = Oe Te = Beal, co SE ET = Eel For a purely capacitive circuit, Eyes ® Eo= Xele * Qc* Eele (5.56) = BXe 557) ve or Oce (5.58) Here Qcis the rate of change of reactive power between the load and the source. By convention, Oc is taken as negative and is called the leading reactive power. 5.14 POWER IN A GENERAL SERIES CIRCUIT For a passive ac circuit, let the voltage and current at any instant 1 be given by e=E, sinor 6.59) and f= Jy sin(ent = 9) (5.60) where 9 is the phase difference between the voltage and the current. If gis ~ve, current leads the voltage. ‘The instantaneous power p is given by peel = Enln sin ot (or-9) FF [2 sina sin(wr— 99} ‘mfnlcos $ cos(2a~ 9)) ‘The average power P is given by -if Pat Poa , = if Fale (cosg - cos(2ar - ¢)]dt126 Network Theong: Anatysis and Synthesis Fale [ [leesoar ~ fetta] _ Ele r x cos9 x T [ef cos(a0r pds =0 2 E = FTE Oe Eel cost 661) ‘The product of Ey Fy is called the apparent power and P is called the true or real power. : P= Apparent power x cos¢ 6.62) or ‘True(real) power = Apparent power x Power factor 6.63) the product of rms values of voltage and current with the cosine of the angle between them (ie. the power factor) is called the real power (or true power) denoted by symbol P. 5.15 REACTIVE POWER We can now generalize our previous definition and state that the product of rms values of voltage and current with the sine of the angle between them is called the reactive power Q. = Enmslres sing (5.64) ‘The reactive power is also called the wattless power or quadrature power. The following table represents the different expressions of power in ac series circuits: Circuit Power Jactor Real power ‘Reactive power Apparent power P= Eqealers 6089 Q= Eqralmms Sind S= YP? 40? R 1 Enatoms 0 L ° ° Eto (188) c 0 0 Enslas (lead) RL cos (lag) Elem £059 Eat SiN (108) RC cos¢ (lead) Emule 6056 Emmi Sing (ead) Estas RLC 6086 (lag) Elam €088 ——Emaln Sin (108) Ela cos (lead) Emule 6086 Emule Sing (lead) Enaleru Ain phase) Exaalos 0 Elen 5.16 POWER TRIANGLE ‘The geometrical representation of the apparent power $, the average power (true powerfreal power) P and the reactive power Q is called the power triangle. Figure 5.13(a) shoves the power triangle for an inductive load Similarly, the power triangle for a capacitive load is shown in Figure 5.13(b)SinglePhase AC Creutts 127 ee Pe @ o Figures.13. Powe ange: (2)inuctance dominated oad and (b capactance dominated oat. 5.17 COMPLEX POWER The powers S, P, and Q of a power triangle canbe obsaned fram the product Vi", where 1 is the conjugate of /. It is called the complex power S. For a capacitive load, let V=Veme® and 1 = lene e*AO* Seve Vics ¢lpgg e°KO*®? = Versi @# = Vraslone (C089 j sing) = Vasulyrs O89 = jVinalems SING P-jQSimilarly for an inductive load, let V= Vans e/* and 1 = Img €°4 ‘ sew Vinca 10-0 = Vinwlms Virals (€089 + fing) = Vinaln €989-+ Vinal 50 =P+i0 By convention, +0 indicates lagging reactive power while ~Q indicates leading reactive power, The inductive load absorbs the lagging reactive power and the capacitive load supplies the lagging reactive power. In other words, the inductive load supplies the leading reactive power ‘whereas the capacitive load absorbs the leading reactive power. 5.18 ADDITIONAL SOLVED EXAMPLES: ‘Example 5.5 In. series circuit containing a pure resistance and a pure inductance, the current and voltage are given as: i= 8 singitrt 2B) and v(t) = 15 sinairs Sy 312B_Necwork Theon Analyis and Synthesis (i) What is the impedance of the circuit? Gi) What is the value of the resistance? (ii) What is the value of the inductance? (iv) What is the average power drawn by the circuit? (v) What is the power factor of the circuit? Solution: Phase angle of cent = 2 = 120%; Phase angle of voltage = = = 150%, Hence, the current lags the voltage by an angle of 30°. It means that it is an inductive circuit. Also, @=2nf=314 + f= 50 He 2 5) aa ree } x2semsw (v) Power factor = cos 30° = 0.866 (lagging). Example 5.6 Ina given series RL circuit, R = 2.5 9 and L= 0.2 H. Find (i) the current throughthe circuit and (i) the power factor if an alternating voltage 230 2 30°, 50 Hz is applied across the cirouit, Solution: X,=2nfL=6289 and |Z|= RP +X} = 2.85.2 = Xu, S285, ge 87.72 tand = He = SES 22512. 9= 87.72 a 2 = 285281.7" 0 1a ¥ 2 20230 = 36592-5772" Z * Gas 2e77F (ii) The phase angle between voltage and current = $7.72° + 30° = 87.72" 2 Power factor = cos 87.72° = 0.039 (lagging) Example 5.7 A two-element series circuit is connected across an ac source given by @ = 200fZsin(314r + 20°). The curent in the circuit then is found to be 1 = 10,/Zcost314s ~ 25°). Determine the parameters of the circuit. Solution: i = 10Y2 cos(3141— 25°) = 10Y2 sin(314¢ ~ 25° + 90° Also, = 200J2 sin(3141 + 20°) 10/2 sin(3141 + 65°)130 Network Theory: Analysis and Synthesis 3x10? _ 3x10" : = = 2130 or Rat y= BOO = STS Ry2133- R= 133-5283.0 Asin, Pk + Xia) =2 x 10° 2x10? w Rugs iy HE Now. Xig =2 3.14 x 50 x 0015 = 4.71 2 Kig = 8865 ~ Xip = 8865 ~ 4.71 = 4155 @ Xia. iss 1A” Sap > Teaiaxsy = OO? H . Zu= (ROAD, = (Seas = 650.0 nd y= (Beah = [PTA = 9503 0 2 PD. across A = [Zq = 15.02 x 6.50 = 97.63 and PD. across B= [Zy = 15.02 x 9.543 = 143.336 V Example 5.10 A certain inductive coil takes 15 A when the supply voltage is 230 V, 50 Hz. If the frequency is changed to 40 Hi, the current increases to 17.2 A. Calculate the resistance and the inductance of the coil Solution: Let R be the resistance and L the inductance of coil. * ZR +oP Case bt v . BO a= 7 Fs 2. (2307 oe Re af? =(2) or R? + 9BS96L? = 235.11 @ Again, Ri oll? or R? + 63101441? = 178.81 i) From (i) and (ii), L=398mH and R= 8884.0 Example 5.11 An air-cored choking coil dissipates 200 W when connected to a 200 V. 50 Hz supply mains. It takes a current of 3 A. A second coil, taking a current of 2 A dissipatesSingle Phase AC Circuits 131 270 W when connected 10 the same supply. Calculate the current and the total power consumed when the coils are connected in series across the same supply. Solution: First coil: 200 P=200W=ifR=39KR or Ri 229 Let X; de the reactance Ve hz, oe 10 =3{@mPa = x) =028510 Second coil: P20 W=iih=2xR oo Re m 652 Let Xz be the reactance 2 20 = 2S AP > X= 73781 0 When connected in series: ReRy+ R= 89.72% and X= Xy + Xp = 136.635 2 , = Te we a Za YR +X? = 1634582 and yeaase 7 1223.4 Power consumed = FR = 134.2 W ‘Example $.12 A tungsten filament bulb rated at 500 W, 100 V is to be connected in series with ‘a capacitance, across 220 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (i) the value of the capacitor such that the voltage across the bulb and the power consumed by the bulb are according to the rating of the bulb, and (ii) the power factor of current drawn from the supply. ion: 500, Solution: Rated curent, T= 50 ws A wo Ve = $220" 1007 = 196 V Now, [X= 196 of SXe= 196 = X= 392 2 1 or A ni2 = coat aC uF cae =. Ve. 100 _ w Power factor = cos 9= YE = 100 = 0.454 (leading) Example 5.13 A voltage v = 120 sin(314) is applied to an RC circuit consisting of a 25 @ resistor and an 80 HF capacitor in series. Find the followings: (i) the expression for the current, }) power consumed, and (iii) the potential difference across the capacitor when the current is ‘one-third of its maximum value,