Physics 451 Fall 2004

Homework Assignment #4 — Solutions

Textbook problems: Ch. 2: 2.5.11, 2.6.5, 2.9.6, 2.9.12, 2.10.6, 2.10.11, 2.10.12

Chapter 2

2.5.11 A particle m moves in response to a central force according to Newton’s second law

m~¨r = r̂ f (~r )

Show that ~r × ~r˙ = ~c, a constant, and that the geometric interpretation of this leads
to Kepler’s second law.

Actually, ~r × ~r˙ is basically the angular momentum, L

~ = ~r × p~ = m~r × ~r˙ . To show
~ is constant, we can take its time derivative
that L

~˙ = d (m~r × ~r˙ ) = m~r˙ × ~r˙ + m~r × ~¨r

L
dt

The first cross-product vanishes. So, by using Newton’s second law, we end up
with
~˙ = ~r × r̂ f (~r ) = (~r × ~r ) f (~r ) = 0
L
r

This indicates that the angular momentum L ~ is a constant in time (ie that it is
~
conserved). The constant vector ~c of the problem is just L/m. Note that this
proof works for any central force, not just the inverse square force law.
For the geometric interpretation, consider the orbit of the particle m
dr

The amount of area swept out by the particle is given by the area of the triangle

dA = 12 |~r × d~r |

So the area swept out in a given time dt is simply

 
dA d~r  1
= 2 ~r ×  = 2 |~r × ~r˙ |

1 
dt dt

Since this is a constant, we find that equal areas are swept out in equal times.
This is just Kepler’s second law (which is also the law of conservation of angular
momentum).
2.6.5 The four-dimensional, fourth-rank Riemann-Christoffel curvature tensor of general
relativity Riklm satisfies the symmetry relations

Riklm = −Rikml = −Rkilm

With the indices running from 0 to 3, show that the number of independent compo-
nents is reduced from 256 to 36 and that the condition

Riklm = Rlmik

further reduces the number of independent components to 21. Finally, if the com-
ponents satisfy an identity Riklm + Rilmk + Rimkl = 0, show that the number of
independent components is reduced to 20.

Here we just have to do some counting. For a general rank-4 tensor in four
dimensions, since each index can take any of four possible values, the number of
independent components is simply

independent components = 44 = 256

Taking into account the first symmetry relation, the first part

Riklm = −Rikml

indicates that the Riemann tensor is antisymmetric when the last pair of indices
is switched. Thinking of the last pair of indices as specifying a 4×4 antisymmetric
matrix, this means instead of having 42 = 16 independent elements, we actually
only have 21 (4)(3) = 6 independent choices for the last index pair (this is the
number of elements in an antisymmetric 4 × 4 matrix). Similarly, the second part
of the first symmetry relation

Riklm = −Rkilm

indicates that the Riemann tensor is antisymmetric in the first pair of indices. As
a result, the same argument gives only 6 independent choices for the first index
pair. This accounts for

independent components = 6 · 6 = 36

We are now able to handle the second condition

Riklm = Rlmik

By now, it should be obvious that this statement indicates that the Riemann
tensor is symmetric when the first index pair is interchanged with the second
 index pair. The counting of independent components is then the same as that for
a 6 × 6 symmetric matrix. This gives

independent components = 21 (6)(7) = 21

Finally, the last identity is perhaps the trickiest to deal with. As indicated in the
note, this only gives additional information when all four indices are different.
Setting iklm to be 0123, this gives

R0123 + R0231 + R0312 = 0 (1)

As a result, this can be used to remove one more component, leading to

independent components = 21 − 1 = 20

We can, of course, worry that a different combination of iklm (say 1302 or some-
thing like that) will give further relations that can be used to remove additional
components. However, this is not the case, as can be seen by applying the first
to relations.
Note that it is an interesting exercise to count the number of independent com-
ponents in the Riemann tensor in d dimensions. The result is

1 2 2
independent components for d dimensions = 12 d (d − 1)

Putting in d = 4 yields the expected 20. However, it is fun to note that putting
in d = 1 gives 0 (you cannot have curvature in only one dimension) and putting
in d = 2 gives 1 (there is exactly one independent measure of curvature in two
dimensions).

2.9.6 a) Show that the inertia tensor (matrix) of Section 3.5 may be written

Iij = m(r2 δij − xi xj ) [typo corrected!]

for a particle of mass m at (x1 , x2 , x3 ).

Note that, for a single particle, the inertia tensor of Section 3.5 is specified as

Ixx = m(r2 − x2 ), Ixy = −mxy, etc

Using i = 1, 2, 3 notation, this is the same as indicating


m(r2 − x2i ) i = j
Iij =
−mxi xj i=6 j
 We can enforce the condition i = j by using the Kronecker delta, δij . Similarly,
the condition i 6= j can be enforced by the ‘opposite’ expression 1 − δij . This
means we can write

Iij = m(r2 − x2i )δij − mxi xj (1 − δij ) (no sum)

distributing the factors out, and noting that it is safe to set xi xj δij = x2i δij , we
end up with

Iij = mr2 δij − mx2i δij − mxi xj + mx2i δij = m(r2 δij − xi xj )

Note that there is a typo in the book’s version of the homework exercise!

b) Show that
Iij = −Mil Mlj = −milk xk ljm xm

where Mil = m1/2 ilk xk . This is the contraction of two second-rank tensors and
is identical with the matrix product of Section 3.2.

We may calculate

−Mil Mlj = −milk xk ljm xm = −mlki ljm xk xm

Note that the product of two epsilons can be re-expressed as

lki ljm = δkj δim − δkm δij (2)

This is actually the BAC–CAB rule in index notation. Hence

−Mil Mlj = −m(δkj δim − δkm δij )xk xm = −m(δkj xk δim xm − δkm xk xm δij )
= −m(xj xi − xk xk δij ) = m(r2 δij − xi xj ) = Iij

Note that we have used the fact that xk xk = x21 + x22 + x23 = r2 .

2.9.12 Given Ak = 21 ijk Bij with Bij = −Bji , antisymmetric, show that

Bmn = mnk Ak

Given Ak = 21 ijk Bij , we compute

mnk Ak = 12 mnk kij Bij = 12 kmn kij Bij = 12 (δmi δnj − δmj δni )Bij
= 12 (Bmn − Bnm ) = Bmn

We have used the antisymmetric nature of Bij in the last step.

2.10.6 Derive the covariant and contravariant metric tensors for circular cylindrical coordi-
nates.

There are several ways to derive the metric. For example, we may use the relation
between Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates

x = ρ cos ϕ, y = ρ sin ϕ, z=z (3)

to compute the differentials

dx = dρ cos ϕ − ρ sin ϕ dϕ, dy = dρ sin ϕ + ρ cos ϕ dϕ, dz = dz

The line element is then

ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = (dρ cos ϕ − ρ sin ϕ dϕ)2 + (dρ sin ϕ + ρ cos ϕ dϕ)2 + dz 2
= dρ2 + ρ2 dϕ2 + dz 2

Since ds2 = gij dxi dxj [where (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (ρ, ϕ, z)] we may write the covariant
metric tensor (matrix) as  
1 0 0
gij =  0 ρ2 0 (4)
0 0 1
Alternatively, the metric is given by gij = ~ei · ~ej where the basis vectors are

∂~r
~ei =
∂xi
Taking partial derivatives of (3), we obtain

~eρ = x̂ cos ϕ + ŷ sin ϕ

~eϕ = ρ(−x̂ sin ϕ + ŷ cos ϕ)
~ez = ẑ

Then
gρρ = ~eρ · ~eρ = (x̂ cos ϕ + ŷ sin ϕ) · (x̂ cos ϕ + ŷ sin ϕ) = cos2 ϕ + sin2 ϕ = 1
gρϕ = ~eρ · ~eϕ = (x̂ cos ϕ + ŷ sin ϕ) · ρ(−x̂ sin ϕ + ŷ cos ϕ)
= ρ(− cos ϕ sin ϕ + sin ϕ cos ϕ) = 0
etc . . .

The result is the same as (4).

The contravariant components of the metric is given by the matrix inverse of (4)
 
1 0 0
g ij =  0 ρ−2 0 (5)
0 0 1
2.10.11 From the circular cylindrical metric tensor gij calculate the Γk ij for circular cylindrical
coordinates.

We may compute the Christoffel components using the expression

Γijk = 21 (∂k gij + ∂j gik − ∂i gjk )
However, instead of working out all the components one at a time, it is more effi-
cient to examine the metric (4) and to note that the only non-vanishing derivative
is
∂ρ gϕϕ = 2ρ
This indicates that the only non-vanishing Christoffel symbols Γijk are the ones
where the three indices ijk are some permutation of ρϕϕ. It is then easy to see
that
Γρϕϕ = −ρ, Γϕρϕ = Γϕϕρ = ρ
Finally, raising the first index using the inverse metric (5) yields
1
Γρ ϕϕ = −ρ, Γϕ ρϕ = Γϕ ϕρ = (6)
ρ
Note that the Christoffel symbols are symmetric in the last two indices.

2.10.12 Using the Γk ij from Exercise 2.10.11, write out the covariant derivatives V i ;j of a
~ in circular cylindrical coordinates.
vector V

Recall that the covariant derivative of a contravariant vector is given by

V i ;j = V i ,j + Γi jk V k
where the semi-colon indicates covariant differentiation and the comma indicates
ordinary partial differentiation. To work out the covariant derivative, we just
have to use (6) for the non-vanishing Christoffel connections. The result is
V ρ ;ρ = V ρ ,ρ + Γρ ρk V k = V ρ ,ρ
1
V ϕ ;ρ = V ϕ ,ρ + Γϕ ρk V k = V ϕ ,ρ + Γϕ ρϕ V ϕ = V ϕ ,ρ + V ϕ
ρ
z z z k z
V ;ρ = V ,ρ + Γ ρk V = V ,ρ
V ρ ;ϕ = V ρ ,ϕ + Γρ ϕk V k = V ρ ,ϕ + Γρ ϕϕ V ϕ = V ρ ,ϕ − ρV ϕ
1
V ϕ ;ϕ = V ϕ ,ϕ + Γϕ ϕk V k = V ϕ ,ϕ + Γϕ ϕρ V ρ = V ϕ ,ϕ + V ρ
ρ
V z ;ϕ = V z ,ϕ + Γz ϕk V k = V z ,ϕ
V ρ ;z = V ρ ,z + Γρ zk V k = V ρ ,z
V ϕ ;z = V ϕ ,z + Γϕ zk V k = V ϕ ,z
V z ;z = V z ,z + Γz zk V k = V z ,z
Note that, corresponding to the three non-vanishing Christoffel symbols, only
three of the expressions are modified in the covariant derivative.