FLYING OVER THE RAILS

A pavilion on the outskirts of Haarlem

by Despoina Papadopoulou
Delft University of Technology
Faculty of Architecture
Master in Architecture, Urbanism & Building Sciences

Architectural Engineering: Design Research Studio

Course code: AR3AE010

Academic Year 2010-2011, MSc3

Course Coordinator: Ir.J.F.Engels
Building Technology Instructor: Frank Schnater

page ।2
Contents
preface. a research-driven design
introduction
Site analysis. a
The need for a cycle flying-over
The Pavilion’s architecture. b
A “light” structure communicating with the user-visitor

research topics
Architextiles a
“Textile tectonics and Soft Constructivism” b
Responsive Architecture c

prime research questions

Light-emitting mesh a
- The electronic devices
A new structural morphology type by carbon fiber material b
- Strong and liquid
Harvesting energy from vibrations c
- The piezoelectric effect
Light-emitting mesh d
- The fabric mesh

designing the pavilion

Structural analysis - Why sandwich material? a
The bridge - A textile vessel b
A responsive textile mesh c
Founding the pavilion d
Flying over the rails e

conclusions
literature study
page ।5
preface
This report presents the results of the
research that was done during the first
quarter of the MSc3 semester, for the
Design Research Studio. The main fo-
cus of the course is to coordinate en-
gineering questions and architectural
design, introducing the relation and bal-
ance between research and architec-
tural design. Therefore, integrating the
findings of the research into the design
of the particular project was the lead-
ing point and not functional or con-
ceptional aspects as in many cases.
The project involved the design of a
pavilion located along the canal –rail-
way axis that connects Haarlem with
a research-driven design
Amsterdam city, near the Oostpoort of
Haarlem. The specific research ques-
tions which would be implemented in
the design were chosen individually and
answered with the guidance of a spe-
cialized Building Technology teacher
and the main architect coordinator.
The results of this interdisciplinary approach
together with the site analysis will raise
the starting point and the (new) research
questions for the Graduation Project.
 Kustwaarts map, Arcam Publicaties, 2009

Aerial phtographaph of Spaarnewoude Station

page ।7
introduction
a. Site analysis.The need for a cycle flying-over
The site for the pavilion is part of the
general area undergoing development
called: Kustwaarts. This area, the coast
triangle between the cities of Ijmuiden,
Zandvoort and Amsterdam was brought
to the forefront by an exhibition of AR-
CAM held on summer 2009. This ver-
satile piece of land comprises of suc-
cessive landscapes, cultural heritage
places, urban areas, industry and rec-
reation. The sequence of fields reveal
traces of the past and at the same time
a glance into the future. This is not a
unique example. Similar situations of
suburban areas under pressure due to
urban sprawl and port-industrial devel-
opment exist everywhere in Netherlands.
A glance at the map of Kustwaarts cre-
ated by ARCAM makes clear that most
development occurs along the margins;
those are the banks of the North Sea
and the railway line between Amsterdam
and Haarlem. But besides the already
finished developments -like the Sugar
City- or the planned ones, there are
also the unknown future developments
RIGHT
Cycling over the rails
that will follow the general trend towards
further densification. It is exactly on the
site along this crucial line between Haar-
lem and Spaarnewoude Station where
the pavilion had to be located, inclin-
ing towards the changes to take place.
The railway between Haarlem and Am-
sterdam was built in 1839 and it was
the first railway in the Netherlands. Until
then the axis was a waterway, with boats
and large ships being the main connec-
tion and transport means. It was not be-
fore 1920 that cars were introduced and
later on dominated the transport sector.
Today one can see along the axis the
combination of the three strip elements:
rails, water and motorway lines running
the distance between the two cities. As
it can be easily observed, the cross
passing of the pedestrians and cyclists
isn’t facilitated by these traffic venues.
Particularly for cyclists, the distance be-
tween connections is long. That is why
the decision of a pavilion having the
function of a cycle flying-over was made.
 A light arched spans bridge sketch

Building over the rails

A responsive pavilion-bridge

page ।9
b. The Pavilion’s architecture. A “light” structure
communicating with the user-visitor.
A pavilion is usually a free-standing struc-
ture, an object of pleasure, a space ded-
icated to relaxation and view. Contempo-
rary examples have given additional uses
to such structures: gathering, playing,
experiencing, sensing, communicating,
passing over-through-under, consuming,
presenting, exhibiting, performing etc.
The decision of designing a cycle flying-
over route in relation with the pavilion
was followed by the image of a gate for
the city of Haarlem; a pavilion that would
generate awareness of the changeable
and unstable character of the area. The
user/visitor is here the “voyager” but
also the spectator. The first one has a
sensorial voyage passing the bridge over
the pavilion and the second experienc-
es the responses of this event imprint-
ed on the pavilion itself. This interac-
tion brought to the front of the research
the topic of responsive architecture.
RIGHT
The Spiral. Sheffield parkway bridge proposal
Commonly adjectives like “ephemeral”,
“light”, “mobile”, accompany the type of
a pavilion’s architecture. The dynamic
character and the functionality of the
case in question described above were
to be combined with the aesthetic val-
ues of a light structure. This was partially
due to the realization of the vagueness
of the characterization “light” itself and a
desire to further research on it. So what
is considered light in architecture? It can
be a façade “liberated from weight”, a
structure the load-bearing elements of
which is reduced to minimum or even
merely a sketch having a light impres-
sion. But how can a design incorporate
all these aspects? Textile architec-
ture was promising to give an answer.
Subsequently to these two lines of re-
sponsive and textile architecture, the
question of how to integrate, attach or em-
bed responsive elements in a light – tex-
tile structure was of a prime importance.
 Snowdon Aviary, London, Lord Snowdon, 1965

Rosa Parks Transit Center, FTL Engineering Studio, 2009

Olympiastadion, Munchen, Frei Otto, 1968

page ।11
research topics
One of the aims of the pavilion’s design
had the scope of stretching the notion of
a textile/fabric architecture and open up
to known and new territories of research.
New cultural, entertainment and leisure
habits raise new architectural questions
to be answered through a more adapt-
able, interactive, multimedia functional
and dynamic architecture, driving the
search for new architextile forms and
aesthetics. Accordingly, the ever-chang-
ing typology of a pavilion seems a fertile
ground for this research to be developed.
“Technology” and “textile” both derive
from the Latin “texere” which means to
weave, to connect or to construct. Ar-
chitextiles was the title given to the spe-
cial edition of the magazine Architectural
Design of November/December 2006
communicating the contemporary trend of
a more networked, dynamic, interactive,
ABOVE
Multihalle Mannheim, Mutschler Architects, Frei
Otto, Ove Arup, 1975
RIGHT
Rosa Parks Transit Center, FTL ES, 2009
a. Architextiles
communicative and multifunctional spa-
tial design. The unique aesthetics of the
textile design and their ability to embody
a composite range of dynamic character-
istics like lightness, flow, flexibility, skin,
complexity, transparency and move-
ment go with the flow of architecture’s
shift towards a less static state. Archi-
tects, designers, engineers, theorists
and materials specialists working nowa-
days on new methodologies of fabricat-
ing or in better words: weaving space,
challenging the traditional practices.
In contrast with the discrete content of
fabric architecture of the last decades,
textile -like light- can have a variety of in-
terpretations: knitting together unexpect-
ed materials, applying textile techniques,
sculpting woven or other kind of textile-
like spatial structures, creating tensile
surfaces or forming porous buildings etc.
Embroidered out of suture thread, this piece of textile would be sandwiched in an artificial shoulder joint.
The starburst shape, 5.75 inches wide, allows the surgeon different options for securing the joint in place.

Vascular graft of woven, crimped polyester with bovine collagen is used in

aortic surgery

page ।13 Apan’s Sakase Adtech triaxial carbon fiber fabric


But even textiles are themselves multi-
dimensional: membranes, nonwovens,
meshes, agglomeration of fibers, fabric
composites and other hybrids. Exhibitions
like “Extreme Textiles” at the Cooper-
Hewitt, New York (2005) and “Skin and
Bones” in the Contemporary Museum of
Modern Art, LA (2006-07) and projects
like the recent Expo Swiss Pavilion or the
NOX architects’ Maison Follie are rep-
resentative of this variety and reveal “a
textile way of thinking” (Lars Spuybroek).
Advances in biotechnology, nanotech-
nology, electronics, 3-D weaving, shape
memory alloys and biomimetics helped
greatly to new material science and tech-
nologies offering extraordinary proper-
ties and high-performance products. For
example, new materials such as glass,
ceramic and carbon fibers, aramids, liq-
uid crystal polymers and high-modulus
polyethylenes are able to perform under
extreme forces and combined into com-
posites. The unprecedented and surpris-
ing range of properties of such super-
textiles means they are not only able
to substitute and surpass older materi-
als, but are offering “a new materiality
to architecture” (Mark Garcia, AD, 78).
Diller + Scofidio’s Brain Coat (2002) for
their artificial Cloud ‘Blur’ in Switzerland,
Enric Ruiz Geli’s Hotel Habitat (2006)
and ONL’s kinetic architectural experi-
ABOVE
Textile Growth Monument in Tilburg,
Ilona Lénárd, 2005
MIDDLE
Son-o-House, NOX Architects, 2004
BELOW
Maison Folie, NOX Architects, 2004
ments such as ‘Muscle Body’ (2005)
and the Textile Growth Monument in
Tilburg (2005) have all combined new
intelligent materials and interactive
technologies with textile techniques.
Socio-cultural and economic changes
also contribute to this shift towards textile
architecture. This is because conven-
tional architecture proves to be too slow
to keep up with the speed of changes
in needs and/or in culture. For Herzog
& de Meuron, fashion’s speed presents
an interesting paradigm for architectural
practice: “in the world of fashion … things
move faster than in architecture – get-
ting dressed, getting undressed, trans-
forming oneself, giving shape, trying out
new sculptural possibilities, examining
the quality of surface texture, inventing a
new style, and discarding it again.” Hav-
ing the same logic of immediate response
to the need of clothing the body, spray-
on technology, demonstrated in London
in 2010, creates a seamless fabric that
may have applications in medicine as
well as fashion. Manel Torres, a Span-
ish designer, joined forces with scientists
at Imperial College London to invent the
spray which allows for clothing that can be
worn, washed and worn again. The spray
consists of short fibers that are mixed
into a solvent, allowing it to be sprayed
from a can or high-pressure spray gun. page ।14
 Metabolic Media metal netting with embedded printed OLED’s, L.E.Walker, M.
Gmachl, for the London Design Festival 2008.

page ।15
A recently developed category of tex-
tile materials are the electronic textiles.
These are energy harvesting skins that
interact with the environment in differ-
ent ways, depending on the technologies
and materials used. As it was mentioned
above, one of the basic lines followed for
the design of the pavilion was its inter-
action and particularly its responsiveness
to the environment-users. The other was
the lightness of its structure. The crea-
tive approach of electronic textiles and
the innovative interactive spatial qualities
they can offer were thought adequate
for this reason. Moreover, their textile,
lightweight nature contributes to the light
image desired for the pavilion and that
is why they consist part of this research.
RIGHT
‘Solar Ivy’ Photovoltaic Leaves, SMIT, 2009
There are two main categories of elec-
tronic textiles. In the first one the elec-
tronic devices/energy harvesting ma-
terials are attached on textiles while
in the second they are embedded into
them. As it concerns the first category,
the relative new materials most com-
monly attached to textile skins are the
Solar Cells. These can be Silicon (old-
er version), Thin Film, Organic or Dye
Solar Cells (dye as absorption mate-
rial) which are the latest version. Al-
though DSC have a low cost production,
a fabrication that includes environmental
friendly materials and an overall light-
weight and flexible quality, they have
a relatively lower efficiency, planned to
increase to 10% in the future (still two
times lower than Silicon Solar Cells).
page ।16
page ।17

However, the initial idea of the pavilion
demanded that it would interact with the
users-voyagers of the bridge and not
essentially with the environment, in the
case of DSC with sunlight. That is why
the research diverged from the solar-
energy harvesting devices into other
electronic devices that could respond
emitting light with the adequate sup-
ply of energy. Such electronic devices
that can be easily attached on textiles
are LEDs. Inspired by the ambience of
the sheltered meshed environments of
Dominique Perrault and Ryohei Koike’s
and Jarod Poenisch’s nested skyscraper,
preliminary sketches were drawn to pre-
sent the concept of an interactive/re-
sponsive meshed landscape. The devia-
tion of rigid forms and the blur distinction
of spaces behind or in the front of these
live skins were qualities to be gained.
LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes) are semi
conductor light sources. When a LED is
switched on and electric current passes
through them, electrons are able to re-
combine with holes within the device, re-
leasing energy in the form of photons,
in other words emitting light. This effect
is known as electroluminescence. The
color of the light is correspondent to the
energy of the photon and is determined
by the energy gap of the semiconductor,
ABOVE
“Garibaldi station”, D. Perrault
MIDDLE
Mariinsky Theatre, St. Petersburg, D.
Perrault, 2007
BELOW
Hotel Habitat, Cloud 9+ J.Clar, 2006
not by the plastic body. LEDs present
many advantages including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved
robustness, smaller size and greater
durability. The most up-to-date version
of LEDs are OLEDs. These are Organic
Light-Emitting Diodes whose lumines-
cent material is composed of two layers
of organic compounds. But these devices
are still vulnerable to humidity. One of
the precedents paradigms is the Hotel
Habitat, by Cloud 9. The hotel consists
of a building with an energy harvesting
mesh wrapped around it. This mesh col-
lects the sun’s energy during the day by
individual nodes that at night give off a
specific color according to the collect-
ed energy. It consists of 500 tri-color
LEDs controlled by a PIC microproces-
sor. Also imbedded in the model’s mesh
are photo-sensors which determine the
brightness on them and give off a color
according to the energy color scheme.
This model was created for the exhibition
“New Spanish Architects” at the MoMA in
New York, Feb 2006. This piece is now
part of the MoMA’s permanent collection.
The question set then for further re-
search was how to attach LED/OLED
devices in the case of the bridge-pa-
vilion on its textile mesh and is dis-
cussed in the next chapter (a,d).
page ।18
page ।19
 b. “Textile tectonics and Soft Constructivism”
“Architectural design is not about hav-
ing ideas, but about having techniques,
techniques that operate on a mate-
rial level. It’s about making matter think
and live by itself.” Lars Spuybroek
Inspired by the work of NOX architects
and their textile-way of creating struc-
tures, the research moved from the
micro tectonics of textile surfaces to
building tectonics that have been cre-
ated through textile techniques: weav-
ing, braiding, knitting, interlacing etc.
Some early sketches showing the desire
of applying textile techniques to cre-
ate structural surfaces where the initial
“yarns” become surfaces; surfaces be-
come geometry and geometry struc-
ture. Even at a more aesthetic level,
space can be created by undulating
surfaces-sheltering the user as shown
in the last sketch of the woven cages.
page ।21
The contrast between the lightness/soft-
ness and the strength/hardness of this
type of architectural design fitted well
in the frame of a light, interactive –so
maybe flexible- pavilion that had to be
strong enough to hold the bridge but
not totally unaffected by forces. Further
researching on how the macro tecton-
ics of the pavilion could come from the
micro tectonics of a textile technique
led to a large amount of contemporary
architectural examples. Each deployed
a different technique and materials.
Lister Mills, David Morley Architects.
However, apart from the scale of build-
ings, the same logic is often apparent
to smaller scale design. Three par-
ticular furniture projects had a great
influence to the progress of the re-
search. Except from the evident textile
character of the first two, all of them
share the same material: carbon fiber.
The Bench by Peter Donders, the
chairs designed by Mathias Bengtsson
and last the Seoul Table by Z.Hadid.

_Translucent epoxy and stainless It was then seen as a challenge to re-

steel: Metz project, NOX architects.
_Steel curved members and double glass
elements: Jalisco Library, NOX architects.
_Double curved clad in metal sheet
adjusted on wooden structure. Main
structural elements of steel: Housing
search on a way of employing carbon
fiber material to weave a structure for the
pavilion. This is the second of the prime
research questions which will be de-
scribed in detail in the next chapter (b).

ABOVE
Carbon Fiber C-Bench, Peter Donders, 2010
Made by twisting carbon fibers around a piece of
molded foam, and then removing the foam.
MIDDLE
The Spun Chairs, Mathias Bengtsson,2010
Produced using spun carbon fiber, a material used
in helicopters and medical prostheses, and weighs
2.2 pounds.
BELOW
Seoul Table, Zaha Hadid, 2008

page ।22
page ।23
 c.
Interactive architecture covers emerging
architectural and artistic practices where
digital technologies and virtual spaces
merge with tangible spatial experiences.
An active architecture, sensing, observ-
ing, feeling, listening, thinking, react-
ing, proposing, adapting, interacting is
in constant flux. Responsive architecture
is about spaces that react – respond to
the surroundings’ stimulants. This re-
sponse can have many interpretations
depending on the goal to be achieved.
It can be a response after a measure-
ment of actual environmental conditions
to enable buildings to adapt their form,
shape, color or character responsively.
OPPOSITE PAGE TOP
A pavilion designed to change the shape of
its skin like the billow and flow of a parachute
blowing in the wind, by Tristan d’Estree Sterk at
The Office for Robotic Architectural Media & The
Bureau for Responsive Architecture
AND BELOW
A responsive skin to the sunlight.
Responsive Architecture
Examples of façades, bridges, and mov-
able structural members of spaces give
an idea of the different scales on which
responsive architecture can be applied.
Responsive architectural practices dis-
tinguish themselves from other forms of
interactive design by incorporating intel-
ligent and responsive technologies into
the core elements of a building’s fabric.
In the case of the designed pavilion, color
and light emission as well as the move-
ment of the structure itself that responds
to the vibration caused by the users are
the basic responsive elements which are
further answered in the next chapter.
page ।25
prime research questions
a. Light-emitting mesh - The electronic devices
As presented before, the resurgence in
lighting has been led by developments
in small molecule and polymer-based
organic molecules that emit light when
subjected to an electrical current. Unlike
inorganic semiconductor based LEDs,
organic LEDs can be deposited over
larger areas and on flexible or non-planar
substrates. However, the light emitting
organic molecules tend to degrade and
are vulnerable to humidity and oxidation.
A new method developed involves coat-
ing a blue LED with Quantum dots that
glow white in response to the blue light
from the LED. Quantum dots incorporate
the best aspects of both organic and in-
organic light emitters. This method emits
a warm, yellowish-white light similar to
that made by incandescent bulbs. Quan-
tum dots are semiconductor nanocrystals
whose emission color can vary from the
visible throughout the infrared spectrum.
This allows quantum dot LEDs to create
almost any color on the CIE diagram, so
they can be tuned to emit light over a
larger color gamut. Moreover, they can
be processed over large areas using liq-
uid phase deposition techniques includ-
ing roll-to-roll process, printing, and spin
coating, providing better color rendering
than white LEDs and larger color variety.
Except of the devices that will re-
act and emit light, the mesh itself that
hosts them had to be decided. But
even before that, the structural body
of the pavilion had to be first resolved.
 b. A new structural morphology type by carbon
fiber material - Strong and “liquid”
This project was seen as an experiment;
an inquiry into the role of structure in the
production of space. Material and struc-
tural types are chosen to produce the
architectural form. But what is determi-
nant of the other depends on the case.
Sometimes the problem an architect has
to solve demands for a specific structural
typology, when other times the use of a
particular material is crucial due to trans-
fer costs or availability. This has led for
some kinds of designs to be imagined
for /materialized with well-known mate-
rials that have been “tested” in similar
projects. Carbon fiber materials are usu-
ally used until now for cladding, small-
scale elements with demands in high
strength - low weight and less often as
a structural material. This project aims
at an innovative strategy that will meet
the challenge of coordinating structure
and carbon fiber material to produce ex-
periential effects and aesthetic qualities.
1. Carbon fiber material characteristics.
Carbon fibers are of 0.005-0.010 mm
diameter strands of carbon atoms in crys-
page ।27
tals. Several thousands of fibers twisted
together form a yarn which can be ei-
ther coated with plastic resin or be wo-
ven into a fabric. Images of these types
Carbon fiber is a relatively new mate-
rial which demonstrates a high strength-
to-weight ratio, a lower than steel
density combined with a low thermal
expansion. The stiffness of a material
is measured by its modulus of elastic-
ity. The modulus of carbon fiber is typi-
cally 138 GPa and its ultimate tensile
strength is typically 3.5 GPa. Thus it
can be up to five times stronger than
steel when manufactured correctly.
In the design process it is critical that
the behavior under loading is understood
and accounted, particularly in terms of
design safety factors. Therefore is noted
here that solid carbon fiber will not un-
dergo plastic deformation (yielding). Un-
der load carbon fiber bends, but will not
remain in a permanently deformed state
once the load is removed. Instead, once
the ultimate strength of the material is
exceeded, carbon fiber will suddenly fail.
When designing composite parts,
one cannot simply compare proper-
ties of carbon fiber versus steel, alu-
minum, or plastic, since these materi-
als are in general homogeneous and
have isotropic properties throughout
(along all axes). By comparison, in a
carbon fiber part the strength resides
along the axis of the fibers, and thus
fiber properties and orientation greatly
impact mechanical properties. Carbon
fiber parts are in general anisotropic.
The strength to weight ratio (as well as
stiffness to weight ratio) of a carbon fiber
part is much higher than either steel or
non-reinforced plastic. The specific de-
OPPOSITE PAGE
From top to bottom: a 6 μm diameter carbon
filament, carbon nanotubes, woven carbon textile,
carbon tube, bidirectional carbon fiber tape.
RIGHT
Comparison of materials’ strength.
tails depend on the matter of construc-
tion of the part and the application. For
instance, a foam-core sandwich has ex-
tremely high strength to weight ratio in
bending, but not necessarily in compres-
sion or crush. In addition, the loading
and boundary conditions for any compo-
nents are unique to the structure within
which they reside. Thus it is impossible
to provide the thickness of carbon fiber
plate that would directly replace the steel
plate in a given application without care-
ful consideration of all design factors.
This is accomplished through engineer-
ing analysis and experimental validation.
page ।28
 Applying the idea of weaving bands

page ।29
 2. Peter Testa’s Carbon Fiber Tower.
As it was mentioned before, the exhi-
bition “Extreme Textiles” of Cooper-
Hewitt’s museum presented highly en-
gineered fabrics having extraordinary
performance. They are divided in 5 cat-
egories: faster, lighter, stronger, safer,
or smarter materials. Much of the ex-
hibit focuses on the textiles’ agricultural,
aerospace, military, and industrial uses.
But the most astonishing exhibit was Pe-
ter Testa’s Carbon Tower. This 40 story
skyscraper is constructed by 40 carbon
fiber helical bands formed by pultru-
sion in continuous helix. These bands,
RIGHT
Carbon fiber tower, P.Testa, exterior and interior
view.
which are a foot wide and an inch thick,
take the vertical compressive load. The
40 floor plates of 38m diameter are
tied with the external structure in ten-
sion, preventing the helix to collapse.
This concept of carbon fiber use push-
es the design frontiers for architectural
constructions. Its phenomenal light-
ness and strength made it ideal for
spacecraft, Formula 1 cars, and ten-
nis rackets, so what about architec-
ture? Interpreting the construction logic
of the tower to the pavilion – bridge
is presented in the following sketch.
page ।30
page ।31
 3. Solid, yet liquid.
The goal of this research regarding the
materiality of the pavilion is to reveal a
compelling solution of using carbon fiber
not like hidden reinforcement but as the
main exposed material, providing inspi-
ration for a new approach to design. The
cast carbon fiber composite Seoul Ta-
ble was set as a paradigm for the de-
signing of a solid, yet liquid, pavilion.
Experimenting with continuous structures
that tangle, split and meet again to shape
the supports of the bridge, led to a series
of sketches that proved to be more ran-
dom and form-finding driven than desired.
The seductive possibilities of double
curved surfaces in computer modeling
have made them a formal phenomenon in
contemporary architectural practice. How-
ever, the tools used to realize construc-
tions aren’t always capable of meeting
the challenge. Selecting a complementary
and suitable realization strategy plays a
pivotal role. Therefore, before developing
the design, it was considered beneficial
to research on how exactly these types
of forms are or can be manufactured.
page ।32
page ।33
 4. Cast carbon fiber - Molding Proceses.
Carbon fiber material like most of
the composites can be processed by
many different techniques depending
on the properties of the desired re-
sult. Pultrusion, (as for Testa’s Tower),
vacuum bagging or infusion, Hands
or Spray lay-up are some of them.
Because of the forms that the pa-
vilion is tuned, two of the processes
were considered more suitable and
therefore were studied and compared.
Hand lay-up is the simplest and old-
est open molding method of the com-
posite fabrication processes. It is a low
volume, labor intensive method suited
especially for large components, such
as boat hulls. Glass or other reinforcing
mat or woven fabric or roving is posi-
tioned manually in the open mold, and
resin is poured, brushed, or sprayed over
and into the glass plies. Entrapped air
is removed manually with squeegees or
rollers to complete the laminates struc-
ture. Room temperature curing polyes-
ters and epoxies are the most commonly
used matrix resins. Curing is initiated
by a catalyst in the resin system, which
hardens the fiber reinforced resin com-
posite without external heat. For a high
quality part surface, a pigmented gel
coat is first applied to the mold surface.
Vacuum/Resin infusion utilizes a vacu-
um bag to debulk or compact a part’s
complete laminate ply schedule of re-
inforcements and/or core materials laid
onto the mold. After debulking, the resin
is allowed to be infused by the vacuum
to completely wet out the reinforcements
and eliminate all air voids in the lami-
nate structure. High quality composite
parts made from a wide range of fiber
and resin combinations can be utilized to
infuse laminates up to six inches thick.
Typical resins used are polyester, vinyl
ester, and epoxy with many being UV
cure initiated. This process can routinely
produce large 2,000 sq. ft. parts such
as boat hulls, bus bodies, and railcar
panels. This processes added benefits
include eliminating weaker second-
ary bonds and reduced VOC emissions
vs. current open molding processes.
Pigmented gel coats provide the parts
surface finish and often a hand lay-up
skin laminate may be fabricated to allow
fabricators to walk on gel coated sur-
face while loading the dry reinforcement
laminate ply schedule and vacuum bag.
page ।34
page ।35
5. The example of carbon fiber artificial members
The last decade, carbon fiber technol-
ogy is being used for the production of a
vast series of artificial members for pros-
thesis. Prosthesis is the replacement of
a missing limb or part of a limb. With
prosthesis, movement and mobility is en-
hanced and enabled. Furthermore, lately
there have been examples of athletes
acquiring artificial members that have
been customly designed to comply with
activities like recreational jogging, trail
running, marathon running and triathlon.
Taken the example of a particular mod-
el (Flex-Run, Ossur company), energy
storage and release, is a function in-
herent in the design as well as verti-
cal shock absorption. (Vertical forces
generated at heel contact are stored
and translated into a linear motion.)
The same way that this patented de-
vice deals with the impact and load-
ing of the human body and movement,
the designed pavilion’s bands would
carry the load of the bridge and the
circulation of the users. Some prelimi-
nary sketches show the way they could
play the role of the bridge’s supports.
page ।36
page ।37
 6. Pavilion’s structural typology: tangled ribbons.
Integrating the paradigm of the artificial carbon
fiber members to a light, continuous form, ended
in a structure where space is created by undulat-
ing ribbons which both support the bridge but also
shelter the visitor underneath. The construction is
possible with using vacuum infusion and hands
kay up processing. What is the appropriate thick-
ness however of the ribbons remains to be re-
searched. A description of the pavilion and bridge’s
structural behavior follows in the next chapter.

page ।38
 c. Harvesting energy from vibrations -
The piezoelectric effect
The idea of storing energy from the
movement of the pavilion-bridge led to
the research of materials that can actual-
ly mutate the vibrations to energy. Such
materials are the piezoelectric materials.
Piezoelectricity is the materials’ abil-
ity to convert mechanical stress into
electrical energy. It derives from the
Greek word piezein (“πιέζειν”), which
means to squeeze or press, and
electron (“ήλεκτρον”), which stands
for amber. The effect was discov-
ered in 1880 by the brothers Jacques
& Pierre Curie. A piezoelectric disk
generates a voltage when deformed
The piezoelectric effect is understood as
the linear electromechanical interaction
between the mechanical and the elec-
trical state in crystalline materials with
no inversion symmetry (in such a space
group for every point (x, y, z) in the unit
cell there is an indistinguishable point
(-x, -y, -z)). The piezoelectric effect is
a reversible process, thus materials that
exhibit it also exhibit the reverse: the in-
ternal generation of a mechanical force
resulting from an applied electrical field.
There are a lot of materials that pos-
sess piezoelectric properties. In most
cases the effect is quite small and there-
page ।39
fore not suitable for energy harvesting.
There are some materials however,
both natural and man-made, that pos-
sess stronger piezoelectric properties.
Natural occurring piezoelectric crystals
are: Berlinite, Quartz, Rochelle salt,
topaz and Tourmaline group miner-
als. Other natural materials are: bone,
tendon, silk, wood, enamel and dentin.
Man-made materials include: gal-
lium orthophosphate (GaPO4)
and Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14).
The most common used piezoelectric
materials are ceramics like lead zir-
conate titanate, also known as PZT.
There are also some polymers like
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). The
advantage of polymers in comparison
to crystal and ceramics is that poly-
mers are more flexible. Where crys-
tals and ceramics can only change
shape for a small amount (less than
1%), while PVDF can stretch for 25%.
After researching both on the perfor-
mance and environmental impact of such
materials, lead-free piezoelectric materi-
als were chosen. This is because there
is a recent growing concern regarding
the toxicity in lead-containing devices.
To address this concern, there has been
resurgence in the compositional develop-
ment of lead-free piezoelectric materials.
More detailed, the chosen material here
is PZT, lead zirconate titanate, is a ce-
ramic material that was developed at the
Tokyo institute of technology in 1952. It is
commonly used in sensor and acoustical
applications. PZT is a brittle material that
barely changes shape when a force is
applied. This makes it a suitable material
to use under pressure conditions. Images
Precedent examples in architecture in-
clude applications on floors. Club WATT
in Rotterdam consists of square floor
composite elements which harvest the
every dancing person produces. The
30m2 of dance floor produce enough
energy to generate 10% of the clubs en-
ergy demand. More recently even, in
2009, the East Japan Railway Company
announced the installation of piezoelec-
tric elements in the floors of its Tokyo
station in an attempt to generate power
from passengers passing through ticket
gates. The power-generating floor covers
an area of 25m squared and is installed
at 7 ticket gates and 7 staircase steps
inside the gate. 1,400 kW/sec pro-
duced each day is used to power ticket
gates and electronic display systems.
It is easy to understand that the per-
formance of the piezoelectric devices of
the pavilion is favored by its public char-
acter and function as a bridge, as traf-
fic passing is the best way to generate
vibrations. These can be ultimately con-
verted into energy by being transferred
to the support points. A softer soil sur-
face will transfer vibrations better than a
harder soil. Also a bumpier surface will
cause the traffic to generate more vibra-
tions. The amount of vibrations produced
also depends on the connection to the
ground. When something is suspended
it will absorb more of them. The stiff-
ness of the floor elements will determine
how much of the vibrations’ amount will
be transferred to the support points.
Consequently:
a. The piezoelectric materials chosen
were lead-free ceramics, the shape and dimen-
sions of which will be shown in the next chapter.
b. They were located on the con-
nections between the bridge surface
and the upper surface of the pavilion.
c. The surface of the cycle way was
designed as a series of blocks of materi-
als and not continuous, in order to be bumpier.
page ।40
page ।41
 d. Light-emitting mesh - The fabric mesh
As shown in the adjacent image, the
carbon fiber ribbons spinning around and
holding the bridge structure are con-
nected with wires. This way an enclo-
sure is created that determines the more
sheltered and more open places inside
the pavilion but also a stimulating se-
quence of textile and solid surfaces over
the cyclists – passengers of the bridge.
However, a mesh can have many
images depending on the mate-
rial used and on its density, geom-
etry, assimilation technique, color etc.
The initial concept for the mesh as
shown roughly in the next sketches
was to weave around the basic wires:
a) colorful ropes, b) led strips and
then spray-up similarly with the tech-
nique mentioned for fashioning clothes,
c) waste carbon-fibers with resin.
An interesting example of fabrication of
a similar textile mesh is the Windshape
Pavilion. Windshape was an ephemeral
structure commissioned by the Savannah
College of Art & Design as a gather-
ing and event space near their Provence
campus in Lacoste, France. Built by N
Architects and a team of SCAD students
over a period of five weeks, it was con-
ceived as two eight-meter-high pavilions
that dynamically changed with the power
of wind. A vine-like structural network
of white plastic pipes, joined together
and stretched apart by aluminum col-
lars, fifty kilometers of white polypropyl-
ene string threaded through the lattice,
all together created swaying enclosures.
The string was woven into dense regions
and surfaces and pinched to define door-
ways, windows, and spaces for seating.
What was decided was:
a. To use the already mentioned metal wires with
special joints connection on both edges in order
that they are adjusted on the slots/holders of the
surfaces of carbon fiber structures.
b. Metal hooks should be welded per distances
on these wires in order for
c. Fabric ropes are woven between them.
page ।43
designing the pavilion
a. Structural analysis - Why sandwich material?
As it was mentioned in previous part,
it is impossible to provide the thick-
ness of carbon fiber plate that would
directly replace a steel plate or sec-
tion in a given application without care-
ful consideration of all design factors.
This is accomplished through engineer-
ing analysis and experimental validation.
Before further developing the design of
the carbon fiber bands, it had to be de-
cided if these would be solid or com-
posite. The structural mechanics analysis
that follows showed that the sandwich
panels are better in stress distribution.
A composite sandwich combines the su-
perior strength and stiffness properties
of carbon-fiber with a lower density core
material. By strategically combining these
materials, one is able to create a final
product with a much higher bending stiff-
ness to weight ratio than with either mate-
rial alone. Composite sandwich structure
is mechanically equivalent to a homoge-
neous I-Beam construction in bending.
Referring to the picture of the sandwich
structure, at the center of the beam (as-
suming symmetry) lays the neutral axis,
which is where the internal axial stress
equals zero. In Figure 2, moving from
bottom to top in the diagram, the internal
stresses switch from compressive to ten-
sile. Bending stiffness is proportional to
the cross-sectional moment of inertia, as
well as the material modulus of elasticity.
Thus for maximum bending stiffness, one
should place an extremely stiff material
as far from the neutral axis as possi-
ble. By placing carbon fiber furthest from
the neutral axis, and filling the remain-
ing volume with a lower density mate-
rial, such as wood, foam, or honeycomb,
the result is a composite sandwich ma-
terial with high stiffness to weight ratio.
For the construction of the pavilion, it
was decided the use of foam for the in-
side layer. There are several types of
foam available depending on the ap-
plication. Foam volumetric density can
range from as low as 16 kg/m³ to over
961 kg/m³. High density foam cores pro-
vide greater resistance to compression
and crush, as well as provide damage
tolerance from impact. Low density foam
cores with carbon-fiber face sheets, par-
ticularly in thicknesses greater 2.5 cm,
can produce panels with extraordinarily
high stiffness to weight ratio. A medium
density foam is prefered in this case.
page ।45
Then, the live and dead load of the
bridge had to be investigated. The
load F is the input of the design while
the thickness of the composite’s lay-
ers and the length l of e eccentric-
ity as shown are the output, thus the
factors that the design is dealing with.
The calculations showed that as the
desired thickness of the compos-
ite is decreased, the thickness of the
carbon fiber layer should increase.
page ।46
page ।47
The Pavilion’s tangled ribbons were the first to
be drawn in Rhino, taking under consideration
the results of the previous structural analysis.
This way, as the thickness of the ribbons is
changing organically along their length, the
magnitude of stresses applied is revealed.

page ।48
 Initial sketch. The bridge here consists of different elements for each function: pedestrians’ path, cyclists’
path, balustrade and supports on pavilion’s ribbons.

Creating a feeling of enclosure along the bridge. The idea in the sketch on the left is
achieved in a more geometrical way while the second one is a textile solution, using rods
fabric net.

page ।49
 b.
For designing the bridge, 4 basic elements
had to be taken under consideration: a)
the pedestrian and cycle path material,
b) the balustrades, c) the supports/con-
nections on/with the pavilion and d) the
main structural element that will allow the
spanning presented on the sketch plan.
Rather than adopting a more con-
RIGHT
Woven interlocking ropes around the metal truss.
BELOW
View from the cyclist’s pont of view.
The bridge - A textile vessel
servative concept of assembling differ-
ent parts for the different needed ele-
ments (as in the previous sketch), a
more unifying approach was preferred.
Inspired by examples like the Möbius
bridge in Bristol, or the more concep-
tual Loophole bridge by Marc Fornes
and R&Sie (n), the designed was ori-
ented into a continuous textile vessel.
 3. 2.

1.

page ।51
The bridge’s elements, as ments through the wires to exist. That would
thought in this stage were: mean an instable structure constantly want-
ing to “open” as the following scheme shows.
1. curved as a C-shape steel sections
2. metal wires that tight the steel sec- b. The steel plates designed in the detail, aren’t
tions together adequate because they are not able to span for
3. fabric bands weaved in situ between 7 meters (between the HSS shown in plan) with-
out bending . If this solution is to be applied,
the wires
they must be replaced by an I-section steel beam.
This solution which is presented here
in the sketch and it was further de- c. The piezoelectric ceramic material was initially
tailed, is problematic to certain aspects. designed as a tube and placed symmetrically in a
short distance from the central axis of the bridge.
a. The fact that the bridge is curved doesn’t But the results would be greater if two plates of
allow for tension between the steel ele- material is located under the I section beams.

Initial detail section

piezoelectric tube

piezoelectric surface

Detail section after improvements

page ।52
 Vertical section a-a

page ।53
a

Plan of the pavilion. A pedestrian way made by

concrete blocks continues from the edge of the
ramp until the Station’s platforms.

page ।54
page ।55
Inspired by the previously described
carbon fiber C-Bench by Peter Donders,
the idea of a carbon fiber bridge made
out of C-shaped ribbons was developed.
The surface of the bridge, a perfo-
rated curved vessel was trimmed by
a sequence of surfaces, in a pat-
tern that repeats itself every some
meters, just enough for the pattern
to appear random along the bridge.
Shadows, fragmented views and ligh-
ness were the qualities achieved.
The composite carbon fibre ramp is rest-
ing upon a hollow steel section, same
way with the previous design solution.
page ।56
page ।57
A space for gathering, sensing, experiencing, exhibiting, passing by or visiting. A light structure, chal-
lenging the demands of both its material and function, is constructed in the environment as weaving it.

page ।58
page ।59
In order to decide whether the span-
ning of the ramp is feasible and to de-
sign an appopriate section, a rough
structutral analysis had to be done.
For the arc-beam we assume the equiv-
alent straight beam from support to
support (40m), but as distributed load
we consider the total length of the arc-
beam (100m) and then convert it to dis-
tributed load for the “equivalent” beam.
The itenary process of design starts by
assuming a tubular beam CHS. The
structural steel strength and the plasticity
capacity of the steel (category 2 in order
for the total structure to be more durable)
are also selected.The moment capacity is
found by tables of standarized CHS (here
from the Corus software-the blue book).
It is checked whether the selecte mo-
ment capacity is greater than the mo-
ment caused by the loading at the end
of the fixed-fixed beam (Med=1/12*ql^2)
assuming that the shear force is
smaller than 50% of shear strength.

page ।60
 Night view

page ।61
 c.
As it was desribed previously, taken by
the example of WindShape pavilion, the
mesh created between the carbon fib-
ers is composed by metal ropes with
adjusted special hooks in order for the
thinner fabric ropes to be wo-
ven - stiched between them.
Then, a layer of sprayed fabric is applied
with spray-guns. The mixture of cross-
linking cotton fibers, polymers, resin
and a solvent becomes a textile sur-
A responsive textile mesh
face when sprayed and can meet vari-
ous demands of properties and textures.
The main metal ropes which “tie to-
gether” the bands, have a piezoelec-
tric material adjusted on the edges.
This way and as vibrations are cre-
ated from the cyclists or pedestri-
ans’ passing, electricity is produced.
When the amount of energy harvest-
ed is enough, the embedded quan-
tum LEDs are stimulated and emit light.

RIGHT
1. Metal wires
2. The connections of the metal wires to
the carbon fiber bands with the adjusted
piezoelectric ceramic
3. The hooks through which the fabric
ropes are woven
4. Colorful fabric ropes
5. The sprayed mixture of fibers that
becomes a textile surface
 d. Founding the pavilion

page ।63
e. Flying over the rails
page ।65
conclusions
The initial inquiry into the role of struc-
ture in the production of space was re-
searched through the application of the
relatively new carbon fiber composite ma-
terial into a design that tries to stretch the
limits of material’s possible forms. Tak-
ing under consideration the results of the
rough analysis of the pavilions structural
behavior, the challenge of coordinating
the material to the design is achieved.
The resulting design of this re-
search studio combines both expe-
riential effects and aesthtic qualities.

However, it is necessary to add that

this is meant to be only a concept pro-
ject as there are two main reasons
that would prohibit its realization. First
of all the economic expense is im-
mense compared to same scale but
different materiality designs. Second of
all carbon fiber is the least sustaina-
ble material of both steel and alumin-
ium and its recycle isn’t yet practised.
Furthermore, the sprayed fabric tech-
nology used here for the interac-
tive mesh hasn’t been tested in
outdoor climate. Although it is an im-
portant factor about the feasibility of
the project, It is out of the scope of this
research to conclude to a more pre-
cise proposal about the spray mixture.
In the future, material and fabrication
technology shall meet with such a de-
sign.
page ।66
page ।67
literature study

ARCHITEXTILES
Architectural Design Magazine, Volume 76, Issue6, November/December 2006

TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGIES IN MORPHOGENETIC DESIGN

Architectural Design Magazine,Volume 76, Issue2,March/April 2006

DelDOT BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL,

Chapter 4, Bridge Load Rating

EVALUATION OF COMPOSITE SANDWICH PANELS FABRICATED USING VACU-

UM ASSISTED RESIN TRANSFER MOLDING
S.A. Smith, et al., 2000

ELECTRONIC TEXTILES
Ifigeneia Dilaveraki, 2010

PIEZOELECTRICITY IN ARCHITECTURE
Arjan Klem, 2009

ADVANCES IN ARCHITECTURAL GEOMETRY

Vienna, September 2008, Conference Proceedings

THE PAVILION. PLEASURE AND POLEMICS IN ARCHITECTURE

Edited by Peter Cachola Schmal, Hatje Cantz, 2009

page ।68
page ।69