INTRODUCTION

In retrospect, the definition of chemistry seems to invariably change per decade, as new discoveries and
theories add to the functionality of the science. Shown below are some of the standard definitions used
by various noted chemists:

 Alchemy (330) – the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying and
disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies (Zosimos).
Chymistry (1661) – the subject of the material principles of mixture bodies (Boyle).
 Chymistry (1663) – a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them
the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to
an higher perfection (Glaser).
 Chemistry (1730) – the art of resolving mixture, compound, or aggregate bodies into their
principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles (Stahl).
 Chemistry (1837) – the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces
(Dumas).
 Chemistry (1947) – the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the
reactions that change them into other substances (Pauling).
 Chemistry (1998) – the study of matter and the changes it undergoes (Chang).

In the study of matter, chemistry also investigates its interactions with energy and itself.
Because of the diversity of matter, which is mostly composed of different combinations of
atoms, chemists often study how atoms of different chemical elements interact to form
molecules and how molecules interact with each other.

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FORM 4

2
 (H4SO4)
 USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

1. Sulphuric acid is used to produce chemical fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate and potassium
sulphate, which are highly soluble in water and can be easily absorbed by plant.
2. Car batteries contain sulphuric acid which is used as the electrolyte.
3. Sulphuric acid also used in the making of artificial silk-like fibers and rayon.
4. Chemical like paints, dyes and drug use sulphuric acid as one of their component materials.

 MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry though contact process
2. The process contain three stage

STAGE 1: Production Of Sulphur Dioxide From Sulphur

i. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide SO 2.

S(s)+O2(g)SO2(g)
sulphur

ii. sulphur dioxide is dried and purified.

STAGE 2: Production Of Sulphur Trioxide From Sulphur Dioxide

i. The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are passed over vanadium (V) oxide V 2O5 at
controlled optimum condition optimum condition to produce sulphur trioxide SO 3.
2SO2(g)+O2(g) 2SO3(g)

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 ii. The optimum used are
a) Temperature:450-500°C
b) Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres
c) Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide
iii. Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is possible. Sulphur dioxide and oxygen
that have not reacted are allowed to flow back again over the catalyst in the converter.

STAGE 3: Conversion of trioxide to sulphuric acid

i. Sulphur trioxide SO2 is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid H 2SO4 to form oleum H2S2O7 which is
then diluted with water to form sulphuric acid H 2SO4.

SO3(g)+H2SO4(l)H2S2O7(l)
Oleum

H2S2O7(l)+ H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq)

ii. The two reactions in stage3 are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide directly into water.

SO3(g)+H2O(l)H2SO4(aq)

iii. The addition of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out because the reaction is very vigorous;
a lot of heat is given off. As a result, a large cloud of sulphuric acid fumes is produced, which is
corrosive and causes severe air pollution.

The Contact Process

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 Sulphur Oxygen

In the converter

S(s) + O2 (g)SO2(g) 2SO (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g)

Temperature: 450-500°C

Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres Unreacted

Oxyge Catalyst: Vanadium (V) oxide 2%SO2 is

flowed back

SO2 (g) + H2SO4 (aq) H2S2O7 (l)

H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) 2H2SO4 (aq)

Outline of Contact process

 SULPHUR DIOXIDE AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

1. Sulphur dioxide is one of the by-products of contact process. It is a colourless and poisonous gas
with a very pungent smell.
2. Sulphur dioxide which escapes into the air causes air pollution.
3. Sulphur dioxide is an acidic which dissolves in water to form sulphurous acidic, H 2SO3. In the
atmosphere, sulphur dioxide dissolve in water droplets to form sulphurous acidic.

SO2 (g) + H2O (l)  H2SO3 (aq)

4. Oxidation of sulphur acid by oxygen produces sulphuric acid, H 2SO4, which falls to the earth as acid
rain. Sulphur trioxide is also easily oxidised in the air to form sulphur trioxide. Sulphur trioxide
dissolve in rainwater to produce sulphuric acid.

SO3 (g) + H2O (l)  H2SO4 (aq)

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Acid rain and environmental pollution

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 (NH3)
 USES OF AMMONIA
1. Ammonia that is produce commercially has many uses.
2. It uses:
i. In the manufacture of chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonia nitric,
ammonia phosphate and urea.
ii. To manufacture nitric acid and explosive.
iii. In the making of synthetic fiber and nylon.
iv. As a degreasing agent in aqueous form to remove greasy stains in the kitchen.

 PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA GAS

1. The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following:
i. It colourless and has a pungent odour.
ii. It is vary soluble in water and form a weak alkaline solution.
iii. It less dense then water.
iv. It easily liquefied (at about 35.5°C) when cool.
2. The chemical properties of ammonia gas:
a) Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form a weak alkali.

NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

b) The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to become alkaline. Thus aqueous
ammonia solution:
i. Turns red litmus paper blue.
ii. Reacts with acid to form only salt and waterin neutralization reaction.

NH3(aq) + HCI(aq)  NH4CI(aq)

2NH3 + H2SO4(aq)  (NH4)2SO4(aq)

iii. Reacts with solution of metallic cations to produce precipitates.

Fe²+(aq) + 2OH(aq)  Fe (OH)2(s)

(Form ammonia solution) Dirty green precipitate

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 MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY

1. Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the Haber process. In this process,
ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gas in the volume ratio 1:3.
2. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air. The hydrogen gas is obtained
from the cracking of petroleum or from the catalysed reaction of natural gas, CH 4, with steam.

CH4 (g) + H2O (g)  CO (g) + 3H2 (g)

3. The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron catalyst under controlled optimum
condition as below to form ammonia gas.
i. Temperature: 450-500°C
ii. Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
iii. Catalyst used: Iron fillings

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

4. Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into ammonia gas. The
nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back over the catalyst again in the reactor
chamber.
5. The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it condenses into a liquid in the
cooling chamber.

Nitrogen Hydrogen

The Haber process

In the reactor chamber

 N2 and H2 are mixed in the proportion of 1:3
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
Unreacted N2 and
Temperature: 450-500°C H2 gases
Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres

Catalyst used: Iron fillings

In cooling chamber

Liquid ammonia

Outline Of Habert process

 AMMONIUM FERTILIZERS
1. Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which are necessary for growth
and cell repair.
2. Most plant are not able to get a nitrogen supply directly from the air although it is abundant in
the air (78%). Plants can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds from soil through their roots.
3. The nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia and ammonia salt which are
manufacture as chemical fertilizer.
4. Reactions of ammonia with acids produce ammonium fertilizers.

NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq)  NH4NO3(aq)

Ammonium nitrate

3NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq)  (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Ammonium phosphate

2NH3(aq) +H2SO4(aq)  (NH4)2SO4(aq)

Ammonium sulphate

 ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN MATELS

1. The atom of pure metals is packed together closely. This causes the metal to have a high density

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 2. The forces of attraction between atoms (metallic bonds) are strong. More heat energy is needed to
overcome the metallic bond so that the atoms are further apart during the melting. This is why
metals usually have high melting point.
3. Heat energy can be transferred easily from one atom to the next by vibration. This makes metal
good conduct of heat.
4. The freely moving outermost electrons within the metal’s structure are able to conduct electricity.
Metal are, therefore, good electrical conductors.
5. Since atoms of pure metal are of the same size, they are arranged orderly in a regular layered
pattern. When a force is applied to metal, layer of atom slide easily over one another. This makes
pure metals soft, malleable and ductile.
Layer of atom slide

Force

Metals are ductile

The shape of the

Force metal change

Matel are malleable

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 WHAT ARE ALLOYS
1. Pure metal are usually too soft for most uses. They also have a low resistance to corrosion. They
rush and tarnish easily.
2. To improve the physical properties of metal, a small amount of another element (usually metal) is
added to form another an alloy.
3. An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals (something non-metal) in a specific proportion. For
example:
a. Bronze (90% of copper and 10% of tin)
b. Steel (99% of iron and 1% of carbon)
4. The purposes of making alloys include the following:
a) Increase the strength
i. Pure iron is soft and vary malleable. When a small amount of carbon is added to iron, an
alloy, steal is formed. The more carbon is added, the stronger the steel becomes.
ii. Pure aluminium is light but not strong. With a small amount of copper and magnesium are
added to aluminium, a strong, light and durable alloy call duralumin is produced.
b) Improving the resistance to corrosion
i. Iron rust easily but stainless steel which contains 80.6% of iron, 0.4% of carbon, 18% of
chromium and 1% of nickel does not rush. These properties make stainless steel suitable
for making surgical instrument and cutlery.
ii. Pure copper tarnish easily. When zinc (30%) is added, the yellow alloy which is known as
brass develops a high resistance to corrosion.
c) Enhancing the appearance
i. Pewter, an alloy of tin (97%), antimony and copper is not only hard but also has a more
beautiful white silvery appearance.
ii. When copper is mixed with nickel to form cupronickel, an alloy that has an attractive silvery,
bright appearance is formed which is suitable for making coins.

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 Alloy Composition Properties Uses
High carbon steel 99% iron Strong,hard and high  Making of cutting
1% carbon wear resistance tools, hammers and
chisels
Stainless steel 80.6% iron Do not rust and tarnish,  Making of surgical
0.4% carbon strong and durable instrument, knives
18%chromium forks and spoons
1% nickel
Brass 70% copper Hard, do not rust, bright  Making of ornaments,
30% zinc appearance electrical wiring and
plug.
Bronze 90% copper Hard, do not corrode  For casting bells,
10% tin easily and durable medals, swords and
statues
Pewter 90% tin Ductile and malleable,  Making of ornaments,
2.5% copper white silvery appearance souvenirs and mugs
0.5% antimony
Duralumin 95% aluminium Light, strong and durable  Making part of
4% copper aircrafts and racing
1%magnesium cars
Cupronickel 75%copper Attractive, silvery  Making of silver coins
25%nickel appearance, hard and
tough
Composition, properties and uses of alloys

The formation of alloy

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 WHAT ARE POLYMER
1. Molecule that consist of a large number of small identical or similar units joined together repeatedly
are called polymer.
2. The smaller molecules that make up the repeating unit in polymer are caller monomer.
3. The process of joining together a large number of monomers to form a long chain polymer is called
polymerisation.
4. Polymer can be naturally occurring or man-made (synthetic). Natural polymer is found in plant and
in animals for example of natural polymers are starch cellulose, protein and rubber.
5. Two type of polymerisation in producing synthetic polymer are additional polymerisation.
6. Double bonds between two carbon atoms usually undergo addition polymerisation.

Some Common Addition Polymers

Name(s) Formula Monomer Properties Uses
Polyethylene ethylene film wrap, plastic
–(CH2-CH2)n– soft, waxy solid
low density (LDPE) CH2=CH2 bags

Polyethylene ethylene electrical insulation

–(CH2-CH2)n– rigid, translucent solid
high density (HDPE) CH2=CH2 bottles, toys

atactic: soft, elastic

Polypropylene –[CH2- propylene solid similar to LDPE
(PP) different grades CH(CH3)]n– CH2=CHCH3 isotactic: hard, strong carpet, upholstery
solid

Poly(vinyl chloride) vinyl chloride pipes, siding,

–(CH2-CHCl)n– strong rigid solid
(PVC) CH2=CHCl flooring

Poly(vinylidene vinylidene
dense, high-melting
chloride) –(CH2-CCl2)n– chloride seat covers, films
solid
(Saran A) CH2=CCl2

hard, rigid, clear solid

Polystyrene –[CH2- styrene toys, cabinets
soluble in organic
(PS) CH(C6H5)]n– CH2=CHC6H5 packaging (foamed)
solvents

high-melting solid
Polyacrylonitrile acrylonitrile rugs, blankets
–(CH2-CHCN)n– soluble in organic
(PAN, Orlon, Acrilan) CH2=CHCN clothing
solvents

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Polytetrafluoroethyle tetrafluoroethyle
non-stick surfaces
ne –(CF2-CF2)n– ne resistant, smooth solid
electrical insulation
(PTFE, Teflon) CF2=CF2

Poly(methyl methyl
–[CH2- lighting covers,
methacrylate) methacrylate
C(CH3)CO2CH3] hard, transparent solid signs
(PMMA, Lucite, CH2=C(CH3)CO2CH
n – skylights
Plexiglas) 3

Poly(vinyl acetate) –(CH2- vinyl acetate latex paints,

soft, sticky solid
(PVAc) CHOCOCH3)n– CH2=CHOCOCH3 adhesives

–[CH2- isoprene requires

cis-Polyisoprene
CH=C(CH3)- CH2=CH- soft, sticky solid vulcanization
natural rubber
CH2]n– C(CH3)=CH2 for practical use

Polychloroprene (cis +
–[CH2-CH=CCl- chloroprene synthetic rubber
trans) tough, rubbery solid
CH2]n– CH2=CH-CCl=CH2 oil resistant
(Neoprene)

Uses of synthetic polymers

 SYNTHETIC POLYMERS IN DAILY LIFE

1. Synthetic polymers have many advantages over other type of materials:
a. They are cheap, light-weight and translucent.
b. They are easily coloured, easily moulded and shaped.
c. They are non-corrosive, waterproof and good insulator.
d. They are durable and long lasting because they are resistant to decay, rusting and chemical
attacks.
2. There are disadvantage using synthetic polymer:
a. Most of the synthetic polymer is flammable. When a synthetic polymer material catches fire,
poisonous fumes are produce causing air pollution.
b. Synthetic polymers are non-biodegradable. When there are discharges, they cause litter
problem and pollute the environment.
c. Plastic containers that are left aside in an open area collect rainwater which becomes the
breeding ground for mosquitoes.
d. There are limitation in recycle have to be separated out as the addition of non-recyclable
polymers in the mixture affect the properties of the recycled polymers.

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 WHAT ARE
1. Glass is one of the most useful but inexpensive materials in the world. Many products are made
from glass because of its specials properties.
2. Glass is:
a. Transparent, hard but brittle.
b. A heat and electric insulator.
c. Resistant to corrosion.
d. Chemical not reaction and therefore resistant to chemical attack.
e. Easy to maintain.

Type of glass Composition Properties Uses

Fused glass SiO2: 100%  Transparent  Lens
 High melting point  Telescope mirrors
 Good heat insulator  Laboratory apparatus
Soda-lime glass SiO2: 75%  Low melting point,  Drinking glass, bottles
Na2O:15% easily molded into  Electric bulbs
CaO: 9% desired shape and size  Window glass
Other:1%  Low resistant to
chemical attacks
 Brittle
Borosilicate glass SiO2: 78%  Resistant chemical  Cooking utensils
B2O3: 12% attack and durable  Laboratory glassware
Na2O: 5%  High melting point such as conical flaks
CaO: 3%  Good insulator to heat and boiling tube
Al2O3:2%
Lead crystal glass (flint SiO2: 70%  High refractive index  Lenses and prisms
glass) Pbo/PbO2:20%  High density  Decorative glassware
Na2O: 10%  Attractive glittering and art object
appearance  Imation jewellery

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 CERAMICS

1. Traditional silicate ceramics are made by heating aluminosilicate clay such as kaolin to a very high
temperature.
2. Ceramics have many special properties that make them one of the most useful materials in our
everyday life. That:
a. Are hard, strong but brittle
b. Have high melting point and remain stable at high temperature
c. Are heat and electric instrument
d. Are resistant to corrosion and wear
e. Are chemically not reactive
f. Do not readily deform under stress
3. Ceramic play important role in our daily life. They are uses as
a. Construction materials
i. Ceramic are strong and hard, uses to make roof tiles, bricks cement, sinks, and toilet bowls.
ii. They are also used to make refractory bricks because high resistant to heat.
b. Decorative items
i. To make pottery, china plates, and porcelain vases since they do not tarnish easily and are
durable.
ii. They are used to make bathroom fixture such as floor and wall tiles.
c. Electrical insulator
i. Ceramic are used to make electrical insulator in electrical items such as toasters, fridges and
electrical plug.

Materials Melting point/ °C Density/G cm-3 Elastic modulus/ Hardness/ mohs

GPa
Oxide ceramic
Alumina,AL2O3 2054 3.97 380 9
Beryllia, BeO 2574 3.01 370 8
Zirconia, ZiO 2710 5.68 210 8
Non-oxide
ceramics
Boron carbide,B4C3 2350 2.50 280 9
Silicon nitride, Si3, 2830 3.16 400 9
n4
1900 3.17 310 9
Metals
Aluminium 660 2.70 70 3
Steel 1515 7.86 205 5

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 WHAT ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS
1. A composite material (or composite) is a structure of materials that is formed by two or more
different substances such as metal, glass, ceramic and polymer.
2. Some common composite materials are:
a. Reinforces concrete
b. Superconductor
c. Fiber optic
d. Fiber glass
e. Photo chromic glass

 REINFORCES CONCRETE

1. Concrete is hard, fireproof, waterproof, comparatively cheap and easy to maintain. It is more
important construction materials.
2. The reinforce is a combination of concrete and steel.

 SUPERCONDUCTOR

1. Metal such as copper and aluminium are good conductor of electricity, but 20% of the electric
energy is lost in the form of heat during transmission.
2. Super conductor is materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity at a particular
temperature. Hence, 100% electricity transmission is possible.
3. One of the most dramatic properties of a superconductor is its ability to levitate a magnet.
Superconductor are used to build magnetically levitate high-speed train (at about 552 km/h).
4. Superconductors are used to make chips for smaller and faster supercomputer. Superconductor also
plays an important role in high speed data processing in internet communication.

 FIBRE OPTIC

1. Fiber optic is a composite material that in used to transmit signals for light wave.
2. Fiber optic is used in
a. Telecommunicate where the telephone substation are liked by fiber optic cables.
b. Domestic cable television network

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 c. Closed circuit television security system.
3. Fiber optic also used in medical fields. It is used in a number of instruments which enable the
investigation for internal body part without having to perform surgery.

 FIBRE GLASS

1. Fiber glass is glass in the form of fine threads. Molten gas is dropped onto a refractory rating disc
when the glass flies off the disc glass to form fiber.
2. Fiber glass is strong than steel, do not burnt, stretch or rot, resistant to fire and water but is brittle.
3. When fiber glass added to a plastic, a new composite material fiber glass reinforces plastic is formed.
4. Fiber glass reinforces plastic has more superior properties than glass and plastic. It is
a. Extremely strong
b. Light weigh
c. Resistant to fire and water
d. Can be molded, shaped and twisted

 PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS

1. When 0.01 to 0.1% of silver chloride (a type of photo chromic substances) and a small amount of
copper (II) chloride are added to molten silicon dioxide, photo chromic glass is formed.
2. The photo chromic glass has special properties. It darkens when exposed to strong sunlight or
ultraviolet.
3. Photo chromic glass is suitable for making sunglasses.

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