Digital communication

Advantages of Digital Transmission

Noise immunity: with digital transmission ,it is not necessary to
evaluate the amplitude, frequency, phase characteristics as precisely as it
is with analog transmission .Instead receive pulses are evaluated during a
precise sample interval and a simple determination is made whether the
pulse is above or below a certain threshold level. The exact the
amplitude, frequency, phase of the received signal is not important.
Uses signal regeneration: analog system uses signal amplification but
digital systems uses signal regeneration, noise produces in amplifier
circuit is additive, therefore signal to noise ratio deteriorates each time
an analog signal is amplified. Thus analog signals transmission is limited
by the no of amplifiers. but in digital sample to noisy input signal, then
reproduce an entirely new digital signal with the same S/N ratio as the
original transmitted signal. Thus digital signals can be transmitted
longer distances.
Conti…
Better suited to evaluate error performance: transmission errors in
digital signals can be detected and corrected more easily and accurately
than with analog systems.(parity ,CRC checks)

Better suited to processing and multiplexing : signal processing

includes filtering ,equalizing and phase shifting . It is generally used to
improve the fidelity of sound, to remove undesired noises, or to create
completely new and different sounds.
Digital pulses can be stored easier than analog signals

Digital signals are easier to measure and evaluate: It is easier to

compare the performance of alternate digital systems with unequal
signaling and information capacities than it is with analog systems.
Disadvantages of digital signals
Require large Bandwidths: encoded form of digital
signal require large BW ,which is costly and quite
limited .
Additional encoding and decoding circuitry
required
Precise time synchronization between transmit
and receiver clocks require, therefore digital systems
require expensive clock recovery circuits in receivers.
Digital transmission systems are incompatible with
older analog transmission systems.
D/A Converter
Sampler Quantizer coder

Analog signal discrete time signal Quantized signal Digital

signal
PAM

samples
PAMNote:

Pulse amplitude modulation has some

applications, but it is not used by itself in data
communication. However, it is the first step in
another very popular conversion method called
pulse code modulation
Quantized PAM signal
Quantizing by using sign and magnitude
PCM
From analog signal to PCM digital code
transmission of baseband signal
 Digital info.

 Textual  Format
 source info.
 Pulse
 Analog   Transmit
Sample  Quantize
 Encode  modulate
 info.

 Pulse
 Bit stream  Channel
 Format  waveforms
 Analog
 info.  Low-pass
 Decode  Demodulate/
 filter  Receive
 Detect
 sink Textual
 info.

 Digital info.
Sampling
Analog
rate Sampling Pulse amplitude
signal process modulated (PAM) signal

Sampling theorem: A band-limited signal with

no spectral components beyond ,can be uniquely
determined by values sampled at uniform intervals of

The sampling rate, is called

Nyquist rate. Highest frequency to be sampled
Minimum Nyquist sample rate Hz
Hz
 PCM SYSTEM
Analog
PCM
LPF Sampler Quantizer Encoder
signal
signal

Distorted Regenerated PCM

Regenerative Regenerative
repeater repeater signal
PCM
signal

Regeneratio Reconstruct
Input decoder destination
n circuit ion filter
 PCM Generator
Band- x(nTs xq(nTs)
Shift registers
PCM
limiting )
x(t) Parallel to outp
LPF Sample q level Binary
Serial
fc=fm and Hold Quantizer Encoder
converter

PAM Quantized Digitally

fs
signal PAM encoded
signal
Timer

fs ≥
fm
•Band-limiting to avoid aliasing effect
• Binary encoder also called Digitizer
 PCM Transmission path
(repeater) Regenerated
Distorted Amplitude Decision making PCM wave
PCM wave Equalizer device

Timing Threshold level

circuits

Amplitude Equalizer shapes the distorted PCM wave(in terms of

amplitude and phase).
Timing circuit produces the periodic pulse train derived from input
PCM pulses and used for sampling the equalized PCM pulses.
Sampling is carried out where the S/N is maximum.
Waveform of regenerative repeater
1 0 1 0 1
Decision boundary
Distorted PCM signal

Sampling instants
decision

output regenerated
PCM
 PCM Receiver v digits xq(t)
A serial to A sample X(t)
PCM+ regenerato D/A LPF
parallel and hold
Noise r converter fc=fm
converter circuit

fs

Timer
sync

•No exact reconstruction of x(t) signal, bcoz quantization error is introduced at the
time
of quantization
• can be reduced by increasing no of quantization levels
•This increases the binary digits per sample
•This further increase the signaling rate as well as BW.
•So parameters are so chosen that the quantization error is in limits.
Why quantization
If we do not use quantizer block in PCM transmitter
,then we have to convert each and every sampled value
into unique digital word.
Means need large no. of bits per word.

 Increase bit rate

 Increase BW
Thus quantizer is introduced to save BW
 Quantization
Quantization is the process of approximating a continuous
analog signal to discrete levels, i.e. quantization is a many-to-one
mapping.
quantizer

uniform Non uniform

Mid-rise Mid-tread

If these levels are uniformly spaced, the quantizer is a uniform

quantizer.
However, if these levels are unevenly spaced, the quantizer is a
non-uniform quantizer.
Midrise & Midtread
Conti…
Assume that the separation between any two
consecutive quantization levels is the step-size.
 In a uniform quantizer ---- is constant. Assume that,
Q is the total number of quantization levels. In an
analog-to-digital converter each quantization level is
mapped into a binary power code. Hence, Q is a power
of 2:
Q=2n
Where n is the number of bits at the output of the
analog-to-digital converter.
 quantization y -1
^
x
Q
q  xˆ  x Inverse Quantizer
y

111
110
101
100
011
Step size  010
001

000 x
 amplitude
Quantization example
x(t)
111 3.1867

110 2.2762 Quant. levels

101 1.3657

100 0.4552

011 -0.4552 boundaries

010 -1.3657

001 -2.2762 x(nTs): sampled values

xq(nTs): quantized values
000 -3.1867
Ts: sampling time
t
110 110 111 110 100 010 011 100 100 011 PCM sequence
3-bit PCM code
Codes used for PCM are sign magnitude codes, where MSB is
sign bit and remaining bits are used for magnitude. as below
table shown.
sign Magnitude decimal
1 1 1 +3
1 1 0 +2
1 0 1 +1
1 0 0 +0
0 0 0 -0
0 0 1 -1
0 1 0 -2
0 1 1 -3
Important

terms
Folded binary code: except sign bit the codes on the bottom half
of the table are a mirror image of the codes on the top half .
In this eg. Two codes assigned to zero volts 100(+0) and 000(-0)
The magnitude of the minimum step size is 1V.
Maximum voltage encoded is +3V(111) or -3(011).
The magnitude of the minimum step size is called resolution.
(resolution is other than 0V that can be decoded by the DAC at
the receiver.)
Smaller the magnitude of the minimum step size better the
resolution and more accurately the quantization interval will
resemble the actual analog sample
Bandwidth of PCM
BW= v fm
Delta Modulation
Transmits one bit per sample.
This scheme sends only the difference between pulses,
if the pulse at time tn+1 is higher in amplitude value than
the pulse at time tn, then a single bit, say a “1”, is used to
indicate the positive value.
If the pulse is lower in value, resulting in a negative
value, a “0” is used.
This scheme works well for small changes in signal
values between samples.
If changes in amplitude are large, this will result in
large errors.
Delta Modulation transmitter and receiver
Example illustration
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages:
Transmission BW is small compared to PCM.(I bit per
sample)
Transmitter and receiver implementation is easy as no
A/D converter is required.
Disadvantages:
slope overload and granular or idle noise distortion
two different forms of quantization error in
delta modulation.
Slope overload & Granular noise
When the rate of rise of input x(t) is so high that the stair
case cannot be approximate it, the step size is small for the
stair case signal u(t) to follow the step segment of x(t).
Large error between staircase u(t) and original input signal
x(t).this error is called slope overload.----slope overload
When the step size is too large as compared to small
variations in the input signal. Fig shows that when input
signal is almost flat ,the staircase signal u(t) keeps on
oscillating by +- around the signal.-----granular noise
Solution is ADM
ADM
Variable Step Size
Input signal is varying fast - Step Size is
increased
Input signal is varying slow - Step Size is reduced
Adaptive Delta Modulation
Function of ADM
In steep segment ,step size is increased and if i/p is
varying slowly then step size is reduced.
Step size increases and decreases according to
specified rule depending on 1-bit quantizer output .if
o/p of 1-bit quantizer is high then step size may be
doubled for next sample if 1-bit quantizer output is
low ,then step size may be reduced by one step.
ADM receiver
advantages
S/N ratio better than DM (because of reduction in
slope overload distortion & idle noise)
Because of variable step size DR is wider than DM
Utilization of BW is better than DM.
DPCM Transmitter and Receiver
Introduction
– Inter-symbol interference (ISI) is different from noise in
that it is a signal-dependent form of interference that
arises because of deviations in the frequency response of
a channel from the ideal channel.
 This non-ideal communication channel is also called
dispersive
– The result of these deviation is that the received pulse
corresponding to a particular data symbol is affected by
the tail ends of the pulses representing the previous
symbols and the front ends of the pulses representing the
subsequent symbols.
Example
Introduction
– Two scenarios
• The effect of ISI is negligible in comparison to that of
channel noise.
 use a matched filter, which is the optimum linear
time-invariant filter for maximizing the peak pulse
Signal-to-noise ratio.
• The received signal-to-noise ratio is high enough to
ignore the effect of channel noise (For example, a
telephone system)
 control the shape of the received pulse.
Inter-symbol Interference
Inter-symbol Interference
Inter-symbol Interference
Inter-symbol Interference
Distortion-less transmission
Distortion-less transmission
Example
Combating ISI
Three strategies for eliminating ISI:
Use a line code that is absolutely bandlimited.
 Would require Sinc pulse shape.
 Can’t actually do this (but can approximate).

Use a line code that is zero during adjacent sample instants.

 It’s okay for pulses to overlap somewhat, as long as there is no overlap at the
sample instants.
 Can come up with pulse shapes that don’t overlap during adjacent sample
instants.
 Raised-Cosine Rolloff pulse shaping

Use a filter at the receiver to “undo” the distortion introduced by the

channel.
 Equalizer.
solution
Sinc pulses
This type of pulse will allow signalling at a bit rate
of D=1/Ts=2B (for Binary fs=1/Ts=2B) where B is the
absolute bandwidth of the system.
Sampling Instants
Reduced BW
ISI occurs but,
(half than pulse signal) NO ISI is present at
the sampling instants
disadvantages
It is necessary that the characteristics of P(f) should
be flat from -fs/2 to fs/2 and zero outside this band.
but abrupt transisition at +-fs/2
P(f)
is not possible 1/fs

f
-fs/2 0 fs/2

fs
Absolute bandwidth is: B  MINIMUM BANDWIDTH
2
Signalling Rate is: D =1 Ts  2 B Pulses/sec
Remedy is
Since pulses are not possible to create due to:
 Infinite time duration.
 Sharp transition band in the frequency domain.

The Sinc pulse shape can cause significant ISI in the presence of
timing errors.
 If the received signal is not sampled at exactly the bit instant
(Synchronization Errors), then ISI will occur.

We seek a pulse shape that:

 Has a more gradual transition in the frequency domain.
 Is more robust to timing errors.
 Yet still satisfies Nyquist’s first method for zero ISI. Called Raised
Cosine-Rolloff Nyquist Filtering
Raised Cosine Nyquist filter
The Raised Cosine Nyquist filter is defined by its rollof factor number r=fΔ/fo.

1, f  f1

 1 
H e  f    1  c o s 
  f  f 1   
, f1  f  B B is th e A b s o lu te B a n d w id th
 2   2 f  

 0 , f  B
f  B  f0 f1  f 0  f  W h e re f o is th e 6 -d B b a n d w id th o f th e fi lte r
f Rb
R o llo ff fa c to r: r  B a n d w id th : B  (1  r )
f0 2 Reduced the excursion in
 s in 2  f 0 t   c o s 2  f  t  between the sampling
he  t   F 1
 H e  f    2 f0 
   instants
   1   4 f  t 
2
 2 f 0 t 

f Rb
Rolloff factor: r  Bandwidth: B (1  r )
f0 2
 Raised Cosine Nyquist filter
 Now filtering requirements are relaxed because absolute bandwidth is
increased.
 Clock timing requirements are also relaxed.
 The r=0 case corresponds to the previous Minimum bandwidth case.
1     f  f1   
He  f   1  cos  
2  2 f  
 

B  fo  f
 Raised Cosine Nyquist filter
• The tails of p(t) are now
decreasing much faster than the
Sa function (As a function of t2).
• ISI due to synchronization
errors will be much lower.
 Raised Cosine-Rolloff Nyquist Filtering

Frequency response and impulse

responses of Raised Cosine pulses
for various values of the roll off
parameter.

rB
r   ISI 
Example
 Illustrating the received bit stream of Raised Cosine pulse
shaped transmission corresponding to the binary stream of 1 0 0
1 0 for 3 different values of r=0, 0.5, 1.
1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
Eye pattern