ETHICAL, POLITICAL + FINANCIAL CHALLENGES TO

A D A P TAT I O N I N D E V E L O P I N G C O U N T R I E S

Climate change issues in coastal Kenyan communities

Karen Abrams
December 2, 2009
Abstract

This paper discusses the ethical, political and financial challenges encountered in

the East African country of Kenya as it faces the impacts of climate change in its

coastal communities. Mombasa is Kenya’s largest coastal city is home to almost 1

million people and a port that affects the lives of millions more. In Sub-Saharan

Africa, residents living near coastal regions are currently experiencing the impacts

of severe weather related events as a result of climate change. Most developing

countries like Kenya are not responsible for the greenhouse gas emissions which

contribute to climate change. However, the West encourages these countries to

share the burden of implementing adaptation strategies. The majority of Sub-

Saharan Africa is unequipped to take on the financial costs and strategic planning

involved in protecting coastal zones. This paper also discusses some inadequacies

of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) policies enforced in Kenya, which

exemplify the ethical, political and financial challenges adaptation in the developing

world present.

Introduction

Coastal regions within the developing world are beginning to experience the

impacts of climate change. Many residents of coastal regions in sub-Saharan Africa

are particularly vulnerable to such impacts due to poor infrastructure and

unsanitary living conditions as a result of acute poverty. Developed and developing

countries are at odds with regard to the importance of implementing adaptation

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strategies within these communities. Developed nations feel a sense of urgency in

addressing the issue, while developing nations focus their energies on economic

development and addressing the immediate needs of their citizens (Timmons and

Parks, 2006). Furthermore, ethical, political and financial issues add complexity to

the situation. Not only are countries on the sub-continent unequipped to take on

the financial costs, strategic planning and management of coastal zones, but have

been largely excluded from the decision- making process when international

organizations provide resources to assist them. With the largest port in East Africa,

Kenya has an established integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) program.

Its implementation provides examples of the challenges developing countries face

as they address climate change.

Coastal Climate Change

According to the IPCC, with the increase of greenhouse gas emissions into the

atmosphere, the temperature of the oceans and seas will result in precipitation

changes. In coastal regions this will produce a rise in sea levels and increase storm

intensity, which will result in coastal erosion, flooding, salt water intrusion of

freshwater systems, drought and dynamic changes to ecosystems (IPCC, 2007;

USAID, 2009). Climate change impacts are especially troubling for coastal areas

with large human populations and economic development (USAID, 2009). Coastal

systems provide natural defenses for these communities, shielding them from

extreme weather events. The economic and ecological importance of these

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systems is unparalleled. With over 1 billion people depending on coastal systems

for their livelihoods, the effects of climate change to these regions will vary, but

they will be severe (USAID, 2009). In developing nations, climate change has

dynamic impacts on coastal communities. In sub-Saharan Africa, more than one-

quarter of the population lives within 60 miles of a ‘sea coast’ in low-lying areas,

which are severely effected by strong weather events (Satterthwaite, 2009,

Douglas, 2008; Magadza, 2000). Poverty in these areas compound the effects of

climate change, as inhabitants live in hazardous and unhealthy environments

(Douglas, 2008). The effects will be particularly acute in East Africa, where sea

level rise is currently adding socioeconomic and physical vulnerabilities of the

coastal communities (IPCC, 2007).

Kenyan Coastal Communities and Recent Climate Events

In East Africa, since 2002, more than 300 people have been killed by floods and

subsequent mudslides due primarily to the volatility of the atmosphere in the Indian

Ocean (Douglas, 2008). Many more people were displaced because their homes

were severely damaged or destroyed by flooding. The effects of the 2004 Indian

Ocean tsunami and the floods of April and May of 2006 are examples of the hazards

to be dealt to the Kenyan coastline in the coming years (Awuor, 2008; Obura, 2006).

While not directly linked to climate change, the 2004 tsunami was responsible for

one death in Mombasa and damage to fishing vessels due to strong currents and

high tides along the coast (Obura, 2006). The flooding during the storms in April

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and May 2006 led to economic losses due to infrastructure damage. Tens of

thousand of residents in Mombasa were affected. Much of the damage was

attributed to the collapse of poorly built and unplanned homes blocking already

inadequately operating drainage systems. A catastrophic event or the culmination

of repeated severe storms will have a devastating socioeconomic and ecological

impact on the city as well as the communities that depend on its commerce.

Mombasa- Kenya’s Largest Coastal City

Mombasa is a densely populated city situated on the western Indian Ocean, in

southeast Kenya. It is an economic center with more than 800,000 residents and

the largest seaport in East Africa (Awuor et.al., 2008). The city has well developed

fisheries and a successful agricultural base from the cultivation of mangoes,

cashews and coconuts (Awuor et.al., 2008; IPCC, 2007). Like many other coastal

cities and islands located on the western Indian Ocean, Mombasa is a popular

tourist destination. It contributes to the national tourist industry which makes up

10% of Kenya’s gross domestic product [cite the Kenya Tourism report].

In their article, Climate change and coastal cities the case of Mombasa, Kenya,

authors Awuor, Orindi and Adwera outline three factors that contribute to

Mombasa’s vulnerability to climate change: low altitude, high temperatures and

high humidity (Awuor, et.al., 2008). They predict that parts of the city will be

submerged under water, as a result of rising sea levels. This will lead to an

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economic slowdown as a result of damage to the two harbors, the disruption of

agriculture and the fishing and tourism industries which would contribute to a loss

of over US$1 billion (IPCC, 2007) . Additionally, the impact on the residents will be

substantial, particularly to those within poor communities due to unplanned

settlements which impact roads, sewer lines and drainage, causing an increase in

flooding and hamper rescue efforts (Awuor, et.al., 2008). Access to clean water will

be limited and contribute to existing health issues and the spread of disease

(Douglas, et.al., 2008). Similar scenarios will unfold in other coastal communities in

East Africa and throughout the continent. Many African communities will have no

choice but to adapt to climate change.

“Environmental Colonialism”- Political and Ethical Challenges

Initially the challenge with adaptation was that little research had been done on its

merits, with most attention being paid to mitigation of climate change. Of the 728

pages of the IPCC’s 1996 report, Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation of Climate

change: Scientific-Technical Analyses, two thirds were dedicated to impacts, one

third to mitigation and 32 pages to adaptation (Kates, 2000). Since much of the

work being done about climate change was by industrialized countries, there was

little empathy toward efforts to assist with mitigation and adaption in the

developing world. During the early 1990s when India, China and Brazil increased

their industrial output, this sentiment changed. It is suggested that governments of

developed industrialized nations began to place the significant blame for global

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warming on these three countries in an effort to deflect responsibility for climate

change and shift a huge part of the responsibility for mitigation on the developing

world.

In their article, A case of environmental colonialism, Agarwal and Narain argue that

the West initiated a sustained propaganda campaign alleging that deforestation in

developing countries, and the generation of methane through irrigated rice farming

and the raising of cattle, is also contributing to climate change (Agarwal and Narain,

1991). The suggestion by the West that developing countries are contributing to

global warming, implies that these countries should curb their agricultural

emissions, thus hindering their ability to pursue economic development. Agarwal

and Narain question the judgement of comparing burning coal and oil for ‘gas

guzzling’ automobiles in Europe and North America to methane emissions of cattle

and rice fields of substance farmers in the developing world (Agarwal and Narain,

1991). African countries will face similar prospects of interrupted economic

development. However they are more vulnerable to such demands because of their

financial dependence on the West and weak political capital to protest. Additionally,

global commons issues, such as climate change and land degradation are not as

pressing to developing nations as providing basic human services such as safe

drinking water, reducing air pollution and managing waste are far more important

goals to pursue (Timmons and Parks, 2006).

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Emissions and responsibility for emissions are not distributed equally among

countries or regions. For example, on a per capita basis, the continent of Africa,

with 15% of the world’s population, is responsible for 2–3% of the world’s

greenhouse gas emissions from energy and industrial sources (Awuor, 2008;

Douglas, UNECA, 2002; Kates, 2000). Studies have found that Ghana, Kenya, Mali,

and Zimbabwe are greenhouse gas sinks (UNECA, 2002, Agarwal and Narain, 1991).

Although agriculture in Ghana and Kenya, and the energy sector in Mali and

Zimbabwe are major emitters, forests in these countries are able to absorb far more

gases than all other sectors emit (UNECA, 2002). Conversely, countries like the

United States, with 4% of the world’s population, are responsible for 20% of all

greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. This pattern holds true for much of the

developed world. The wealthiest 20% of the world’s population is responsible for

over 60% of global emissions (Timmons and Parks, 2006). Between 1990 and 1998,

94% of the world’s disasters and 97% of all natural disaster related deaths occurred

in the developing world (Timmons and Parks, 2006). Those least likely to contribute

to climate change are most vulnerable to its impacts and ultimately forced to adapt

(Dellink, et.al, 2009). This introduces an ethical dilemma for both developed and

developing countries: Should countries responsible for climate change compensate

those who suffered as a result?

Financial Challenges: Who Should Pay for Climate Change?

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It is a widely held belief that developing countries are not responsible for climate

change, nor have they been given the choice of adapting to it. They face increasing

risk to the impacts, but are ignored when decisions about climate change are made

(Adger, et.al., 2006). They lack the political capital to determine how the

perpetrators should decrease greenhouse gas emissions or implement adaptation

and mitigation strategies (Timmons and Parks, 2006; Adger, et.al., 2006). Some

suggest that rather than placing undue financial burdens on developing countries

by forcing them to forgo investment in economic development, developed countries

should pay financial damages to their victims.

Farber agues, in his article, Basic compensation for victims of climate change, that

the countries and corporations most responsible for climate change are obligated to

pay financial compensation to those who are most effected by it (Farber, 2008). He

argues that the most important reason those who cause harm are required to

compensate their victims is to deter them from inflicting future harm. While legal

means of funding climate change may be available to countries affected, the

timeline could take decades, and would not respond to the immediacy of the current

situation many nations face (Farber, 2008). Another compelling reason to grant

compensation to victims of climate change is to offset prohibitive financial costs

facing those who are forced to implement adaptation strategies (Dellink, et.al.,

2009). Recognizing this need the United Nations and the World Bank interceded to

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address the financial requirements of adapting to climate change for developing

nations.

The Role of the United Nations and the World Bank in Financing

Adaptation Strategies

In negotiating the financial needs of developing countries’ plans for adaptation, the

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) developed

mechanisms through which the countries in need would receive the appropriate

funding. As a result, the following funds were created:

• The Special Climate Change Fund- finances the activities related to climate change
in the areas of adaptation, technology transfer, energy, transport, industry,
agriculture, forestry and waste management

• The Least Developed Countries Fund- assists the 48 least developed countries
prepare National Adaptation Programs of Action

• The Kyoto Protocol Adaptation Fund- finances adaptation projects and programs in
developing countries (IDS, 2006).

Funding is also provided by the World Bank through the Global Environment Facility

(GEF), and independent organization, whose purpose is to provide financial support

to developing countries to address climate change, land degradation, international

waters and pollution (GEF, 2009). Additional funding was set aside as a result of the

G-8 Gleneagles Plan of Action, which was formulated in response to The Commission

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for Africa Report outlining the financial investment needed for the continent to

adapt to climate change. The G-8 then invited the World Bank to:

develop and implement best practice guidelines for screening their investments in
climate sensitive sectors to determine how their performance could be affected by
climate risks as well as how those risks can be best manages in consultation with
host governments and local communities. (IDS, 2006)

The development of climate change action plans and investments appear to be

altruistic in design, but often fail to meet expectations once implemented. In her

article, Coming to Terms with "Integrated Coastal Management": Problems of

Meaning and Method in a New Arena of Resource Regulation, Nichols suggests that

rather than introducing solutions to challenges in developing countries, the UN and

the World Bank often times create problems (Nichols, 1999). This notion in

illustrated in the outcome of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) policies

implemented in Kenya as a key part of the country’s adaptation strategy.

Political, Financial and Ethical Challenges of Implementing Integrated

Coastal Zone Management in Kenya

Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) was established in 1965 by the San

Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission to preserve coastal

ecosystems (Isager, 2008). The program was a success and subsequently

nationalized, becoming law with the introduction of the US Coastal Zone

Management Act 0f 1972. In 1977 it was adopted by the United Nations as a model

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to assist developing countries control destructive practices along their seas and

rivers (Nichols, 1999). In subsequent years the World Bank stepped in to issue

international guidelines for the implementation of ICZM (Isager, 2008). The

implementation of ICZM policies in Kenya present an unusual set of socioeconomic,

political and moral challenges to the climate change discourse. In his article,

Coastal zone management in developing countries with Kenya as a particular

example, Isager provides a description of these challenges.

Within a governmental planning context, the framework for successful

implementation of the UN regulatory programs such as ICZM does not exist on a

national or local level in Kenya as it does within the United States and other Western

countries (Isager, 2008). For example, Kenya’s ICZM guidelines are covered within

the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA) of 1999 which fail to

integrate key cultural and political structures within Kenya. Within the EMCA,

citizens can take grievances over environmental issues to a government tribunal

where the offending party will be held accountable for his or her actions (EMCA,

1999). Residents often take their grievances to a Council of Elders, religious leaders

whom are held in high regard in Kenyan society

(Isager, 2008). The majority of Kenyans avoid seeking justice through the courts,

which tend to be expensive and time consuming processes, and instead depend

upon religious leaders to mediate and arbitrate disputes. While the Council of

Elders is a powerful and authoritative body, it is not officially recognized by the

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Kenyan government. As a consequence, environmental issues impacting coastal

residents are rarely identified and or entered into the record. In failing to recognize

such an important social structure within Kenyan society, many are left with the

perception that ICZM programs do not simply represent a strategy for coastal

resource management, but lay the groundwork for the establishment of political and

administrative systems as well (Isager, 2008, Nichols, 1999)

With the implementation of ICZM, an economic battle for control over coastal

resources- ports, tourist and recreational attractions, agriculture, eco-marine

management and other coastal industries- will take place. There some

apprehension that the UN and the World Bank will facilitate the opening of coastal

zone to aggressive state and global investment and introduce more, rather than

less social and economic conflict and environmental degradation (Nichols, 1999).

Additionally, with the influx of money available for climate change adaptation

planning and implementation, resources may be diverted from programs into the

possession of Kenyan government officials and wealthy businessmen (Isager, 2008).

When dealing with coastal zone management, Isager observes the inequalities in

terms of political power (Isager, 2008). The influence of the UN and World Bank

funding and management schemes are effective in drowning out alternatives and

debate to dealing with the climate change issues of the developing world’s coastal

communities (Nichols, 1999). Developing nations do not have the same views on

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climate change as developed nations. Isager argues that environmentalism is a

global issue from a perspective rooted in Western ideology. He states that:

many governments, NGOs, scientists and individuals from the West therefore
regard it was their legitimate interest how... coastal zones are managed in Kenya...
Conversely, it is rare to see political leaders, environmentalist activists or scientists
arrive from Africa... to a Western country to campaign against environmental
degradation there. (Isager, 2008)

There is a philosophical divide that is disregarded when dealing with adaptation in

developing nations. Isager’s observation suggests that if explored, taking into

account the particular cultural and ideological issues of each community may

produce successful and locally appropriate strategies to handle adaptation to

climate change.

Conclusion:

Countries in sub-Saharan Africa face a multitude of challenges dealing with climate

change that have yet to be resolved. Millions of Africans rely on coastal systems for

their livelihoods. There is enormous pressure from the West, intergovernmental

bodies and international organizations for the developing countries in this region to

protect these vulnerable systems. Ethical, political and financial issues surrounding

climate change can potentially undermine effective adaptation measures. These

countries, in general, are poor, making them more vulnerable to climate change,

but also make them less effective in determining the strategies and management of

coastal systems that best suit them. The integrated coastal zone management

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program in Kenya exemplifies the challenges developing countries face. While the

Kenya government has implemented policies, they are not regularly enforced, and

are not acknowledged by communities they are intended to protect. The ideological

divide that exists between developed and developing nations demonstrates the that

alternative approaches may be required to administer appropriate adaptation

strategies.

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