8.

3 Metals
8.3.1 Metals have been extracted and used for many thousands of years

 Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history, including
contemporary uses, as uncombined metals or as alloys
The Copper Age was 3200BC to 2300BC. It is the period that archaeological records indicate
that copper was the first metal to be extracted from its ore. Copper was heated with
charcoal and globules of copper formed. Molten copper was used to make ornaments and
domestic utensils.
The Bronze Age was 2300BC to 1200BC. It was later discovered that heating copper with tin
produces an alloy, bronze. Bronze was harder than copper and more easily melted to be
moulded due to its low melting point. Bronze was used for tools and weapons.
The Iron Age was 1200BC to 1AD. Iron is more reactive than copper, so it need a higher
temperature to melt. Hematite was mixed with charcoal in primitive furnaces by blowing air
and obtaining a sufficiently high temperature. By 1000BC, iron had replaced bronze for tools
and weapons because it was harder and had hard tensile strength.
The Modern Age is 1AD to present. There had been more extraction and uses of other
metals such as aluminium, chromium and metal alloys. Iron is the most widely used metal
today. Many other metals have come into common use due to the advancement in
extraction technology.

Era Years
Stone Age Up to around 3000 BC
Copper Age 3200-2300 BC
Bronze Age 2300-1200 BC
Iron Age 1200 BC-1 AD
Modern Age 1 AD-present

 Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder and explain how these
relate to their properties
Alloy – is a mixture with metallic properties and composed of two or more elements, one of
which must be a metal. The properties of the alloy depend on the relative proportions of
each component in the mixture.
o Homogeneous alloy:
 Uniform mixture in which the component atoms are uniformly distributed.
 Atoms may be of similar size (substitutional) or one atom is much smaller
than the other and can fit into the spaces between the larger atoms
(interstitial).
o Heterogeneous alloy:
 Not a uniform mixture in which the component atoms are not uniformly
distributed.

Alloy Constituent elements Related Properties Uses

Bronze Cu, Sn Malleable and durable; Ship propeller, casting
casts well statues
 Solder PB, Sn Low melting point, Joining metals
adheres to other together in plumbing
metals when molten, and electronics
not corrosive industry
Brass Cu, Zn Lustrous, hard but Musical instruments,
easily machined, decorations, coins,
sonorous, not plumbing fittings,
corrosive, high melting electrical appliances
point
Steel Fe, C Hard, strong, malleable Building construction,
and corrosion resistant cars, machinery,
household appliances
Dental Hg, Sn, Ag, Cu Strong, durable, hard, Filling teeth cavities
amalgam corrosion resistant
Cupro-nickel Cu, Ni Resistant to seawater Coins, resistance wire,
corrosion and strong cooling circuits
‘Goldish’ coin Cu, Al, Ni Resistant to seawater Australian 1 and 2
corrosion and strong dollar coins
Stainless steel Fe, Cr, Ni, C Corrosion and stain Household appliances,
resistant and lustrous high quality cookware
Duralumin Al, Cu, Mg, Mn Light and durable Aluminium frames,
aircraft bodies

 Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore
Chemical reactions used to extract metals from its ore either absorb or release heat, which is
a form of energy (extraction reaction). Most metals need energy input for this reaction.
Energy is also needed to mine the ore, break the strong chemical bonds within the metal ore
and to purify it, and to maintain high temperatures required for the extraction reaction.
 Identify why there are more metals available for people to use now than there were 200
years ago
Metals vary in reactivity; the more reactive a metal is the more difficult its extraction process
will be. Metals such as copper are easier to extract because they are less reactive than
metals such as iron, which is susceptible to corrosion from contact with oxygen. More
reactive metals also require more heat energy to extract and so furnaces 200 years ago
would have a certain temperature limit. However we are now able to extract more reactive
metals and a wider range of metals such as aluminium due to the advancement in
technology.

8.3.2 Metals differ in their reactivity with other chemicals and this influences their uses

 Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and oxygen
metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas
eg. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
During the reaction between a metal and an acid, the metal dissolves as it loses electrons
and forms positively charged ions. Hydrogen ions from the acid gain electrons to form
hydrogen gas. Observations include the metal decreasing in mass, as it is being dissolved by
 the acid and bubbles will form in the acid caused by the release of hydrogen gas.
Metals that don’t react with dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids: Cu, Ag, Hg, Pt, Au
metal + water (liquid or gas) → hydroxide + hydrogen gas
e.g. 2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) +H2 (g)
In this reaction, the metal atoms displace the hydrogen atoms in the water through the
transfer of electrons. Observations include the metal decreasing in mass, as it is being
dissolved by the water and bubbles will form in the acid caused by the release of hydrogen
gas.
Metals that don’t react with water: Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Hg, Pt, Au
metal + oxygen → metal oxide
e.g. 4Na (S) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O (s)
Metals exhibit varied reaction with oxygen. Lithium, sodium and potassium tarnish rapidly
(must be stored in liquid paraffin oil) while rubidium and caesium are so reactive they catch
on fire (must be handled in an inert gas environment). Metals like magnesium, calcium,
strontium and barium burn readily in air, producing large amounts of heat and light.
Aluminium, zinc and iron will only burn if the metal is finely divided. Less reactive metals like
copper, only burn with oxygen when they are heated or when in contact with pure oxygen.
Metals that don’t react with oxygen in any circumstance: Au, Pt, Au
 Describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of activity based on
their ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids
When a metal reacts with dilute acids, water or oxygen, the metal loses its valence electrons
to form a positively charged ion. The relative ease in which a metal loses its valence
electrons is a major contributing factor affecting its reactivity. Very reactive metals like
potassium and sodium lose their valence electrons relatively easily while less reactive metals
such as a copper do not lose their valence electrons as readily. Metals like gold and silver
rarely lose their valence electrons. Ionisation energy is the measure of energy required to
remove an electron from an atom or ion in its gaseous state. Reactive metals tend to have
low ionisation energies and less reactive metals have higher ionisation energies. Hence, the
order in which metals are placed within the metal activity series is based on their ionisation
energies which contribute to their ease of reaction with dilute acids, water or oxygen.
 Identify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of electrons
Reactions which involve the transfer of electrons are Redox reactions (oxidation-reduction
reactions).
Oxidation – loss of electrons
Reduction – gain of electrons
Oxidising agent (oxidant) – causes the other substance to oxidise and itself to reduce.
Reducing agent (reductant) – causes the other substance to reduce and itself to oxidise.
 Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on their
reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the use of metals
The uses of metals are not just determined by their physical properties but in conjunction
with their reactivity.
o Gold is the least reactive of all metals and retains a shiny lustre perfect for making
attractive jewellery. Throughout history it has been used to make jewellery and fine
ornaments. Also, gold is an excellent conductor of electricity and doesn’t corrode or
tarnish, which is useful in electrical connections in computer and electronic circuits.
Gold has also been used in the space industry as it is an excellent reflector of infra-
red radiation.
o Magnesium is used in the cathodic protection of less reactive metals to protect them
from corrosion. The more reactive metal will corrode first, thus protecting the less
reactive metal and is called a sacrificial anode. Magnesium is also used in modern
fireworks and was once used in photographic flashbulbs because the metal produces
a bright white light when burning in oxygen.
o Zinc is used in galvanising iron products. Iron is dipped into molten zinc providing
the iron with a protective layer from oxygen which protects it from rusting. Zinc
reacts with air to form an resistant layer that protects itself from corrosion. In the
event that the zinc coating is damaged, zinc acts as a sacrificial anode and corrodes
in preference to the iron. Zinc is also suitable for use in batteries.
 o Tin and chromium are used to coat a base metal as they form an impervious oxide
layer protecting the underlying metal from corrosion. Tin is commonly used in food
packaging while chromium was used to coat bumper bars of older cars.
o Metals with low reactivity
 Copper is used in the plumbing industry because of its ability to resist
corrosion and does not react with hot water, making it ideal for hot water
tanks and pipes.
 Aluminium is light in weight and forms a protective oxide layer and is
commonly used in the building industry.
 Titanium is able to resist corrosion making it an ideal metal in these
corrosive environments: holding tanks and pipes in desalination plants
(convert sea water into fresh water) and factories producing or using acids.
 Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their positions on
the Periodic Table
Metals with low ionisation energies are generally more reactive than metals with higher
ionisation energies. Metals on the left-hand side of the periodic table tend to have lower
ionisation energies than metals in the middle of the periodic table. Hence, metals higher up
in the activity series tend to lie on the left-hand side of the periodic table. As you across from
group to group, metals become less reactive.
 Identify the importance of first ionisation energy in determining the relative reactivity of
metals
Ionisation energy is the measure of energy required to remove an electron from an atom or
ion in its gaseous state. Reactive metals tend to have low ionisation energies and less
reactive metals have higher ionisation energies. Hence, the order in which metals are placed
within the metal activity series is based on their ionisation energies which contribute to their
ease of reaction.
 Construct word and balance formulae equations for the reaction of metals with water,
oxygen, dilute acid
metal + acid → salt + hydrogen gas
zinc + hydrochloric acid → zinc chloride + hydrogen gas
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
metal + water (liquid or gas) → hydroxide + hydrogen gas
potassium + water → potassium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
2K (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2KOH (aq) +H2 (g)
metal + oxygen → metal oxide
sodium + oxygen → sodium oxide
4Na (S) + O2 (g) → 2Na2O (s)
 Construct half-equations to represent the electron transfer reactions occurring when
metals react with dilute hydrochloric and dilute sulphuric acids
o 2Al (s) + 6HCl (aq) → 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
Oxidation: Al (s) → Al3+ (aq) + 3e-
Reduction: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- → H2 (g)
o Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
Oxidation: Mg (s) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2e-
Reduction: 2H+ (aq) + 2e- → H2 (g)
8.3.3 As metals and other elements were discovered, scientists recognised that patterns in their
physical and chemical properties could be used to organise the elements into a Periodic Table

 Identify an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic structure
Bohr’s model is an appropriate model to describe the atomic structure. The nucleus is the
central part of the atoms which contains the protons and neutrons. It has a positive charge
equal to the number of protons. The electrons move through a relatively large space outside
the nucleus. The electrons are kept moving around the nucleus by electrostatic forces
between the positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons.

 Outline the history of the development of the Periodic Table including its origins, the
original data used to construct it and the predictions made after its construction
Before the 1800s, there was the four element theory: earth, air, fire & water. In 1800, about
30 naturally occurring elements were known. Antoine Lavoisier was the first to classify the
elements as metals and non-metals. In 1829, Johann Döbereiner, a German chemist
developed the “triads”, groups of 3 elements with similar properties: Lithium, sodium &
potassium formed a triad; Calcium, strontium & barium formed a triad; and Chlorine,
bromine & iodine formed a triad. In 1864 John Newlands, an Englishman, organised the
elements in order of their atomic weight and recognised a relationship between the first and
ninth element, the second and tenth, and so on. He proposed the “Law of Octaves” where
the properties of the elements repeat every 8 th element, however only applies up to
Calcium. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, proposed the periodic law – “The
properties of the elements vary periodically with their atomic weights”. He organised the
elements, which were written on cards, in a table in accordance to their atomic weights.
Mendeleev also placed elements with similar properties together in a group. This forced him
to leave gaps in his periodic table and he predicted that there were elements yet to be
discovered to fit into those gaps. In 1914, Henry Moseley, a British chemist, determined the
atomic number of each of the elements. He proposed a modified periodic law “The
properties of the elements vary periodically with their atomic numbers”.
 Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic Table, and:
o Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity decreases across a period and increases down a group. Metals
are good conductors of electricity and the more metallic a metal is, the more
electrical conductive it is. Its excellent electrical conductivity is due to the sea of
delocalised electrons in the metallic lattice where electrons are free to move about
and act as charge carriers. Non-metals are poor conductors of electricity but make
good insulators.
 o Ionisation energy
Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom of an
element in gaseous state.
As you go down the periodic table, the ionisation energy required to lose an electron
decreases as the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron(s)
increases due to the build-up of electron shells, hence increasing the atomic radius,
which weakens the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged nucleus
and the negatively charged electron(s).
As you go across the periodic table, the ionisation energy required to lose an
electron increases as each electron will experience a stronger nuclear pull exerted
upon them due to the addition of extra protons in the nucleus.
o Atomic radius
This is the distance between the nucleus and the outermost electrons.
As you go down the periodic table, the atomic radius increases due to more electron
shells. As you go across the periodic table, the atomic radius decreases due to the
increasing nuclear charge, which results in stronger attraction to the outermost
electrons, pulling them closer towards the nucleus.
o Melting point
The melting point increases up to the elements in group IV and then decrease. The
melting point increases as you go down a group. Metals generally have high melting
points because of their strong metallic lattice structure while non-metals tend to
have low melting points due to their weak intermolecular forces.
o Boiling point
The boiling point also increases up to the elements in group IV and then decrease.
The boiling point increases as you go down a group. Metals generally have high
boiling points because of their strong metallic lattice structure while non-metals
tend to have low melting points due to their weak intermolecular forces.
o Combing power (valency)
The valency remains the same in each group but is different for every group. The
first group has a valency of 1+. The second group has a valency of 2+. The third
group has a valency of 3+. The fourth group has a ±4 valency. The fifth group has a
charge of 3-. The sixth group has a valency of 2-. The seventh group has a 1- charge.
The eighth group has a valency charge of zero.
o Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom of an element to attract electrons.
Across a period, the electronegativity increases as the metallic character decreases.
Down a group, the electronegativity decreases as the metallic character increases.
o Reactivity
For metals, the reactivity of elements increases down the group and decreases as it
goes across the period. After group 4, reactivity decreases down the group and
increases across the period.

8.3.4 For sufficient resource use, industrial chemical reactions must use measured amounts of
each reactant
 Define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12 (Avogadro’s number)
A mole is defined as the amount of a substance that contains the same number of particles
as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon of Carbon – 12. Chemists have determined that
the number of atoms in 12 g of carbon – 12 is 6.02 ×1023.
1 ×C−12isotope atom=1.993 ×10−23 g
5.02 ×1022 C−12 atoms=1 g
Avogadr o ' s number → 6.02× 1023=12 g

m
n=
M

number of particles
n=
NA

V
n=
MV {AtAtRTP−25
STP−0 ° C /273 K 101.3 kpa , MV =22.71 L
° C/298 K 101.3 kpa , MV =24.79 L

 Compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with oxygen

Metal Mass of metal (g) Mass of metal oxide (g) Mass of oxygen (g)
Magnesium 0.16 0.19 0.3

 Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous reactions and

apply this to an understanding of the mole concept
Gay Lussac found that there was a simple relationship between the volumes of gases
involved in chemical reactions.
“At constant temperature and pressure, the volume of gases partaking in a chemical
reaction can be measured in whole number ratios.”

 Recount Avogadro’s law and describe its importance in developing the mole concept
“Equal volumes of all gases, measured at the same temperature and pressure, contain equal
 number of molecules.”
As equal volumes of gases contain equal number of particles, at the same temperature and
pressure, it follows that these equal volumes of gases also contain the same number of
moles of gas.
 Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae
The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of the numbers of
atoms of each element in the compound. The molecular formula specifies the actual number
of atom of each element in a molecule. E.g. the compound, hydrogen peroxide has the
molecular formula of H2O2. The molecule contains two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen
atoms bonded together. The empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide would be HO.

8.3.5 The relative abundance and ease of extraction of metals influences their value and breadth
of use in the community

 Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and non-economic deposits
of natural resources
Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic substances, usually compounds with a particular
chemical composition and a definite crystal structure. Examples of minerals include
haematite , magnetite, gibbsite, boehmite, malachite and chalcopyrite.
Ores are naturally occurring deposits that are mixtures of minerals (plus contaminants) from
which a metal can be economically extracted. Examples of ores include bauxite and iron ore.
 Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common metals, their actual
abundances and relative costs of production
The commercial price of metals depends on a few factors including their relative abundances
and the cost of production.
The greater the abundance of a metal the lower the commercial price of the metal would
be.
The cost of production of the metals depends on where it is located and the amount of
energy input. If the location of the ore is located in a high population zone, the mining
procedure would be difficult because there would be damages done to the environment and
increase the cost of production.
If an ore is located in remote places, then the cost of production would increase because it
would cost money to transport the raw materials to refinery plants.
The more reactive the metal is, then the higher the energy input is needed for extraction
and it would increase the cost of extraction.
 Explain why ores are non-renewable resources
Ores are deposits of naturally occurring minerals which were formed during the evolution of
the universe and the planets; therefore they are non – renewable resources.
 Describe the separation processes, chemical reactions and energy considerations involved
in the extraction of copper from one of its ores
The general process for metal extraction:
 Common ores of copper contain the minerals chalcopyrite, CuFeS2, chalcocite, Cu2S, malachite,
Cu(OH)2.CuCO3, or azurite, Cu(OH)2 .2CuCO3, mixed with a variety of other minerals. Typical ores
contain only 1% - 5% copper. This means that the ores need to be processed to remove most of
the unwanted material before the copper compounds can be reduced to metal.
The copper ore is first crushed into small pebbles and crushed again into finer particles to
liberate the mineral crystals from the rock. The most effective way to concentrate copper in
sulfide ores is froth flotation. Air is blown into a detergent solution. The gangue absorbs the
water and sinks to the bottom while the copper will be lifted to the surface by the bubbles. This
froth is then skimmed off the surface and contains 25% -30% copper by mass. The gangue
(waste) is removed at the bottom.
2CuFeS2 (S) + 3O2 (g) → 2CuS (s) + 2FeO (s) + 2SO2 (g)
The concentrate then goes through the processes of roasting and smelting – the roasting is a
chemical process which allows us to separate CuS and FeO apart but also produces SO2 which can
cause serious environmental damage and is also a respiratory irritant.
The copper (I) sulfide liquid is then heated in a converter furnace. A stream of air is bubbled
through the liquid and first converts the sulphide to an oxide leaving the copper metal behind.
Cu2S (I) + O2 (g) →2Cu (I) + SO2 (g)
For most purposes particularly for electricity conduction, copper of at least 99.9% purity is
required. This is done through electrolysis. The copper is placed on anode plates in sulphuric
acid. Copper loses 2 electrons to the positively charged anode and is attracted to the negatively
charged cathode where it gains back its 2 electrons. Most impurities sink to the bottom of the
tank and are collected for further refining or to be made into alloys.
In fact, the copper extraction reaction releases heat (exothermic ↔ ∆H<0). Despite this,
significant energy input is still required throughout the extraction process, especially for roasting,
smelting and electrolysis.
To reduce the production cost of a metal, careful consideration must be taken to locate the
refinery plants:
o Close to where the ore is mined
o Where electricity is cheap
o Where other industrial processing plants are in close proximity, so any heat release can
be utilised for roasting and smelting.
 Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium
1. Collect the used products from homes, shopping centres and factories.
2. Transport the collected material to a central processing plant.
3. Separate the required metal from the impurities.
4. Re-melt the metal into stock ingots.
5. The ingots are sent to mills where they are rolled out. This gives the aluminium greater
flexibility and strength.
6. This is then made into aluminium products such as cans, chocolate wrapping and ready
meal packaging.