Laser Diodes

LASER
DI O D E
G U I D E
SONY SEMICONDUCTOR
ation
Notes
• Responsibility for quality assurance, defect warranties and other items relating to individual transactions shall conform to these
sales contracts and other adjunct contracts concluded between the Sony Sales Department or Sony agents and customers.
• Sony makes the utmost efforts to improve the quality and reliability of its products, but semiconductor failure of a certain
percentage is unavoidable. Therefore, we request that sufficient care be given to ensuring safe design in customer products such as
redundant design, anti-conflagration design and design for preventing misoperation in order to prevent accidents resulting in
injury or death, fire or other social damage from occurring as a result of semiconductor failure. In addition, be sure to consult your
Sony sales representative beforehand when there is a chance that customer products manufactured using Sony products may pose
a life- or injury-threatening risk or are highly likely to cause significant property damage in the event of such a failure.
• Sony reserves the right to change the contents of this “Laser Diode Guide” without notice. Be sure to check the latest informa-
tion before using Sony semiconductor products.
• Technical materials shown in this “Laser Diode Guide” are typical references illustrating operation. This information does not
convey any license by any implication or otherwise under any Sony or third party patents or other rights, and Sony cannot assume
responsibility for any problems arising out of the use of this information or for any infringement of patent or other right due to
same.
• Export of products noted in this “Laser Diode Guide” which fall under the category of regulated commodities as prescribed by
the Foreign Exchange and Foreign Trade Control Act requires approval under said Act.
• The contents of this “Laser Diode Guide” may not be reproduced or transferred in any form, in part or in their entirety, without
the express written permission of Sony Corporation.
LASER
DI O D E
G U I D E
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Items and Definitions 1
Chapter 2 Handling Precautions and Reliability 7
Chapter 3 Operating Procedure 23
Chapter 4 Theory Of Operation 39
Chapter 5 Measurement Procedure 45
Chapter 6 Applications 51
Chapter 1 Items and Definitions
LASER
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1. Items and Definitions
Absolute Maximum Ratings for Laser Diode

Specifications are given for a case temperature or a thermister temperature of 25˚C.
For devices with an internal Peltier element, temperature (Tth) is determined by thermister.
Item Symbol Definition of maximum rating Notes

Maximum allowable output defined for continuous tempera-
ture or pulse operation.
Optical Power/Forward Current Characteristic

Optic power Po
Optical Po
Po Optical power down
output
only appears higher
than specified Po.
0
Forward current IF
Maximum permissible voltage allowed when the reverse

Reverse
VR bias voltage for semiconductor laser or photo diode is ex-
voltage
ceeded.
Operating Temperature limit given for case or thermister when device
Topr
temperature is active.
Storage
Tstg Temperature limit for storing the device.
temperature
–2 –
Laser Diode Electro-optical Characteristics
Item Symbol Definition Notes

The diagram below can be divided into two regions a spon-
taneous emission region A and a laser oscillation region B.
The oscillation start current is the current value for starting
oscillation known as the threshold current.
Optical output vs. Forward current characteristic

Optic power Po
Threshould
Ith
current
Po
A
0
Ith Iop
Forward current IF
Operating Forward (excitation) current necessary for maintaining the

Iop
current diode's specified optical output.
Operating
Vop Forward voltage at specified output.
voltage
Peak oscillation wavelength for operation of laser diode at
rated optical output. For a multi-mode device, this is the
wavelength of the center line of the set of spectral lines
which fall at 1/2 of maximum intensity. Classification into
single mode or multi-mode can be made according to the
number of spectral lines.
Oscillation Spectrum Characteristic
Luminous
Single mode
intensity
Oscillation
λp
wavelength
λ Wavelength
Multi-mode
Luminous
intensity
λ Wavelength
–3 –
Monitor Current which flows when the rated reverse voltage is ap-
Imon
current plied to the photo diode at the rated optical output Po.
Light emission from the laser diode is emitted as shown in
Figure (a). Measurement of the light intensity along the X
and Y axis results in the characteristic shown in Figures (b)
and (c) respectively. The horizontal direction spread angle
θ// and the vertical direction spread angle θ are given as the
Perpendicular to junction
width in degrees at 1/2 peak intensity (FWHM).

Beam Spread Angle
θ⊥ (a)
Y
Laser light
X
Rearside Frontside
Laser diode chip

Radiation angle
(b) (c)
Parallel to junction
1 1
θ// 0.5 0.5
X direction Y direction
(d) Power
θ symmetry
SL SR
∆Sr
-7 0 7
–4 –
Displacement of the laser diode chip with respect to the The emission accuracy is determined
device package. ∆X and ∆Y are measured as the planar by the combination efficiency between
displacement of the chip from the physical axis of the pack- the reflection angle and collimator
age, ∆Z is measured perpendicular to the reference plane. lens. Also, the stability of other pa-
Positional accuracy
rameters affects the accuracy.

∆X Emission accuracy
∆Y
∆Z
Z
Y
Emission accuracy
Optical path
∆φ⊥
Reference plane
The deviation of the optical axis of the beam from the me-
Rotational accuracy
chanical axis of the package, measured perpendicular to the

junction plane.
Optical path
Reference plane
∆φ//
The deviation of the optical axis of the beam from the me-
chanical axis of the package, measured parallel to the junc-
tion plane.
The mean value of the incremental change in laser power A larger sloping efficiency causes the
output for an incremental change in forward current ; rep- optical output vs. current characteristic
resented by the slope of the B segment in the “Optical out- curve to become steeper which reduces
put vs. Current characteristic” figure. The larger the slop- the separation between the rated oscil-
Slope ing efficiency, the more steep the curve of the optical out- lation initial current and the rated oper-
efficiency ηD put vs. current characteristic becomes. As the sloping effi- ating current. For a lower efficiency,
ciency becomes smaller, the curve becomes gentler. the curve become gentler causing a
larger separation between initial and op-
eration currents necessitating a larger op-
erating current for the rated optical out-
put.
–5 –
–6 –
Chapter 2 Handling Precautions and Reliability
LASER
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Guidance for setting up Laser Diodes Procedure for Establishing Laser Diode Emission
Select LD Type
Does the
type include an on-chip
TE cooler ?
YES NO
Design of LD heat sink Design of cooling system

for on-chip TE cooler for package
Please refer to pages 27-32
• Get laser functioning • Economize costs

quickly • Desire to build
• Need to control Course of action for yourself
with good LD driver ? • Accuracy not critical
accuracy • Special functions are
desired
Purchase
Design Driver
off-shelf driver
Please refer to
page 24-27.
Support devices for LD environment

∗ Static prevention measures
∗ Stabilization techniques for laser optics
LD mounting Double check above

∗ Mount heat sink procedures.
∗ Connect power supply circuit
Light emission !!!
–8–
2. Laser Diode Handling Precautions and Reliability
2-1. Laser diode handling precautions

Laser diodes, unlike ordinary transistors and integrated circuits, make it necessary to pay special attention to the fol-
lowing points when handled.
(1) Eye protection against laser beams
(2) Gallium Arsenide
(3) Prevention of surge current and electrostatic discharge
(4) Other precautions
All these precautions to observe are collectively described below.
When you handle a laser diode, read through the precautions and use the laser diode safely is the right way.
(1) Eye protection against laser beams
Take care not to allow laser beams to enter your eyes under any circumstances.
For observing laser beams ALWAYS use Safety goggles that block laser beams. Usage of IR scopes, IR cameras and
fluorescent plates is also recommended for monitoring laser beams safely.
Laser diodes are ranked as Class III B and IV products by the U.S. Depertment of Health, Education and Welfare. Class
III B covers laser diodes up to 500mW in optical output. 1W lasers fall in the Class IV category. (See page 10 and 11)
Example of Label on Product Specification Sheets

Class III B
Class IV
Preventive Measures against Injury from Laser Beams

The standards, laws and regulations relating to laser devices in force in different countries use different criteria of laser
device classification such as AEL value, range of wavelength, and applicable bandwidth. Difference is also seen in
prescriptions of the label form (including layout, symbols and colors), the instructions and warning to be contained in the
label, and provisions relating to interlock, secondary radiation, and so on. In addition, the laws and regulations in
particular will inevitably be altered as the laser technology advances. Therefore, when manufacturers of laser devices
(including OEM products) export their products, it is essential that they take export proceedings fully consulting the
authorities of the importing countries on these problems (including the problem of safety).
–9–
Guidelines of Measures for Prevention of Injury by Laser Light Purpose
The guidelines are aimed at eliminating the possibility of injury to the workers who engage in
laser device handling or services in which they might be exposed to laser light (referred to as
laser-related work hereinafter)....(referred to as service workers).
Laser equipment classification....based on the degrees of the effects the laser equipment, categorized as defined in the
accompanying sheet on the basis of the radiation exposure limits corresponding to the wavelengths and durations of laser
light generated by the laser devices, cause on the human body. The meaning of each of the classes is defined below.
Class 1 : Laser equipment with a low output (approximately 0.39µw or less) which does not cause any injury to the
human body.
Class 2 : Laser equipment with an output of such level of visible light (400 to 700nm in wavelength) that enables the
defensive reaction of the human body to avert injury (approximately 1mW).
Class 3A : Laser equipment with an output which makes direct observation of the beam by optical means dangerous
and which is less than five times the output of class 2 (approximately 5mW or less).
Class 3B : Laser equipment with an output that can cause eye injury if exposed to directly but which does not cause eye
injury if exposed to diffused reflected (approximately 0.5W or less).
Class 4 : Laser equipment with an output which can cause eye injury even if exposed to diffused and reflected beam
(approximately more than 0.5W)
Note) 1W=103mW=106µW
• Scope of application
The guidelines apply to the laser related work performed by use of Class 3A, 3B and 4 laser devices.
For the time being, however, they do not apply to the laser related work performed by use of medical and educational
laser equipment at educational and research institutes.
– 10 –
If any part of the human body is exposed to laser light, degeneration of protein due to thermal
action, optochemical reactions with the cellular tissue, and breakdown of the tissue by impact
waves (plasma current and consequent pressure waves) occur. Such effects on the living body
vary with laser light wavelength, output, output waveform (continuous or pulsed waves), etc.
Generally, however, the eyes suffer heavier injury than the skin, and irreversible changes occur
more readily. It is necessary to pay attention not only to the direct and primary action of laser light
but also to secondary injury that may be caused by diffusion of toxic substances resulting from
irradiation of the object being aimed or other objects around the device with laser light.
(1) Eye injury (See illustration).
a. Argon laser, YAG laser, CO2 laser etc, that emit continuous waves or long pulses could cause injuries shown below
because of their thermal or optical action.
1. Laser light that has wavelengths out of the visual focusing area (ultraviolet area (200 to 400nm) and some of the
infrared area (1.400 to 106nm) could cause cornea burn or cataract involving amblyopia as the beam is absorbed by the
cornea, crystalline lens and other tissues.
2. Laser light that has wavelengths in the visual focusing area (visible area (400 to 780nm) and some of the infrared area
(780 to 1.400nm) could cause the following injuries as it converges on the retina rather than the optical system of the
eyes (the cornea, crystalline lens) and has roughly 105 times larger density.
i) Continuous wave laser light absorbed by the retina (at its center or vicinity) could cause retina burn due primarily to
thermal action.
ii) Visible laser around 430nm in wavelength (absorbed by the retinal pigment of retinal photoreceptive cell) could cause
retina injury due primarily to opto-chemical action.
b. YAG (Q-switch) laser, CO2 laser, etc. that emit short pulse high peak power could cause retina burn, fundus bleeding,
etc.due to impact waves, which often involve high level amblyiopia.
(2) Skin injuries
Excessive exposure to high output laser light could cause the skin to anywhere light red spots, blisters, thermocoagula-
tion to carbonization.
light absorption CIE's wavelength Results on

by the eye bands (nm) the eyes, injuries
Cornea inflammation
200 involving severe pain due to
UV-C opto-chemical and thermal
action
Ultraviolet
280
UV-B
315 Cataract due to thermal
action
UV-A
Visual focusing areas
400 Retina injury caused by

Visible
opto-chemical action of
visible light
780 Damage to retina by
opto-chemical action,
IR-A thermal action and impact
waves
1.400
Infrared
IR-B
3.000
IR-C
106
Cornea and cataract by

thermal action
CIE is an abbreviation for Commission Internationaie de Eniuminure.
Fig. Effects Caused on Eyes by Excessive Exposure to Laser Light
– 11 –
(2) Gallium Arsenide
Laser diodes use gallium arsenide (GaAs). This is not a problem for normal use, but GaAs vapors may be potentially
hazardous to the human body. Therefore, never crush, heat to the maximum storage temperature or higher, or place the
product in your mouth.
In addition, the following disposal methods are recommended when disposing of this product.
1. Engaging the services of a contractor certified in the collection, transport and intermediate treatment of items
containing arsenic.
2. Managing the product through to final disposal as specially managed industrial waste which is handled separately
from general industrial waste and household waste.
(3) Prevention of surge current and electrostatic discharge

Laser diodes are most sensitive to electrostatic discharge among semiconductors. When a large current is passed through
the laser diode for even an extremely short time, the strong light emitted from the laser diode promotes deterioration and
then destruction of the laser diode. Therefore, note that surge current should not flow to the laser diode driving circuit
from switches and others. Also, if the laser diode is handled carelessly, it may be destroyed instantly because electrostatic
discharge is easily applied by a human body. Therefore, be extremely careful about overcurrent and electrostatic dis-
charge.
Also, use the power supply that was designed not to exceed the optical power output specified at the absolute maxi-
mum ratings. The following section lists the methods to prevent static electricity discharge.
(a) Protective clothing for static electricity

Personnel handling laser diodes should wear clothing as described in the figure below. Nylon fabrics are known to be a
source of static discharge should be avoided.
Electrostatic
countermeasure clothing
Gloves and finger sacks

Wrist strap
Electrostatic Electrostatic
countermeasure floor countermeasure shoes
Fig.1 Human Body (Worker) Countermeasures
(b) Laser diode handling

Do not directly touch the leads of the laser diode. Wear cotton finger socks or cotton gloves ESD protection gloves and
handle the laser diode as shown in Figure. 2
Fig.2 Holding of Laser diode
– 12 –
A grounded wrist strap should be connected to the wrist.
Cotton glove
Wrist strap
Snap
Grounding wire
Fig.3 Attachment of a grounded wrist strap
Conductive sheets, and stainless steel or aluminum plates on the workbench should be grounded.
;;;;;;;
;;;;;;;
Stainless steel or aluminum plate
;;;;;;; Grounding wire
1MΩ
Fig.4 Workbench Grounding
Other equipment and worktools should be grounded also.
(c) Soldering
• The metal part of the solder iron tip should be grounded and if solder iron is used more than 5 min. an isolation
resistor of at least 10MΩ should be used.
• Keep the solder iron (30W) tip temperature less than 260°C (200°C for B block) and do not keep in contact for more
than 10 seconds.
• After the connections are brought in place apply solder promptly.
Grounding wire
1MΩ
Fig.5 Solder Iron Tip Grounding
– 13 –
(d) Procedure for Cutting Leads
• Perform work over conductive sheet.
• Worker should wear grounding band.
• Do not use air nippers as they are a source of static electricity.
Example of static electricity test

An example of a static electricity strength test circuit and an example of the results of a test are shown below.
C = 200pF
Voltage generator LD Device under test
Fig. 6 Example of static electricity breakdown strength test
For exsample : SLD203V-3

Survival rate (%)
100
80
60
40
20
-1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400

Reverce direction Forward direction
Applied voltage (V)
Fig. 7 Example of laser diode static electricity breakdown strength
A laser diode is vulnerable particularly in the forward direction where the possibility of static electricity breakdown is
high. Special anti-static measures must be taken for reliable operation.
(4) Other precautions

Note that deposits or dust on the window glass of a laser diode could cause deterioration of the laser diode performance.
The following practices are recommended.
1. Do not touch the window glass with bare hands.
2. Use care to prevent damage to the window glass by tools or other objects.
3. When dust deposited on the window glass is to be removed with an air gun, short circuit the leads or use a moss pack
covered with a conductive bag.
– 14 –
2-2.
a) Fundamental Approach to Reliability

Beginning with a firm grasp of the customer's requirements, a conscience effort is made to achieve quality and reliabitility
in design, development, and all phases of production. This challenge in met through quality control in selection of
materials and every step of fabrication along with regular testing of shipments. The entire process is carefully monitored
to ensure consistency so that the customer's satisfaction is guaranteed. As the state of the art and the range of applications
take quantum leaps forward so must the quality and reliability steadily increase to meet the custmer's needs. The follow-
ing activities are performed to implement these goals.
(1) Reliability management from planning to development to production setup.
(2) A high level of automated production to provide consistent quality.
(3) Small work groups are formed to raise reliability awareness of each technician.
(4) Reliability information and field data is analyzed and fedback into the production cycle.
The flowchart for the reliability assurance methodology is given in Figure 8.
– 15 –
• Quality Assurance System for the Development of New Devices
Sales Planning Control Technology Manufacturing Quality Assurance

Customer
Department Department Department Department Department
Needs Market research Product planning

Planning stage
Product planning review
Determination of
target specifications
Development and
Development plan
design stage
Development design
Design review
Prototype manufacture stage
Prototype manufacture
Characteristics
evaluation Reliability
evaluation
Quality
certification
Design verification
Order reception Materials Material incoming

purchasing inspection
Sales plan Production plan

Mass production stage
Wafer process
Shipping plan
Assembly process IPQC
Final inspection
Inventory QAT
Shipping
Acceptance
by customer
Usage stage
Complaint
Trouble reception
Reception
Investigation, analysis and corrective action

Response
IPQC : In Process Quality Control QAT : Quality Assurance Test
Fig.8 Quality Assurance System of Semiconductor Products
– 16 –
b) Reliability Theory
The well known bathtub curve describes the breakdown probability for most electrical devices (Figure. 9). In the intial
stage the breakdown probability starts off low and steadily increases. In the following stage, random breakdown, the
breakdown probability is constant. The last stage is the wearout period in which the breakdown probability steadily
increases. The lifetime of equipment using semiconductors is much shorter than the devices themselves which usually do
not arrive at the wearout stage. Through the years improvements in laser diode technology have extended average life-
times to a level of typical semiconductor devices. More importantly, the breakdwon probability in the initial stage has
been reduced by upgrading fabrication materials, improvements in processing, and the use of screening techniques.
Initial
breakdown
Wearout
Random breakdown breakdown
Breakdown ratio λ(t)
m<1 m=1 m>1
Drive time (t)
Fig.9 Breakdown ratio vs. Time for Parts
When the light emission element of laser diodes is operated in the forward direction, a current unrelated to the genera-
tion of light increases causing the emission characteristics to change as time goes by. This current increase also has a big
affect on the driving circuits which in turn draws more current from the power supply. Therefore, the life of the light
emission element is conventionally determined by the optic power vs. current characteristics with time as a parameter.
These relationships are illustrated in Figure 10. Even by using an APC (Automatic Power Control) circuit to hold the
optical output to a fixed value, generation of the rated optical output Po becomes impossible at time ts.
At Sony, in order to protect the system from this runaway current, first the lifetime of the device is defined as the time
at which the current reaches 1.2x the initial value (Figure 10 (b)). This point of operation is still well within the capability
of the device to generate light as can be seen from the graphs of Figure 10.
Optical output power Po : Fixed I4

Optic power output
t 0 t1 t2 t3
Supply current
t4 I3
1.2 × lo
I2
Po
t5 I1
lo
I0
t6
0 I0 I 1 I2 I3 I4 t0 t1 t2 t3 t4
Current I Time t
Fig.10 Optic Output Operating Current Characteristics as Function of Time
– 17 –
To explain the characteristics of the laser diode the actual operation of a small package laser for compact discs which
operates at 70°C with a 25mW optical output will be described.
Temperature is one of the primary factor affecting reliability for semiconductor laser diodes. As the temperature of the
diode and the surrounding area increases during use, the rate of degradation (given in terms of drive current per unit time,
∆Iop/∆t) increases exponentially and can be described by the following formula.
∆Iop –Ea
τ∝
∆t
∝ exp
kT ( )
Ea : Activation energy (eV)
k : Boltzman's constant (=8.616×10-5eV/K)
T : Absolute temperature (K)
From the general relationship of temperature vs. drive current the rate of increase for semiconductor lasers is given as
Ea=0.7eV
For every 10°C increase in room temperature lifetime decreases by about a factor of 1/2. Since the recent trend is
towards products with small package ICs, when designing laser diode products care should be taken to keep the rate of
temperature increase down.
The average lifetime of the laser diode is derived from data obtained through accelerated high temperature testing and
the average breakdown time (MTTF : Mean Time to Failure) calculated from a Weibell Chart.
An explanation of Weibell Chart and average breakdown time is given below. The bathtub curve of Figure 9 can be
described by a Weibell distribution function resulting in the following probability distribution function : f (t)
t m–1 m
f (t) = m • • exp( – t )
t0 t0
From this the cumulative failure rate is given by :
m
F (t) = 1 – exp (– t )
t0
The failure probability is thus :
t m–1
λ (t) = m • t
0
MTTF is represented by to.
The breakdown rate is given for m<1, m=1, or m> 1, which corresponds to a decreasing, constant, or increasing
relationship relative to time. The breakdown probability for the initial stage decrease with time, for the random stage is
constant, and for the wearout stage increases with time. The distribution depends on the size of m (shaping factor).
Devices which have cleared screening by a fixed method are then subjected to a lifetime test to confirm that they have
cleared the initial breakdown stage and will be able to reach their average lifetimes. The resulting data can be used to
derive a relationship between drive time and cumulative breakdowns.
This relationship is called the Weibell Chart and the m value (shaping parameter) which determines the intersection of
the lines can be used to calculate the average lifespan. By the time the random breakdown stage (m=1) is entered, 63.2%
of the entire sample has reached breakdown. Figure 11 illustrates the shaping parameters of this Weibell plot.
– 18 –
Cumulative breakdowns (%)
63.2
m=0.5
10.0
m=1.0
m=2.0
1.0
0.1
1000 10000
Drive time (H)
Fig. 11
c) Reliability Testing
To ensure that Sony's laser diode products are performing according to specifications as given by document JIS-C-702,
regular inspections are performed on random samples of devices. Items checked include the device's environmental
tolerance, ability to withstand stress from equipment, and operational lifetime.
Fig. 12 gives the parameters for reliability testing and Fig. 13 shows the breakdown criteria standard for reliability
testing.
d) Handling Precautions
A high-speed response characteristic greater than 1GHz and an operating voltage less than 2V makes the semiconduc-
tor laser very susceptible to surge currents.
If the operating current exceeds its rated value by just a small margin a runaway current will result causing the optical
power output to be exceeded and allow degradation. If static electricity builds up in the circuit given in Figure 14 (a), a
voltage will be induced which results in a relationship between optical power output and operating current as given in
Figure 14 (b). If the surge current becomes large or if there is a pulse of surge current greater than a few usec, a large
degradation occurs. Not only is the optical output/operating current relationship upset, the long-sighted resolution of the
laser deteriorates and the light continuity is affected. Even if a relatively weak surge current occurs, the laser must be
inspected to confirm the remaining operating lifetime. When handling take static electricity discharge precautions. A
design which does not induce or allow an excessive power current is necessary for high output laser systems to maintain
a good transient response from the drive circuits and reduce noise in the power supply.
– 19 –
Test method
Test item Test condition Test time
JIS C7021
Fixed operational output
Operational lifetime Optical output POMAX mW 1000h
Case temperature TOPMAX °C
Max. storage temperature Ta=85°C 1000h B-10
Min. storage temperature Ta=–40°C 1000h B-12
Tolerance to humidity Ta=85°C 85%RH 1000h B-11
Low temperature –40°C High temperature 85°C
Temperature cycle Idle time 30 minutes 100°C A-4
Transition time 5 minutes
Tolerance to soldering heat Temperature 260 + _ 5°C 5S A-1
Natural fall∗ Height 75cm Maple plank strike surface 3 times A-8
100Hz to 2kHz to 100Hz/4 min. X, Y, Z/
Vibration A-10
Acceleration 20G each 16min
A-11 Method I
Pin strength Pulling Bending
A-11 Method III
Flouranet 125°C
Airtightness
He process method PUMPING 1h A-6 Method III
Gross leak 1min
BOMBING 3h A-6 Method I
Fine leak
FLUSHING 30min
∗ SLD300, 400 series are not applied.
Fig.12 Environment and Tolerance Testing
– 20 –
Allowable tolerance Test method
Item Test condition Unit
Min. Max. JIS C 5943
Threshold current S×1.2 mA
Operating current Optical output ____mW S×1.2 mA
S : Initial value
Po (mW)
Po
I (mA)
Ith Iop
Fig.13 Breakdown Criteria Standard for Reliability Testing
50V surge
5
Po – Optical power output (mW)
Normal
4 60V surge
R
3
LASER
Ea C DIODE 2
C=200pF
0 50 100
R=0Ω
IF – Forward Current (mA)
Test Circuit Electrostatic Destruction Results from Electrostatic Destruction Test
(a) (b)
Fig. 14 E.S.D Test
– 21 –
– 22 –
Chapter 3 Operating Procedure
LASER
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3. Operating Procedure
3-1. APC (automatic power control) circuit

Since the optical power output vs. forward current characteristics of a laser diode are temperature dependent, an APC is
generally employed to make sure that the optical power remains constant as the temperature varies. Fig. 1 shows an
example of an APC circuit for SLD200 and SLD300 series laser diodes. Because the another APC circuit must be used
which features a ±5V noise free power supply. If a voltage regulator is used, confirm that no noise is present at the
output.
Due to an exceptionally high giga-hertz response time along with low impedance, laser diodes may be damaged by a
minute amount of noise in an instant. C6 and D in the APC circuit which filter out the noise should be connected as near
as possible to the laser diode.
VR1 and VR2 must be adjusted according to the procedure in Figure 1-1. VR1 compensates the sensitivity of the
monitor diode and VR2 establishes the level of optical power output. Simply stated, adjustment starts by turning VR2 all
the way up (to VR2-5V potential) and adjusting VR1 so that maximum optical power output is obtained. Then adjust
VR1 to establish the desired optical output.
The basic operation of this circuit will now be explained. A current corresponding to the optical output flows from
photo diode PD to laser diode LD. This current is then I-V (current to voltage) converted by IC1 and output to TP1. The
voltage is then reverse amplified at IC2 using the optical output set voltage VR2 (TP2) as a bias. The IC2 amp is output
to TP3. The TP3 output is input to transistor Q whose current output drives the laser diode.
At this point, the laser diode is operating at it's normal emission level. If the output increases for whatever reason, the
photo diode current will increase followed by a fall in voltage at TP1. Since the TP1 output is sent to the non-inverting
input of IC2, the TP3 voltage also falls. Following this the base current to Q drops and the current flowing to the laser
diode decreases thus lowering the optical output. This design enables the optical output to be fixed by adjusting the level
to VR2.
The collector current capacity of the drive transistor should be larger than LD's operational current Iop and hFE should
be greater than 100µ.
For turning the LD ON/OFF (low frequency pulse driving in Hz range) with this circuit (Fig. 1-1), attach a circuit
equivalent to that shown in Fig. 1-2 to TP2. For turning the LD OFF, 1V or greater is input to TP2 ; for turning ON leave
open.
The time constant of C4 and R6 of circuit 1-1 is 10 msec which is appropriate for slow starts. For higher speeds (in the
hundreds of KHz range) the ON/OFF circuit is not effective unless the time constant is lowered. However, beware that
a low time constant makes the circuit more vulnerable to noise.
For pulse operation the duty cycle is variable and sometimes short which causes the APC function to be ineffective. A
peak-hold circuit with appropriate I-V characteristics should be inserted to rectify.
The XT, and ZT, YT packages are fitted with an on-chip TE cooler for water cooling and a thermister for temperature
sensing. The ATC (Automatic Temperature Control) driver circuit for these packages is illustrated in Figure 2. A ther-
mistor, which can be seen in middle of diagram, is employed with constants B of 3450k and Ro of 10KΩ (@TO=25°C).
This circuit can be replaced with another providing the same function if so desired.
For given temperatures T (K) and To (K), the resistance Rth can be determined by the value for resistance Ro as
expressed by the following formula.
Rth=Ro ¥ exp [B(1/TÐ1/To)]
The 10V power supply for this circuit should be current limited to a current value as specified by the maximum ratings
for the TE cooler. There are 3 adjustment points for this circuit, VR1 for zero adjustment, VR2 for gain adjustment, and
VR3 for temperature adjustment. After all three have been adjusted once according to adjustment procedures, only
adjustments to VR3 are necessary to accommodate various temperatures.
Since the control unit of this circuit is just a simple proportional contrl circuit, the response time and accuracy may be
– 24 –
insufficient for some users. For the heat sink, care should be taken to ensure a sufficient capacity to prevent heat racing.
The sink must cover the FET for the driver which consumes as much current as the TE cooler. An FET type should be
chosen with a maximum rated current larger, a Vgs (off) smaller, a gm larger (greater than 1S), and Vds (on) smaller (less
than 1.5Ω) than that for the TE cooler.
Utilizing a thermal shut-down circuit is recommended to prevent the temperature from exceeding maximum ratings
and to cut-off laser emission in case the temperature does go over.
+5V
GND
+
C6 D
* 2.2µ
10V
1S1555
PD LD C1
470P TP3
R5
100k *
TP1
R4 2SC2987
TP2 5.1k 2 R6 Q
5 + 8 +
VR2 t 100
IC1 5k IC2
- 7 -
6 4 R2 3 LM358
LM358 5.1k C3 + + + C5
R3 10µ
R1 VR1 1k 16V 1000µ
R7 16V
–5V
C2 C4
* Note : Heat sink employed 0.01µ 100µ/16V
1. Preparations before connecting power supply.

VR1 : Resistor value at VR1 should be as large as possible.
VR2 : Adjust to GND potential.
2. Adjustment of maximum optical power output.
a. While referencing the optical power meter, rotate VR2 so that the TP2 potential is negative and a fixed optical power
output is attained.
b. If a fixed optical output cannot be achieved in (a), adjust VR1 to attain the fixed output.
Now adjustment of VR1 is complete. If the current has stopped flowing, bring TP2 to GND potential by rotating
VR2.
3. Be careful not to allow the laser output to exceed the absolute maximum rating during these procedures.
4. After the laser light turns back on, turn on the power and adjust VR2 until a fixed optical output is reached. Care
should be taken to make sure that the laser power does not exceed the absolute maximum ratings.
Fig. 1-1 APC Circuit Example for SLD200,

SLD300, and SLD320 Series
Model No. R1 R7 VR1
SLD201 7.5k 7.2(0.5W) 200k
SLD202 6.2k 7.2(0.5W) 200k
SLD201-3 3k 7.2(0.5W) 100k
SLD202-3 3k 7.2(0.5W) 100k
SLD301/SLU301 10k 5(2W) 100k
SLD302 5.1k 3(2W) 50k
SLD322 2k 1(3W) 20k
SLD304/SLD323 1k 0.5(3W) 10k
SLD324 650k 0.3(6W) 3k
– 25 –
+5V
1k
+1V 5V OFF
1k
2SC945
–5V ON
TP2
Fig. 1-2
+10V
TP2 +
C4
VR3 1000µ
1k 16V
R5
Regulator R4 6.2k R6
15k 150k
78L
05 VR1 VR2
2SK405, 2SK1529
5k 5k –
–
+ Heat sink employed
R1
+
33k
+ Th Vo LM358
C1 R3 TP1
Peltier element heat
0.18µ R2 12k LM358
8.2k sink employed
C2 + C3
470µ/16V 470µ
16V
–5V
Adjustment Procedure
1. Replace Th with a 28k ohm resistor and adjust VR1 so that Vo reaches 0V.
2. Replace Th with a 10k ohm resistor and adjust VR2 so that Vo reaches 2.5V.
3. Connect the Peltier element and thermistor.
4. Adjust VR3 so that a fixed Vo is reached. In this condition Vo=0V for 0°C and Vo=2.5V for 25°C. Within this range
an approximately linear T-V rate of change of 0.1V/°C is exhibited.
Precautions
1. Use a heat sink of sufficient thermal capacity on the laser diode board.
Fig. 2 ATC Circuit Example
3-2. ACC (Automatic Current Control) circuit

A constant current circuit shown in Fig.3 is used to ensure that a constant current flows through the laser diode. This
circuit is known as a suction type constant current source.
The current Iop which flows through the laser diode is determined by reference voltage Vr and resistance R1 as given
by the folowing equation.
Iop = (Vr+6) /R1…q
Raising the potential Vr thus increases the current.
To set up the circuit, first calculate R1 for the desired Iop from the equation R1=1/Iop and then set R2 and R3 to achieve
the Vr necessary according to 1. A drive transistor which possesses a larger collector current than the working current Iop
of the laser diode and parameter hFE greater than or equal to 100 should be used.
– 26 –
GND
Laser diode 0.1µ R2
1S1555
IOP
IC
+
27 100µ
–
Q Vr
+ R3
2SC2987
LM358
+
R1 100µ
–6V
* Note : Heat sink employed
Fig. 3 ACC Circuit Example
Note 1. The power supply used for both APC and ACC circuits should be a regulated power supply free from any noise.
2. Whenever a laser diode emits light, heat is generated. High temperatures will cause degradation of the laser
diode and it's permormance ; therefore, proper heat dissipation and cooling are required for both the laser diode
and drive transistor.
3. The laser power should not be allowed to exceed the absolute maximum rating.
3-3. Mounting
Thermal Dissipation considerations
High power laser diodes obviously require proper heat dissipation to maintain the chip temperature within rated levels
and assure a long lifetime. Since the optical conversion efficiency of a laser diode is around 30%, a substantial portion of
the DC power is dissipated as heat from the package.
Sony's medium and high power lasers are currently mounted in the 9mim. U/V package and the special square shape
XT, ZT, YT package. The V package has the following approximate thermal resitance from the laser cavity to the
package's external surface (including the laser chip's thermal resistnace).
The values have been measured by means of the standard delta-Vf method.
V package : 42°C/W (SLD200 series)
– 27 –
2-M2.6 5 screw
44mm
2mm
Upper holding
plate
Laser diode
Lower holding plate 26mm
3mm
Material : Copper
Fig. 4
Since most of the heat dissipated from the laser chip is drained from the underside of the package, make sure that the
heat sink makes good contact with the bottom flange of the package.
The characteristic values of a laser diode are rated in terms of the case temperature Tc (thermistor reading for packages
with a built-in TE cooler).
For example, when the SLD323V is operated to provide an optical power output Po=1W, approx. 2W of heat is
generated. A heat sink capable of cooling to the operating temperature of Tc =Ð10 to +30°C can be attached to provide for
forced air or water cooling, of coding the TE cooler.
In the next section the procedure for heat sinking with an external TE cooler and heat sinking for on-chip TE cooler
packages shall be presented.
3-3-2. Procedure for heat sinking with an external TE cooler

While various methods can be employed for heat dissipation of a laser diode, the method for heat dissipation by use of
a peltier element is described below.
In cooling a laser diode, its operating temperature should be considered. The operating temperature of a laser diode is
specified in terms of its case temperature.
It is therefore important to determine whell the case temperature should be set at.
Let the case temperature be Tc, and :
Ta : Atmospheric temperature (°K)
P : Calorific value (W) generated by laser diode
Pp : Power consumption of peltier element
To begin with, the heat absorbed by the peltier element,
Qab, is given by the following equation.
Qab = PLD +x
– 28 –
(The x is the calorific value absorbed from the atmospheric air on the cooling side.)
The peltier element's cool side temperature TCOOL is given by :
TCOOL=TcÐ(H× PLD)
H : cool side conductance
The peltier element's hot side temperature, THOT' is given by the following equation.
Q ab = nS T COOL I p Ð 1/2Ip2R Ð K (T HCO Ð TCOOL )
S : Mean Seebeck coefficient (V/°K) of peltier element

n : Number of semicondutor elements in peltier element
Ip : Current (A) that flows through peltier element
R : Internal resistance of peltier element (ohm)
K : Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/°K) of peltier element
Therefore
nS T COOL I p 1 Q ab
T HOT = T COOL + K Ð Ip 2 R Ð K
2K
the calorific value dissipated by the peltier element, QD, is given by :
QD=Qab+Pp(W)
Form the results described above, the heat sink conductance H is given by :
QD
H = T Ð Ta ( W/ºC)
H
* However, the thermal resistances of the laser diode and cooling block, the cooling block and peltier element's cool side,
and the Peltier element's hot side and heat sink have been ignored.
For example, assume that the SLD323V is driven as in the diagram shown above.
(Iop=1.4A Vop=2.1V Po=1.0W)
Case temperature (Tcase)=15°C, Ta=25°C,
Peltier element current Ip=2A, Vp=3V,
nS=0.023 (V/°K)
K=0.29 (W/°K)
X PLD
TC Laser diode
TCOOL
Qab
Peltier element
THOT
Heat sink
QD Ta
¥ Calorific value absorbed by Peltier element
Qab = (Iop×VOÐPO) +x
= 1.94+x (W)
where the x is the absorbed calorific value taking into consideration the thermal conductance of the laser diode and
peltier element cool side. Let x=1.06W for example, and we get : Qab=3 (W)
¥ Peltier element cool side temperature
TCOOL = TcaseÐ (Qab/H)
= 15 Ð (0.5×3) 13.5°C = 286.5(°K)
(However, the H depends on the methed for thermal coupling of the laser diode and peltier element's cool side.) Here the
1/H is assumed to be 0.5 (°C/W)
– 29 –
¥ Peltier element's hot side temperature
nS T COOL Ip 1 Q ab
THOT = TCOOL + K Ð Ip2R Ð K
2K
0.023 286.5 2 1
= 286.6 + Ð 22 1.15
0.29 2 0.29
Ð 3 = 313.7K = 40.7 ( C)
0.29
∆T = 40.7 Ð 13.5 = 27.2 (K )
The Vp (Peltier element voltage) is obtained from the Peltier element's characteristic graph (shown below).
Vp=3 (V) From the result mentioned above,
Qp=Qab+Ip×Vp= (3+2×3) =9 (W)
Accordingly, the heat sink conductance H is given by :
QD 9
H = T Ð Ta = 40.7 Ð 25 = 0.57 ( W/ )
H
Therefore, a heat sink that has a larger value than this is required.
Peltier element voltage vs. Temperature

differential characteristics
Tc = 15ûC
6
2A
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Fig. 5
3-3-3. Procedure for heat sinking for packages with on-chip TE cooler
Interpretation of TE cooler characteristics graph and method of selecting heat sink.
A graph of the TE cooler characteristics for a given set of parameters is shown in Fig.6. Fig. 7. illustrates the heat sink
for XT packages.
The temperature differential ∆T between the thermistor (laser diode chip) temperature Tth and the case temperature Tc
(Tth < Tc) is given along the horizontal axis. The absorbed heat capacity Q (heat generated from laser diode) is given on
the left vertical axis and the voltage VT generated with respect to the TE cooler is given on the right vertical axis. The
temperature used for deriving the charateristics is shown above the graph on the right side. The specifications list
temperatures Tc and Tth for a given set of conditions at recommended operating temperature.
Design of heat sink device and determination of heat resistor using this graph (Tth is fixed).
– 30 –
1. Deriving the generated heat Q
Q can be derived from the operation voltage Vop, the operation current Iop, and the generated optical power output
of the laser diode by the following relation.
Q(W)=Vop(V) × Iop(A)ÐPo(W)
For the SLD304XT package this would result in :
Q (W) =2.1V×1.4AÐ0.9W
=2.0W
(The operating voltage and current are standard values. For the actual generated power, contact a Sony representative.)
2. Deriving ∆Tvs from Q and the maximum allowable case temperature Tc.
From 1 we have an absorbed heat Q of about 2W (neglecting heat generated from currents inside package). The
intersection of the characteristics curve when the maximum rated current IT of the TE cooler is 2.5A and the straight
line for Q=2W results in a T of 47°C. …q
Following this the maximum allowable value of Tc, Tcmax, becomes :
Tc max(ûC)=47û+15ûC
=62ûC
Q VT
I T = 2.5A
Fig. 6 ∆T
Tth
Copper Block Laser Diode Chip
TE Cooler
Tc
XT Package
Heat sink Ta
Fig. 7
3. Deriving generated heat capacity Qc of entire package Qc can be determined by following relationship.
Qc (W) =VT (V) × IT (A) +Q (W)
VT is taken from the ∆T vs. V characteristics. …w
When IT and ∆T are determined Qc is resolved.
(Note : VT is considered as the voltage generated to the pin rather than as an induced voltage. In other words, since
the TE cooler is current controlled, a sufficient induced voltage must be applied.)
For the SLD304XT package this would result in :
Qc (W) =6.3V×2.5A+2.0W
=17.8W
– 31 –
4. Determination of the required maximum heat resistance for the heat sink.
θ h can be found by the formula :
θ h (°C/W) = (Tcmax Tamax) (°/Qc (W))
Tamax is the maximum allowable ambient temperature.
For a Tamax of 45°C with the SLD304 package the following result is gained :
θ h (°C/W) = (62°C-45°C) /17.8W
= 0.96°C/W
Therefore, a heat sink with a heat resistance smaller than this value must be chosen.
These characteristics may vary depending on the placement of the heat sink and the ambient temperature, so the design
should allow for a margin of error. When there are restrictions on the placement and available space countermeasures,
include cooling or using a lower Tamax design parameter.
For a given ∆T vs. Q for the TE cooler characteristics, a characteristics curve for MAX IT in the left region should be
used. In the right region temperarure control becomes difficult. If IT must be chosen near the right region, reliable
operation can be maintained by lowering the laser output or using a lower Tamax design parameter.
The required heat sink capability for the SLD300 Series is given in the table below. Remember that this table just serves
as a standard and the actual values depend on actual operating and environment temperatures.
Required Maximum Conditions

Product Name Heat Resistance Tth Tamax
SLD301XT 3.1℃/W
25℃
SLD302XT 2.9℃/W 45℃
SLD304XT 0.96℃/W 15℃
3-4. System optics

The basics of the optical system for a semiconductor laser is briefly described below. The fundamentals for a compact
disc are described but we believe that they provide good guidance in other applications as well.
1. Basic parameters of lens
a. Focal lenght f
When parallel incident rays are being propagated, the point where it looks as if there were a thin lens is called the
primary point. ÒFocal lengthÓ refers to the distance from the primary point where parallel incident rays are brought
in to the position. where the rays converge into an image.
Primary point Focal plane

Parallel incident rays
Focal
point
Optical axis
Focal length f
Fig. 8
– 32 –
b. NA (Numerical Aperture)
The NA is the parameter that determines the resolution of a lens and is expressed by the following equation.
r
NA = n sin =
+
r f2
2
r : Effective luminous flux radius

n : Refractive index
r
Optical axis
Fig. 9
c. Focal depth L
Focal depth refers to the distance over which the imaging plane can be moved, while satisfying the required resolu-
tion. This is expressed by use of laser diode oscillation wavelength and lens NA.
λ
L=
(NA)2
Focal plane
Required resolution
Focal depth
Fig. 10
d. Transverse magnification α and perpendicular magnification β Generally, the imaging and related items of a lens
comply with Newton's law.
a×b=–f2
Transverse magnification α denotes the size of an object, Y, and size of its image, Y', and can be stated as described
below.
Y' f b
= =– =
Y a f
When an object slightly moves in the direction of the optical axis, the amount the image moves is called perpendicu-
lar magnification β which can be approximated by squaring the transverse magnification α.
∆X'
= =
∆X
a f f b Y'
∆X ∆X'
Fig. 11
– 33 –
e. OTF (Optical Transfer Function)
The OTF is the parameter which represents the resolution of a lens and includes contrast MTF (Modulation Transfer
Function) phase component PTF (Phase Transfer Function).
Sinusoidal wave chart
Lens
Fig. 12
Assume that the image of the sinusoidal gratings of predetemined spatial frequencies is formed. Let the amplitude of
the original intensity be A, and the amplitude of the intensity measured throuth a lens be B.
B
MTF =
A
Their phase difference is PTF.
Intensity
Ideal intensity distribution
B A
PTF Measured intensity distribution
Fig. 13
2
f. Beam spot diameter d (1/e of peak intensity)
Light having an ideal wave surface can be concentrated to the size expressed by the following equation.
λ
d = 1.22
NA
Intensity
1/e2 d
0
Fig. 14
– 34 –
2. Diffraction grating
If light is passed through a thin slit, the light is diffracted so that ±1st, ±2nd,....order beams traveling at different angles
from 0-order beam can be obtained.
The 3-beam technique for CD uses the 0-order beam to read pit data and uses the ±1st order beams to apply tracking
servo.
2nd-order
1st-order
0th-order
Ð1st-order
Ð2nd-order
Fig. 15
3. Polarizing Beam Splitter (PBS)
The polarizing Beam Splitter is used to separate the light emitted from a laser diode from the light reflected back from
the disc. The separation is accomplished by combined use of a quarter wave plate. The splitter allows light to pass
straight or reflects it in the 90° direction,depending on the polarizing direction of light.
LD PBS Quater wave plate DISC
Fig. 16
4. Quarter wave plate
The quarter wave plate is an anisotropic crystal (quartz crystal) whose refractive index is different in the X and Y
directions and is an optical part for converting linearly polarized light to circularly polarized light.
In the CD, light travels both ways. So circularly polarized light is reconverted to linearly polarized light. At the same
time, the polarization plane is rotated 90°. As a result, the forward light can be separated from the backward light by the
polarizing Beam Splitter mentioned above.
combined waveform
Anisotropic crystal
Incident light
(Linearly polarized light)
Fig. 17
– 35 –
The incident light from A has X and Y direction components different in refractive index, so the traveling speeds of the
electromagnetic waves differ in the individual directions. As a result, they go out of phase. If the crystal thickness is
large, repetitive (if the crystal is constant) twisted polarized light is produced. If there is no crystal at point B (thickness
d), they come out as electromagnetic waves 90° out of phase and become sin and cos waves, resulting in circularly
polarized light. At point C, they are not out of phase, so linearly polarized light is restored. Elliptically polarized light
will be produced if the thickness is other than described above.
5. Cylindrical lens
This lens and four-division detector are used to detect whether the focus of laser beam is formed on the disc.
Fig. 18 shows how the laser beam is focused by the cylindrical lens.
If the laser beam whose cross section is a true circle enters the cylindrical lens, it will be focused in the transverse
direction only. As a result, the laser beam passed through the lens will be elliptical in cross section.
The degree of ellipse will vary with the distance from the lens. Whether the focus of laser beam is formed on the disc
can be detected by use of a detector capable of detecting the degree of ellipse. The focus of laser beam can always be
formed on the disc by moving the pickup lens nearer to the disc if the disc is too far away or by moving it away if the disc
is too close.
Top
Side
;
;;
;;
Cylindrical lens
Fig. 18
Why slanted cap package is provided

The SLD100 series, SLD200 series offer a slanted cap package called the “U package”. The “U package” is designed
for compensating the astigmatic distance* of a laser diode.
It is well known in optics that when the luminous flux radiated from a spot light source obliquely enters parallel flat
glass plates, the rays in XY plane and the rays in YZ plane have different positions of apparent light emitting points after
passing through the glass plates, producing an astigmatic distance.
In the U package specification laser diode, the light emitting point located in the rear is moved forward by utilizing this
principle.
In other words, the original light emitting point is point A in Fig. 19, but the luminous flux passed through the slanted
glass appears as if its light emitting point were located at point B, eliminating the astigmatic distance between θ⊥ and θ//.
– 36 –
Y B
LD chip
A
Z X
A : Original light emitting point

B : Virtual light emitting point of luminous flux after
passing through oblique glass
Fig. 19
Astigmatism
The two beam components θ// (theta parallel) and θ⊥ (theta perpendicular) of a laser diode's beam originate at different
points. The parallel component originates at the laser chip's facet, while the perpendicular component originates within
the chip, typically 3 to 7 microns for index-guided lasers and 20 to 30 microns for gainguided lasers, as shown in Fig.20.
This difference in focal point results in astigmatism.
LD chip
Single mode laser Multimode laser Single mode laser,

Multimode laser
Fig. 20
– 37 –
– 38 –
Chapter 4 Theory Of Operation
LASER
G
DI O D E
U I D E
4. Principle of Semiconductor Laser Action
4.1 Principle of light emission

The energy levels of electrons of the molecules and atoms of the substances that constitute lasers are positioned as
shown in Fig.1.
E4
E3
Excited levels
Energy
E2
E1
E0 Ground level
Energy levels
Fig. 1 Energy Level Diagram
The electrons absorb or emit the rays of a wavelength proportional to the energy difference between energy levels as
they move (transition) between the energy levels. The wavelenth of light emitted can be expressed by the following
equation.
C 1.2398
λ= =
E2 – E1 /h E2 – E1
C : Velocity of light (2.998 108m/sec)
h : Planck's constant (6.626 10-34 J.S)
E1 : Energy before transition
E2 : Energy after transition
The transition processes include three types of processes; induced adsorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated
emission.
(Absorption)
EH EH
Incident light
EL EL
Before transition After transition
In the absorption process the electrons positioned at a lower energy level (EL) absorb the incident light and are excited
to a higher energy level.
(Spontaneous emission)
EH EH
Emitted light
EL EL
In the spontaneous emission process the electrons positioned at a higher energy level (EH) transition to a lower energy
level (EL) and emits light by converting the energy difference (EH-EL) encountered at the time of the transition to light.
Since the rays emitted in this cane are the rays produced by random transitioning of electrons, they are not in phase in
time and space.
Such emission is called incoherent light.
EH EH
Incident light Incident light Emitted light
EL EL
– 40 –
The electrons are forced to jump from a higher energy level (EH) to a lower energy level (EL) by producing light. This
process may be regarded as the reverse of the absorption process. So the emitted rays are rays in phase in time and space
that are of the same wavelength with the same phase relationships as the incident rays. Such emission is called coherent
light.
Laser light refers to the coherent light produced by stimulated emission. In a normal equilibrium state, more electrons
are collected at a lower energy level, creating a state where absorption occurs more readily than does emission. There-
fore, current is supplied to a create a special condition for collection of more elections at a higher energy level. Such a
condition is known as inverted population and readily causes emission of light. Incidence of light in this condition
produces more rays than absorbed and amplifies the light intensity.
For laser emission, not only the amplification function but also the feedback function must be provided. The feedback
function is shown below in terms of the Fabry-Perot resonator which is most commonly used.
Reflecting mirror Inverted population Reflecting mirror

region
Resonator length L
Fig. 2 Fabry-Perot resonator diagram
The Fabry-Perot resonator basically comprises two reflecting mirrors arranged in such a way as to face the cleavage
plane of crystal with stimulated emitted rays confined between the reflecting mirrors. The stimulated emitted rays travel
toward the reflecting mirrors (Fig.2) and are returned to the same position by reflection from the reflecting mirrors.
During the period some of the rays are lost because they are transmitted through the reflecting mirrors or are absorbed or
¢
;
Q
diffused in the resonator. The current value at which the loss and the gain by current amplification become equal is
referred to as the threshold current value, and emission begings at the value.
• Structure of AlGaAs double hetero-junction laser

A laser diode essentially comprises a double hetero junction. The junction consists of a very thin activation layer of
GaAs sandwiched between two cladding layers of n-AlGaAs and p-AlGaAs.
;
Q
¢
GaAs active layer
n-AIGaAs P-AIGaAs
(–) (+)
Insertion Injection
Cladding layer
Fig. 3 Cross-Sectional View
– 41 –
Application of - and + forward bias respectively to the cladding layers n-AlGaAs and p-AlGaAs on both sides causes
them to start injecting carriers into the active layer. At this point, the cladding layers n-AlGaAs and p-AlGaAs have a
larger band gap than the active layer GaAs, providing hetero barriers. As a result, the carriers are confined within the
active layer, and inverted population readily occurs. (Fig. (b)) The active layer is so thin that a high excitation effect can
be produced by a small current. It is therefore possible to obtain a high intensity of emitted light.
An advantage of this structure is that since GaAs is approx. 6% higher in refractive index than AlGaAs, the laser light
internally produced cannot readily spread transversely, making it possible to confine the light. (Fig. (d)) For this reason,
it would be safe to say that the double-hetero junction is a very convenient structure for efficient production of laser light.
(b) Carrier confinement effect
(Electrons)
Conduction Hetero barrier

band
Recombination
Valence band (Holes)
(c) Gain distribution
(d) Refrective index distribution
(e) Light intensity distribution
Fig. 4 Theory of Operation of

Double Hetero Junction Laser Diode
– 42 –
(Transverse mode)
The transverse mode is a mode determining radiation strength distribution in a plane perpendicular to the emitted beam
and is normally expressed by near and far field patterns (NFP and FFP). It includes perpendicular and parallel transverse
modes.
(Perpendicular transverse mode)
The rays are confined in the activation layer because of the difference in refractive index as described above. The
quantity of light confined varies with the thickness of the active layer. The thicker the active layer, the larger the quantity
of light confined. If the active layer is thin, the light will escape. Generally, in a semiconductor laser, the laser light
distribution width in the element is equivalent to or less than the wavelength, and therefore makes the external laser light
emission surface wider.
(Parallel transverse mode)
The rays are confined in horizontal direction of the active layer with a stripe structure. The structure is sandwiched by
the current blocking area. Ion implantation method or epitaxy makes the current blocking area. The stripe width is
determined the resonator size. The radiation angle of the parallel transverse mode is greater than the radiation angle of
the perpendicular transverse mode because the ray is enough narrower than the laser’s wavelength.
Longitudinal mode
Parallel transverse mode

Perpendicular
transverse p-GaAs (Cap layer)
mode p-AIxGa1-xAs (Cladding layer)
p-AIyGa1-yAs (Active layer)
n-AIxGa1-xAs (Cladding layer)
NFP
Laser light
emission region
Reverse direction
n-GaAs (substrate)
TM
TE
Perpendicular transverse mode
TE
fo
TM
FFP
IF
Parallel transverse mode
Fig. 5 Semiconductor Laser Structure Example
– 43 –
(Longitudinal mode)
The longitudinal mode expresses the wavelength spectrum components of emitted beam.
With laser in emission, the reflected light in the resonator suffers interference as it goes around, and the standing waves
of light develop.
The resonator length L is q (an integral number) times half the wavelength of light. If this relation is expressed by an
equation, the following equation holds.
λ
L= q
2n
Since q is a very large value, even a slight change of wavelength will cause emission.
Normally, emission occurs at a wavelength where the gain reaches a maximum.
Refrective index
1 2 3 q
Fig. 6
– 44 –
Chapter 5 Measurement Procedure
LASER
G
DI O D E
U I D E
5. Laser Measuring Procedure
5-1. Optical power output-forward current characteristics (L-l)

The optical power output-forward current characteristics of a laser diode is measured by supplying current in the
forward direction of the laser diode and detecting the generated laser light with a light receiving element that has a large
receiving port diameter.
Laser diodes are classified into DC (CW) drive and pulse types, depending on their drive circuits.
The light receiving elements in general use are silicon PIN diodes calibrated with a reference phtoto diode APDs
(Avalanche Photo Diodes), etc.
Senser head
LD
A
L
Po
I
mW IF
Power meter x-y recorder
EG&G Model 460
Fig. 1
5-2. Longitudinal mode spectrum

A longitudinal mode spectrum shows the results of laser light separated into components by a monochromator, optical
spectrum analyzer, etc., and expressed in terms of wavelength vs. light intensity distribution.
Spectrum where many laser emission modes are excited are called axial multimode emission, whereas spectrum where
only a single laser emission mode is excited are called longitudinal single mode emission.
The emission wavelength of a laser diode shifts toward the longer wavelength side as the ambient temperature rises.
For high accuracy spectrum measurement, therefore, the temperature of the laser diode must be controlled by a Peltier
element and the like to maintain it constant.
Variable slit Variable slit

Chopper Photomultiplier
LD
Peltier element
Monochrometer
Optical power
output
Lock-in amplifier
Wavelength
x-y recorder
Fig. 2
– 46 –
5-3. FFP (Far Field Pattern)
A far field pattern is measured by detecting via a pinhole or slit the light intensity distributions vertical and horizontal
to junction of a laser diode.
The spatial resolution of a far field pattern image depends on the distance between the laser diode and light receiving
element and the aperture diameter of the pinhole.
Pinhole
LD
0.1mm
PD
15cm
x-y recorder
Fig. 3
5-4. Astigmatism
The difference between the virtual light source positions of beams parallel and perpendicular to the junction is the
astigmatism. The simplest method for detecting the virtual light source position is by measuring the beam diameter at a
point closet to the laser end, while moving the laser diode, and by finding the position where the beam diameter is
reduced to a minimum.
The astigmatism of a laser diode produces large effects on its imaging performance. Therefore, it constitutes an impor-
tant item particularly for the real write operations of magnetic-optical disks, etc. that offer a high recording density.
Long focus objective ND filter TV camera

LD
lens Close-up lens
Oscilloscope Monitor
Fig. 4
– 47 –
5-5. Polarization ratio
The polarization ratio of a laser can be measured by converting the light emitted from the laser diode into parallel rays
with a collimator lens and by turning a polarized beam splitter to find the ratio of the maximum to minimum value of the
quantity of light.
The polarization ratio generally has different values, depending on the aperture diameter of the collimator lens and the
optical power output of the laser diode. It is therefore necessary that the measuring conditions that match the operating
conditions are set.
Polarizied beam
Collimator lens splitter
PD
LD
NA = 0.1 PBSB 1100
A
L
TE
Po TM
I
IF
Fig. 5
5-6. Frequency response

The output beam of a laser diode can be directly modulated by current modulation. To obtain a good frequency re-
sponse, the modulated current signal is superimposed on a DC bias current.
BIAS LASER PHOTO DIODE

CIRCUIT DIODE (APD)
TRACKING SPECTRUM
GENERATOR ANALYZER
Fig. 6 Configuration of Pulse

Response Measuring System
Frequency response characteristics (SLD202V)

AT T E N : 1 0 d B
10dB/div
20
Output (dB)
10
0
0 1 2
Frequency f (GHz)
Fig. 7
– 48 –
Rectangular wave response waveform (SLD202V)
Optical power output (100mV/div)
Time (1ns/div)
Fig. 8
– 49 –
– 50 –
Chapter 6 Applications
LASER
G
DI O D E
U I D E
6. Applications
This section provides a brief introduction to the typical fields where laser diodes find application.
6-1. CD
Fig. 1 Typical Optical System
Item Portable Table top type

Operating current IOP • Because of battery drive, the operating current • Because of household power supply, the ef-
produces direct effects on playback time. fects are not so grave as in the case of the por-
• The smaller, the better. table type.
Wavelength λ • The coating on optical parts is designed such that the transmittance, reflectivity, etc. will be
satisfied for a given range of wavelengths. If wavelengths are out of the range, therefore re-
quired power may not be available.
• Allowable degree of skew of disc, L
Disc
λ
L∝
(NA)3
Allowable degree : Extent of skew that is tolerated
without degrading playback quality
• Allowable degree of unevenness in thickness of disc, M
λ
M∝ Optical system
(NA)4
NA : Numerical aperture of lens
Laser diode
– 52 –
Item
θ//, θ⊥ • Coupling efficiency ηc
Since a minimum quantity of light for reading signals from a disc is fixed, the quantity of light
emitted from the laser diode has to be increased if the NA of the collimator lens is small or the
radiation angles (θ//, θ⊥) are large. This results in a shorter life.
The coupling efficiency, which serves as an index to indicate how effectively the light quantity
of laser diode is in use, is determined by the NA of the lens and the radiation angles (θ//, θ⊥) of
the laser diode.
Po
Pt
Po : Total quantity of light emitted from laser diode

Pt : Quantity of parallel emerging from lens
ηc= Pt 100 (%)
Po
The smaller the θ// and θ⊥, larger the ηc.

• Imaging performance
Radiation angle large Equivalent NA large
Radiation angle small Equivalent NA small
spot size SP = k λ k : Constant

NA
• The spot size is related to the NA. If the radiation angles (θ//, θ⊥) become too small, the equiva-
lent numerical aperture NA decreases, whereas the spot size increases.
– 53 –
Item
S/N • The S/N ratio of laser is determined by its ability to correct errors in digital signals.
• Block error rate (BLER)
The error correction system CIRC (Cross Interleave Read Solomon Code) has 7350 unit blocks
in a second. If any of the blocks that has even a bit of error is to be treated as an error block, the
BLER is defined by:
BLER = Number of error blocks in a second

7350
B BLER value specified in CD
BLER<3 ×10-2 (Standard value)
Eye pattern diagram
– 54 –
Item
S/N • Spatial frequency characteristics of MTF (Modulation Transfer Function)
νCO = 2NA
λ
MTF
νCO Spatial frequency ν
0 500 1000
500 1000 1500

(Line pair/mm)
frequency f (kHz)
Optical
Longest pit Shortest pit cutoff
frequency
Channel bit
length N 11T 3T –
Pit length
3.18 µ m 0.87µm –
PN = V N
B
Spatial frequency
νN = 1 1571p/mm 5741p/mm 12001p/mm
2 PN
Frequency
fN = B 196KHz 720KHz 1500KHz
2 N
( νN V)
B : Channel bit rate 4.3218Mbit/sec
V : Line velocity 1.25m/sec
• Nine types of pit lengths are employed for CD. The features of the longest and shortest pit
lengths are shown above.
• As is evident from the eye pattern, the shorter the pit length, the smaller the amplitude in terms of
electrical signal. This is because the MTF of the lens has spatial frequency characteristics. The
strictest S/N ratio requirement has to be met when the amplitude is the smallest, or the pit length
the shortest (f=720kHz).
– 55 –
Item
S/N • S/N and C/N
* C/N (Carrier to noise ratio)
S/N for a specific carrier frequency In LD, S/N is defined by:
S/N=10 log { VDC

50
1000 (dBm)–N(dBm)}
On the other hand, C/N is defined by:
MTF VDC 2
C/N=10 log
{ 2 2
50
1000} (dBm)–N(dBm)
In CD, MTF=0.4 when f=720kHz.

So the following relation holds.
S/N=C/N+17 (dB)
The standard value of C/N, because of its correlation with BLER,
1000
500
CD standard value
(220)
100
BLER (block/sec)
50
10
1
55 50 45 43 40 35
C/N (dB)
C/N ≥ 43dB Thus,
S/N = C/N+17 ≥ 43+17 = 60dB is required.
Astigmatic distance In CD or any other applications where concentration up to almost the diffraction limit is neces-
As sary, the astigmatism is a parameter that must always be taken into consideration. The parameter
varies among different optical systems. In the CD applications, if the difference is less than
15µ m, it is tolerated.
(It depends on the superposition of the perpendicular magnification and focal depth of the lens
system.)
– 56 –
6-2. Optical discs (except CD and DVD)
The MD (Mini Disc), CD-R, CD-RW are typical of the optical discs except CD and DVD. Both are designed primarily
for recording digital data and are used for storage of document files and computer data.
A major difference from CD and DVD is in that “write” is made.
The following “write” techniques are employed.
(1) Pits physically formed on recording material (CD-R)
(2) Reflectivity of recording material changed (CD-RW)
(3) Magnetization of recording material changed (MD)
All of the techniques employ “heat”. Therefore, a large output laser that allows concentration to a spot of 1 to 2µ m is
required.
For example, Fig.2 shows a functional diagram of MD.
Weak magnetic field

Recording layer
(Vertically magnetized film)
Optical system
(a) In record mode
0°
0°
Polarizing plate A Polarizing plate B
(b) In read mode
0°
Polarizing plate
transmission axis
(C) Behavior of reflected light on polarizing plate B
Fig. 2 Principle of MD
– 57 –
(a) Record mode
With bias field applied in the direction that the disc is to be magnetized, the desired portion to be recorded is exposed
to laser light and the temperature raised up to the Curie point where the magnetism transition occurs.
(b) Reproduction mode
The Kerr effect is employed.
Kerr effect : When linearly polarized ligh is reflected from a magnetic pole, the polarization plane is rotated according
to the derection of magnetization.
For removal of the LED component of the laser diode, polarizing plate A is inserted to bring linearly polarized light to
the disc. The reflected light from the disc, because of the Kerr effect, has a polarization plane different from that of the
incident light. Let the polarization plane of the incident light be 0˚. Then the polarization plane of the reflected light from
downward magnetization changes by θk, whereas that of the reflected light from upward magnetization varies by-θk.
If polarizing plate B is placed in a direction 90˚ to the reflected light θk, then the reflected θk is not transmited, whereas
only sin2θk portion of the reflected lightθk is transmitted as the signal from the disc. (C)
It follows from the above that the following characteristics are required for laser.
Record Reproduction
mode mode
An output of 10mW is
required.
Output 5mW
The larger the output, the
higher the write speed.
Polarization On MO in particular, because of use of polarizing

ratio plates, the larger the polarization ratio, the smaller
the laser output and the longer the life.
Converging Capability must be provided to allow concentration
performance up to nearly the diffraction limit. Has direct bearing
(mainly
astigmatic on recording density. Astigmatism should be less
distance) than 10µm.
6-3. Bar code scanner

Fig.3 shows a functional diagram of the bar code scanner.
Optical system
Semiconductor laser
Collimator Scanning mirror
PD Analog signal
AD conversion
Digital signal
Fig. 3 Functional diagram of bar code reader
– 58 –
The laser light emitted from the He-Ne laser travels through the optical system and is reflected by the optical system to
scan the bar code label. The light brought to the bar code label is absorbed by the black bars and reflected by the white
spaces as it comes back to the photodiode where it is converted into analog signals snatching the pattern of the bar code.
Thereafter, the analog signals are converted into digital signals by the AD converter and decoded by the decoder.
In the past the He-Ne laser and LED were used as the light source of the bar code scanner but they have the disadvan-
tages described below.
He-Ne laser
(1) Large overall dimensions
(2) Low electricity to light conversion efficiency
LED
Since the LED does not allow concentration up to the diffraction limit, it has a large reading error rate, resulting in
many wrong readings.
To solve the disadvantages of both, a bar code scanner using a semiconductor laser began to be commercialized.
Bar code Scanners are available in two types; [a] the hand held type and [b] desk top type. The characteristics impor-
tant for both of them are shown below.
Item [a] Hand held type [b] Desk top type

The bar code ink is wavelengthdependent
(Fig. 4). This contrast directly governs the
error rate in the read mode. The shorter the
wavelength, the better.
//
No special restrictions Because of multidirection
(Aspect ratio) imposed because of scanning, the closer to
single direction scanning. true circle (1:1), the better.
Important characteristics of bar code Scanner
1.0
White bar
Reflectivity
0.5
Black bar
0
600 700 800
Wavelength λ (nm)
Fig. 4 Spectral reflectance of bar code label
– 59 –
6-4. Laser beam printer
The laser beam printer is attracting wide attention as an ideal printer, because it provides very clear high printing
quality, allows high speed printing, and operates silently without producing noise.
The laser diode is finding wide use as the laser light source for the printer, because it meets the small size and low power
consumption requirements.
1. Basic configuration
Fig.5 shows a basic configuration of the printer.
The printer as a whole consists of a signal control system, optical system and recording system.
laser diode
Collimator
lens
f lens Polygon mirror
Photo-sensitive
material drum
Cylindrical lens
Fig. 5
a. Signal control system

The laser diode, modulated by the record signal, gives the pattern of dot signals to be printed in light ON/OFF form.
b. Optical system
In the optical system, the laser light from the laser diode is converted into parallel beams by the collimator lens. The
beams are horizontally and vartically scanned by the polygon mirror and photosensitive material drum in rotation at a
low speed.
c. Recording system
What role the laser diode plays in the recording system is described below, while referring to Fig.6.
t Fixed
y Cleaned
u Discharged
r Thansferred Photo • sensitive

material drum
Ordinary paper
q Charged
Toner w Exposed to
laser beem
e Developed
Fig. 6
– 60 –
q The surface of the photo-sensitive material drum is uniformly charged.
w Then the drum is exposed to laser beam. The charge in the exposed portion escapes, so an electrostatic latent image
is formed.
e The toner pre-charged to reverse charge is brought into contact with the photo-sensitive material on which the electro-
static latent image was formed for development.
r A voltage is applied for discharge to transfer the toner to ordinary paper.
t Fixing is done by pressurization and heating.
y The remaining toner is removed.
u The surface of the photo-sensitive material is discharged.
6-5. Light source for optical pumping of solid-state laser

The laser diode (LD) can be used as a light source for optical pumping of solid-state laser. Since an LD excited solid-
state lasers offer many advantages listed below, it began to attract wide attention in recent years. Intensive efforts are now
being made for development and commercialization.
(1) Provides overall high power efficiency.
(2) Features small size and light weight, making it possible to reduce power supply.
(3) Can operate without water cooling.
(4) Offers longer life and higher reliability than the lamps, contributing to a substantial reduction in maintenance cost.
(5) Can be used for optical pumping of various types of solid-state lasers 770 to 840nm in absorption wavelength.
The following table shows a comparison of the LD with the conventional excitation techniques in efficiency, etc.1)
Inert gas Tungsten

Laser diode
lamp lamp
Electric input power 2kw 500W 1W
Optical power 100W 5W 0.2W
Laser power 8W 0.2W 0.06W
Overall power
efficiency 0.4% 0.04% 6%
Optical pumping
light source 400h 100h 500h
life expectancy
Nd : YAG laser excitation light source comparison
– 61 –
To explain the excitation technique dependent differences in efficiency, let's compare the light emission spectra of inert
gases such as xenon and krypton and those of laser diode with respect to the absorption spectra of Nd : YAG.
• Nd ; YAG and Nd: Glass, as shown below in Figs
. (a) and (a'), have sharp absorption bands, including 810nm. If they are excited by use of a xenon or krypton lamp shown
below in Figs. (b) and (b'), poor excitation efficiency will result, because such inert gas lamps have a wide light emission
wavelenth range in which even the wavelengths that are not absorbed by Nd : YAG and Nd : Glass are included. The
laser diode, on the other hand, has sharp light emission spectrum and offers a high pumping efficiency, because it allows
tuning of wavelengths to only the 810nm absorption band.
100 100
80 80
Transmittance [%]
Transmittance [%]
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
Wavelength λ [ µm ] Wavelength λ [ µm ]
(a) Nd3+ : YAG absorption spectra (a') Nd3+ : Glass absorption spectra
Absolute quantity of light [ mW/cm2per100 ]
Absolute quantity of light [ mW/cm2per100 ]
70 70
500mmHg 750mmHg
60 60
2400A/cm 2
2400A/cm2
50 50
40 40
30 30
1200A/cm 2
20 20
10 10
0 0
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
Wavelength λ [ µm ] Wavelength λ [ µm ]
(b) Xenon lamp light emission spectra (b') Krypton lamp light emission spectra
Fig. 7 Comparison of light emission spectra
– 62 –
Excitation of solid-state laser by LD can be accomplished by two methods shown below in Figs.8 and 9.
The end excitation method achieves excitation by converging output light from the laser diode on the end of the solid-
state crystal, making it possible to obtain high-quality single-frequency laser emission whose laser emission threshold
value is low.
The side excitation method is used for excitation by converging the output light from the laser diode on the side of the
solid-state crystal. It is suited for use in obtaining large output laser oscillations.
1.06µm
Laser diode
808nm Nd:YAG
Collimator Focus lens
lens
Fig. 8 End excitation method
Collimator lens
Nd:YAG 1.06µm
Laser diode
808nm
Fig. 9 Side excitation method
Development and practical utilization of LD excited solid-state lasers, which began with Nd : YAG, are now evolv-
ing in the following directions as well.
(1) Development of crystals suitable for LD excitation
Crystals like YVO4 having a wide light absorption band
(2) Development of light emission centers other than Nd
Eye-safe lasers like Ho
(3) Production of larger output by side excitation meshod
Larger output by use of flat plate, larger aperture diameter, etc.
(4) Generation of higher harmonics by non-linear opticalcrystals
Nd: YAG (1.06µm) and KTP combined to produce 530nm green laser with SHG
For detailed information, refer to the section on laser display.
(5) Development of various emission operations
Optical modulation elements are inserted into resonators to have various emission operations performed by the Q
switch method or mode lock method.
– 63 –
The mother crystals developed so far and laser emission wavelengths by light emission centers are summarized in
the following table. In the subsequent sections (1) through (3), the examples of developments are introduced, while
referring to the '87 CLEO, etc.
Laser light wavelengths (µm)

Light emission
center
Materials
Nd Ho Er Tm
• The most widely used

0.946 solid-state laser, because it
YAG 1.064 2.09 2.9 1.9
provides monochromatic
1.319 light and also facilitates
laser emissions.
• Used for large output laser
because optically uniform
Glass 1.06 2.06 1.5
large size material can be
obtained at low price.
LiYF • Polarized light emissions
(YLF) 1.05 2.8 possible
• Thermal lens effect small
• Polarized light emissions
possible
YVO4 1.06
• Light absorption band
wide
Main applications
Nd YLF Master emitter for nuclear fusion
Ho YLF Eye-safe laser
Er Glass Optical fiber sensor laser
Er YAG Surgical removal of living tissue and boring
– 64 –
Let's make a little more detailed study of the relationships between excitation and laser transition, taking the Nd : YAG
as an example.
The strong absorption band around 810nm observed in Fig.10 corresponds to the transition of the Nd from its base state
of 4I9/2 to 4F3/2. When a laser diode is used, it is tuned to this strong absorption band. The transition from the 4F3/2 to the
laser emission level of 4F3/2 occurs without radiation. The Nd : YAG, as shown in Fig.10, emits more than 20 rays. In
most of them laser emission, are observed. The main transition among them is from 4F3/2 to 4F11/2, providing 1.06µm
emissions. In addition, 1.32µm emissions by the transition from 4F3/2 to 4F3/2, and 0.946µm emissions by the transition
ÀÀÀ
;;;
@@@

from 4F3/2 to 4I9/2 are also included.
3
x10 cm-1
;;;
@@@

ÀÀÀ
;;;
@@@

ÀÀÀ
20
;;;
@@@

ÀÀÀ
Inert gas lamp excitation band
18
16
14
LD excitation band (3) (5) (7) (8) -1

4 11502cm R2
F5/2
Transition without 4F3/2 11414 R1
12 radiation (1) (2) (4) (6)
4
F3/2
10 Laser 6000cm-1
1.32µm
1.06µm
transiton 4
I15/2
0.946µm
0.81µm
4 4000cm-1
I13/2
4
6 I15/2
2526
4
4 I13/2 2473
2146
4 2111
I11/2
2029
4 2001
2 I11/2
848
4 311
0 I9/2 Base state 4I9/2 197
134
L level fragmented by spin-orbit interaction 0
Levels Stark Splitted by crystalline field
Fig. 10
– 65 –
(1) Examples of developments of crystals suitable for laser diode excitation2)
The Nd: YVO4 has a wider absorption band than the Nd: YAG. As shown in Fig.11, therefore, it provides higher slope
efficiency. It also provides a high optical power output over a wide excitation wavelength range as shown in Fig.12.
140
(optical slope effciency percent)
Nd: YVO4
120
Output Optical Power (mW)

100
Nd: YAG
80
60
40
Nd: Bel
20
0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100
Diode Input Electrical Power (mW)
a) Measured solid-state laser output as a function of pump laser diode electrical input.
Optical efficiency percents are in parenthses (YAG and YVO4 at 97% and Bel at 99% output couplers).
Fig. 11
100
Output Optical Power (mW)
80 Nd: YVO4
60 Nd: YAG
40
Nd: Bel
20
0
803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812
Pump Diode Wavelength (nm)
b) Measured solid-state laser output as a function of the center wavelength (approximate) of the diode pump laser array.
Optical pump power was held constant at 167mW.
Fig. 12
(2) Example of larger output achieved by side excitation method

In a slab (parallel flat plate), the input breakdown limit is prportional to the length and lateral width of the slab, and is
inversely proportional to the thickness of the slab. Compared with a rod of the same length, the slab allows a larger
breakdown limit input and therefore has the possibility of making a larger output available. For slab excitation, use of
fiber collected laser diodes as the optical pumping light source is proposed.4)
– 66 –
SLAB
FIBER COUPLERS
LASER DIODE
POWER BANK
Fig. 13
Laser diodes used for solid-state laser excitation are selected on the basis of required power and wavelengths. Many of
the Sony laser diodes ranging from the 25mW SLD202 to 1W SLD304 can be used in a wide range of applications.
Documents referred to:
1) T.M. Baer Laser Focus, June P82 (1986)
2) R.A6 Fields, M.Birnbaum, C.L. Fincher, CLEO'87 Tech. Digest P.344
3) R.Lz Byer, Private communication
• Wavelength tuning procedure
There are cases where adjustment of laser diode emission. wavelength to a specific wavelength is desirable as in
excitation of solid-state lasers like YAG and YLF. In such a case, the laser diode, as one of its advantages, allows use of
the tusing method taking advantage of the wavelength temperature characteristics.
Example) YAG excitation
• Absorption band of YAG : λ = 807nm
• Laser diode : SLD326YT-25
Specification λ = 810 ± 3nm
(Tth=25˚C
: Thermistor temperature)
The actually supplid data is assumed to be λ = 810nm.
• Wavelength temperature coefficient: 0.3nm/˚C
For tuning to absorption band wavelength λ = 807nm,
∆λ = 810nm – 807nm = 3nm
∆T = 3nm ÷ 0.3nm/˚C = 10˚C
Therefore, ∆T = 10˚C cooling must be done.
That is, the temperature must be lowered to:
Tth = 25˚C – 10˚C = 15˚C
Therefore, adjust the current of the T.E. cooler so that the thermistor resistance RTH found from the graph will be:
RTH = 15kΩ
– 67 –
Thermistor characteristics
50
Rth-Thermistor Resistance (kΩ)

10
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Tth-Thermistor temperature (˚C)
Fig. 14
6-6. Material Processing

Sony's interopto device will be used as an application example to describe material processing.
Picture 1 is of a soldering device exhibited in 1987. The 10W required for soldering is generated by focusing the
optical output of 20 individual 500mW laser diodes on a spherical surface. Each laser diode is mounted with a Selfox lens
to maintain a convergent beam. The laser diode optical sources are fixed and the IC package to be soldered is moved.
A 48-pin IC with a 0.8mm pitch can be soldered completely in 1 minute. This demonstration attracted attention at the
exhibit because it gave rise to the idea of using a semiconductor laser for material processing.
Picture 2 illstrates a soldering device brought out in 1988 which illustrates the realization of a functional system. The
system brings together the beams from 19pcs laser diodes in a bundle of fibers which is focused through a lens to a 2mm
minimum diameter. This fiber bundle is shown in Fig.16. The high accuracy and controllability of the system allowed
this apparatus to be marketed. The table on the next page gives the specifications of the laser oscillation unit.
Picture. 1 Soldering Devise Presented at Interopto 1987
– 68 –
20 individual 500mW
Laser Diodes provided
with Selfox lens
Laser Beam
Focal Point
Fig. 15 10W optical Output LD Module
Picture.2 Soldering Device Utilizing 1WLDs
LD
Bundle fiber
Lens
Lens
Fig. 16 Optical System of Fiber Bundle
– 69 –
Specifications of Laser Oscillaton Unit for Soldering Device
(Picture 2)
Near-infrared semiconductor
Processing laser
810nm wavelength
Visible semiconductor laser
Laser Light guidance
670nm wavelength
Maximum output
Greater than 10W
oscillation
Continuous (CW)
Fiber 19 lines (Bundle construction)
Focul distance 50mm
Optical Light radiation
(Typical lens)
system
Minimum focused Approx. 1mm
light diameter (Using attached lens)
System Self water cooling
Cooling
Temperature 15˚C
Power supply AC100V, 10A (3-phase)
Another Package outline 500(W)×300(D)×150(H)mm
Weight Approx 15kg
Protractor Cutter for processing laser
Support Power supply : AC100V, 4.5A
devises Package outline : 325(W)×
Cooling apparatus
430(D)×485(H)mm
Weight : 32kg
6-7. Laser display

Semiconductor lasers have been finding application in new fields as their outputs grow higher. A typical field is laser
displays.
For laser displays the three primary colors, red (R), green (G) and blue (B), are required but the semiconductor lasers
currently available are limited to the red to near infrared (λ = 670 to 840nm). Considerable difficulties are encountered
in development of green and blue ones because of problems associated with materials.
However, all of the three colors R, G and B can be obtained by increasing the output of semiconductor laser.
The procedure is by use of YAG (solid-state laser) + SHG (Second harmonic generator crystal). Crystals now under
research and development include KTP, ß-Ba B2O4, etc. Use of these makes it possible to produce R, G and B as shown
below.
R
1.32µm 0.66µm
Nd:YAG KTP Red

Laser diode
G
1.064µm 0.532µm
Nd:YAG KTP Green

Laser diode
B
0.946µm 0.473µm
Nd:YAG KTP Blue

Laser diode
Fig. 17
– 70 –
Procedure for production of three primary colors by use of Semiconductor lasers
The following table lists the luminances of R, G and B required for configuration of a laser display.
Laser output
Luminance (1m) from SHG (mW)
Red 300 500
Green 150 250
Blue 300 500
Luminance required for laser display
The losses in the optical system following the SHG are not covered, but actually the losses must be taken into consid-
eration. The main governing factors, however, are the following two.
1) Laser diode → YAG laser conversion efficiency
2) SHG conversion efficiency
Since (2) in particular is heavily power dependent (almost proportional to P2), the lager the output of laser diode, the better.
6-8. Communication laser

Here is a brief account of how communication systems can be be configured by use of short wavelength laser diodes
and what are the key characteristics that deserve special attention in selecting communication laser diodes.
(1) Application
The communication systems now nearing practical utilization, where short wavelength laser diodes can find applica-
tion, include the subscriber systems in public communications, inter-and intra-office transmission city and toll commu-
nications, closed-circuit TV, CATV, optical LAN computer links, intra-and inter-building communications, and intra-
aircraft and-vessel communications. These communications systems are categorized as near-and medium-distance (less
than 10km) and medium-speed (up to 400Mbps) communications.
(2) Optical communications system
An optical communications system comprises three components shown below.
1. Light emitting element
(laser diode (LD), light emitting diode (LED))
2. Transmission path
(Fiber, through atmosphere, deep space)
3. Light receiving element
(Avalanche photodiode (APD), PIN photodiode (PIN-PD))
The performance of a communications system depends on the overall characteristics of these three elements. Special
atention, therefore, must be paid to assure alignment of the characteristics of the individual elements when selecting the
elements.
(3) AlGaAs type laser diode
The AlGaAs type laser diode used as a light emitting element has frequency characteristics that extend to 1GHz,
exhibiting high speed response. The silicon ADP used as a light receiving element also has response characteristics that
extend to more than 1GHz.
The transmission path that is available for coupling these low cost light emitting and receiving elements includes (1)
silica glass fiber and (1) free space (atmosphere and deep space).
If silica glass fiber is combined, the transmission loss in the short wavelength band (0.8µm band) of silica glass fiber is
as low as 2 to 3bB/km, whereas its transmission band is as wide as 0.1 to 5GHZ. km. The optical communications system
that can be configured by the laser diodes will be a large capacity communications system. So the laser diodes can be
readily used for the application systems described before.
For transmission through free space, on the other hand, a 1Gbps channel can be immediately implented by installing a
communications unit, in which the abovementioned light emitting and receiving elements are accommodated, between
– 71 –
buildings and between satellites. The laser diode provides a very effective means for short distance communications over
the land as between buildings. In free space, no transmission loss need be considered. Optical transmission is therefore
considered as the best communication measns between satellites.
(4) AlGaln type laser diode
As a visible light laser diode, the AlGaIn type laser diode is expected to find application in various fields, In the
communications field, attempts are being made to use the laser diode in a short haul wideband transmission system by
combined use of low cost plastic fiber (transmission loss reduced to minimum at 570nm). If a communications system
now in service is using the LED as a light emitting element, replacement of the LED by the AlGaIn P type laser diode will
make it possible to radically increase the communication capacity of the system.
(5) Characteristics
The characteristics that have to be evaluated for use of the laser diode as a light emitting element for optical communi-
cations include:
1. Pulse response characteristics
Supply DC bias current to the laser diode to be evaluated. Then superpose pulse current to measure the light emission
rise and fall times of the laser diode. Relaxation emissions can also be evaluated.
Fig.18 shows an evaluation set up.
Fig.19 shows an example of measurement.
VBIAS
(LD)
VBIAS
PULSE (PD)
GENERATOR
AMP.
OSCILLOSCOPE
LD APD
Fig. 18 Evaluation setup
Input
Optical power
output
SLD202V
Pulse response characteristics (1ns./div.)
Pulsewidth : 5ns
Fig. 19 Example of measurement
2. Frequency response characteristics

Supply DC bias current to the laser diode to be evaluated. In addition, superpose and sweep a small AC signal, detect
its optical power output with a photodiode, and measure the frequency response by aspectrum analyzer.
Evaluate the expansion and elongation of the frequency band of the light emitting diode.
Fig.20 shows an evaluation setup. Fig.21 shows
– 72 –
VBIAS
(LD)
RF VBIAS
SIGNAL
(PD)
GENERATOR
AMP.
SPECTRUM
ANALYZER
LD APD
SLD202V
5dB/div. Po=7mW
Response (dB)
0 1.0 2.0
Frequency (GHz)
SLD202V
5dB/div. Po=14mW
Response (dB)
0 1.0 2.0
Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 21. Examples of measurements
3. High-speed digital modulation characteristics

Supply DC bias current to the laser diode to be evaluated. In addition, superpose the random pattern pulse current
generated by a signal generator to let the laser diode emit light.
The light should be coupled with the fiber of a given length, and an APD put at its end to receive the light. Evaluate the
eye pattern with an oscilloscope. If the light is directly brought to the APD, not through the fiber, the high-speed digital
modulation characteristics of the laser diode in the standalone state can be eveluated. If the eye pattern opens, the digital
modulation characteristics are generally considered acceptable.
– 73 –
Fig.22 shows an evaluation setup. Fig.23 shows examples of measurements. The error rate of the laser diode can also
be evaluated by inputting the APD output to an error meter. For a communications system, the error rate is generally
required to be less than 10.
VBIAS
(LD)
VBIAS
PULSE (PD)
GENERATOR
AMP.
OSCILLOSCOPE
L
LD APD
OPTICAL
FIBER
400psec
Input signal
800psec
SLD202V
L = 0km
SLD202V
L = 1km
Fig. 23 Examples of measurements
4. Higher harmonic distortion

Supply DC bias current to the laser diode to be evaluated. In addition, superimpose the small sinusoidal signal gener-
ated by a signal generator, let an APD receive its optical power output, and evaluate the frequency response by a spectrum
analyzer. Evaluation of the frequency response is accomplished by measuring how much secondary and tertiary higher
harmonic components are included in the fundamental wave components. The secondary and tertiary higher harmonic
components, resulting from the non-linearity of the optical power output and current characteristics, produce consider-
able effects on analog transmission. When the higher harmonic components are to be measured with high accuracy,
provision must be made eliminate the higher harmonic components included in the signals from the signal generator. The
higher harmonic components that can be tolerated for analog transmission are generally said to be less than-60dB.
A setup used for evaluation is the same as the one used for evaluation of the frequency response characteristics.
– 74 –
SONY SEMICONDUCTOR
LASER DIODE GUIDE
© 2000 Sony Corporation

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LASER

Chapter 2 Handling Precautions and Reliability 7

Chapter 3 Operating Procedure 23

Chapter 4 Theory Of Operation 39

Chapter 5 Measurement Procedure 45

Absolute Maximum Ratings for Laser Diode

Item Symbol Definition of maximum rating Notes

Optical Power/Forward Current Characteristic

Maximum permissible voltage allowed when the reverse

Item Symbol Definition Notes

Optical output vs. Forward current characteristic

Operating Forward (excitation) current necessary for maintaining the

width in degrees at 1/2 peak intensity (FWHM).

Laser diode chip

θ// 0.5 0.5

rameters affects the accuracy.

chanical axis of the package, measured perpendicular to the

Design of LD heat sink Design of cooling system

Please refer to pages 27-32

• Get laser functioning • Economize costs

Support devices for LD environment

LD mounting Double check above

Light emission !!!

2-1. Laser diode handling precautions

Example of Label on Product Specification Sheets

Preventive Measures against Injury from Laser Beams

light absorption CIE's wavelength Results on

400 Retina injury caused by

Cornea and cataract by

(3) Prevention of surge current and electrostatic discharge

(a) Protective clothing for static electricity

Gloves and finger sacks

Fig.1 Human Body (Worker) Countermeasures

(b) Laser diode handling

Fig.2 Holding of Laser diode

Fig.3 Attachment of a grounded wrist strap

;;;;;;; Grounding wire

Fig.4 Workbench Grounding

Other equipment and worktools should be grounded also.

Fig.5 Solder Iron Tip Grounding

Example of static electricity test

Fig. 6 Example of static electricity breakdown strength test

For exsample : SLD203V-3

-1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 0 200 400

Fig. 7 Example of laser diode static electricity breakdown strength

(4) Other precautions

a) Fundamental Approach to Reliability

Sales Planning Control Technology Manufacturing Quality Assurance

Needs Market research Product planning

Product planning review

Order reception Materials Material incoming

Sales plan Production plan

Assembly process IPQC

Investigation, analysis and corrective action

IPQC : In Process Quality Control QAT : Quality Assurance Test

Fig.8 Quality Assurance System of Semiconductor Products

m<1 m=1 m>1

Drive time (t)

Fig.9 Breakdown ratio vs. Time for Parts

Optical output power Po : Fixed I4

Fig.10 Optic Output Operating Current Characteristics as Function of Time

MTTF is represented by to.

Drive time (H)