1. Report No.

NASA TT F-812
1 2. Government Accession No. I 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

4. T i t l e and Subtitle 5. R e ~ o r Doto

t -
December 1973
FROM SPACESHIPS TO OREXTING STATIONS
6. Performing Organization Code
Second Edition
7. Author(s) I 8. Performing Orgonixation Report No.
A. Yu. Dmitriyev, V. P. Denisov, A . A. Yermilov,
B. I. Zhelyabin, A. V. Kirsanov, I. L. Leonidov, 10. Work Unit No.
V. A. Polyakov, A. A. Tirnonin and A. M. Tumanov
11. Contract or Grant No.
9. Performing Orgonizotion Name ond Address TJASW-203 5
Sc i t r a n
Santa Barbara, CA , 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
Translation
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
Nationax Aeronautics and Space AdministratiB-n
Washington, D. C. 20546
IS. Supplementary Notes

T r a n s l a t i o n of " O t kosmicheskikh korabley -

k orbital'nymn s t a n t s iyam,
2nd Edition, Revised ana Expanded, Edited by G. S. Narimanov, Moscow,
"Mashinostroyeniye" Press, 1971, pp. 1-113

Abstract This book discusses t h e Soviet manned space program. The main
stages of development-of Soviet cosmonautics a r e considered, as well.as
t h e programs f o r the manned spacecraft "Vostok", "Voskhod"and "Soyuz",
and t h e o r b i t a l research s t a t i o n "Salyut". The construction and equip-
ment of the spacecraft, and t h e i r use on t h e e a r t h and i n f l i g h t a r e
described. A d e s c r i p t i o n i s given of t h e f i r s t o r b i t a l space s t a t i o n of
t h e "Soyuztt spacecraft, as w e l l as i t s operation and t h e experiments
performed when t h e crew changed from one spacecraft t o another i n open
space. The development of methods f o r assembling a s t a t i o n and performing
s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s , and a l s o t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n "Salyut", on which
t h e Soviet cosmonauts l i v e d f o r s e v e r a l days a r e described. The book a l s o
discusses t h e f u t u r e prospects f o r cosmonautics.

17. Key Wards (Selected by Author(s)) 18. Distribution Statement

omesticy$4.5c
Unclassified Unclassified Foreign $7. O(

For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151
 ANNOT AT1ON

T h i s book d i s c u s s e s t h e S o v i e t manned s p a c e program.

The main s t a g e s of development of S o v i e t cosmonautics a r e con-

s i d e r e d , as w e l l as t h e programs f o r t h e manned s p a c e c r a f t V o s t o k " ,
"Voskhod" and "Soyuz" , and t h e o r b i t a l r e s e a r c h s t a t i o n l f S a l y u t ' f .
The c o n s t r u c t i o n and equipment o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t , and t h e i r use on
t h e e a r t h and i n f l i g h t a r e d e s c r i b e d .

A d e s c r i p t i o n i s g i v e n of t h e f i r s t o r b i t a l s p a c e s t a t i o n of
t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t , as w e l l as i t s o p e r a t i o n and t h e experiments
performed when t h e crew changed from one s p a c e c r a f t to a n o t h e r i n open
s p a c e . The development of methods f o r assembling a s t a t i o n and
performing s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s , and a l s o t h e s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n
" S a l y u t " , on which t h e S o v i e t cosmonauts l i v e d f o r s e v e r a l days
are d e s c r i b e d .

The book also d i s c u s s e s t h e f u t u r e p r o s p e c t s f o r cosmonautics.

Twenty n i n e i l l u s t r a t i o n s .

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pi
Anno t a t ion
Foreword
1. The Main S t a g e s of S o v i e t Cosmonautics
2. Programs of t h e "Vostok" and "Voskhod" Manned S p a c e c r a f t
P r e p a r a t i o n f o r Human F l i g h t i n t o Space
The "Vostok" Program
The "Vostok," The World's F i r s t S p a c e c r a f t
The "Voskhod" Program
The F i r s t Man i n Open Space
3. The Program of t h e Manned "Soyuz" S p a c e c r a f t
The Tasks of t h e Program
Design C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e "Soyuz" S p a c e c r a f t
The Main Systems o f t h e "Soyuz" S p a c e c r a f t
F a b r i c a t i o n and Ground T e s t i n g of t h e S p a c e c r a f t
F a b r i c a t i o n of t h e S p a c e c r a f t
Ground T e s t i n g o f Systems
F l i g h t T e s t s of t h e S p a c e c r a f t Systems
T r a i n i n g t h e Cosmonauts f o r Space F l i g h t s
4. The Main S t a g e s o f F l i g h t o f t h e "Soyuz" S p a c e c r a f t
Orbit Injection
Orbital Flight
Gyroscopic O r i e n t a t i o n ("Warping") of t h e
S p a c e c r a f t toward t h e Sun

t
 C e l e s t i a l O r i e n t a t i o n of t h e Spacecraft 48
O r b i t a l Correction 49
Reentry and Descent i n t h e Atmosphere 51
5. The World's F i r s t Experimental Space S t a t i o n 55
The Experimental O r b i t a l S t a t i o n o f t h e llSoyuzll
C omp 1ex 55
Docking o f Two S p a c e c r a f t 56
Space Walk of t h e Cosmonauts 63
S c i e n t i f i c I n v e s t i g a t i o n s and Experiments 67
6. When There Are T w e e S p a c e c r a f t i n O r b i t 72
Maneuvering of S p a c e c r a f t 72
S c i e n t i f i c and T e c h n i c a l Experiments and Observations 75
Welding of Metals i n O r b i t 77
7. "Soyuz-9" Working i n O r b i t 78
Medical and B i o l o g i c a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n s During
Prolonged Space F l i g h t 78
Maneuvering and Navigation Measurements 83
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f Importance t o t h e N a t i o n a l Economy 88
8. The F i r s t O r b i t a l S t a t i o n of Long D u r a t i o n I s i n Space 89
" S a l y u t " Is i n O r b i t 89
Call S i g n s a r e " G r a n i t " 90
I n t o Space Toward t h e S t a t i o n 92
A Tour of t h e "Salyut'' 93
Watch i n Space 96
9. The P r i n c i p a l Methods of Developing O r b i t a l S t a t i o n s 101
Automatic o r Manned S t a t i o n s ? 101
Design C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Fukure Space S t a t i o n s 105
The Problem o f S e r v i c i n g Space S t a t i o n s 111
Space S t a t i o n s i n t h e S e r v i c e o f Man 114
The Bridge t o t h e F u t u r e i s Being E r e c t e d Today 118

vi
 FOREWORD

Cosmonautics, embodying t h e most advanced achievements of world -

/3*
s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y , i s d e v e l o p i n g a t an impetuous p a c e .

F o u r t e e n y e a r s ago, on 4 October 1957, t h e f i r s t S o v i e t a r t i f i c i a l

s a t e l l i t e announced t o t h e world t h e b e g i n n i n g of a new e r a - t h e era
of s p a c e f l i g h t . S i n c e t h e n hundreds of d i f f e r e n t a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s
have been launched, which d a i l y move i n s p a c e . Tens of manned space-
c r a f t have measured o f f many m i l l i o n s o f k i l o m e t e r s i n t h e r e a c h e s of
s p a c e . Man has b r a v e l y "walked" i n open s p a c e , s e t f o o t on t h e s u r -
f a c e of t h e moon, and i s c o n f i d e n t l y overcoming t h e b i o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r
of prolonged space f l i g h t s .
A l i t t l e more t h a n t e n y e a r s s e p a r a t e u s from t h e l a u n c h of t h e
f i r s t manned "Vostok" s p a c e c r a f t , which completed one o r b i t around t h e
e a r t h . S p a c e c r a f t a r e now c a p a b l e of spending many d a y s i n f l i g h t ,
while t h e i r crews c a r r y out a l a r g e volume of s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
and o b s e r v a t i o n s , of enormous p r a c t i c a l importance f o r t h e n a t i o n a l
economy.

Automatic i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n s i n t u r n a r e p e n e t r a t i n g deeply fi
i n t o t h e s e c r e t r e a c h e s of t h e s o l a r system. They were t h e f i r s t t o
i n v e s t i g a t e t h e moon, photograph t h e s u r f a c e o f Mars, p e n e t r a t e t h e
r e d h o t atmosphere of Venus and t r a n s m i t data t o t h e e a r t h on i t s com- '

p o s i t i o n . Automatic s t a t i o n s have brought back samples of l u n a r s o i l

to t h e e a r t h .

*Numbers i n t h e margin i n d i c a t e p a g i n a t i o n i n t h e o r i g i n a l f o r e i g n
text.

yii
 1. THE M A I N STAGES OF SOVIET COSMONAUTICS /5

The 1960% have been c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e g r e a t e s t achievements

i n many f i e l d s of human a c t i v i t y . The s c i e n t i f i c thought and work of
man have l e f t f a r behind c o n c e p t s t h a t only r e c e n t l y seemed i m p o s s i b l e .
These achievements have been most v i v i d l y e x p r e s s e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n and conquest of s p a c e . The s i x t h decade of o u r c e n t u r y became
a time of t h e genuine triumph of space r o c k e t t e c h n o l o g y . Space r e -
s e a r c h accomplished d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d w i t h t h e a i d of a u t o m a t i c equip-
ment and manned s p a c e c r a f t n o t only opened a q u a l i t a t i v e l y new s t a g e
i n t h e development o f space s c i e n c e , b u t a l s o marked t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
a new epoch i n t h e development of s c i e n c e i n g e n e r a l .

During t h e p e r i o d 1957-1961, t h e S o v i e t Union launched a u t o m a t i c

s t a t i o n s f o r s t u d y of t h e e a r t h and c i r c u m t e r r e s t r i a l s p a c e , t h e moon
and d i s t a n t s p a c e . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s , t h e b a s i c systems
o f space r o c k e t complexes were developed and t h e most v a l u a b l e s c i e n t i -
f i c data were o b t a i n e d . Many s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n i c a l c o l l e c t i v e s were
formed i n t h e S o v i e t Union, which are c a p a b l e of s o l v i n g t h e most d i f -
f i c u l t problems of cosmonautics, and a powerful i n d u s t r i a l b a s e was
created.

At t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1960's S o v i e t s p e c i a l i s t s s o l v e d t h e most
complex problem - t h e y c r e a t e d t h e f i r s t manned s p a c e c r a f t . The e r a
of manned space f l i g h t s began. I n t h e c o u r s e of t h e s e f l i g h t s , t h e /A
e f f e c t s of G-forces and w e i g h t l e s s n e s s , r a d i a t i o n and prolonged r e -
s t r i c t i o n i n a c a b i n of l i m i t e d volume were g r a d u a l l y i n v e s t i g a t e d ,
step-by-step. Problems o f a p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e , concomitant w i t h com-
p l e x space f l i g h t s and emergence of man i n t o open s p a c e , were s t u d i e d .
S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n was devoted t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of normal
human activity and to conducting scientific and technical investiga-
tions and experiments during these flights.

The rapid pace was enhanced by automatic means for investigating

outer space. The equipment of artificial satellites became more com-
plex and technically more perfect, and specialized scientific
satellites were developed. Automatic interplanetary probes began
to transmit rich information on the properties of circumsolar space.

The following main stages may be traced in the development of

cosmonautics:
-- launch of artificial satellites (providing acceleration to
orbital velocity -- about 8 kilometers per second);
-- launching of interplanetary probes (acceleratlon to escape
velocity -- about 11.2 kilometers per second);
-- injection into geocentric orbits, flight and landing of manned
spacecraft;
-- launching of automatic space vehicles on flights to the moon
and planets, landing on the moon and creation of artificial lunar
satellites;
-- development of reentry in controlled and ballistic variants
for vehicles returning to earth at escape velocity;
-- emergence of man into open space and work outside the space-
craft ;
-- development of processes for search, rendezvous and docking of
space vehicles and spacecraft in both automatic and manned versions;
-- flight of man to the moon;
-- group flights o f several manned spacecraft, forming a single
system, and creation of orbital stations;
-- creation of automatic interplanetary probes which are re-
turned to earth with the results of scientific investigations of the
moon.

All these stages have been successfully covered by world

cosmonautics. Our science and space industry have permitted the Soviet
Union to be first in successfully solving most of the tasks of

2
cosmonautics.

At present, o u r achievements in space are an important indicator

of the scientific, technical and economic development of the country.
On 'the other hand, the program for conquest of space is predetermined
by the requirements of science, the national economy and society as a
whole. In accordance with this, several series of space vehicles
have been developed in the Soviet Union.

The most nLmerous of them is the series of "Kosmos" satellites,

which are carrying out an extensive program of scientific research. -
17
Several tens of satellites of this type are launched annually, and
their total number exceeds 400. The "Kosmos" satellites are conduct-
ing important scientific investigations of circumterrestrial space and
radiation from the sun and stars, and are studying the earth's
magnetosphere, the composition of cosmic radiation and radiation belts,
the "breathing" of the ionosphere and distribution of meteor particles
in circumterrestrial space. Interesting medical and biological ex-
periments are being carried out on these satellites, which extend the
boundaries of penetration of life into limitless space. Forming
complete systems, satellites of the "Kosmos" series aid man in the
solution of practical problems, contribute to the progress of science,
and have actually passed into the ranks of permanently operating
systems.

Some vehicles of the "Kosmos" series are being used to check the
correctness of engineering solutions, development of the design
elements of various spacecraft and methods of using them. Methods for
automatic docking in orbit were tested with the aid of the "Kosmos"
satellites, the "Meteor" and "Molniya" equipment was tested, and the
possibilities of systems for heat regulation and provision of cosmonaut
activity and many other complex assemblies of manned spacecraft were
investigated.

Automatic satellites solve problems of great practical importance.

The Soviet specialized scientific satellites of the "Proton," "Elektron,"

3
and "Polyot."
- series are known worldwide.

The continuously operating system of "Molniya" communication

satellites provide 24-hour two-way telephone and telegraph communica-
tion over the entire territory of the Soviet Union. These satellites
relay programs of the Central Television Studio to the extensive net-
work of ground receiving stations of the "Orbita" system, due to which
the programs of Moscow television have become accessible to most
regions of Siberia and the Far North, Far East and Central Asia.

Another continuously operating system -- that of meteorological

satellites of the "Meteor" series -- provides 24-hour observation of
the weather phenomena of our planet. Many thousands of photographs of
the earth's surface, transmitted by these satellites, are processed
daily by the automatic ground complex and transmitted to the Hydro-
meteorological Center of the USSR. Daily weather summaries, as well
as reliable long-term forecasting are made on the basis of these data.

Investigation of outer space acquires an ever more international

character with each year. Artificial satellites of the "Interkosmos"
series are launched periodically in the Soviet Union in accordance
with the program for cooperation of the Socialist countries in the
field of investigation and use of outer space f o r peaceful purposes.
Scientific equipment, developed and prepared by specialists of a
number of Socialist countries, is installed on board these satellites.
Assembly and testing of this equipment immediately prior to launch, as
well as control of the flight of "Interkosmos" satellites, is
accomplished by operational groups from among representatives of a
number of countries. Simultaneously with the measurements carried out
on board the satellites, observatories of the Peoples Republic of
Bulgaria, the Hungarian Peoples Republic, the German Democratic
Republic, the Republi-c of Cuba, the Mongolian Peoples Republic, the
Polish Peoples Republic, the Socialist Republic of Rumania, the Soviet
Union and the Czechoslovakian Socialist Republic carry out radio
astronomical, ionospheric and optical observations according to a
coordinated program.

4
 Along w i t h f l i g h t s i n c i r c u m t e r r e s t r i a l space, t h e s t u d y of t h e
moon, p l a n e t s and t h e v a r i o u s r e g i o n s of t h e s o l a r system occupies an.
i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n i n t h e S o v i e t s p a c e program. A l e a d i n g r o l e i n
t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i s p l a y e d by a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e s . They are
c o n s i d e r a b l y more i n e x p e n s i v e t h a n manned v e h i c l e s , and are capable of
t r a n s m i t t i n g or b r i n g i n g back to e a r t h t h e most v a l u a b l e s c i e n t i f i c
i n f o r m a t i o n , o f t e n from t h o s e r e g i o n s which are completely i n a c c e s s i b l e
or d i f f i c u l t f o r man to r e a c h . T h i s , of c o u r s e , does n o t exclude t h e
p a r t i c i p a t i o n of man i n c e r t a i n s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of d i s t a n t
space, t h e moon and p l a n e t s of t h e s o l a r s y s t e m .

The enormous achievements of s c i e n c e , technology and e n g i n e e r i n g

i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s l e d to t h e c r e a t i o n of i d e a l means of e l e c t r o n i c s and
r a d i o e n g i n e e r i n g , automation, o p t i c s and computer technology. The
dimensions and weight of s c i e n t i f i c equipment have been reduced con-
s i d e r a b l y , and t h e speed of computers and t h e c a p a c i t y o f e l e c t r o n i c
memory systems have been i n c r e a s e d . T h i s has been r e f l e c t e d i n t h e
c r e a t i o n o f unique a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e s f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g o u t e r space
and p l a n e t s of t h e s o l a r system.

Automatic c o n t r o l machines have enormous p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e

Universe. With t h e i r a i d , s c i e n t i s t s o b t a i n e d t h e f i r s t p i c t u r e s of
t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e and i n f o r m a t i o n about p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s on t h e
moon and Venus, and extremely r i c h s c i e n t i f i c data which w i l l undoubt-
e d l y b e o f g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e i n l e a r n i n g about t h e o r i g i n of c e l e s t i a l
b o d i e s and t h e e v o l u t i o n of t h e Universe.

Important s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l problems were s o l v e d by t h e

"Zond-5," "Zond-6," and "Zond-7'' a u t o m a t i c probes, which o r b i t e d t h e
moon and r e t u r n e d to e a r t h . During t h e s e f l i g h t s two v a r i a n t s were
checked f o r l a n d i n g space v e h i c l e s and r e t u r n i n g to e a r t h a t t h e
p a r a b o l i c v e l o c i t y . The "Zond-5" probe was t h e f i r s t t o s o l v e
t h i s problem upon r e t u r n from a f l i g h t a l o n g t h e e a r t h -- moon --
e a r t h t r a j e c t o r y . The d e s c e n t c a p s u l e of t h e "Zond-5" probe e n t e r e d
t h e atmosphere, through a comparatively narrow c o r r i d o r , and - p a s s i n g

5
t h r o u g h a l o n g a b a l l i s t i c t r a j e c t o r y - r e a c h e d t h e I n d i a n Ocean b a s i n
i n t h e a s s i g n e d r e g i o n , having brought back to s c i e n t i s t s photographs
of t h e e a r t h t a k e n from space and t h e r e s u l t s of s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a -
tions.

An even more complex s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l problem -- c o n t r o l l e d

d e s c e n t of t h e c a p s u l e which had o r b i t e d t h e moon -- was f i r s t s o l v e d 19
-
d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t of t h e "Zond-6'' probe. The r e e n t r y c a p s u l e of t h e
p r o b e , u s i n g a l i f t - d r a g r a t i o , flew more t h a n 9 , 0 0 0 k i l o m e t e r s
a f t e r f i r s t e n t e r i n g t h e dense l a y e r s of t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere and
f i n a l l y f i r e d i t s r e t r o r o c k e t s upon t h e second e n t r y , l a n d i n g i n t h e
c a l c u l a t e d r e g i o n of t h e S o v i e t Union. C o n t r o l l e d d e s c e n t p e r m i t s
s e l e c t i o n of t h e l a n d i n g r e g i o n s , as w e l l as r e d u c t i o n of G-forces and
h e a t i n g o f t h e c a p s u l e d u r i n g i t s motion i n t h e atmosphere.

The "Zond-7" a u t o m a t i c probe brought back t o e a r t h unique

photographs of t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e and our p l a n e t .

The most v i v i d example of t h e t r u l y i n e x h a u s t i b l e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

of a u t o m a t i c a s s i s t a n t s to man i s t h e f l i g h t of t h e S o v i e t a u t o m a t i c
probe " L ~ n a - 1 6 . ~During t h e c o u r s e of t h e f l i g h t , t h e v e h i c l e was
i n j e c t e d i n t o a s e l e n o c e n t r i c o r b i t , a number of maneuvers was made
i n t h i s o r b i t and - u s i n g a i r b o r n e r a d i o a i d s f o r measuring f l i g h t
speed and a l t i t u d e , computing systems and t h e r e t r o r o c k e t system - made
a s o f t l a n d i n g on t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e Sea of
F e r t i l i t y . D r i l l i n g o f t h e l u n a r s o i l , which was t h e n r e l i a b l y s e a l e d
i n t h e r e t u r n module, was c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n t h e
h i s t o r y o f cosmonautics. On command from e a r t h a t t h e p r e c i s e l y
d e s i g n a t e d t i m e , "Luna-16" b l a s t e d o f f from t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , r e t u r n -
ed t o e a r t h a l o n g a b a l l i s t i c t r a j e c t o r y and landed on t h e t e r r i t o r y
of t h e S o v i e t Union n e a r t h e l a u n c h s i t e . Thus, an a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e
f i r s t brought back to e a r t h a sample of r o c k from a n o t h e r c e l e s t i a l
body.

The a u t o m a t i c probe "Luna-l7" d e l i v e r e d t h e l u n a r e x c u r s i o n

v e h i c l e "Lunokhod-1'' t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e moon. For t e n months

6
t h e Soviet l u n a r excursion v e h i c l e t r a v e l e d through l u n a r c r a t e r s ,
t r a n s m i t t i n g to e a r t h h i g h - q u a l i t y t e l e v i s i o n p i c t u r e s of t h e l u n a r
l a n d s c a p e and d a t a from v a r i o u s s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

Automatic i n t e r p l a n e t a r y probes "Venera-5" and V e n e r a - 6 " were

launched i n J a n u a r y , 1969, i n accordance w i t h t h e program. These
v e h i c l e s , equipped w i t h v a r i o u s t y p e s of s c i e n t i f i c and measuring
a p p a r a t u s , made i t p o s s i b l e to conduct new s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
a l o n g t h e f l i g h t p a t h and to o b t a i n a d d i t i o n a l d a t a about t h e
atmosphere of Venus. The "Venera-5" and Venera-6" probes r e a c h e d
t h e p l a n e t i n t h e middle of May 1 9 6 9 , having flown a d i s t a n c e of
about 250 m i l l i o n k i l o m e t e r s . The a u t o m a t i c probe "Venera-7,If
a f t e r r e a c h i n g t h e s u r f a c e of t h e "morning s t a r " on December 15, 1 9 7 0 ,
s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d o u t i t s f l i g h t program.

F u r t h e r p e n e t r a t i o n of man i n t o space depends to a g r e a t e x t e n t

on s o l v i n g t h e problem o f l i f e s u p p o r t d u r i n g prolonged space f l i g h t s .
With t h i s a i m , a ground-based e x p e r i m e n t a l complex of l i f e - s u p p o r t
s y s t e m s , based on u s e of t h e most r e c e n t achievements of b i o l o g y , /lJ
t e c h n o l o g y , c h e m i s t r y and medicine, was e r e c t e d i n our c o u n t r y . An
experiment w i t h p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h r e e t e s t s u b j e c t s was begun i n
t h i s complex i n November, 1967, and was s u c c e s s f u l l y completed w i t h i n
one y e a r . The experiment demonstrated t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of prolonged
r e s t r i c t i o n of man i n a p r e s s u r i z e d c a b i n of l i m i t e d volume and t h e
u s e of a r e g e n e r a t i v e l i f e - s u p p o r t s y s t e m , and i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e e f f e c t
of c e r t a i n f a c t o r s of prolonged space f l i g h t on t h e human body and
human e f f i c i e n c y .

The S o v i e t space program p r o v i d e s f o r c a r e f u l stage-by-stage

development of new systems under ground c o n d i t i o n s and for c o n d u c t i n g
a l a r g e number of e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . New manned s p a c e c r a f t
and t h e i r systems, a f t e r b e i n g developed on t h e ground, are r e p e a t e d l y
t e s t e d i n unmanned v a r i a n t s d u r i n g s p a c e f l i g h t s , and o n l y a f t e r t h i s
are f l i g h t s made w i t h cosmonauts on board.

On J a n u a r y 1 4 , 1 9 6 9 cosmonauts V . A . S h a t a l o v , B. V. Volynov,

7
Ye. V. Khrunov and A . S. Y e l i s e y e v completed manual docking of t h e
"Soyuz-4" and "Soyuz-5" s p a c e c r a f t . An e x p e r i m e n t a l space s t a t i o n
was c r e a t e d f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e , and t r a n s f e r from one s p a c e c r a f t t o
a n o t h e r was accomplished.

The group f l i g h t of t h e "Soyuz-6, "Soyuz-7, If and "Soyuz-8"

s p a c e c r a f t , t h e unprecedented d u r a t i o n of t h e f l i g h t of t h e "Soyuz-9"
s p a c e c r a f t , as w e l l as t h e complex of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on board t h e
" S a l y u t " s t a t i o n were t h e n e x t s t a g e s o n t h e way t o c r e a t i n g long-term
orbital stations.

S u c c e s s e s i n t h e s o l u t i o n of i m p o r t a n t s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l
,
problems n o t o n l y open up i m p o r t a n t p r o s p e c t s f o r t h e f u r t h e r conquest
and s t u d y of s p a c e , b u t a l s o pose a number of completely new problems,
r e l a t e d t o t h e u s e and f u r t h e r p e r f e c t i o n of s p a c e technology. The
space environment i s f r a u g h t w i t h many s t i l l hidden d a n g e r s , which
cannot b e d e t e c t e d d u r i n g one or s e v e r a l f l i g h t s .

F l i g h t s of s p a c e v e h i c l e s of d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n -- b o t h S o v i e t and
f o r e i g n -- c o n t r i b u t e t o d i s c o v e r y of these dangers and t h e r e l a t e d
problems which a r i s e , and t o complex i n v e s t i g a t i o n and conquest of
outer space.

2. PROGRAMS OF THE "VOSTOK" AND "VOSKHOD" MANNED

SPACECRAFT
P r e p a r a t i o n f o r Human F l i g h t i n t o Space
B i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t of h i g h - a l t i t u d e
r o c k e t s were b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e S o v i e t Union even b e f o r e t h e
l a u n c h of t h e f i r s t a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e , b e g i n n i n g i n 1949. S e v e r a l
t e n s of e x p e r i m e n t s were c a r r i e d o u t w i t h f l i g h t s of animals on
r o c k e t s up t o a l t i t u d e s of 450 k i l o m e t e r s . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t b o t h d u r i n g f l i g h t and f o r a l o n g p e r i o d a f t e r
r e t u r n t o e a r t h , no s e r i o u s changes of any k i n d were found i n t h e
organism of t h e a n i m a l s . These i n v e s t i g a t i o n s l a i d t h e basis f o r a
s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y of t h e e f f e c t of t h e s p a c e environment and f l i g h t
f a c t o r s on l i v i n g organisms.

8
 However, only b i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on s a t e l l i t e s may p r o v i d e
a complete p i c t u r e of t h e long-term e f f e c t of w e i g h t l e s s n e s s and
cosmic r a d i a t i o n on t h e organism. T h e f i r s t b i o l o g i c a l o b j e c t i n
s p a c e was t h e dog L a y k a , which completed t h e f l i g h t on board t h e
second S o v i e t a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e .

T h e n e x t s t e p i n p r e p a r i n g man f o r f l i g h t i n t o space w a s c r e a t i o n
of t h e "Vostok" l a u n c h r o c k e t and t e s t s and development of t h e space-
c r a f t and i t s s y s t e m s .

F i v e e x p e r i m e n t a l s a t e l l i t e - s p a c e c r a f t w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l dogs on
board were i n j e c t e d i n t o c i r c u m t e r r e s t r i a l o r b i t i n 1960 and, 1961.
The main purpose of these l a u n c h e s was t o develop t h e on-board s y s t e m s / 1- 2
of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , t o s t u d y t h e p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s of s p a c e a l o n g t h e
r o u t e of t h e impending f l i g h t of man and t o c a r r y o u t an e x t e n s i v e
complex of medical and b i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o p r e p a r a t i o n
f o r t h i s f l i g h t . The f l i g h t s of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s a t e l l i t e - s p a c e c r a f t
s i m u l a t e d t o t h e maximum e x t e n t p o s s i b l e t h e c o n d i t i o n s and program of
t h e impending f l i g h t of man i n t o s p a c e . They were accomplished
a c c o r d i n g t o s i m i l a r programs, w i t h t h e same f l i g h t d u r a t i o n . A
cosmonaut mannequin and a dog were i n t h e c a p s u l e .

T h e e x p e r i m e n t s showed t h a t t h e s p a c e c r a f t f u l l y m e t t h e
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r maximum s a f e t y f o r human f l i g h t i n t o space and
p r o v i d e d f o r h i s normal a c t i v i t y and c o n d i t i o n s f o r f u l f i l l i n g t h e
program of s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h i s was t h e
s t a g e immediately p r e c e d i n g t h e f l i g h t of man i n t o s p a c e .

But l o n g b e f o r e t h i s , e x t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on t h e e f f e c t s of
i n d i v i d u a l f a c t o r s of space f l i g h t on t h e human organism were b e i n g
c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e S o v i e t Union w i t h t h e a i d of v a r i o u s ground-based
f a c i l i t i e s . However, l a b o r a t o r y experiments i n thermal vacuum
chambers and c e n t r i f u g e s d i d n o t u s u a l l y p.ermit a complex a n a l y s i s of
t h e i r e f f e c t s on l i v i n g organisms, and t h e s t a t e of w e i g h t l e s s n e s s i n
f l y i n g l a b o r a t o r i e s c o u l d n o t b e l o n g enough.

9
 Development of various on-board systems was proceeding
simultaneously with medical and biological investigations. Systematic
and comprehensive verification and sequential development of individual
systems and the spacecraft as a whole under both ground and flight
conditions permitted the first flight of man into space.

THE "VOSTOK" PROGRAM

The first flight of man into space took place on April 12, 1961.
The world's first cosmonaut was Soviet citizen Yuriy Alekseyevich
Gagarin. The orbital flight of the "Vostok" manned spacecraft con-
tinued for 108 minutes, and the cosmonaut was in a state of weightless-
ness for 55 minutes. The flight showed that man could normally
tolerate the conQitions of space flight and return to earth. It was
also demonstrated that man completely retains his efficiency during
space flight.

10
-P
k
L-6
k
0
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cd
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m

a,

11
 THE "VOSTOK," THE WORLD'S FIRST SPACECRAFT.

The manned flight program on board the "Vostok" spacecraft,

carried out during the period 1961-1963, consisted of six sequential
launches. The flights of space heroes Yu. A. Gagarin, G.S. Titov,
A.G. Nikolayev, P.R. Popovich, V.F. Bykovskiy and V.V. Tereshkova
made an important contribution in the development of cosmonautics to /g
knowledge of the secrets of space. Their names have been entered in
history.

Each subsequent flight, based on the results and experience of

preceding flights, was the next step in the conquest of space and
made a contribution to the development of science and technology and
led to an assault on new frontiers, But at the same time each flight
confronted scientists and engineers with the necessity of solving new
tasks and problems. What problems did the "Vostok" program solve?
Completion of the first flight of man into space, spacecraft flights
of many daysq duration in preparation for creation of earth orbital
stations and for future interplanetary flights.

The flights of different length by cosmonauts in the "Vostok"

spacecraft revealed the possibility of active viability of man during
space flight, operations were carried out on piloting the spacecraft,
and various scientific and technical investigations and experiments
were carried out. The cosmonauts retained good efficiency during
flight, conducted astronomical, geophysical, meteorological and other
investigations and experiments, observed the state of the 'cloud and
ice situation on the earth and carried out movie and still photography.

The "Vostok" program was the foundation on which development of

Soviet and world cosmonautics was based. The principal problems of
spacecraft design for space flights were 'resolved during implementation
of this program, and the basic elements of the flight plan were
clarified.

The "Vostok" spacecraft consisted of a reentry capsule and an

12
i n s t r u m e n t compartment. T h i s l a y o u t o f s p a c e c r a f t c o n s t r u c t i o n was,
as e x p e r i e n c e showed, r a t i o n a l w i t h r e s p e c t t o weight, t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y
e f f i c i e n t and convenient for arrangement of t h e on-board equipment.
The r e e n t r y c a p s u l e w i t h t h e cosmonaut c a b i n was made i n t h e form of
a sphere 2 . 3 meters i n diameter and weighing 2 . 4 t o n s . The cosmonaut
c a b i n c o n t a i n e d .three p o r t h o l e s , p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e e f f e c t s of h i g h
t e m p e r a t u r e s d u r i n g t h e d e s c e n t phase by h e a t - r e s i s t a n t g l a s s , f o r
conducting s c i e n t i f i c o b s e r v a t i o n s d u r i n g space f l i g h t . A s p e c i a l
l i f e - s u p p o r t s y s t e m , m a i n t a i n i n g normal p r e s s u r e , s p e c i f i c chemical
composition of t h e a i r , t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h i n t h e range o f 15-25OC and
r e l a t i v e humidity from 30 t o T O % , was i n s t a l l e d i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t .
The water and food supply and r e g e n e r a t i v e s u b s t a n c e s were c a l c u l a t e d
f o r a f l i g h t l a s t i n g up to 1 0 d a y s .

The cosmonaut c a b i n was p r o v i d e d w i t h adequate f a c i l i t i e s and

s a f e t y f o r human f l i g h t .

Although a l l s y s t e m s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t passed a complete and

e x t e n s i v e c y c l e of checks and f l i g h t - d e s i g n t e s t s , a s p e c i a l p r e s s u r e
s u i t was used f o r a d d i t i o n a l i n s u r a n c e a g a i n s t p o s s i b l e unexpected
events during f l i g h t .

Design and c r e a t i o n of t h e cosmonaut's seat was a very complex

t a s k . The s e a t p r o v i d e d f o r t h e s a f e t y o f t h e cosmonaut d u r i n g f l i g h t
and d u r i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f G-forces. Various automatic d e v i c e s , t h e
space s u i t v e n t i l a t i o n s y s t e m , c a t a p u l t and p y r o t e c h n i c d e v i c e s ,
p a r a c h u t e s y s t e m s , emergency s u p p l i e s , i n c l u d i n g s u p p l i e s of food,
w a t e r , r e s c u e and s i g n a l l i n g a i d s , which t h e cosmonaut could u s e a f t e r
l a n d i n g , were i n s t a l l e d i n t h e body of t h e s e a t .

T h e s p a c e c r a f t c o n t a i n e d d e v i c e s which e n s u r e d t h e f l i g h t and
l a n d i n g of t h e c r a f t , f u n c t i o n i n g o f t h e cosmonaut and f u l f i l l m e n t of
t h e a s s i g n e d f l i g h t program by h i m . The most important o f them was
equipment for monitoring t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l s y s t e m s and
i n s t r u m e n t s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , r a d i o equipment for communication
between t h e cosmonaut and t h e e a r t h , a n automatic system f o r r e c o r d i n g
data on o p e r a t i o n of i n s t r u m e n t s , a r a d i o t e l e m e t r y s y s t e m , equipment
f o r monitoring t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e cosmonaut, equipment of t h e
a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l s y s t e m , a r a d i o s y s t e m f o r measuring o r b i t a l p a r a -
m e t e r s , a l a n d i n g s y s t e m , e l e c t r i c power s u p p l i e s , t h e "Vzor" o p t i c a l
d e v i c e f o r manual a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l , t e l e v i s i o n equipment and r e t r o -
r o c k e t s . The c a b i n c o n t a i n e d a p i l o t console w i t h an i n s t r u m e n t p a n e l
and a s t i c k w i t h a c o n t r o l u n i t f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s p a c e c r a f t . The
cosmonaut was a b l e to determine t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e s p a c e c r a f t above
t h e s u r f a c e of t h e e a r t h w i t h t h e a i d of a m i n i a t u r e globe of t h e
e a r t h l o c a t e d on t h e i n s t r u m e n t p a n e l .

The equipment of t h e a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l system i n c l u d e d c o n t r o l

i n s t r u m e n t s , a c t u a t i n g members and a s o l a r s e n s o r . A t t i t u d e c o n t r o l
of t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n space d u r i n g f l i g h t and d e s c e n t could b e
accomplished b o t h a u t o m a t i c a l l y and manually.

The s t a t e and well-being o f t h e cosmonaut, t h e o p e r a t i o n o f on-

board systems and t h e environment i n t h e p i l o t ' s c a b i n were monitored
c o n t i n u o u s l y throughout t h e e n t i r e f l i g h t w i t h t h e a i d of many t e n s
of s e n s o r s and t h e t e l e m e t r y s y s t e m . The t e l e v i s i o n equipment
i n s t a l l e d i n t h e c a b i n p e r m i t t e d t h e o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e cosmonaut's
activity.

The r e t r o r o c k e t and p a r a c h u t e s y s t e m s i n s t a l l e d on t h e space-

c r a f t were used d u r i n g t h e l a s t l e g of t h e f l i g h t f o r d e s c e n t and
l a n d i n g . The r e t r o r o c k e t s were used d u r i n g r e e n t r y of t h e s p a c e c r a f t .

Descent and l a n d i n g were provided by t h e p a r a c h u t e system f o r

l a n d i n g t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e and by t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a n d i n g system of
t h e cosmonaut.

What measures were t a k e n to e n s u r e t h e cosmonaut's s a f e t y ?

A s p e c i a l p r e s s u r e s u i t p r o t e c t e d t h e cosmonaut a g a i n s t an
unexpected drop i n c a b i n p r e s s u r e .

An e j e c t i o n seat w i t h a j e t b o o s t e r g u a r a n t e e d t h e s a f e t y of t h e

14
cosmonaut i n c a s e o f f a i l u r e s d u r i n g l a u n c h . One of two l a n d i n g systems
- e i t h e r d e s c e n t irnside t h e cabin o r by t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r a c h u t e
system of t h e cosmonaut - c o u l d b e used d u r i n g t h e f i n a l s t a g e of
flight.

THE "VOSKHOD" PROGRAM

S u c e s s f u l implementation o f t h e llVostokll program opened t h e way

f o r man t o f l y i n t o s p a c e . A f u r t h e r p a t h became c l e a r , - a l o n g which
i t was n e c e s s a r y t o develop and p e r f e c t s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y , and new
problems became a p p a r e n t .

M u l t i p l a c e s p a c e c r a f t were r e q u i r e d f o r performing a more e x t e n s i v e

complex of t e c h n i c a l o p e r a t i o n s , s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , e x p e r i m e n t s
and f o r emergence o f man from t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n t o open spaere. T h i s
task r e s u l t e d from t h e l o g i c a l development of cosmonautics. Prolonged
f u t u r e s p a c e f l i g h t s , s a t u r a t e d w i t h a v e r y d i v e r s e and complex
program of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , cannot be c a r r i e d o u t by one p e r s o n . There-
f o r , i t i s e x p e d i e n t t o have a cosmonaut crew on b o a r d t h e s p a c e c r a f t ,
w i t h p r e c i s e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e i r d u t i e s . The crew may c o n s i s t of
an e n g i n e e r , who c a r r i e s o u t p e r i o d i c i n s p e c t i o n , and i f n e c e s s a r y ,
p r e v e n t i v e maintenance of i n d i v i d u a l systems; a s c i e n t i s t , who c o n d u c t s
s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and e x p e r i m e n t s ; and a p h y s i c i a n who i s a
s p e c i a l i s t i n t h e f i e l d o f s p a c e medicine and b i o l o g y . The crew may
a l s o i n c l u d e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f o t h e r s p e c i a l t i e s . The crew o f t h e
s p a c e c r a f t s h o u l d be headed by t h e most e x p e r i e n c e d cosmonaut, respon-
s i b l e f o r t h e e n t i r e f l i g h t program as a whole. H i s f u n c t i o n s i n c l u d e
performance of t h e most i m p o r t a n t o p e r a t i o n s and c o o r d i n a t i o n o f a l l
crew members.

The problems of c r e a t i n g m u l t i p l a c e s p a c e c r a f t and emergence of

man i n t o open s p a c e were s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
of t h e S o v i e t s p a c e program f o r t h e llVoskhodll"

The crews of t h e "Voskhod" (V.M. Komarov, K . P . F e c k t i s t o v and

B . B . Yegorov) and l a t e r of t h e "Voskhod-2' s p a c e c r a f t ( A . A . Leonov and
P . I . Belyayev) performed very i m p o r t a n t work on complex r e f i n e m e n t o f
m u l t i p l a c e s p a c e c r a f t and conducted e x t e n s i v e s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l
investigations.
15

Cabin of three-man "Voskhod"
space craft.
The program of scientific and
technical investigations, carried
out by each crew member of the
"Voskhod" spacecraft throughout
the flight, was very heavy. The
spacecraft commander, V.M. Komarov,
monitored operation of the on-board
systems and observed the scientific
instruments, maintained m'anual atti-
tude control of the spacecraft,
carried on radio communications with
the ground and performed a number
of scientific investigations. The

scientific specialist, cosmonaut K . P . Feoktistov, investigated the

behavior of liquids in a state of weightlessness, conducted astronomical
observations, and t o o k still and movie pictures of the horizon and
of the aureole of the earth's atmosphere. He also monitored the
operation of the on-board equipment and maintained orientation and
control of the spacecraft. The work program of cosmonaut-physician
B.B. Yegorov naturally consisted of medical and biological experiments.
He studied the complex effect of the factors of space flight on the
cosmonauts, investigated their efficiency, and monitored the operation
of the life-support system.

The "Voskhod" program also solved such important technical

problems as creation of sufficiently comfortable conditions in the
spacecraft cabin, with provision of complete pressurization, which
permitted the cosmonauts to work without their space suits during the
flight. The possibilities of man exercising manual control of the
spacecraft during flight and during descent were determined.

The "Voskhod" spacecraft was three-man. The spacecraft weighed

5.32 tons, and consisted of a pressurized cabin and instrument
compartment. The retrorockets and landing system were redundant.

16
The s p a c e c r a f t c o u l d be c o n t r o l l e d b o t h a u t o m a t i c a l l y and manually.
The s p a c e c r a f t c o n t a i n e d two o r i e n t a t i o n systems - a s o l a r and i o n i c .
The s p a c e c r a f t c o u l d b e landed b o t h manually and a u t o m a t i c a l l y .

The F i r s t Man i n Open Space

The main purpose of t h e f l i g h t of t h e Voskhod-2" s p a c e c r a f t was

f o r man t o walk i n s p a c e . T h i s experiment i n c l u d e d p r a c t i c a l t e s t s
of t h e main s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s which c o u l d e n s u r e
numerous prolonged and complex walks of cosmonauts i n open s p a c e i n
t h e f u t u r e f o r conducting planned i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h e r e . T h i s was t h e
n e x t q u a l i t a t i v e jump i n conquest of s p a c e .

What problems were s o l v e d by S o v i e t d e s i g n e r s i n performing

t h i s experiment? What i s t h e complexity of p r o v i d i n g l i f e s u p p o r t
f o r man i n open space?

On 1 8 March 1965, t h e V 0 s k h o d - 2 ~ ~s p a c e c r a f t , p i l o t e d by p i l o t -
cosmonauts Pave1 I v a n o v i c h Belyayev and Aleksey Arkhipovich Leonov,
went i n t o o r b i t . The l a u n c h was preceded by c a r e f u l ground p r e p a r a -
t i o n of t h e s p a c e c r a f t under t h e d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n of Sergey
P a v l o v i c h Korolev. The cosmonauts underwent a l a r g e number of
t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s under c o n d i t i o n s which s i m u l a t e d r e a l c o n d i t i o n s /18
t o t h e maximum e x t e n t p o s s i b l e . However, t h e r e s t i l l remained ques-
-
t i o n s of a p u r e l y p s y c h o l o g i c a l n a t u r e what w i l l t h e cosmonaut
f e e l and how w i l l he behave when he f i n d s h i m s e l f f a c e - t o - f a c e w i t h
space?

P r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e walk began immediately a f t e r s e p a r a t i o n of

t h e s p a c e c r a f t from t h e l a u n c h r o c k e t . The s p a c e c r a f t commander,
P . I. Belyayev, gave t h e command from t h e c o n s o l e f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e
space-walk systems t o open t h e a i r l o c k chamber. The c l e v e r l y d e s i g n e d
a i r l o c k chamber expanded from t h e e x t e r n a l s i d e of t h e crew compart-
ment, and i n c r e a s e d s e v e r a l times i n volume. A powerful p r e s s u r i z a -
t i o n system provided e q u a l p r e s s u r e i n t h e a i r l o c k apd s p a c e c r a f t
c a b i n . G e t t i n g up from h i s s e a t , A. A. Leonov opened t h e main h a t c h
and e n t e r e d t h e a i r l o c k chamber.

17
 The cosmonauts performed the main operations in preparation for
the walk while the spacecraft was outside the zone of radio communi-
cation with the Soviet Union. Reliable operation of the automatic
systems and the confident performance of the cosmonauts ensured suc-
cessful completion of these functions.

The main hatch connecting the airlock to the cabin was closed.
Both cosmonauts, dressed in their space suits, again check the
airlock system. The pressure in the airlock chamber gradually begins
to decrease, becoming equal to that of the vacuum of space. However,
the oxygen pressure in Leonov's spacesuit is maintained at 0.4 atmos-
phere. This ensures normal activity of the human organism, and at
the same time the spacesuit under such pressure does not hinder the
cosmonaut's functions too much. And this is very important, since a
cosmonaut in a state of weightlessness in open space expends energy
not only for movement and orientation, but in order to maintain him-
self near his point of support as well. And a great deal of energy
is expended. For example, the force required by the cosmonaut to
close his hand in the glove o f the pressurized spacesuit reaches,
25 kilograms.

The spacecraft is over Africa. The pressure in the airlock has

finally been equalized and the outer hatch opens. The cosmos "bursts"
into the airlock chamber in a stream of blinding sunlight which
literally weighs on the cosmonaut. Powerful solar radiation, a
considerable fraction of which is hard ultraviolet radiation, is
lethal to unprotected biological organisms. The heat fluxes of solar
radiation heat objects to almost 150 degrees, while at the same time
the temperature on the unilluminated side drops to -140O C. Therefore,
special measures were taken in designing the spacesuit to maintain a
normal temperature for the human organism. The autonomous life
support system also creates the necessary gas composition and humidity.

The mirror surface of the Black Sea floats by under the space- -
119
craft. From an altitude of almost 4 5 0 kilometers, the cosmonauts can
easily see the outline of its shoreline. In turn, television permits
ground observation of the operations of Leonov as he emerges from the
spacecraft.
18
 Pushing himself away from t h e a i r l o c k , Leonov moves a s h o r t
d i s t a n c e from i t , and t h e n makes the w o r l d ' s f i r s t independent walk
i n open s p a c e . H e i s now connected t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t o n l y by t h e
t h i n t h r e a d o f t h e l i f e l i n e , which p r o v i d e s r a d i o communications.
The a c t i o n s o f t h e cosmonaut a r e c o n f i d e n t - t h e fears o f a psycho-
l o g i c a l b a r r i e r were n o t confirmed.

The m u l t i l a y e r f l e x i b l e c o v e r i n g o f t h e s p a c e s u i t of a s t r o n g
s y n t h e t i c material r e l i a b l y p r o t e c t s t h e cosmonaut a g a i n s t a l l
u n f a v o r a b l e f a c t o r s . P r e s s u r e a t a n a l t i t u d e o f s e v e r a l hundred k i l o -
m e t e r s i s e s s e n t i a l l y e q u a l t o z e r o . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , d e p r e s -
s u r i z a t i o n o f t h e p r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g c o u l d l e a d t o almost i n s t a n t a n e -
ous b o i l i n g o f t h e cosmonaut's blood and h i s d e a t h . The cosmonaut
wears a p r e s s u r e helmet w i t h s p e c i a l g l a s s f o r o b s e r v a t i o n s and w i t h
a l i g h t f i l t e r t o p r o t e c t h i s eyes a g a i n s t t h e b l i n d i n g e f f e c t s o f
s u n l i g h t . A r t i c u l a t e d c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e elements o f t h e space s u i t
p r o v i d e s a d e q u a t e freedom of movement o f t h e cosmonaut.

Man and s p a c e c r a f t are moving t o g e t h e r a t a n enormous speed w i t h

r e s p e c t t o t h e E a r t h , c o v e r i n g many k i l o m e t e r s e v e r y second. During
t h e p e r i o d , l a s t i n g for a l i t t l e more t h a n 1 0 minutes d u r i n g which
Leonov was o u t s i d e t h e s p a c e c r a f t , t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e Black Sea
t o S a k h a l i n I s l a n d was covered. However, t h e r e l a t i v e motions of man
and s p a c e c r a f t were sensed more by t h e cosmonaut. The s p a c e c r a f t ,
weighing almost 70 t i m e s more t h a n t h e cosmonaut, "responded" s e n s i -
t i v e l y t o t h e maneuvering and o t h e r o p e r a t i o n s o f Leonov. H e even had
t o be e s p e c i a l l y c a r e f u l n o t t o t a p t o o s t r o n g l y on t h e p o r t h o l e s of
t h e s p a c e c r a f t . Moreover, t h e s p a c e c r a f t hegan t o r o t a t e slowly due
t o t h e movements of t h e cosmonaut. Mounting and subsequent d i s a s s e m b l y
o f t h e movie. camera a l s o r e q u i r e d s p e c i f i c s k i l l s . A l l t h i s was new,
and c e r t a i n d e t a i l s c o u l d n o t be f o r e s e e n on t h e ground.

The program for t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s p a c e walk was completed.

According t o h i s m i s s i o n , Leonov was supposed t o r e t u r n t o t h e space-
c r a f t w h i l e on t h e i l l u m i n a t e d s i d e of t h e E a r t h . And t h i s d i d n o t
t a k e p l a c e w i t h o u t s u r p r i s e s . The movie camera w i t h which t h e s p a c e
walk had been f i l m e d d i d n o t a t a l l "wish" t o r e t u r n t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t .
However, t h e cosmonaut r e t u r n e d t o t h e a i r l o c k chamber, t h e h a t c h was
c l o s e d , and t h e c a b i n was a g a i n p r e s s u r i z e d . I n t h e c a b i n , Commander
P . I. Belyayev was t h e f i r s t t o c o n g r a t u l a t e A . A. Leonov, who had
s p e n t more t h a n 23 minutes i n open s p a c e , on h i s remarkable v i c t o r y .

The remarkable S o v i e t pilot-cosmonaut P . I. Belyayev p l a y e d a n

i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n s u c c e s s f u l completion of t h i s experiment. During
t h e f l i g h t , he c o n t r o l l e d t h e s p a c e c r a f t systems and equipment i n t e n d e d
f o r t h e space walk, monitored t h e s t a t e of A . A. Leonov and m a i n t a i n e d
c o n t i n u o u s communication w i t h h i m , r e a d y a t any moment t o go t o h i s
a i d . H e a l s o c o n t r o l l e d t h e r e e n t r y of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , l a n d i n g of
which o c c u r r e d on 19 March d u r i n g t h e 1 8 t h o r b i t i n t h e r e g i o n o f
Perm'. Belyayev was t h e f i r s t t o e x e r c i s e manual a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l of
a s p a c e c r a f t immediately p r i o r t o f i r i n g of t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s . Thus
ended one of t h e b r i g h t e s t pages i n t h e h i s t o r y o f S o v i e t cosmonautics.

Summing up t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s f l i g h t , t h e o u t s t a n d i n g d e s i g n e r
of s p a c e hardware, Sergey P a v l o v i c h Korolev, s a i d : "The crew was
a s s i g n e d t h e most d i f f i c u l t , q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t t a s k compared
t o p r e c e d i n g f l i g h t s . F u r t h e r development of cosmonautics depended
on i t s s u c c e s s f u l s o l u t i o n t o t h e same d e g r e e as t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e
f i r s t s p a c e f l i g h t . Pave1 Belyayev and Aleksey Leonov coped w i t h i t ,
and it i s d i f f i c u l t t o o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s e x p l o i t :
t h e i r f l i g h t demonstrated t h a t man can s u r v i v e i n open s p a c e , s t e p
o u t of t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i t h o u t f e e l i n g r e s t r i c t e d b y i t s walls, and
he may work anywhere n e c e s s a r y . "

"Without t h i s c a p a c i t y , i t would b e i m p o s s i b l e t o t h i n k about

paving new r o u t e s i n s p a c e . "

The r e s u l t s of t h e f i r s t s p a c e walk by man are e s p e c i a l l y a p p a r e n t

today i n t h e e r a of t h e f i r s t o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s . The s c h e m a t i c s f o r
c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e "Vostok" and l a t e r t h e "Voskhod" s p a c e c r a f t were t h e
basis f o r d e s i g n and f u r t h e r p e r f e c t i o n of new t y p e s and c l a s s e s of
spacecraft .

20
 3. THE PROGRAM OF THE MANNED "SOYUZ" SPACECRAFT

The Tasks of t h e Program

Accomplishing s y s t e m a t i c and p u r p o s e f u l conquest of s p a c e , S o v i e t

s c i e n t i s t s and d e s i g n e r s have begun work on t h e implementation of a
new s p a c e program. Whereas t h e "Vostok" and "Voskhod" s p a c e c r a f t
c a r r i e d o u t a s p e c i f i c r a n g e o f s c i e n t i f i c , t e c h n i c a l , and mainly
e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h tasks, t h e new manned s p a c e c r a f t had a m u l t i -
purpose d e s i g n a t i o n . They s h o u l d have more e x t e n s i v e t e c h n i c a l capa-
b i l i t i e s and s o l v e a n e n t i r e complex of new problems, d e s i g n a t e d by
t h e s p a c e f l i g h t program. It was i n t e n d e d from t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g
t h a t s u c h s p a c e c r a f t complete a complex of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of circum-
t e r r e s t r i a l s p a c e and o p e r a t i o n s on assembly o f o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s .

An E a r t h o r b i t a l s t a t i o n i s t h e m i s s i o n of t o d a y and t h e s u c c e s s
of i t s s p a c e f l i g h t depends on t h e methods and means used t o c r e a t e
i t . Use of t h e same s p a c e c r a f t f o r d i f f e r e n t purposes f a c i l i t a t e s and
r e d u c e s t h e c o s t of c r e a t i n g new space systems i n o r b i t .

Use of t h e developed " b a s e l i n e " s p a c e c r a f t as t h e basis f o r

assembly of an o r b i t a l s t a t i o n , o r g a n i z a t i o n of i t s s u p p l y , and
investigation of space i s t h e main problem f a c i n g t h e new "Soyuz"
space program.

The program a l s o e n v i s i o n s p r o l o n g e d s t u d y of n e a r s p a c e . -
123
T h e r e f o r e , t h e manned "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t are designed t o s o l v e t h e
f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c problems:

- extensive maneuvering i n group f l i g h t s i n E a r t h o r b i t and

docking w i t h o t h e r s p a c e c r a f t ;
- completion of prolonged s p a c e f l i g h t s t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t s
of space f a c t o r s on t h e human organism;
- implementation o f a n e x t e n s i v e program o f s c i e n t i f i c
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n n e a r space;

21
 Model of "Soyuz" spacecraft.
1 - "active" docking units; 2 - orbital compartment; 3 - reentry
capsule; 4- instrument-equipment compartment.

- investigations of the Earth for practical purposes (weather

forecasting, determination of water resources and the state of agri- '

cultural lands, observation of forest fires and the ice situation,

solution of a number of problems of geodesy, geology, etc.);
- development of new navigation and spacecraft control systems.

The designers developed a special type of spacecraft, consisting

of elements of both the transport spacecraft and the orbital station,
to solve these problems.

22
 Construction of the "Soyuz" spacecraft denotes a new stage in
development of manned vehicles. The presence of two manned compart-
ments - the cosmonauts' cabin (the reentry capsule) and the orbital
compartment, reliable onboard systems and various types of engines
for extensive maneuvering, and diverse scientific equipment permit
multiple investigation, experiments, and observations in space.

Design Characteristics of the "Soyuz" Spacecraft

The "Soyuz" spacecraft consists of the following main compart-

ments: the cosmonaut's cabin, the orbital compartment and the
instrument-equipment compartment. The docking unit - an assembly
intended for rigid mechanical coupling of the spacecraft and their
electrical circuits - is installed in the front part of the space-
craft in the orbital compartment. Solar panels with a useful area
of about 14 square meters are attached to the instrument-equipment
compartment in the rear part of the spacecraft.

Antennas, attitude control sensors, television cameras and -

/24
sensors of the scientific apparatus are located on the outer surface
of the spacecraft.

During injection into orbit, the spacecraft is protected from

the effects of aerodynamic and thermal loads by a nose shroud. The
solar panels and antennas are in the folded position at this time.
The nose shroud is jettisoned after the spacecraft passes through the
dense layers of the atmosphere.

We shall begin o u r description of the main compartments and

assemblies of the "Soyuz" spacecraft with the cosmonauts' cabin.

The cosmonauts' cabin - the reentry capsule - is the command

post of the spacecraft, as it were. The crew is in this compartment
during injection into orbit, and while performing a number of opera-
tions during the flight. The crew returns to Earth in the cabin.

23
 The body of t h e c a b i n i s p r e s s u r i z e d . A s p e c i a l heat s h i e l d i s
a p p l i e d t o i t s o u t e r s u r f a c e t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t t h e i n t e n s i v e aero-
dynamic heat d u r i n g r e e n t r y . The t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t c a b i n
does n o t exceed 25 - 30' C a t t h e moment of l a n d i n g due t o t h e heat
s h i e l d on t h e o u t e r h u l l of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e and t h e i n t e r n a l heat
insulation layer.

The cosmonauts' seats a r e a r r a n g e d i n s i d e t h e c a b i n . The p o s t u r e

of t h e cosmonauts i n t h e s e a t s and t h e i r p o s i t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
G-forces d u r i n g r e e n t r y , as w e l l as t h e f o r m - f i t t e d seat, p e r m i t e a s y
t o l e r a n c e of even t h e g r e a t e s t G-forces, i f t h e y occur i n i n d i v i d u a l
situations.

Various equipment and a p p a r a t u s f o r s p a c e c r a f t c o n t r o l , communi-

c a t i o n and l i f e s u p p o r t systems are i n s t a l l e d i n t h e cosmonauts'
c a b i n . The main and r e s e r v e p a r a c h u t e systems a r e l o c a t e d i n s p e c i a l
c o n t a i n e r s . The s p a c e c r a f t commander i s l o c a t e d i n t h e c e n t e r s e a t .
The s p a c e c r a f t c o n t r o l c o n s o l e , on which a r e mounted t h e i n s t r u m e n t s
f o r m o n i t o r i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n of systems and assemblies, n a v i g a t i o n
equipment, a t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n and s w i t c h e s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e onboard
s y s t e m s a r e i n s t a l l e d d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t of h i m . Lateral a u x i l i a r y
c o n s o l e s , f o r example, t h e c o n s o l e f o r medical monitoring of t h e s t a t e
o f t h e cosmonauts d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s i n open s p a c e , are a r r a n g e d along-
s i d e t h e c e n t e r c o n s o l e . An o p t i c a l s i g h t i n g d e v i c e - a n a v i g a t i o n
device - i s i n s t a l l e d i n a special porthole.

There are two s p a c e c r a f t c o n t r o l l e v e r s a l o n g t h e s i d e s of t h e

commander's s e a t : t h e r i g h t one i s f o r a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l of t h e space-
c r a f t around t h e c e n t e r of mass, and t h e l e f t one i s f o r changing t h e
speed of t h e s p a c e c r a f t d u r i n g maneuvering. The c a b i n c o n t a i n s two
p o r t h o l e s f o r v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n , and f o r t a k i n g s t i l l and movie
pictures.

The s p a c e c r a f t equipment p r o v i d e s f o r independent p i l o t i n g of

t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i t h o u t p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e ground c o n t r o l complex.

24
Assembly o f equipment i n Assembly o f equipment i n
reentry capsule. o r b i t a l compartment.

With t h e a i d o f heat r e g u l a t i n g a n d r e g e n e r a t i v e s y s t e m s , t h e
s p a c e c r a f t c a b i n i s p r o v i d e d w i t h normal c o n d i t i o n s f o r f u n c t i o n i n g o f
t h e cosmonaut ( p r e s s u r e , gas c o m p o s i t i o n , t e m p e r a t u r e and h u m i d i t y ) . -
125
D u r i n g f l i g h t , t h e crew may wear normal c l o t h i n g w i t h o u t s p a c e s u i t s .
C o n t a i n e r s w i t h f o o d and w a t e r s u p p l i e s a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e c a b i n .

The o u t e r e n c l o s u r e o f t h e c o s m o n a u t s ' c a b i n ( t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e )
has a s p e c i a l s h a p e r e s e m b l i n g a h e a d l i g h t - a segmented body. This
shape of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e w i t h t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l o c a t i o n o f the
c e n t e r of g r a v i t y p r o v i d e s a c e r t a i n aerodynamic l i f t d u r i n g f l i g h t
i n t h e atmosphere. The h u l l of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e c o n t a i n s j e t
e n g i n e s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g b a n k i n g t u r n s d u r i n g r e e n t r y and s o l i d f u e l
rocket engines f o r s o f t landing.

The e x t e n t and d i r e c t i o n o f l i f t i n g f o r c e , by which i s a c h i e v e d

c o n t r o l of t h e d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y , i s changed by t u r n i n g t h e r e e n t r y
capsule i n a banking angle. A r e e n t r y t r a j e c t o r y u s i n g l i f t i n g f o r c e ,
i s much l o n g e r i n d u r a t i o n , and, a c c o r d i n g l y , r e e n t r y a l o n g i t o c c u r s
a t lower G-forces t h a n t h a t a l o n g a b a l l i s t i c t r a j e c t o r y .

The c o s m o n a u t s ' c a b i n i s c o n n e c t e d t o t h e o r b i t a l compartment

- t h e second l i v i n g compartment o f t h e "Soyuzl' s p a c e c r a f t - by means
of a p r e s s u r i z e d hatch.

25
 The orbital compartment is designed for scientific observations /26
and investigations, for emergence into space, and also for the cosmo-
nauts to rest. It is almost spherical in shape and has rather large
dimensions. The compartment is equipped with places for the cosmo-
nauts to work, rest and sleep.

Control and communication equipment, a portable television camera,

movie and photographic apparatus and scientific instruments are located
at the work sites. The cosmonauts record the results of their obser-
vations in a logbook or on a dictaphone.

Besides the special communication equipment, the orbital compart-

ment contains an all-wave radio receiver for listening to programs of
ground-based radio stations. There are special cupboards for stowing
the life support equipment, food supplies, scientific apparatus,
medicines and hygiene articles.

The orbital compartment may be used as an airlock chamber for

space walks. For this it is equipped with a special locking system
which ensures exhaustion of gases and pressurization of the compart-
ment. Exit is accomplished through a hatch which is opened either
automatically or manually.

The instrument-equipment compartment, designed for accommodation

of the main onboard equipment and the spacecraft engines operating
during orbital flight, is adjacent to the cosmonauts' cabin. The
apparatus and equipment are located in a pressurized instrument com-
partment, inside which conditions are maintained which are necessary
for normal functioning of them. The heat regulating and power supply
systems, radio communication and radio telemetry equipment, and
instruments for the attitude control systems using computers are con-
centrated in this compartment.

The instrument-equipment compartment contains .? liquid jet engine

which is used for maneuvering in orbit and also for reentry of the
spacecraft. It has two engines with 400 kilograms thrust each. The

26
capacity of the engines is such that the "Soyuz" spacecraft can
complete maneuvers to an altitude of 1300 kilometers.

There is an engine system with less thrust for attitude control,

and for translation of the spacecraft during maneuvering.

The Main Systems of the "Soyuz" Spacecraft

One of the main systems of the "Soyuz" spacecraft is the attitude

and motion control system. It provides attitude control of the space-
craft in space, its stabilization through operation of the engines,
and control of the spacecraft during approach, mooring and docking
of spacecraft both automatically and manually.

The attitude and motion control system includes:

attitude sensors and the cosmonaut's optical sighting device; /28

gyroscopes and electronic computer control circuits;
radio aids for search and homing;
a system of auxiliary control members - low-thrust engines.

The power supply for the onboard equipment and apparatus is

provided b.y a centralized electric power system. The spacecraft
buffer batteries are charged by the solar batteries. In order that
the solar batteries be continuously illuminated, they are oriented
toward the sun and maintained in this position by turning the space-
craft with respect to this direction at a speed of several degrees
per second.

The radio aids of the "Soyuz" spacecraft provide reception of

commands from the ground, two-way radio telephone and telegraph com-
munications, calculation of orbital parameters, transmission to Earth
of television images of the internal and external situation of the
spacecraft. During the flights of the "Soyuz" spacecraft, there
were several television reports from the craft directly to the ground
television network.

27
 Qverall assembly of "Soyuz" spacecraft.

The multichannel radio telemetric system provides transmission

of a large volume of data. When the spacecraft was flying beyond the
visibility of ground receiving stations, the telemetry data were
stored in the onboard memory devices and transmitted to Earth during
the routine radio communication schedules.

The "SOYUZ~~spacecraft are equipped with a docking system. This

system was checked twice during the flights of the "Kosmos" satel- I

lites and during the flight of the 11Soyuz-41f

and "S0yuz-5~~spacecraft,
and displayed high operational reliability.

The normal hygiene-physiological conditions for the spacecraft

crew are provided by the life support system. The atmospheric regen-
erative system maintains a gaseous composition in the compartments,
similar to that on the ground.

28
 T r a n s p o r t a t i o n of s p a c e c r a f t f o r f i n a l t e s t s .

The h e a t r e g u l a t i n g s y s t e m m a i n t a i n s normal t e m p e r a t u r e and

h u m i d i t y i n t h e compartments, t h e l e v e l o f which may b e r e g u l a t e d a s
t h e cosmonauts w i s h , The f l i g h t s o f t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t demon-
s t r a t e d r e l i a b l e o p e r a t i o n o f a l l onboard s y s t e m s , p r o v i d i n g e f f i c i e n t
p e r f o r m a n c e of complex s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s i n s p a c e .
The c o m f o r t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e l i v i n g compartments o f t h e s p a c e -
c r a f t and t h e ease of c o n t r o l , work and r e s t t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e
f l i g h t c o n t r i b u t e t o r e t e n t i o n o f h i g h e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e cosmonauts ,
and s u c c e s s f u l c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e a s s i g n e d program.

These a r e t h e main f e a t u r e s o f t h e fTSoyuz" s p a c e c r a f t .

Compared t o t h e V o s t o k " and "Voskhod" manned s p a c e c r a f t , t h e

f o l l o w i n g i m p o r t a n t t e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s were more c o m p l e t e l y r e s o l v e d
here :

29
 t h e cosmonauts were provided w i t h more l i v i n g space f o r work and
r e s t - two l i v i n g compartments: t h e o r b i t a l compartment and t h e cos-
monauts' c a b i n ;
r e l i a b l e docking and a s s e m b l y were accomplished ( w i t h t h e a i d of
a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m s and m a n u a l l y ) ;
e x t e n s i v e maneuvers were c a r r i e d o u t i n o r b i t and d u r i n g c o n t r o l l e d
reentry ;
prolonged s p a c e f l i g h t s were c a r r i e d o u t .

F a b r i c a t i o n and Ground T e s t i n g of t h e S p a c e c r a f t

F a b r i c a t i o n of t h e S p a c e c r a f t

While t h e "Voskhod" s p a c e c r a f t were s t i l l f l y i n g i n s p a c e , d e s i g n

and f a b r i c a t i o n of t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t - t h e b a s i s of o r b i t a l s p a c e
s t a t i o n s and m u l t i p u r p o s e manned s p a c e c r a f t - were underway i n
d e s i g n o f f i c e s , l a b o r a t o r i e s and p l a n t s .

F a b r i c a t i o n of a s p a c e c r a f t i s a l o n g and complex p r o c e s s . Not

only must i t s s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s , compartments and assemblies be
f a b r i c a t e d , b u t i t s systems and d i f f e r e n t equipment must b e developed
and t e s t e d .

We a r e i n t h e workshop f o r assembly of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e . There

a r e s e v e r a l p r o d u c t i o n l i n e s h e r e . I n o r d e r to expand t h e area of op-
e r a t i o n s and f o r e a s e i n assembly, t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e , i s " d i v i d e d " i n -
t o two p a r t s : a lower p a r t - t h e bottom - and an upper p a r t o r " b e l l " .

The s u p p o r t i n g frame i s assembled i n t h e bottom. The i n s t r u m e n t s

i n s t a l l e d i n t h e lower p a r t of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e
s u p p o r t i n g frame and t o t h e body of t h e bottom; t h e s u p p o r t i n g frame
of t h e cosmonauts' s e a t s i s a t t a c h e d above t h e i n s t r u m e n t s . A s s e m b l y
proceeds a c c o r d i n g t o a p r e c i s e l y planned i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e diagram -
each o p e r a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t i n t u r n .

The b r a c k e t s f o r a t t a c h i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t s a r e a l s o b e i n g
assembled i n t h e body of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e b e l l , t h e i n s t r u m e n t s
themselves a r e t h e n i n s t a l l e d . The e l e c t r i c c a b l e i s l a i d out and t h e
cosmonauts' c o n s o l e i s assembled.

The remaining u n i t s and a s s e m b l i e s a r e assembled s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .

And now e v e r y t h i n g i s r e a d y . The primary u n i t s , a s s e m b l i e s s y s t e m s
and e n t i r e compartments f i r s t l e a v e t h e assembly shop f o r t e s t s . And
only a f t e r t h e y have been t e s t e d ( f o r s t r e n g t h , v i b r a t i o n , h i g h p r e -
s s u r e , vacuum, e t c . ) a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e q u i r e d s p e c i f i c a t i o n s may t h e y
be i n s t a l l e d i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t .

Thermal models of t h e s p a c e c r a f t a r e t e s t e d i n a high-vacuum

p r e s s u r e chamber. The e f f i c i e n c y of t h e mechanical systems f o r
d e p l o y i n g t h e a n t e n n a s and s o l a r b a t t e r i e s i s checked and t h e corn-
p a r t m e n t s and assemblies are t e s t e d f o r a i r - t i g h t n e s s .

The h e a t s h i e l d of t h e h u l l of t h e cosmonauts' c a b i n i s t e s t e d
i n a s p e c i a l "space oven" under t h e e f f e c t s o f u l t r a h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s ,
which may o c c u r d u r i n g r e e n t r y .

The compartments of t h e s p a c e c r a f t a r e s u b j e c t e d t o t e s t s on a l l
t h e t e s t benches p o s s i b l e i n t h e s t r e n g t h l a b o r a t o r i e s . The v i b r a t i o n
r e s i s t a n c e of t h e compartments and of t h e s p a c e c r a f t as a whole i s -
131
t e s t e d . The s p a c e c r a f t and a l l i t s members should t o l e r a t e v i b r a t i o n s
which occur d u r i n g t h e main s t a g e s of t h e f l i g h t .

The r e l i a b i l i t y and e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t s t r u c t u r e are

checked on t h e dynamic s t r e n g t h t e s t benches: a f t e r a l l , t h e space-
c r a f t may b e s u b j e c t e d t o h i g h G-forces d u r i n g f l i g h t .

The s t r u c t u r e and equipment of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e a r e t e s t e d

i n impact s t r e n g t h l a b o r a t o r i e s . P o s s i b l e l a n d i n g c o n d i t i o n s - on
r o c k s , ground, snow, i c e , swamp and water - are s i m u l a t e d .

Ground T e s t i n g of Systems

Nose cone s e p a r a t i o n . Thus, t h e s p a c e c r a f t has been f a b r i c a t e d

a t t h e f a c t o r y and has been t e s t e d . O p e r a t i o n of i t s s y s t e m s under
c o n d i t i o n s similar t o f l i g h t c o n d i t i o n s must now b e t e s t e d .

31
 The s p a c e c r a f t i s mounted on t h e l a u n c h r o c k e t under a s p e c i a l
nose cone w i t h emergency escape r o c k e t s . The nose cone i s used
t o p r o t e c t t h e s p a c e c r a f t from t h e e f f e c t s of t h e h i g h dynamic p r e s -
s u r e o f t h e atmosphere and h i g h t h e r m a l l o a d s which occur d u r i n g i n j e c -
t i o n i n t o o r b i t . The l a u n c h r o c k e t and s p a c e c r a f t p a s s e s through t h e
atmosphere a t h i g h speed, which heats t h e body of t h e r o c k e t t o h i g h
temperatures. The nose cone i s supposed t o open and s e p a r a t e from
t h e r o c k e t a f t e r p a s s i n g through t h e zone of maximum thermal and
dynamic l o a d s . It i s no l o n g e r needed. The s u c c e s s of t h e r e s t of
t h e f l i g h t depends on how t h e nose cone was j e t t i s o n e d .

The c o r r e c t n e s s of t h e t h e r o e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s on t h e p r o c e s s o f
j e t t i s o n i n g t h e nose cone i s v e r i f i e d by s p e c i a l e x p e r i m e n t s . A
model of t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i t h f o l d e d a n t e n n a s , s o l a r b a t t e r y p a n e l s
and o p e r a t i n g nose cone and i t s systems i s mounted on t h e t e s t
bench. The cone i s r e p e a t e d l y s h o t o f f . The e n t i r e p r o -
c e s s i s photographed by high-speed movie cameras and t e l e m e t r i c
sensors record the o p e r a t i o n a l parameters of t h e systems. A s a r e s u l t
of t h e experiments t h e a c t u a l t r a j e c t o r y of t h e cone elements with
r e s p e c t t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t and t h e r o c k e t s t a g e , as w e l l as t h e speed
of s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e l e a v e s , a r e c a l c u l a t e d . O p e r a t i o n of t h e t h r u s t e r
e x p l o s i v e systems i s e v a l u a t e d and i f n e c e s s a r y t h e s i z e of t h e powder
c h a r g e s and f o r c e of t h e t h r u s t e r s p r i n g s a r e a l t e r e d .

Reentry c a p s u l e s e p a r a t i o n . The r e e n t r y c a p s u l e may s e p a r a t e

from t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n two c a s e s : d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n of t h e emergency
e s c a p e system, and d u r i n g r e e n t r y . The r e e n t r y c a p s u l e and t h e ad-
j o i n i n g p o r t i o n o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t compartment w i t h i t s s e p a r a t i o n
systems a r e mounted on t h e t e s t bench. A more s u i t a b l e speed of
s e p a r a t i o n of t h e compartments i s s e l e c t e d due t o a change i n t h e
f i r i n g r a t e of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e . Emergency s i t u a t i o n s which may
occur a t t h e moment of s e p a r a t i o n of t h e compartments are reproduced.
I n a l l c a s e s , t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e should s e p a r a t e a t t h e p r o p e r moment.

32
Joining o f the nose shroud and "Soyuz" spacecraft to launch rocket.

Deployment of the antennas and solar batteries. The spacecraft -

/34
cannot be injected into orbit in the form in which it flies in space,
since the effective air f l o w during the active leg has enormous
dynamic pressure and creates considerable thermal loads. Therefore,
all protruding parts of the spacecraft - the antennas and solar
batteries -must be folded and covered with the nose cone. This
complicates the construction and operation of the spacecraft systems.
After injection into orbit, the antennas of the radio system are
deployed and occupy their operating position, and the solar batteries'
also unfold their panels several meters in length.

Operation of all systems and circuits which participate in

deployment of the antennas and solar battery panels is carefully
worked out on the ground. Operation of the mechanical assemblies and
deployment of the antenna systems is checked in high-vacuum pressure
chambers.

33
 T r a n s p o r t i n g l a u n c h r o c k e t from a s s e m b l y s h o p ,

A l l members l o s e w e i g h t i n s p a c e , which means t h a t t h i s must

b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t d u r i n g ground t e s t s . A model o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t
w i t h a c t u a l l y o p e r a t i n g a n t e n n a s and s o l a r b a t t e r i e s i s mounted on
t h e t e s t bench. I n order t o e l i m i n a t e the e f f e c t s of weight, long
wires, s e v e r a l meters l o n g , which a r e f a s t e n e d t o t h e c e i l i n g of
the laboratory, a r e attached t o t h e folded antennas.

T h e weight o f t h e a n t e n n a s i s n e u t r a l i z e d by t h e t e n s i o n o f t h e
wires t o s i m u l a t e w e i g h t l e s s n e s s .
The s o l a r b a t t e r i e s u n d e r t h e
cone a r e f o l d e d i n a package a r o u n d t h e h u l l of t h e s p a c e c r a f t .
D u r i n g ground t e s t i n g o f t h e i r d e p l o y m e n t , t h e y r e s t on r o l l e r sup-
p o r t s which move f r e e l y a l o n g a l e v e l s u r f a c e . The command i s g i v e n
f o r deployment. The e x p l o s i v e b o l t s and p i n s a r e a c t u a t e d . The
a n t e n n a s e c t i o n s and s o l a r b a t t e r y p a n e l s u n f o l d i n s e q u e n c e i n
response t o the springs. A p p r o p r i a t e s e n s o r s r e c o r d t h e deployment

34
 Testing separation of reentry capsule.

f o r c e s and t h o s e a c t i n g o n t h e a n t e n n a s and p a n e l s . R e l i a b l e and

impactless methods o f deployment and s e c u r i n g of t h e a n t e n n a s and
b a t t e r i e s are s e l e c t e d .

F l i g h t T e s t s of t h e S p a c e c r a f t S y s t e m s

C o n d i t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e d u r i n g a n a c t u a l s p a c e f l i g h t may
be c r e a t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y f o r c e r t a i n s t a g e s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t f l i g h t .
T h i s refers mainly t o t h e s t a g e s of f l i g h t through t h e dense layers
o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e : r e e n t r y of t h e r e c o v e r y c a p s u l e and c o n t r o l l e d
d e s c e n t , o p e r a t i o n o f t h e emergency e s c a p e s y s t e m , p a r a c h u t e d e s c e n t
i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e and s o f t l a n d i n g .

35
 T e s t i n g s o l a r b a t t e r y and a n t e n n a deployment s y s t e m .

T e s t i n g t h e heat s h i e l d of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e and t h e c o n t r o l l e d
d e s c e n t s y s t e m . The heat s h i e l d , a e r o d y n a m i c s , and c o n t r o l s y s t e m o f
the r e e n t r y capsule a r e tested under c o n d i t i o n s c l o s e t o c a l c u l a t e d ,
with t h e aid of geophysical rockets. A model o f t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e
w i t h i t s h e a t s h i e l d and c o n t r o l l e d d e s c e n t s y s t e m s i s l i f t e d b y a
g e o p h y s i c a l r o c k e t beyond t h e d e n s e l a y e r s o f t h e a t m o s p h e r e . The
model i s s e p a r a t e d and makes a c o n t r o l l e d d e s c e n t u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s
close t o real.

T e l e m e t r i c s e n s o r s , which r e c o r d t e m p e r a t u r e , a b l a t i o n o f t h e
heat s h i e l d and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s s y s t e m s d u r i n g r e e n t r y are
i n s t a l l e d on and i n s i d e t h e heat s h i e l d o f t h e model. The aerodynamic
and b a l l i s t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e , e f f e c t i v e G-
f o r c e s d u r i n g r e e n t r y , and dynamic and thermal f l o w s a r e r e f i n e d as
a r e s u l t o f f l i g h t t e s t s o f t h e model.
 T e s t i n g the landing systems. The
p a r a c h u t e s y s t e m and s o f t l a n d i n g
e n g i n e s a r e t e s t e d by d r o p p i n g t h e
r e e n t r y c a p s u l e from a n a i r c r a f t .
All c o n d i t i o n s f o r deployment of t h e
p a r a c h u t e s y s t e m - F l i g h t speed of
t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e ( a b o u t 200 meters
per second), p r o f i l e of the descent
t r a j e c t o r y and s p a t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n o f
t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e - are maintained
during the drop.

The p e r m i s s i b l e a n g l e s o f i n c i -
dence of the r e e n t r y c a p s u l e a t t h e
moment o f deployment of t h e p a r a c h u t e
s y s t e m and maximum dynamic p r e s s u r e s
a c t i n g on t h e p a r a c h u t e d u r i n g d e p l o y -
ment a r e c a l c u l a t e d d u r i n g t h e t e s t s .
The s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and
Testing parachute system. e f f i c i e n c y of t h e various s t r u c t u r a l
e l e m e n t s o f t h e p a r a c h u t e s y s t e m s and
f i r i n g systems of the hatches, covers, e t c . , a r e i n v e s t i g a t e d .

When t h e a i r c r a f t r e a c h e s t h e r e q u i r e d a l t i t u d e and s p e e d , t h e
r e e n t r y c a p s u l e separates from i t , and t h e n f l i e s i n d e p e n d e n t l y and
s t a b i l i z e s i t s e l f u n t i l the p a r a c h u t e system deploys a t an a l t i t u d e
of 1 0 k i l o m e t e r s . F u r t h e r d e s c e n t takes p l a c e by p a r a c h u t e . The /38
dynamics of deployment of t h e d r o g u e and main p a r a c h u t e s i s c a l c u l a t e d
during the tests.

Movie cameras i n s t a l l e d i n t h e a r c r a f t t a k e p i c t u r e s o f t h e
p a r a c h u t e s emerging from t h e p a r a c h u t e c o n t a i n e r , t h e i r d e p l o y m e n t ,
and o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g d e s c e n t .

Landing of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e i s t e s t e d on snow, d r y l a n d ,
w a t e r , and r o c k y s u r f a c e s .

37
 I n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e d u r i n g water
l a n d i n g . Sea t e s t s a r e c a r r i e d o u t t o determine t h e a c t u a l buoyancy
of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e ( s u c h an e v e n t i s n o t e x c l u d e d ) . For t h i s ,
t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e i s dropped i n t o t h e water. The crew i s i n s i d e
t h e c a p s u l e , and a l l systems r e q u i r e d f o r man t o l i v e and f u n c t i o n
are i n s t a l l e d .

The cosmonauts t e s t methods of l e a v i n g t h e c a p s u l e , remaining on

t h e s u r f a c e of t h e water, and e v a c u a t i o n w i t h t h e a i d of h e l i c o p t e r s
and s h i p s .

T e s t i n g t h e emergency escape system. The cosmonauts a r e i n t h e

c a b i n d u r i n g l a u n c h and o r b i t i n j e c t i o n of t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t .
T h e r e f o r e , s p e c i a l s o l i d - f u e l r o c k e t e n g i n e s , which s e p a r a t e t h e
cosmonauts' c a b i n and nose cone and c a r r y it away from t h e launch
r o c k e t d u r i n g dangerous f l i g h t s i t u a t i o n s d u r i n g m e a c t i v e phase of
t h e t r a j e c t o r y , are i n s t a l l e d on t h e nose cone o f t h e "Soyuz"
s p a c e c r a f t . The c a b i n t h e n s e p a r a t e s from t h e s p a c e c r a f t , emerges
from t h e nose cone and makes a p a r a c h u t e d e s c e n t and s o f t l a n d i n g .

The emergency escape s y s t e m must be h i g h l y r e l i a b l e .

The f i n a l t e s t o f t h e emergency escape s y s t e m t a k e s p l a c e d u r i n g

f l i g h t t e s t i n g . For t h i s t h e most d i v e r s e f l i g h t emergencies such as
d e v i a t i o n of t h e r o c k e t from t h e f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y , engine f a i l u r e ,
u n c a l c u l a t e d G-forces, f i r e s , e x p l o s i o n s , e t c . , are c r e a t e d d u r i n g
the tests.

T e l e m e t r i c s e n s o r s r e c o r d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f systems d u r i n g t h e
t e s t s , a l l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s y s t e m s o p e r a t i o n a r e a n a l y z e d , and
o n l y a f t e r t h i s i s t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e emergency escape system
confirmed and recommendation made t h a t i t be i n s t a l l e d on t h e
spacecraft.

Thus, t h e s p a c e c r a f t has been d e s i g n e d , f a b r i c a t e d and t e s t e d

and i s r e a d y f o r f l i g h t . The l a u n c h and command c o n t r o l complexes
are ready.
 T e s t i n g t h e emergency e s c a p e s y s t e m .

And t h e t e s t s a r e s t i l l c o n t i n u e d , b u t now d u r i n g a c t u a l s p a c e
f l i g h t . Unmanned v e r s i o n s o f t h e new s p a c e c r a f t a r e f i r s t l a u n c h e d
i n t o s p a c e . Its f l i g h t program i s e x t e n s i v e and o p e r a t i o n o f a l l
s y s t e m s and a s s e m b l i e s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t must b e t e s t e d and checked
a l l t o g e t h e r . And cosmonauts f l y i n t o s p a c e o n l y a f t e r c a r e f u l
t e s t i n g of t h e s p a c e c r a f t during o r b i t a l f l i g h t s i n automatic v e r s i o n s
and a f t e r i t s r e l i a b i l i t y i s c o n f i r m e d .

T r a i n i n g t h e Cosmonauts f o r Space F l i g h t s

Cosmonaut s e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s and t h e t r a i n i n g program a r e

d e v e l o p e d on t h e basis of c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e s u l t s o f i n v e s -
t i g a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f s p a c e f l i g h t f a c t o r s on t h e o r g a n i s m .

39
 The f i r s t g r o u p of cosmonauts was
r e c r u i t e d from among p i l o t s . The
f u t u r e cosmonauts were s u b j e c t e d t o
.
r i g o r o u s m e d i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s . The
c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e main p h y s i o l o g i c a l
s y s t e m s o f t h e body were i n v e s t i g a t e d
i n a p r e s s u r e chamber a t s i g n i f i c a n t
l e v e l s of atmospheric r a r e f a c t i o n ,
d u r i n g d r o p s of b a r o m e t r i c p r e s s u r e ,
as w e l l a s i n c e n t r i f u g e s , on v i b r a t i o n
tables, e t c .

The cosmonaut c a n d i d a t e s were

a l s o s u b j e c t e d t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l exami-
n a t i o n t o s e l e c t personnel having the
b e s t memory, a l e r t n e s s , a n d a b i l i t y
f o r r a p i d and p r e c i s e c o o r d i n a t e d
movements.

Rocket e n g i n e s of emergency A g r o u p , which began a s p e c i a l

escape system. t r a i n i n g program, was formed a s a
r e s u l t o f m e d i c a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n . The t r a i n i n g program
was made up of a complex o f s p e c i a l t e s t s and t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s ,
v a r i o u s t y p e s o f g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g , and a l s o s p e c i a l
t h e o r e t i c a l study courses.

The s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g program was d e s i g n e d f o r t h e cosmonauts t o

a c q u i r e t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e b a s i c t h e o r e t i c a l problems -
/41
r e l a t e d t o t h e f l i g h t m i s s i o n s , as w e l l as p r a c t i c a l s k i l l s i n u s e
o f t h e equipment and a p p a r a t u s o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t . The program p r o -
v i d e d s t u d y o f r o c k e t and s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y , s p a c e c r a f t d e s i g n , s p e c i a l
p r o b l e m s o f a s t r o n o m y , g e o p h y s i c s and t h e fundaments o f s p a c e m e d i c i n e .

The complex of s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s and t e s t s i n c l u d e d :

a i r c r a f t f l i g h t s under c o n d i t i o n s of weightlessness;

40
 training exercises in a model of the spacecraft cabin in a special
simulator;
proldnged restriction in a specially equipped soundproof chamber;
training exercises on a centrifuge;
parachute jumps from aircraft.

The flights of the Soviet cosmonauts confirmed the correctness

of the principles applied to the system for selection and training
of cosmonauts.

The cosmonaut training program consisted of two stages: the

first stage included study of the spacecraft during its creation in
.
the design office and the second stage included direct flight training.
The cosmonauts participated in solution of the problems related to
experimental development of the compartment configuration and tests
of the manual control systems.

Participation in ground tests of the spacecraft and its systems

was good preparation of the cosmonauts for future space flights.

During the second phase of training the cosmonauts developed

skills in special simulators in control of the spacecraft systems
and in performing specific operations envisioned by the preflight
program.

Maximum simulation of a l l actual conditions was created in the

various simulators.

The cosmonauts had at their disposal a multiple simulator, special

simulators as well as flying laboratories and pressure chambers. The
multiple simulator was designed for developing the cosmonauts' skills
in performing the various missions of space flight. A simulator is
a full-scale electrically operated model of the spacecraft compart-
ments, with simulation of the various characteristics of space flight,
the internal configuration of the equipment and the external situation

41
 Reentry capsule-simulator.

visible from the spacecraft. The cosmonauts spent many hours in

"flights" in the multiple simulator. During training exercises in
the multiple simulator, the cosmonauts worked out the finishing
touches for the flight program and flight mission and "performed"
scientific investigations and experiments.

Simultaneously with training exercises in the multiple simulator,

exercises were carried out in the specialized and functional simu-
lators, which more accurately simulate the dynamics of spacecraft
motion during manual control. The more important individual operations
on manual orientation, manual mooring and docking were developed in -
143
these simulators.

42
 Training exercises i n f u l l -
s c a l e models w i t h s t a n d a r d s y s t e m s
i n s t a l l e d i n p r e s s u r e chambers,
where t h e cosmonauts worked w i t h
t h e a i r l o c k chamber, s p a c e s u i t s
and autonomous l i f e s u p p o r t s y s t e m s
i n a h i g h vacuum, i . e . , u n d e r con-
d i t i o n s s i m u l a t i n g t h o s e of space
f l i g h t , occupied an important p l a c e
i n flight training.

T e s t i n g e x i t from r e e n t r y c a p s u l e Along w i t h t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s
at sea.
i n ground s i m u l a t o r s , f l i g h t s were
c a r r i e d o u t i n f l y i n g l a b o r a t o r i e s , where a l l e l e m e n t s , r e l a t e d t o
t r a n s f e r o f cosmonauts from one s p a c e c r a f t t o a n o t h e r , were t e s t e d
u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f b r i e f p e r i o d s of w e i g h t l e s s n e s s .

T r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s w i t h G - f o r c e s , which d e v e l o p d u r i n g o r b i t
i n j e c t i o n and c o n t r o l l e d r e e n t r y , were c a r r i e d o u t i n s p e c i a l c e n t r i -
f u g e s , which r e p r o d u c e d a c t u a l G - f o r c e s d u r i n g t h e s e phases o f t h e
flight.

Besides t h e s e t y p e s of p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g ( i n c l u d i n g p h y s i c a l
and m e d i c a l - b i o l o g i c a l ) , t h e cosmonauts c a r r i e d o u t s p e c i a l f l i g h t
and p a r a c h u t e t r a i n i n g .

Both a i r c r a f t f l i g h t s and p a r a c h u t e jumps a r e a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t

o f cosmonaut t r a i n i n g . H i g h - a l t i t u d e f l i g h t s i n f i g h t e r a i r c r a f t
f a m i l i a r i z e d t h e cosmonauts w i t h t h e e x t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n s i m i l a r t o
t h a t of s p a c e f l i g h t . A i r c r a f t f l i g h t s p e r m i t t e d t h e cosmonauts t o
p r e p a r e f o r work u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f v a r i a b l e G - f o r c e s and b r i e f
p e r i o d s of w e i g h t l e s s n e s s , t o c o n d i t i o n t h e v e s t i b u l a r a p p a r a t u s and
t o develop s k i l l s i n spatial o r i e n t a t i o n .

43
 F l i g h t s i n a c l o s e d c o c k p i t and i n c l o u d s enhaced development o f
s k i l l s of d i s t r i b u t i o n of a t t e n t i o n on t h e i n s t r u m e n t s . En r o u t e
f l i g h t s p e r m i t t e d them t o develop v i s u a l o r i e n t a t i o n by ground r e f e r -
ence p o i n t s . Celestial n a v i g a t i o n was mastered and s k i l l s i n s t a r
o r i e n t a t i o n and performance of a s t r o n o m i c a l measurements and obser-
v a t i o n s were developed d u r i n g f l i g h t s i n a s p e c i a l l y equipped f l y i n g
astronomical laboratory.

4. THE M A I N STAGES OF FLIGHT OF THE "SOYUZ" SPACECRAFT

Orbit Injection

"Soyuz" t y p e s p a c e c r a f t are i n j e c t e d i n t o o r b i t s of a r t i f i c i a l
E a r t h s a t e l l i t e s by powerful m u l t i s t a g e l a u n c h r o c k e t s . The ground
l a u n c h complex of t h e Baykonur Cosmodrome p r o v i d e s p r e p a r a t i o n and
l a u n c h of s p a c e c r a f t a t any t i m e of y e a r . Thus, t h e l a u n c h crews
d u r i n g l a u n c h i n g of t h e "Soyuz-4" and "Soyuz-5" s p a c e c r a f t , d e s p i t e
t h e s e v e r e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e Kazakhstan w i n t e r , c a r r i e d o u t pre-launch
o p e r a t i o n s c a r e f u l l y and on s c h e d u l e .

The huge body o f t h e r o c k e t , surrounded by s e r v i c e towers and

u m b i l i c a l s , i s covered by l i g h t c l o u d s of f u e l vapors. Last-minute
p r e p a r a t i o n s are b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t . Approximately two hours p r i o r
t o l a u n c h t h e s p a c e c r a f t crew r i d e s t h e e l e v a t o r t o t h e t o p s e c t i o n
of t h e r o c k e t and e n t e r s t h e o r b i t a l compartment through t h e e n t r a n c e
h a t c h . After i n s p e c t i n g t h e equipment f o r t h e second t i m e , t h e cosmo-
n a u t s descend t h r o u g h t h e t r a n s f e r h a t c h t o t h e crew compartment.
Both h a t c h e s a r e t h e n h e r m e t i c a l l y sealed.

The cosmonauts c a r e f u l l y i n s p e c t t h e numerous i n s t r u m e n t s and

i n d i c a t o r s , s w i t c h on t h e v a r i o u s b u t t o n s and keys on t h e c o n s o l e ,
l o c a t e d d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t of them, i n o r d e r t o check them. During
t h o s e s e v e r a l t e n s of minutes remaining p r i o r t o launch, t h e y check
t h e s i g n a l l i n g d e v i c e s and i n i t i a l s t a t e of t h e s y s t e m s .

4 4.
 Launch rocket in umbilicals.

Check-out is now completed and everything is in order. The

rocket is ready for launch. The cosmonauts strap themselves into
their seats with the aid of restraining harnesses.

A l l control over the complex systems of the spacecraft and

rocket is now exercised by the ground crews and automatically.

The launch pad is empty. A l l members of the launch crew are in

the command and observation posts. The umbilicals and cable tower
move away from the rocket body one after the other. One hears the
pre-launch commands for resetting the various systems and, finally,
"Ignition! Launch!"

45
 A b l i n d i n g flame b u r s t s f o r t h from u n d e r n e a t h t h e r o c k e t . A
d e a f e n i n g r o a r i s heard. T h i s i s t h e r o c k e t e n g i n e s i g n i t i n g .
However, t h e r o c k e t remains immobile. The hold-down arms r e s t r a i n it
u n t i l t h e e n g i n e s r e a c h t h e i r c a l c u l a t e d o p e r a t i n g mode, and u n t i l
t h e developed t h r u s t exceeds t h e l a u n c h weight of t h e r o c k e t .

After s e v e r a l seconds t h e hold-down arms f a l l away and t h e r o c k e t

b e g i n s i t s headlong a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t o t h e r e a c h e s of s p a c e . It i s
v e r y slow a t f i r s t , b u t t h e n f a s t e r and f a s t e r .

The cosmonauts a r e p r e s s e d a g a i n s t t h e backs of t h e i r seats.

Like a l i v i n g t h i n g , t h e r o c k e t body v i b r a t e s and t h e n o i s e of t h e
o p e r a t i n g e n g i n e s i s heard. The cosmonaut r e p o r t s : " F l i g h t i s normal.
I f e e l f i n e . G-force 2.5." T h i s means t h a t t h e cosmonaut's weight
a t t h i s moment i s two and one-half times g r e a t e r t h a n normal. The
o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t and r o c k e t systems and a t e l e -
v i s i o n image of t h e cosmonaut are c o n t i n u o u s l y t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e
ground command and c o n t r o l complex. O r b i t i n j e c t i o n i s t h e primary
r e s p o n s i b l e s t a g e of space f l i g h t .

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e a c t i v e phase t h e r o c k e t r i s e s a t a
rather s t e e p angle i n order t o pass through t h e dense l a y e r s of t h e
atmosphere a l o n g t h e s h o r t e s t r o u t e . During t h i s p e r i o d t h e space-
c r a f t , b e i n g i n t h e f r o n t s e c t i o n of t h e l a u n c h r o c k e t , i s covered
by t h e cone. The cone i s j e t t i s o n e d a t a s p e c i f i c t i m e Deyond
t h e d e n s e l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere.

The a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l system of t h e l a u n c h r o c k e t d e t e r m i n e s t h e
o p e r a t i n g mode of t h e e n g i n e s , p r o v i d e s motion s t a b i l i t y and c a r r i e s
o u t s t a g i n g throughout t h e e n t i r e p e r i o d of t h e a c t i v e l e g of t h e
f l i g h t . The c o n t r o l s y s t e m s f o r c e t h e r o c k e t t o d e v i a t e more and
more from a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n as f l i g h t a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e s . Speed
toward t h e end of o p e r a t i o n of t h e l a s t stage e n g i n e should b e n o t
o n l y almost 8 k i l o m e t e r s p e r second, b u t should a l s o be d i r e c t e d s o
t h a t t h e s p a c e c r a f t c o n t i n u e s t o move i n t h e o r b i t of a n a r t i f i c i a l
Earth s a t e l l i t e . Weightlessness begins i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t a f t e r the
e n g i n e s are c u t o f f and i t s e p a r a t e s from t h e l a s t s t a g e of t h e l a u n c h
rocket.
46
 Orbital Flight
-
147

The s p a c e c r a f t i s now i n o r b i t !
The s o l a r b a t t e r y p a n e l s and
a n t e n n a s of t h e onboard r a d i o a i d s deploy upon command from t h e
programming-timing u n i t .

The s p a c e c r a f t i s r o t a t i n g slowly due t o t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n s

induced d u r i n g s e p a r a t i o n from t h e l a s t s t a g e of t h e l a u n c h r o c k e t .
T h e r e f o r e , one of ' t h e main systems of t h e s p a c e c r a f t - t h e a t t i t u d e
c o n t r o l system - is switched on immediately.

R e l i a b l e r a d i o communication i s m a i n t a i n e d w i t h t h e cosmonaut.
Telemetry d a t a about t h e s t a t e of t h e onboard s y s t e m s and assemblies
of t h e s p a c e c r a f t a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e ground m o n i t o r i n g s t a t i o n s .
The s p a c e c r a f t now " l e a v e s " t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e S o v i e t Union and
c o n t i n u e s i t s f l i g h t above t h e r e a c h e s of t h e P a c i f i c Ocean. However,
communication w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f t c o n t i n u e s f o r some t i m e v i a t h e
s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h s h i p s of t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s , which are o u t
a t sea.

Gyroscopic O r i e n t a t i o n ("Warping") of t h e S p a c e c r a f t toward t h e Sun

The t i m e and p l a c e approach f o r implementing a r o u t i n e o p e r a t i o n

c a l l e d "warping t h e s p a c e c r a f t toward t h e Sun. If

The cosmonaut p r e s s e s a key w i t h t h e i n s c r i p t i o n "Warping." Upon

e n g i n e s on t h e s p a c e c r a f t h u l l a r e
t h i s command, t h e l o w - t h r u s t
switched on, e n s u r i n g t h a t i t r o t a t e s around one of t h e a x e s . Images
of t h e E a r t h , s t a r s , Moon and Sun f l o a t by on t h e s c r e e n of t h e o p t i c a l
sighting device.

The cosmonaut makes a s l i g h t motion w i t h t h e c o n t r o l knob and

t h e Sun b e g i n s t o " d e s c r i b e a c i r c l e " w i t h i n t h e P i e l d of v i s i o n of
t h e o p t i c a l sighting device. Another motion and t h e c r o s s - h a i r s
merge w i t h t h e image of t h e Sun.

47
 I n t h i s p o s i t i o n the s p a c e c r a f t i s o r i e n t e d such that the
spacecraft - Sun a x i s i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e s u r f a c e of t h e s o l a r
b a t t e r y p a n e l s . And t h i s means t h a t t h e maximum luminous f l u x w i l l
impinge on them and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t
d e v e l o p s . The e l e c t r i c a l energy t a k e n from t h e s o l a r b a t t e r y s u r f a c e
w i l l now c h a r g e t h e s p a c e c r a f t s t o r a g e b a t t e r i e s .

I n order t o maintain the spacecraft i n t h i s position f o r a

prolonged p e r i o d , a d d i t i o n a l e x p e n d i t u r e of f u e l and c o n s t a n t a t t e n -
t i o n of t h e cosmonaut would b e r e q u i r e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s p a c e c r a f t
i s r o t a t e d around t h e s p a c e c r a f t - Sun a x i s a t a r a t e o f s e v e r a l
d e g r e e s p e r second. Because of t h e g y r o s c o p i c e f f e c t , t h e s o l a r
b a t t e r i e s w i l l now remain o r i e n t e d toward t h e Sun and t h e cosmonaut
w i l l be a b l e t o c a r r y o u t t h e planned experiments.

C e l e s t i a l O r i e n t a t i o n of t h e S p a c e c r a f t

P r e c i s e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n space i s r e q u i r e d i n
o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t o r b i t a l c o r r e c t i o n s and c e r t a i n experiments and
s c i e n t i f i c observations. S o - c a l l e d c e l e s t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n i s imple- /49
mented f o r t h i s .

The arrangement of c e l e s t i a l o b j e c t s - the Sun, Moon, p l a n e t s

and stars - w i t h r e s p e c t t o each o t h e r i s known p r e c i s e l y a t any
moment o f t i m e . T h e r e f o r e , i f one of t h e s p a c e c r a f t a x e s i s d i r e c t e d ,
f o r example, toward t h e Sun, and t h e o t h e r a x i s - toward one of t h e
c e l e s t i a l o b j e c t s , t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i l l occupy a s p e c i f i c p o s i t i o n
i n space.

The n e c e s s a r y data f o r c e l e s t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n a r e f i r s t f e d i n t o
t h e programming-timing u n i t upon command from E a r t h . I n t h i s case,
depending on t h e c e l e s t i a l o b j e c t s e l e c t e d , f o r example, a s p e c i f i c
s t a r , one of t h e o p t i c a l s e n s o r s i s s e t i n such a p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e
a n g l e between t h e a x e s of t h i s s e n s o r and t h e s o l a r s e n s o r c o r r e s -
ponds t o t h e F e l a t - i v e l o c a t i o n of t h e Sun and t h e g i v e n s t a r .
 Launch r o c k e t w i t h "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t on l a u n c h pad.

The p r o c e s s o f c e l e s t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n b e g i n s w i t h a s e a r c h f o r
t h e Sun. The l o w - t h r u s t j e t s a r e s w i t c h e d on and t h e s p a c e c r a f t
r o t a t e s a r o u n d i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s u n t i l t h e Sun e n t e r s t h e f i e l d
o f v i s i o n of t h e s o l a r s e n s o r . The o t h e r e n g i n e s a r e t h e n s w i t c h e d
on and t h e s p a c e c r a f t b e g i n s t o r o t a t e a r o u n d a S u n - f i x e d a x i s u n t i l
t h e s o l a r s e n s o r " l o c k s on" t o t h e g i v e n s t a r .

The s p a c e c r a f t i s s t a b i l i z e d i n t h i s p o s i t i o n and i s t h e n main-

t a i n e d t h u s l y b y t h e a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l j e t s b y commands from t h e
gyroscopic instruments.

O r b i t a l Correction

The "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t make o r b i t a l c o r r e c t i o n s i n o r d e r t o

c a r r y o u t t h e f l i g h t program. What i s t h e p u r p o s e of t h i s o p e r a t i o n ?

49
 Correction i s c a r r i e d out primarily t o increase the f l i g h t
a l t i t u d e of t h e s p a c e c r a f t . Atmospheric d e n s i t y 2 0 0 k i l o m e t e r s above
t h e E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e i s n e g l i g i b l e . However, d e s p i t e t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e
r a r e f a c t i o n o f t h e atmosphere, i t s t i l l has a s p e c i f i c b r a k i n g e f f e c t
on a s p a c e c r a f t of s u c h dimensions as t h e "Soyuz." O r b i t a l a l t i t u d e
d e c r e a s e s c o n t i n u o u s l y and t h e b r a k i n g e f f e c t of t h e atmosphere
i n c r e a s e s . T h i s may l e a d i n t i m e t o f o r c e d l a n d i n g o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t .

Moreover, t h e purpose of c o r r e c t i o n i s t o e n s u r e f l i g h t of t h e
s p a c e c r a f t above a g i v e n r e g i o n a t a s p e c i f i c time. The p e r i o d of
r o t a t i o n of t h e s p a c e c r a f t around t h e E a r t h i n c r e a s e s as f l i g h t
a l t i t u d e i n c r e a s e s . The s p a c e c r a f t t r a n s f e r s t o a lower o r b i t and
t h e p e r i o d of r o t a t i o n around t h e E a r t h d e c r e a s e s under a s p e c i f i c
b r a k i n g impulse. By making t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c o r r e c t i o n s , t h e f l i g h t
of one s p a c e c r a f t o v e r t h e l a u n c h p o i n t of a n o t h e r may b e g u a r a n t e e d
and i t may o b s e r v e o r b i t i n j e c t i o n of t h e second s p a c e c r a f t from
space.

Depending on t h e f l i g h t program, c o r r e c t i o n may b e accomplished

b o t h w i t h t h e a i d of t h e manual c o n t r o l s and a u t o m a t i c a l l y by u s i n g
c e l e s t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n . O r b i t a l c o r r e c t i o n u s i n g manual o r i e n t a t i o n
i s accomplished i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner.

The n e c e s s a r y data f o r c o r r e c t i o n a r e t r a n s m i t t e d from E a r t h

and r e c o r d e d i n t h e onboard memory.

The cosmonaut presses t h e n e c e s s a r y key on t h e c o n s o l e . The

i n s c r i p t i o n s "Maneuver w i t h manual o r i e n t a t i o n ' ' and t h e " O p t i c a l
s i g h t i n g d e v i c e f o r a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l " l i g h t up. The s p a c e c r a f t
commander's hands r e s t on t h e c o n t r o l knobs and h i s a t t e n t i o n i s
c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e s c r e e n of t h e o p t i c a l s i g h t i n g d e v i c e . The E a r t h
s l o w l y " s a i l s by," p a s s i n g on t h e s c r e e n . O p e r a t i n g t h e c o n t r o l knob,
t h e cosmonaut s w i t c h e s on t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t h r u s t e r j e t s and r o t a t e s
the spacecraft u n t i l the c e n t r a l portion of the screen coincides with
a d i r e c t i o n toward t h e c e n t e r of E a r t h . I n t e r s e c t i o n has now c o i n -
c i d e d w i t h t h i s d i r e c t i o n and t h e E a r t h ' s "course" p a s s e s by a l o n g
the spacecraft axis. The s p a c e c r a f t i s now o r i e n t e d . A button i s
p r e s s e d and t h e i n s c r i p t i o n " O r i e n t a t i o n by gyroscopes" l i g h t s up.
T h i s means t h a t t h e gyroscopes have begun t o r o t a t e and t h e i r a x e s
i n s p a c e have occupied a p o s i t i o n independent of t h e s p a c e c r a f t h u l l .
They have "memorized" t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t ; commands
are t r a n s m i t t e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y t o t h e e n g i n e s upon any d e v i a t i o n s of
t h e s p a c e c r a f t h u l l , which t h e n r e t u r n i t t o i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n .

A l l f u r t h e r o p e r a t i o n s are n o w c a r r i e d o u t a u t o m a t i c a l l y . The
s i g n a l to r o t a t e t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e onboard
memory. The s p a c e c r a f t must occupy a s p e c i f i c p o s i t i o n i n s p a c e . A l l
t h e s e data a r e "remembered" by t h e a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l d e v i c e s . They
t h e n i s s u e t h e command t o s w i t c h on t h e engine a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d t i m e .

T h e t h r u s t e r e n g i n e s o p e r a t e t o p r o v i d e o r b i t a l c o r r e c t i o n and
maneuvers. The f o r c e of i n e r t i a a g a i n p r e s s e s t h e cosmonaut's body
a g a i n s t h i s s e a t . F i g u r e s which c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e e x t e n t of t h e
developed v e l o c i t y impulse lrjump" a c r o s s t h e i n d i c a t o r . T h e i r c o u r s e
has now stopped. The s p a c e c r a f t commander r e p o r t s t o t h e ground
m o n i t o r i n g s t a t i o n s : " C o r r e c t i o n was normal. The s p a c e c r a f t i s
o r i e n t e d c o r r e c t l y . The engine was c u t o f f a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d time."

The cosmonaut's working day i s coming t o a n end. S l e e p i s n e x t .

For t h i s t h e cosmonaut a g a i n t r a n s f e r s t o t h e o r b i t a l compartment,
takes o u t h i s s l e e p i n g bag and, having s t r a p p e d himself down on t h e
couch, f a l l s a s l e e p . The s p a c e c r a f t i s i n t h e " s o l a r warping" mode.

Reentry and Descent i n t h e Atmosphere

The m u l t i t o n "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t , moving a t an o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y

of about 8 k i l o m e t e r s p e r second a t more t h a n 2 0 0 k i l o m e t e r s above
t h e E a r t h , has enormous k i n e t i c and p o t e n t i a l energy. O r b i t a l v e l o c i t y
must be reduced t o accomplish r e e n t r y .

It would seem t h a t t h i s would r e q u i r e t h e same powerful e n g i n e s

which provided o r b i t i n j e c t i o n of t h e s p a c e c r a f t . However, complete -
/5l
e x t i n c t i o n of o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y w i t h t h e a i d o f r e t r o r o c k e t s i s n o t
f e a s i b l e , s i n c e t h i s would r e q u i r e a l a r g e i n c r e a s e i n t h e weight o f
t h e s p a c e c r a f t . Another method i s used i n which t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s g i v e
t h e s p a c e c r a f t a comparatively weak b r a k i n g impulse, s u f f i c i e n t f o r
o r b i t a l v e l o c i t y t o become somewhat l e s s t h a n o r b i t i n j e c t i o n v e l o c i t y .
The s p a c e c r a f t b e g i n s t o descend and main b r a k i n g takes p l a c e i n t h e
dense l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere due t o atmospheric r e s i s t a n c e .

The problem of r e t u r n i n g a s p a c e c r a f t t o E a r t h from a n a r t i f i c i a l

s a t e l l i t e o r b i t c o n s i s t s of two s t a g e s . The f i r s t s t a g e i s organi-
z a t i o n of r e e n t r y and f l i g h t of t h e s p a c e c r a f t u n t i l i t e n t e r s t h e
dense l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere. The second s t a g e i s c o n t r o l of t h e
s p a c e c r a f t i n t h e d e n s e l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere and s o f t l a n d i n g .

Commands, encoded i n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e manner, are f e d from E a r t h

i n t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t programming-timing u n i t d u r i n g t h e o r b i t p r e c e d i n g
r e e n t r y . These commands c a r r y data about t h e t i m e f o r s w i t c h i n g on
t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s and about t h e f o r c e of t h e r e q u i r e d b r a k i n g impulse.

Before t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s are f i r e d , t h e s p a c e c r a f t should b e

o r i e n t e d i n space such t h a t i t s speed i s reduced when t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s
f i r e . O r i e n t a t i o n of t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t p r i o r t o d e c e l e r a t i o n
may b e accomplished e i t h e r a u t o m a t i c a l l y o r by manual c o n t r o l .

A f t e r t h e s p a c e c r a f t has been o r i e n t e d , t h e r e t r o r o c k e t n o z z l e
i s d i r e c t e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f motion of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , and t h e
a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l system t h e n m a i n t a i n s t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n t h i s p o s i t i o n .
The r e t r o r o c k e t s a r e f i r e d a t t h e p r e c i s e l y c a l c u l a t e d t i m e upon com-
mand from t h e programming-timing u n i t . A second command from t h e
v e l o c i t y v a r i a t i o n meter c u t s t h e r e t r o r o c k e t s o f f s o t h a t subsequent
r e e n t r y f o l l o w s t h e c a l c u l a t e d t r a j e c t o r y . The r e t r o r o c k e t s a r e f i r e d
s e v e r a l thousand k i l o m e t e r s beyond t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e USSR.

The speed of t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s reduced, t h e compartments s e p a r a t e

and t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e r u s h e s toward t h e E a r t h . The remaining sec-
t i o n s o f t h e S p a c e c r a f t burn up a f t e r e n t e r i n g t h e dense l a y e r s of
t h e atmosphere. The r e e n t r y c a p s u l e i t s e l f , w i t h t h e a i d of t h e

52
engine of t h e d e s c e n t c o n t r o l system, t u r n s s o t h a t i t w i l l e n t e r t h e
dense l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere i n a p r e c i s e l y c a l c u l a t e d p o s i t i o n .

The d e s c e n t c o n t r o l system p r o v i d e s safe passage t h r o u g h t h e

dense l a y e r s of t h e atmosphere d u r i n g t h e l a s t l e g of t h e f l i g h t and
p r e c i s e l a n d i n g of t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e i n t h e g i v e n r e g i o n of t h e
S o v i e t Union.

What f a c t o r s a c t on t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e and may b e dangerous f o r

t h e crew?

F i r s t of a l l , d u r i n g d e c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e dense l a y e r s of t h e -
152
atmosphere, h i g h G-forces d e v e l o p : t r a v e l speed d u r i n g t h i s l e g of
t h e f l i g h t d e c r e a s e s from s e v e r a l k i l o m e t e r s p e r second t o s e v e r a l
hundred meters p e r second. Consequently, t h e l e g of i n t e n s i v e
d e c e l e r a t i o n must b e extended i n t i m e s o t h a t t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n s
developed and t h e G-forces caused by them do n o t exceed t h e maximum
p e r m i s s i b l e f o r t h e human body, and, i f p o s s i b l e , so t h a t t h e y are
low. I n t h i s c a s e t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e e f f e c t of G-forces i s very
important.

The r e e n t r y c a p s u l e should f l y i n a p r e c i s e l y s t a b i l i z e d p o s i t i o n
s o t h a t t h e cosmonauts a r e s u b j e c t e d t o t h e l e a s t e f f e c t o f G-forces.

The enormous energy of a n o b j e c t e n t e r i n g t h e E a r t h ' s atmosphere

from space i s almost completely converted t o thermal energy. Even
a p a r t of t h i s energy i s q u i t e enough f o r t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e t o burn
up completely. I n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t t h i s , t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s equipped
w i t h a heat s h i e l d .

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e o f c o n t r o l l e d d e s c e n t , u n l i k e b a l l i s t i c
d e s c e n t , i s t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n of G-forces and heat f l u x e s
which a c t on t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e . However, t h e main advantage of
controlled descent i s that the reentry capsule lands with high
accuracy i n t h e g i v e n r e g i o n .

53
 Considerable v a r i a t i o n of t h e l a n d i n g p o i n t s i s p o s s i b l e d u r i n g
u n c o n t r o l l e d d e s c e n t . T h i s o c c u r s f o r many r e a s o n s . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
d e v i a t i o n s , even s l i g h t ones, i n t h e f o r c e of t h e b r a k i n g impulse,
accuracy of s p a c e c r a f t o r i e n t a t i o n d u r i n g r e t r o r o c k e t f i r i n g , d e v i -
a t i o n s of atmospheric d e n s i t y from c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s a t d i f f e r e n t
a l t i t u d e s , a i r c u r r e n t s and many o t h e r s a f f e c t t h i s v a r i a t i o n . These
f a c t o r s a r e t a k e n i n t o account d u r i n g d e s c e n t of t h e c a p s u l e i n con-
t r o l l e d r e e n t r y , which e n s u r e s h i g h accuracy of l a n d i n g .

How i s c o n t r o l l e d d e s c e n t accomplished?

The a i r flow around t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e i s asymmetrical, due t o

which a l i f t i n g f o r c e develops. We say t h a t such r e e n t r y c a p s u l e s
have aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y , which i s d e f i n e d as t h e l i f t - t o - d r a g
r a t i o . Aerodynamic e f f i c i e n c y o f r e e n t r y c a p s u l e s , adapted f o r t h e
s e v e r e c o n d i t i o n s of d e s c e n t i n t h e atmosphere, i s of c o u r s e con-
s i d e r a b l y l e s s t h a n t h a t of a i r c r a f t .

By t u r n i n g t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e around i t s l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s w i t h
t h e a i d o f t h e d e s c e n t c o n t r o l e n g i n e , f l i g h t d i s t a n c e may be con-
t r o l l e d . The a b s o l u t e v a l u e of l i f t i n g f o r c e remains t h e same d u r i n g
such r o t a t i o n , b u t i t s p r o j e c t i o n o n t o t h e v e r t i c a l p l a n e v a r i e s .
The maximum e f f e c t i v e v a l u e of l i f t i n g f o r c e o c c u r s d u r i n g z e r o r o l l
a n g l e . When t h e c a p s u l e i s r o t a t e d b y goo, t h e e f f e c t i v e v a l u e of
l i f t i n g f o r c e becomes e q u a l t o z e r o , and a c q u i r e s a n e g a t i v e v a l u e
with further rotation. T h i s f o r c e compels a d e s c e n t a l o n g a s t e e p e r
t r a j e c t o r y . During d e s c e n t t h e a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l system r e g u l a t e s
r o l l a n g l e c o n t i n u o u s l y , which e n s u r e s h i g h accuracy of l a n d i n g .

Implementation o f c o n t r o l i n t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e s of ffSoyuzf'
s p a c e c r a f t , i n a d d i t i o n t o providing p r e c i s e landing i n the given
r e g i o n , p e r m i t s a c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n maximum G-forces d u r i n g
t h e d e s c e n t t r a j e c t o r y and a d e c r e a s e i n t h e weight o f t h e heat
shield.

54
 When t h e r e e n t r y c a p s u l e r e a c h e s t h e g i v e n r e g i o n a t a n a l t i t u d e
o f about 1 0 k i l o m e t e r s , t h e p a r a c h u t e system i s deployed. The s o f t
l a n d i n g e n g i n e s are f i r e d p r i o r t o l a n d i n g .

5. THE WORLD'S FIRST EXPERIMENTAL SPACE STATION -

154

The Experimental O r b i t a l S t a t i o n of t h e "Soyuz" Complex

C r e a t i o n of t h e w o r l d ' s f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t a l o r b i t a l s t a t i o n i s a
l o g i c a l c o n t i n u a t i o n o f development of t h e program of manned f l i g h t s
of t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t . A t t h e same t i m e t h i s s u c c e s s i s based
on t h e t e c h n i c a l and s c i e n t i f i c achievements of p r e c e d i n g s p a c e f l i g h t s ,
d u r i n g which new data were o b t a i n e d on t h e p r o p e r t i e s of space and
t e c h n i q u e s of c o n t r o l l i n g o b j e c t s i n s p a c e .

Both t h e l a u n c h e s of t h e f i r s t s a t e l l i t e s and t h e f l i g h t s of
S o v i e t cosmonauts and b o t h t h e space walk of man and l a u n c h e s of
a u t o m a t i c p r o b e s t o t h e lvloon and p l a n e t s a l l c r e a t e d t h e s t r o n g
f o u n d a t i o n on which cosmonautics i s now c o n s t r u c t e d .

The b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of d e s i g n and c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e "Soyuz"

s p a c e c r a f t i n d i c a t e t h e complex n a t u r e of s o l v i n g t h e problems r e l a t e d
t o c e r a t i o n of manned space s t a t i o n s . The "Soyuz" i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
t h e p r o t o t y p e of o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s and t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t which w i l l
make r e g u l a r t r i p s between t h e s t a t i o n s and E a r t h and f o r r o t a t i o n of
crews and d e l i v e r y of t h e n e c e s s a r y c a r g o s .

The "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t has a n e n g i n e system, long-range r a d i o

communication equipment, a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l system w i t h a computer
u n i t , l i f e - s u p p o r t system and a crew compartment from which t h e space-' /55
c r a f t i s c o n t r o l l e d d u r i n g f l i g h t and i n which t h e cosmonauts r e t u r n
t o E a r t h . J u s t such s y s t e m s w i l l b e r e q u i r e d by t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t
t o communicate w i t h t h e o r b i t a l s t a t i o n , t o approach i t , f o r maneuver-
i n g i n o r b i t and f o r docking w i t h t h e s t a t i o n , and t h e n r e t u r n o f t h e
cosmonauts t o E a r t h .

55
 A t t h e same time t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t may be c o n s i d e r e d as a
model of a n o r b i t a l s t a t i o n of t h e f u t u r e . The "Soyuz" i s t h e f i r s t
s p a c e c r a f t having two l i v i n g compartments i n i t : t h e crew compart-
ment and t h e o r b i t a l compartment. T h i s c o n s i d e r a b l y f a c i l i t a t e s t h e
work of t h e cosmonauts and expands t h e i r a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l t h e space-
c r a f t and t o c a r r y o u t s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . The o r b i t a l com-
partment of t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t i s t h e p r o t o t y p e o f t h e s c i e n t i f i c
l a b o r a t o r i e s and l i v i n g q u a r t e r s of o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s . The work o f
t h e cosmonauts i n t h i s compartment d u r i n g f l i g h t s w i l l a i d i n d e t e r -
mining t h e s p e c i f i c s of s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h on board t h e s t a t i o n and
i n d e v e l o p i n g r a t i o n a l methods and p r o c e d u r e s f o r c o n d u c t i n g i n v e s -
t i g a t i o n s under such c o n d i t i o n s .

The j o i n t f l i g h t of t h e 1'Soyuz-4" and "Soyuz-5" s p a c e c r a f t was

t h e n e x t s t a g e i n c r e a t i o n of l o n g - l i v e d o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s and i s a
development of a whole complex of o p e r a t i o n s i n c r e a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n
of them. Approach and docking of s p a c e c r a f t i s a p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n
of t h e problem of o r b i t a l s t a t i o n assembly from s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n s ,
launched s e q u e n t i a l l y i n t o o r b i t , a s w e l l as s o l u t i o n of t h e problem
o f docking t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t t o t h e s t a t i o n . The walks o f cosmonauts
i n open space and t h e experiments c a r r i e d out by them c o n s t i t u t e s t h e
development o f autonomous l i f e s u p p o r t systems, d e s i g n of s p a c e s u i t s and
checking of t h e p s y c h o p h y s i o l o g i c a l c a p a c i t i e s and e f f i c i e n c y of
cosmonauts. A l l t h i s i s n e c e s s a r y f o r e n s u r i n g f u t u r e work of cosmo-
n a u t s i n open space on assembly o f s t a t i o n s and c o n d u c t i n g o f s c i e n -
t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . F i n a l l y , t r a n s f e r from one s p a c e c r a f t t o a n o t h e r
c o n s t i t u t e s r o t a t i o n o f crews i n t h e s t a t i o n and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n of t h e
n e c e s s a r y c a r g o s , as w e l l as o p e r a t i o n s i n r e s c u e of cosmonauts d u r i n g
c e r t a i n p o s s i b l e emergency s i t u a t i o n s .

L e t u s now c o n s i d e r i n more d e t a i l how t h e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t a l

o r b i t a l s t a t i o n was c r e a t e d and o p e r a t e d .

Dockinp. of Two S p a c e c r.a.f t

A t 1 O : O O h o u r s Moscow t i m e on 1 5 J a n u a r y t h e "Soyuz-4"spacecraft,
p i l o t e d by V l a d i m i r Aleksandrovich S h a t a l o v , passed over t h e Baykonur
Cosmodrome.
56
57
 A t t h i s moment t h e l a u n c h of t h e "Soyuz-5" s p a c e c r a f t was
underway. I t s c a b i n c o n t a i n e d t h r e e S o v i e t pilot-cosmonauts:
s p a c e c r a f t commander L t . C o l . B o r i s V a l e n t i n o v i c h Volynov and t h e
crew members - f l i g h t e n g i n e e r , c a n d i d a t e of t e c h n i c a l s c i e n c e s
A l e k s e y S t a n i s l a v o v i c h Yeliseyev and e n g i n e e r - i n v e s t i g a t o r L t . Col.
Yevgeniy V a s i l ' y e v i c h Khrunov.

V. A. S h a t a l o v o b s e r v e s t h e o r b i t i n j e c t i o n of t h e new s p a c e c r a f t
t h r o u g h t h e p o r t h o l e s of h i s own c r a f t . Animated c o n v e r s a t i o n s a r e
t a k i n g p l a c e between t h e s p a c e c r a f t and E a r t h . The j o i n t f l i g h t of
t h e two s p a c e c r a f t b e g i n s . The commanders of t h e "Soyuz-4" and
"Soyuz-5" s p a c e c r a f t r e p o r t t h a t t h e y have begun t h e program of j o i n t
experiments.

The f l i g h t of t h e "Soyuz-4'' and "Soyuz-5" s p a c e c r a f t i s r e l i a b l y

s u p p o r t e d by t h e ground command-monitoring complex, t h e network o f
m o n i t o r i n g s t a t i o n s which a r e l o c a t e d throughout t h e S o v i e t Union
from i t s w e s t e r n b o u n d a r i e s t o t h e P a c i f i c Ocean. These s t a t i o n s ,
equipped w i t h f a c i l i t i e s f o r t r a j e c t o r y and t e l e m e t r y measurements,
t e l e v i s i o n and communications, command r a d i o s t a t i o n s and o t h e r means
of c o n t r o l , o b s e r v a t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g , c a r r y o u t c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n s
on r e c e p t i o n and p r o c e s s i n g o f data coming from t h e s p a c e c r a f t and
m a i n t a i n s t a b l e r a d i o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e crews.

The s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h v e s s e l s of t h e USSR Academy of S c i e n c e s ,

__
t h e "Morzhovets" and t h e "NevelT1, which a r e l o c a t e d n e a r t h e c o a s t
o f A f r i c a i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e Gulf of Guinea, and t h e "Kosmonaut
V l a d i m i r Komarov," l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n p a r t of t h e A t l a n t i c
Ocean, a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e o p e r a t i o n s of t h e command-monitoring
complex.

The morning of 1 6 J a n u a r y 1969 dawned. The crews of b o t h space-

c r a f t checked a l l t h e onboard systems. P e r m i s s i o n f o r docking was
g i v e n from t h e ground. The s p a c e c r a f t f i r s t maneuvered f o r a u t o m a t i c
approach. The i n s c r i p t i o n s " P r e p a r e f o r approach" and "Approach
regime" l i g h t up on t h e cosmonauts' c o n s o l e . T h i s means t h a t t h e on-
board radar system f o r s e a r c h and g u i d a n c e , which p r o v i d e s approach
of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , has been switched on.
58
 During t h i s l e g of t h e f l i g h t , approach i s a u t o m a t i c from a d i s -
t a n c e o f s e v e r a l hundred k i l o m e t e r s and t h e r o l e o f t h e crews i s
reduced t o o b s e r v a t i o n and m o n i t o r i n g of t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e onboard
systems. The "Soyuz-4" s p a c e c r a f t was equipped w i t h a n a c t i v e docking
system and t h e "Soyuz-5" - w i t h a passive system.

The radar system of t h e "Soyuz-5" spacecraft continuously e m i t s

s i g n a l s , which are r e c e i v e d by t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g systems o f t h e
"Soyuz-4" s p a c e c r a f t . I n t h i s c a s e t h e "Soyuz-4'' does a l l t h e maneu-
v e r i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r approach, w h i l e t h e o t h e r s p a c e c r a f t " t r a c k s " i t
and o r i e n t s i t s e l f so t h a t t h e i r docking u n i t s are p r e c i s e l y a l i g n e d
w i t h each o t h e r .

During t h i s p e r i o d t h e s i g n a l s incoming t o t h e radar system of

t h e "Soyuz-4" s p a c e c r a f t are fed i n t o t h e onboard computing u n i t s of
t h e a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l system, which i s s u e commands t o f i r e t h e e n g i n e s , -
/59
t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e o b j e c t i v e laws of o r b i t a l f l i g h t i n o r d e r t o
f u l f i l l t h e a s s i g n e d m i s s i o n w i t h minimum f u e l consumption.

Even a s l i g h t v e l o c i t y increment i n a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e o r b i t
t o approach a n o t h e r s p a c e c r a f t i n e v i t a b l y leads t o a n i n c r e a s e i n
o r b i t a l a l t i t u d e . An impulse of t h e t h r u s t e r s i n a l a t e r a l d i r e c t i o n
i n t u r n a l t e r s t h e o r b i t a l i n c l i n a t i o n . Only a c c u r a t e o p e r a t i o n of
a l l a u t o m a t i c and a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l systems c a n e n s u r e e f f e c t i v e approach
of t h e s p a c e c r a f t .

Beginning a t a d i s t a n c e of 1 0 0 meters, V l a d i m i r S h a t a l o v takes

o v e r c o n t r o l o f motion of t h e "Soyuz-4" s p a c e c r a f t . The cosmonaut
c o n t r o l s t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e a p p r o p r i a t e j e t t h r u s t e r s . I n t h i s
c a s e , w i t h t h e a i d of t h e l e f t c o n t r o l knob, he r e g u l a t e s t h e l i n e a r
speed of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , i . e . , he d e c e l e r a t e s o r a c c e l e r a t e s t h e
s p a c e c r a f t o r d e c r e a s e s l a t e r a l speed.

O p e r a t i n g t h e r i g h t - h a n d c o n t r o l knob, t h e cosmonaut c a r r i e s o u t
t h e p r o p e r o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n s p a c e , b y r o t a t i n g i t
about i t s c e n t e r of mass. The s p a c e c r a f t have now approached w i t h i n

59
 -cI,
k
cd
k
0

60
40 meters and have e q u a l i z e d t h e i r speeds. It i s t h e n t h a t t h e
f o l l o w i n g i s r e p o r t e d : "Everything i s normal. D i s t a n c e 4 0 meters.
Speed approximately z e r o . We have begun approach.!?

Tens o f m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e observe t h i s remarkable experiment

on t h e s c r e e n s of t h e i r t e l e v i s i o n s e t s .

L i k e two g i g a n t i c f a i r y t a l e b i r d s , g l i s t e n i n g i n t h e r a y s of
t h e Sun, t h e "Soyuz-4" ( c a l l s i g n trAmur") and "Soyuz-5" ( c a l l s i g n
!fBaykal'l) s p a c e c r a f t b e g i n t h e i r approach. Ground c o n t r o l ( c a l l s i g n
"Zarya") c l o s e l y o b s e r v e s t h e docking p r o c e s s , which i s t a k i n g p l a c e
over t h e t e r r i t o r y o f t h e S o v i e t Union.

.. . T h i s i s "Amur. Do you p e r m i t docking?

"Zarya": Docking i s p e r m i t t e d . Keep your r e p o r t s b r i e f i f

possible.

"Amur": "Baykal" i s on t h e s c r e e n . Speed 0.25 meter per

second. We are p r o c e e d i n g . I see t h e wings c l e a r l y .

''Zarya": A l l s y s t e m s a r e go.

"Amur": D i s t a n c e 20, speed 0.25.

''Baykal'' : A-oKay , A-okay . We are a w a i t i n g c o n t a c t .

"Amur": I a m approaching. Everything i s normal. Contact

lock-on. Docking!

The docking probe t o u c h e s t h e i n n e r wall of t h e docking cone,

s l i d e s a l o n g i t and e n t e r s d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e c r a d l e . The i n s c r i p -
t i o n s "Mechanical lock-on" and "Contact" l i g h t up. The s p a c e c r a f t
come i n t o c o n t a c t i n t h e i r alignment p l a n e s . The clamps are engaged
and t h e e l e c t r i c p l u g and s o c k e t u n i t s a r e j o i n e d .

61
 llAmurll: We a r e r o t a t i n g . Alignment of t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s
proceeding.

"Zarya": Everything i s f i n e . The s p a c e c r a f t i s now s t a b i l i z i n g .

Docking proceeded e x c e l l e n t l y . The s p a c e c r a f t have been a l i g n e d .

T i g h t e n i n g c o n t i n u e s . There i s no r e l a t i v e motion between t h e space- /60
c r a f t . . . T h e i n s c r i p t i o n "Docking completed" l i g h t s up.

Thus, t h e w o r l d ' s f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t a l s p a c e s t a t i o n , s e r v i c e d b y
a four-man crew, was c r e a t e d i n a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e o r b i t .

The s t a t i o n was c r e a t e d by docking of llSoyuzll s p a c e c r a f t ,

dacking
- providing
. mechanical, power and a data i n t e g r i t y o f t h e e n t i r e
complex. After r i g i d mechanical docking t h e space s t a t i o n became a
s i n g l e u n i t w i t h a common f l i g h t c o n t r o l system.

The c o n t r o l p u l s e s of t h e c o r r e c t i o n t h r u s t e r s and a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l
j e t s were now t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e e n t i r e s t a t i o n and i t o b e d i e n t l y
changed i t s p o s i t i o n i n space.

The common power s y s t e m of t h e s t a t i o n was achieved by j o i n i n g

of t h e e l e c t r i c p l u g and s o c k e t u n i t s , which ensured c o n n e c t i o n of
t h e e l e c t r i c a l c i r c u i t s of t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n t o t h e common e l e c t r i c a l
network of t h e space s t a t i o n . T h i s provided i m p o r t a n t c a p a b i l i t i e s
f o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n and r e d i s t r i b u t i o n of e l e c t r i c power a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of experiments. Moreover, c o n n e c t i o n of t h e e l e c -
t r i c a l c i r c u i t s p e r m i t s t h e cosmonaut t o c o n t r o l t h e s t a t i o n from
any of t h e crew compartments.

Connection of t h e t e l e p h o n e c i r c u i t s provided t h e space s t a t i o n

w i t h a complete i n f o r m a t i o n network. The cosmonauts were now a b l e
t o m a i n t a i n c o n t i n u o u s two-way communications, and t o exchange i n f o r -
mation from any of t h e f o u r compartments of t h e s t a t i o n .

62
 A space complex, . c o n s i s t i n g of
f o u r s e p a r a t e l i v i n g Compartments
w i t h a n o v e r a l l volume o f 1 8 c u b i c
m e t e r s , was i n space f o r t h e f i r s t
t i m e . It i s n a t u r a l t h a t t h e f r e e
space i n t h e compartments had a
f a v o r a b l e e f f e c t on t h e e f f i c i e n c y
and well-being of t h e cosmonauts.

Having t h e two combined engine /61

O r b i t i n j e c t i o n and docking of
"Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t .
systems of t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t a t
its d i s p o s a l , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l space
s t a t i o n was f u l l y c a p a b l e of maneu-
v e r i n g , o r b i t c o r r e c t i o n and a t t i t u d e
control.

Space Walk o f t h e Cosmonauts

One of t h e main experiments c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g t h e f u n c t i o n i n g

of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l space s t a t i o n was t h e w a l k of t h e cosmonauts i n
open space and t r a n s f e r from one o r b i t a l compartment of t h e s t a t i o n
t o a n o t h e r . N e w s p a c e s u i t s w i t h autonomous l i f e s u p p o r t systems were
t e s t e d d u r i n g t h i s complex experiment, t h e a i r l o c k system was checked,
assembly o p e r a t i o n s and s c i e n t i f i c o b s e r v a t i o n s and s t i l l and movie
photography were c a r r i e d o u t , and t h e p s y c h o p h y s i o l o g i c a l c a p a b i l i t i e s
and e f f i c i e n c y of cosmonauts i n open space were s t u d i e d .

The a i r l o c k system on t h e "SoyuzV' s p a c e c r a f t i s c o n s i d e r a b l y

more p e r f e c t t h a n t h a t on t h e "Voskhod" s p a c e c r a f t , which was equipped
w i t h a s p e c i a l a i r l o c k from which Aleksey Leonov made t h e f i r s t space
walk. The a i r l o c k on t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t f u l f i l l s t h e f u n c t i o n of
a n o r b i t a l compartment. T h i s same system p r o v i d e s r e t u r n of t h e
cosmonauts from space back t o t h e s t a t i o n . The cosmonauts r e t u r n t o
t h e o r b i t a l compartment through t h e p r e v i o u s l y opened o u t e r h a t c h .
A f t e r t h e o u t e r h a t c h has been h e r m e t i c a l l y sealed, t h e o r b i t a l com-
partment i s f i l l e d w i t h a gaseous m i x t u r e f o r b r e a t h i n g and t h e cosmo-
n a u t s remove t h e i r s p a c e s u i t s .

63
 T h i s t y p e of a i r l o c k system proved i t s e l f completely: it i s
d i s t i n g u i s h e d by s i m p l i c i t y , economy and h i g h d e g r e e of r e l i a b i l i t y .

There are now t h r e e i n t h e o r b i t a l compartment. Volynov h e l p s

Khrunov and Y e l i s e y e v i n t o t h e i r space armor - new s p a c e s u i t s d e s i g n e d
f o r working i n open s p a c e . The p e o p l e on E a r t h , who are o b s e r v i n g
them w i t h t h e a i d of t e l e v i s i o n , t h i n k t h a t t h e cosmonauts accomplish
t h i s work c o m p a r a t i v e l y e a s i l y . T h i s i s t h e r e s u l t of m e t i c u l o u s
p r e p a r a t i o n and m u l t i p l e t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s on E a r t h . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
work r e q u i r i n g c l o s e a t t e n t i o n and s p e c i a l c a r e a l s o succeeds.

Having a s c e r t a i n e d t h a t t h e s y s t e m s p r o v i d i n g e x i t from t h e
s p a c e c r a f t a r e i n working o r d e r , t h e cosmonauts r e p o r t t o t h e comman-
d e r t h a t t h e y a r e r e a d y . Volynov t r a n s f e r s t o t h e crew compartment.
The h a t c h c o n n e c t i n g t h e crew and o r b i t a l compartments i s c l o s e d and
t h e o r b i t a l compartment i s d e p r e s s u r i z e d .

The i n t e r n a l p r e s s u r e o f t h e cosmonauts' s p a c e s u i t s i s m a i n t a i n e d
a t a s p e c i f i c l e v e l s o t h a t , on t h e one hand, i t d o e s n o t t h r e a t e n
t h e h e a l t h of t h e cosmonauts, and on t h e o t h e r -
i t does n o t con-
s t r i c t t h e i r movements.

...The e x i t h a t c h opens. The cosmonauts l e a v e t h e 11Soyuz-5"

s p a c e c r a f t one a f t e r t h e o t h e r . Autonomous backpack r e g e n e r a t i v e
systems m a i n t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y chemical composition of t h e gaseous
m i x t u r e f o r b r e a t h i n g , humidity and p r o v i d e t h e a p p r o p r i a t e heat /62
r e g u l a t i o n i n t h e s p a c e s u i t s d u r i n g t h e i r s t a y i n open s p a c e .

Heat r e g u l a t i o n i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t , s i n c e a man i n space expends

c o n s i d e r a b l y g r e a t e r e f f o r t s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y energy, f o r any
movement t h a n he d o e s under o r d i n a r y c o n d i t i o n s . A l l t h i s i s r e l a t e d
t o l i b e r a t i o n of a l a r g e amount o f heat and may lead t o o v e r h e a t i n g
o f t h e body. The easiest method of locomotion i s "walking" on t h e
hands, f o r which s p e c i a l h a n d r a i l s were i n s t a l l e d between t h e
spacecraft

64
 The m u l t i l a y e r e d e l a s t i c membrane of t h e s p a c e s u i t of a r a t h e r
s t r o n g material r e l i a b l y p r o t e c t s t h e cosmonauts from u n f a v o r a b l e
f a c t o r s . They wear p r e s s u r e helmets w i t h s p e c i a l g l a s s f o r obser-
v a t i o n s , above which a movable v i s o r i s mounted, which a c t s as a s o l a r
light filter. A r t i c u l a t e d c o n n e c t i o n of t h e s p a c e s u i t elements pro-
v i d e s adequate freedom of movement of t h e cosmonauts.

A modern s p a c e s u i t i s n o t simply a s p e c i a l s u i t , b u t a complex

u n i t , designed t o p r o v i d e l i f e support and e f f i c i e n c y of man i n open
space.

Only a f e w c e n t i m e t e r s from t h e body s u r f a c e o f t h e cosmonaut

beyond t h e m u l t i l a y e r e d membrane o f t h e s p a c e s u i t are t h e vacuum and
c o l d of s p a c e , t h e s c o r c h i n g r a y s of t h e Sun and m e t e o r i t i c d u s t
p a r t i c l e s which t r a v e l a t enormous v e l o c i t y . The e n t i r e system pro-
t e c t i n g t h e cosmonaut a g a i n s t t h e s e l e t h a l f a c t o r s of space i s com-
p l e t e l y autonomous. The cosmonaut i s l i n k e d t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t o n l y
b y a t h i n l i f e l i n e which c o n t a i n s t h e conductors f o r t e l e p h o n e com-
munication and f o r t h e system f o r m o n i t o r i n g t h e cosmonaut's h e a l t h .
Work o f t h e cosmonauts i n open space, which continued f o r more t h a n
a n hour, confirmed t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s and d e s i g n
s o l u t i o n s employed i n development of t h e s p a c e s u i t . The cosmonauts
gave h i g h marks t o t h e s p a c e s u i t s and autonomous l i f e s u p p o r t s y s t e m s :
t h e s p a c e s u i t s d i d n o t r e s t r i c t t h e i r movements, v e n t i l a t i o n i n them
was good, t h e r e was no o v e r h e a t i n g of t h e cosmonauts' b o d i e s and t h e
windows o f t h e p r e s s u r e helmets d i d n o t f o g up.

During t h e i r walk i n space t h e cosmonauts i n v e s t i g a t e d v a r i o u s

probyems r e l a t e d t o p u r p o s e f u l a c t i v i t y of man i n space.

While o u t s i d e t h e s p a c e c r a f t , t h e cosmonauts m a i n t a i n e d c o n t i n u o u s
communication w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f t commander through t h e l i f e l i n e .
The s p a c e c r a f t commanders observed t h e movement and work of t h e two
cosmonauts w i t h t h e a i d of t e l e v i s i o n cameras mounted on t h e s p a c e c r a f t
hull.
 A f t e r emerging i n t o open s p a c e , t h e cosmonauts c a r r i e d o u t
e x t e r n a l i n s p e c t i o n of t h e s t a t i o n h u l l , t h e docking u n i t and s o l a r
b a t t e r i e s and observed o p e r a t i o n of t h e a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l j e t s .
Removal and i n s t a l l a t i o n of t h e bar from t h e movie camera, i n s t a l l a -
t i o n and stowing t h e h a n d r a i l s f o r emerging from t h e o r b i t a l compart-
ment and e n t r y i n t o i t , i n s t a l l a t i o n and stowing of t h e t e l e v i s i o n -
163
t u b e s , s i m u l a t i o n of c e r t a i n r e p a i r o p e r a t i o n s on assembly of o r b i t a l
s t a t i o n s - t h i s i s a f a r from complete l i s t of t h e o p e r a t i o n s which
t h e cosmonauts c a r r i e d o u t .

W e i g h t l e s s n e s s c o n s i d e r a b l y c o m p l i c a t e s f i x i n g of t h e body i n
a s p e c i f i c p o s i t i o n i n s p a c e , which i s e s p e c i a l l y m a n i f e s t e d when
performing o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g h i g h p r e c i s i o n ( f o r example, a s t r o -
nomical o b s e r v a t i o n s ) .

Y e . V. Khrunov, having completed t h e planned work c y c l e , approaches

t h e open h a t c h of t h e o r b i t a l compartment of t h e "Soyuz-4" spacecraft.
A . S. Y e l i s e y e v f o l l o w s h i m i n t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t .

V. A. S h a t a l o v meets t h e cosmonauts i n t h e o r b i t a l compartment

and h e l p s them t o remove t h e i r s p a c e s u i t s . There joyous e x c i t e m e n t ,
exchange of i m p r e s s i o n s , l e t t e r s and newspapers which Xhrunov has
brought from E a r t h t h r o u g h space f o r S h a t a l o v .

There i s no doubt t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h e p u r p o s e f u l a c t i v i t y
of t h e cosmonauts, a c q u i r e d d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n of t h e s t a t i o n , y i e l d e d
much new data f o r s t u d y of a number of p s y c h o l o g i c a l and p h y s i o l o g i c a l
problems r e l a t e d t o f u n c t i o n i n g o f man i n open s p a c e . Thus, f o r
example, it becomes c l e a r t h a t t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r i n t h e
d i r e c t e n c o u n t e r of man and open space ( s o - c a l l e d "agoraphobia) has
been overcome completely. The complex o f s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s ,
development of e x i t from a model of t h e s p a c e c r a f t under c o n d i t i o n s
of w e i g h t l e s s n e s s , c r e a t e d b r i e f l y d u r i n g s p e c i a l f l i g h t s o f f l y i n g
l a b o r a t o r i e s and p a r a c h u t e jumps - a l l t h i s p r e p a r e s t h e cosmonaut
f o r walking i n space t o such a n e x t e n t t h a t none of t h e a n t i c i p a t e d
p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s was observed. Thus, t h e s e n s a t i o n s which

66
 Yevgeniy Khrunov e x p e r i e n c e d upon
emerging i n t o space were similar t o
those experienced during parachute
jumps.

The s t a t i o n c o n t i n u e s i t s
f l i g h t . V l a d i m i r Shatalov c a r r i e s
o u t experiments on c o n t r o l of t h e
s t a t i o n . It i s e a s y t o c o n t r o l t h e
s t a t i o n and i t r e s p o n d s t o t h e
s l i g h t e s t movement of t h e c o n t r o l
knob.

Shatalov o r i e n t s the s t a t i o n
Orbital correction, r e t o r f i r i n g
i n a s p e c i f i c p o s i t i o n . Undocking
and d e s c e n t of t h e s p a c e c r a f t . may b e g i n . The s p a c e c r a f t , a s i f
u n w i l l i n g , slowly move away from
each o t h e r . B o r i s Volynov remains a l o n e i n t h e 1'Soyuz-5" s p a c e c r a f t .

After undocking t h e "Soyuz-4" and "Soyuz-5" s p a c e c r a f t c o n t i n u e

t h e i r group f l i g h t . The crews o f b o t h s p a c e c r a f t s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r y
o u t t h e i r work program. The new crew members of t h e "Soyuz-4" space-
c r a f t , cosmonauts Yevgeniy Khrunov and Aleksey Yeliseyev have become
familiar w i t h t h e i r work p o s i t i o n s , check t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e space-
c r a f t systems and c a r r y o u t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s and experiments e n v i s -
ioned by t h e f l i g h t program. Thus ended t h i s h i s t o r i c a l day of
1 6 January 1969.

S c i e n t i f i c I n v e s t i g a t i o n s and Experiments

During t h e f l i g h t of t h e "Soyuz-4" and "Soyuz-5" s p a c e c r a f t ,

as w e l l as d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s p a c e s t a t i o n , t h e
cosmonauts c a r r i e d o u t a broad complex o f d i f f e r e n t s c i e n t i f i c
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h i s experiment i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s -
t i g a t i o n s i n s p a c e b y a c o l l e c t i v e of i n v e s t i g a t o r s i s e x t r e m e l y
e f f e c t i v e and p e r m i t s complex experiments of v a r i e d n a t u r e . The

67
 r i
a,
‘d
0
E
W

68
cosmonauts carried out observations of the Earth and atmosphere,
investigated the effect of space factors on the spacecraft system
and conducted celestial navigation investigations, physical experi-
ments and medical and biological investigations.

Meteorological observations may be cited as an example of the

multifaceted investigations of Earth carried out by the cosmonauts.
They observed the cloud cover of the Earth, typhoons and cyclones.
Periodic or continuous observation of the meteorological situation
permits analysis of the dynamics of different processes, for example,
the birth of a cyclone, the speed and direction of motion of a hurri-
cane, etc. These investigations aid forecasting of the various mete-
orological phenomena and will control them in the future. Observations
of the snow and ice cover of the Earth were also carried out. These
observations are useful for predicting the characteristics of snowmelts
and floods, as well as for study of ice drift, determination of the
ice cover and freeing water basins of ice. Observations were carried
out from space to study the Earth's geological structure. The cosmo- /66
nauts observed and photographed the various types and shapes of relief,
which provides valuable information for subsequent compiling of topo-
graphical maps, in particular, of mountain regions which are difficult
to reach.

Observations of the daytime and twilight horizons of our planet,

as well as investigations of the Earth's brightness at different angles
of inclination of the Sun are of great interest. The richness of
color tones of "space sunsets" is explained by the non-uniformity of
the properties of the Earth's atmosphere and by the degree of scat-
tering and absorption of solar radiation by the atmosphere. Aerosol
layers - accumulations of solid particles suspended in the atmosphere,
the presence of which explains the brightness layers discovered by the
cosmonauts on the Earth's "morning" and "evening" horizons - play an
important role in these processes. These observations are especially
important not only in study of the atmosphere, but also for developing
the accuracy of space navigation, when the edge of the Earth is
selected as one of the reference points.
 The cosmonauts conducted celestial navigation investigations,
observations of the astral sky during both day and night and photo-
graphed the night sky in a direction opposite the Sun. Experiments
were carried out on study of the initial stages of the development of
comet tails, observation of luminescent particles and on investigation
of the Earth's magnetic field.

Primary cosmic rays and their multicharge component were also

investigated and the relative distribution of helium and tritium
isotopes in cosmic rays was studied. The effect of micrometeorites
on the structure and system of the spacecraft was investigated and
the intensity of penetrating radiation was measured.

A complex of medical and biological investigation comprised a

considerable part of the overall flight program of the "Soyuz-4" and
"Soyuz-5" spacecraft. It was known that man in space finds himself
in a completely unusual environment. In connection with this the
entire functioning of the human organism is readjusted: the energy,
water-salt and hormone metabolism are altered and the functioning of
the cardiovascular, respiratory and digestive systems, and central
nervous system change.

Although these changes are not a threat during short space

flights, careful study of them permits development of procedures to
counteract the unfavorable factors of space during future prolonged
flights. Careful and preliminary special preparation of the cosmo-
nauts is of special importance in this regard. Thus, for example, a
high level of physical training broadens the compensatory capacities
of the organism under mental and physical stress, as well as the
effects of the dynamic and static factors of space flight.

To study the dynamics of changes which take place in the cosmo- -

167
naut's body during activity in space, data about the state of the
cosmonaut's organism is processed operationally and transmitted to
flight control stations b y a medical monitoring system.
 Investigations on selection of the optimum food ration for
cosmonauts, corresponding to the physical loads on the organism, are
also of great interest. The suggested space menu completely satis-
fied the cosmonauts. What was the ration of a cosmonaut? This is
indicated by the labels on the packages: "Liver pate," "Roast beef ,"
"Chocolate , I ' "Pastry," "Cheese. All this was washed down by fruit
juice from special tubes. It is delicious and nourishing. The pro-
visions are vitamin-supplemented. The daily food intake of a cosmo-
naut is 2400 - 2700 kilocalories, and special emphasis was given to
increased consumption of high-quality proteins and carbohydrates.

Space flights provide interesting data on human biological rhythm.

Selection of the proper sleep and wakefulness pattern, frequency of
eating, etc., is of great importance in providing high efficiency of
the cosmonauts. Preliminary investigations already show that, despite
the high specifics of life in space, it is desirable to maintain
rhythms similar to those on Earth.

A great deal of work was carried out to provide radiation safety

during training for the flights of the l'Soyuz" spacecraft and during
the flights themselves. Forecasting of solar activity for the sche-
duled time of the flight was carried out. Measures were taken both
before and during the flight for antiradiation protection.

The entire complex of medical and biological investigations is

directed toward study of the problems of adaptation of man to space
conditions. In this regard the flights of man into space have not
only scientific and applied, but philosophical importance as well, if
we consider the living organism in relation to its environment, and
this environment is being considerably expanded and complicated by
man's emergence into space.

A large amount of data, which was processed by tens of scientific

collectives, was derived during preparation and conducting of inves-
tigations on creation of an experimental space station. These inves-
tigations provide the most valuable material for improvement of space
technology and make an important contribution to geophysics, geology,
physics of the atmosphere, meteorology, astronomy and other sciences.

6. WHEN THERE ARE THREE SPACECRAFT IN ORBIT -

/68

Maneuvering of Spacecraft

On 11 October 1969, the "Soyuz-6" spacecraft, piloted by Lt. Col.

Georgiy Stepanovich Shonin and Flight Engineer Valeriy Nikolayevich
Kubasov, was injected into orbit. A day later the "Soyuz-7" space-
craft was launched with three cosmonauts on board: Anatoliy Vasi1'-
yevich Filipchenko, Vladislav Nikolayevich Volkov and Viktor Vasil!-
yevich Gorbatko. On 1 3 October, a third spacecraft, the "Soyuz-8"
was launched with a crew consisting of Vladimir Aleksandrovich
Shatalov and Aleksey Stanislavovich Yeliseyev.

The spacecraft flew as a group for 7 days, during which the

cosmonauts performed an extensive program of scientific and technical
experiments. The history of cosmonautics had never known such excite-
ment in space.

The main tasks confronting the spacecraft crews may be formulated

as follows: joint maneuvering using manual control, development of
methods of autonomous navigation, and observation and photography of
the Earth's geological and geographical objects. Certain improved
spacecraft systems were tested during the flight and complex medical
and biological investigations and meteorological observations were
carried out.

The "Soyuz" spacecraft were launched from the Baykonur Cosmodrome, /70
one of the largest in the Soviet Union. The rate of the launches by
the powerful launch rockets at one-day intervals predetermined inten-
sive operations of all services of the launch complex. Methods of
preparing the most complex systems of launch rockets and spacecraft
for flight within such compressed time periods were tested for the
first time in history. This was a type of rehearsal for launches of
future series of transport spacecraft for the assembly of large orbital
space stations.
72
 Launch rocket with "Soyuz" spacecraft.

When there were three spacecraft in orbit, the command-monitoring

complex of the Soviet Union was faced with an unprecedented load.
The added work of the Earth-space system, demonstrated throughout the
entire flight, is no less important for the development of space
navigation.

What is the complexity of simultaneous control of three manned

spacecraft? During the flight, the "Soyuz" spacecraft were sometimes
located at a considerable distance from each other and sometimes
approached to within several hundred meters. In the first case the
tracking station, having completed radio contact with one' spacecraft,
had to rotate its antennas within the shortest possible time in the
direction of another spacecraft, located within the zone of radio
visibility, and make adjustments for working with it.

When the spacecraft were located within several kilometers of

each other, they entered the "field of vision'' of the radio beam
simultaneously. Therefore, the communication session was literally

73
scheduled i n seconds. During t h e b r i e f r a d i o communication s e s s i o n ,
i t was n e c e s s a r y t o r e c e i v e t e l e m e t r y data, t o t r a n s m i t commands t o
t h e s p a c e c r a f t , and t o make a t e l e v i s i o n r e p o r t . A t t h e same t i m e ,
t h e s p a c e c r a f t m a i n t a i n e d i n t e n s i v e r a d i o communications o u t s i d e t h e
zone of r a d i o v i s i b i l i t y from t h e S o v i e t Union.

S e v e r a l r a d i o bands were u t i l i z e d f o r communications. S h o r t

waves were employed f o r l o n g d i s t a n c e s . Continuous communications
were c a r r i e d on w i t h t h e a i d of u l t r a s h o r t waves w i t h i n t h e r a n g e of
d i r e c t r a d i o v i s i b i l i t y . T h e r e f o r e , when t h e s p a c e c r a f t p a s s e d o v e r
t h e t e r r i t o r y of t h e S o v i e t Union, t h e ground s t a t i o n s t r a n s f e r r e d
each s p a c e c r a f t t o e a c h o t h e r , l i k e a r e l a y b a t o n , e n s u r i n g c o n t i n u o u s
communications w i t h i t .

The assembly of l a r g e o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s i s a problem of t h e n e a r

f u t u r e . T h i s r e q u i r e s e x t e n s i v e maneuvering o f s p a c e c r a f t . Some of
them w i l l d e l i v e r t h e s t r u c t u r e s f o r f u t u r e s t a t i o n s t o t h e d e s i g n a t e d
o r b i t , some w i l l d e l i v e r f u e l and p r o v i s i o n s , and o t h e r s w i l l d e l i v e r
t h e crews of t h e o r b i t a l space systems. T h i s i s why s o much a t t e n t i o n
was devoted t o t h e j o i n t maneuvering of t h e t h r e e manned "Soyuz"
s p a c e c r a f t . The main problem s o l v e d by t h e t h r e e crews c o n s i s t e d
of c o o r d i n a t e d approach of t h e s p a c e c r a f t from a d i s t a n c e of s e v e r a l -
/7l
hundred o r even thousand k i l o m e t e r s t o a d i s t a n c e of s e v e r a l hundred
meters.

During t h e maneuvering i n o r b i t , methods were t e s t e d f o r i n t e r -

a c t i o n w i t h t h e ground complex, whose s t a t i o n s are d i s t r i b u t e d through-
o u t t h e S o v i e t Union, as w e l l as w i t h t h e r e s e a r c h v e s s e l s of t h e
Academy o f S c i e n c e s , which were l o c a t e d a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s a t sea.
Data from t r a j e c t o r y measurements were f e d c o n t i n u o u s l y from t h e
t r a c k i n g s t a t i o n s t o t h e computer c o o r d i n a t i o n c e n t e r , where t h e y
were p r o c e s s e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y on e l e c t r o n i c computers. The space
s i t u a t i o n was c a r e f u l l y a n a l y z e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e mutual p o s i t i o n of
t h e s p a c e c r a f t . The i n i t i a l p a r a m e t e r s r e c e i v e d f o r approach maneu-
v e r s were t r a n s m i t t e d from t h e ground t o t h e s p a c e c r a f t and r e c o r d e d
i n t h e onboard memory.

74
 The powerful engines of the
spacecraft were fired automatically
at the calculated time. After
operating for the prescribed period,
they cut off automatically. As a
result, the spacecraft transferred
to another orbit, ensuring its
approach to the other spacecraft.

Successful maneuvering permitted

the "Soyuz-6 , I 1 "Soyuz-7" and ffSoyuz-
8" spacecraft to approach each other
repeatedly to such close distances
that the cosmonauts were able to
carry out necessary measurements
and observations of the maneuvering
of their comrades.

Launch rocket with "Soyuz" space-

craft on launch pad.

Scientific and Technical Experiments and Observations

While carrying out extensive maneuvering during group flight, -

172
the cosmonauts simultaneously completed an extensive program of
experiments of importance to the national economy and medical and
biological experiments.

They made meteorological observations over practically the

entire portion of the globe, encompassed by the spacecraft trajectories.
The cosmonauts photographed cloud cover distribution, observed the
birth of cyclones and tracked their further development and direction
of travel. These data were systematically computed in the Hydro-
meteorological Center of the Soviet Union.

75
 Observations and photography of the Earth's surface in different
regions of the spectrum permitted not only the prediction of threaten-
ing natural phenomena - hurricanes, floods and dust storms. These
investigations are also of great importance for solving the varied
problems of geology, goebotany, hydrology and other Earth sciences.

One of the most promising trends in the analysis of space

photographs is using them to compile geomorphological maps of small
and medium scales, as well as geomorphological ranging. Practically
all types and many forms of relief, including underwater forms, can
be distinguished on such photographs. Therefore, the cosmonauts of
the three spacecraft photographed characteristic sections of the
Earth's surface according to the program of geological and geographi-
cal investigations. In particular, they investigated in detail the
relief of mountain massifs, the coast lines of the Caspian Sea, the
Volga Delta and forests of the USSR. They studied the reflectivity
of forest massifs and desert regions of the planet.

Besides the extensive program of still and movie photography of

the Earth's oceans and cloud cover, the crews made a large number of
navigational measurements.

Procedures were tested for visual celestial orientation by stars

of the fourth and fifth magnitudes, making it possible to calculate
the precise position of the spacecraft on the space trajectories
without the use of ground facilities. After all, in future inter-
planetary trajectories, the larger stars may be obliterated by the
Sun or be located under conditions unfavorable for observation.

The program of developing procedures for autonomous navigation

included observation and photography of the daytime and twilight
horizon, measurement of the intensity of illumination o f the daytime
and shaded surface of the Earth, brightness of stars in different
bands of the visible spectrum, and also evaluation of the visibility
of the Moon and stars on the background of the horizon. The possi-
bilities of manual orientation were calculated by using an optical
sighting device under twilight conditions and in the Earth's shadow.

76
 Welding of Metals in Orbit

On 16 October 1970 the crew o f the "Soyuz-6" spacecraft conducted

a unique experiment on welding metals under space flight conditions.
Prior to the beginning of welding, the spacecraft commander, Shonin,
opened the hatch t o the spacecraft cabin. On the 77th orbit, he
depressurized the orbital compartment, in which was installed a unique
piece o f technological equipment designed to investigate various
methods o f welding metals in a high vacuum and during weightlessness.

Flight Engineer Kubasov regulated the operating modes of the

autonomous experimental device "Vulkan" from the .control console in
the crew cabin. This device, connected to the spacecraft only by a
telemetry cable, consisted of two units. The first contained various
welding devices and the second - power supplies, control instruments,
measuring and conversion systems and automatic aids and communication
facilities. They were in a pressurized compartment filled with
nitrogen.

After a high vacuum had been established in the orbital compart-

ment, the cosmonaut switched on an automaton, adjusted for low-pressure
(plasma) compression arc welding. The device was then switched to
electron beam welding. The third mode of the "Vulkan" was consumable-
electrode arc welding.

Thus, the world's first practical technological process, related

to heating and fusion of metals, was accomplished in orbital flight.
This success was preceded by prolonged ground investigations which
permitted the design of small welding devices for installation in
spacecraft. The results of the experiments permit certain preliminary
practical conclusions.

It was determined that under conditions of weightlessness

considerable changes occur in the microstructure of welds, related to
the absence o f gravity. Welded joints are strengthened somewhat, but
in some cases local porosity of the welds is observed. It turned out
that, during consumable-electrode arc welding under conditions of

77
weightlessness, special measures are required which would ensure
reliable transfer of the metal from the electrode to the bath. A
vacuum complicates ignition of the arc discharge as well. Therefore,
special methods of ignition were developed for welding in space.

It is important that the results of the investigation and

developments, accomplished during preparation for space welding, have
already been applied in the national economy of the country. For
example, techniques of vacuum arc welding have been improved, and a
small-size and highly productive apparatus has been created for
joining metals by an electron beam and compressed arc.

The successful experiment in welding on board the "s0yuz-6~~ /74

spacecraft opens up future prospects for improving techniques in the
assembly of large orbital stations. The energy for welding operations
in orbit may be obtained from such an inexhaustible source as that o f
the Sun.

It is difficult at present to foresee what type of welding will

be most promising. Therefore, it is not excluded that such a pro-
gressive method of bonding materials as diffusion welding may possibly
become widespread. After all, the conditions of space are ideal for
this type of welding.

7. "SOYUZ-9" IN WORKING ORBIT /75

Medical and Biological Investigations During

Prolonged Space Flight

On 1 June 1970, the "Soyuz-9" spacecraft was injected into an

artificial Earth satellite orbit with a crew consisting of spacecraft
commander Col. Andriyan Grigor'yevich Nikolayev and flight engineer
Vitaliy Ivanovich Sevest'yanov. The record space flight in which the
cosmonauts took an active part lasted for 424 hours. After completing
an 18-day program of scientific experiments and observations, the
"Soyuz-9" made a precise landing in the calculated region.

78
 Radio complex o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t f l i g h t c o n t r o l c e n t e r a t n i g h t .

The most i m p o r t a n t p a r t of t h e f l i g h t was t h e e x t e n s i v e m e d i c a l

and b i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s t u d y i n g t h e e f f e c t o f p r o l o n g e d s p a c e
f l i g h t s on t h e human body. Moreover, s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n was d e v o t e d
t o m e a s u r e s on r e t e n t i o n and m a i n t e n a n c e o f a good f u n c t i o n a l s t a t e
of t h e o r g a n i s m and a h i g h l e v e l o f e f f i c i e n c y of t h e cosmonauts.

What d i d t h i s s p a c e f l i g h t , u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n d u r a t i o n , yield that

was new f o r c o s m o n a u t i c s ? How d i d t h e cosmonauts t o l e r a t e t h e s e v e r a l
d a y s o f " c o n f i n e m e n t " and t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f w e i g h t l e s s n e s s d u r i n g
o r b i t a l f l i g h t ? The a n s w e r s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s c o u l d be g i v e n by
s c i e n t i s t s a f t e r c a r e f u l a n a l y s i s of t h e data o b t a i n e d .

It i s n a t u r a l t h a t t h e main a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g s u c h a p r o l o n g e d
f l i g h t was d e v o t e d t o m e d i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s . It was known
from p r e v i o u s s p a c e f l i g h t s t h a t cosmonauts, e v e n d u r i n g l e s s p r o -
longed "excursions" i n t o space, f e e l t h e e f f e c t s of space f a c t o r s t o
a certain extent.

79
 It was established that the spacesuits used by the cosmonauts -
177
during the initial flights not only constrict their movements, but
also cause "numbing" of individual parts of the body. Other compara-
tively insignificant physiological changes also occurred in the human
body. In particular, the calcium balance in the bones was disrupted,
and partial changes in blood composition and dehydration of the body
were noted. During the final stages of the flights, torpidness of
movements and decreased responses began, and disruptions in the
function of the vestibular analyze were observed. Typically, these
and other deviations are at times purely of an individual nature.
Therefore, it was important f o r scientists to determine the main
trends of "shifts" in the human body during prolonged space flights.

In order to compensate for the possible unfavorable effects of

weightlessness, the crew of the "Soyuz-9" spacecraft regularly per-
formed a cycle of gymnastic exercises in the spacious orbital com-
partment. A special weighted suit forced the cosmonauts to expend
additional efforts, simulating the effect of the force of Earth's
gravity. The crew exercised with an expansion device, the tension
of which required a slight exertion of 10 kilograms according to
Earth standards.

However, under conditions of weightlessness the cosmonauts were

forced to spend more time on gymnastics than was previously planned.
In turn, the medical support services saw to it that the complex of
physical exercises were fulfilled completely.

Careful medical and biological monitoring of the health of the

11Soyuz-9"crew members was accomplished throughout the flight.
Pulse, respiration frequency and blood pressure were measured regu-
larly, the cardiovascular and nervous systems were investigated and
water-salt metabolism was monitored. The data were regularly trans-
mitted to Earth and studied closely. Stable radio communication was
maintained with the cosmonauts, and television permitted observation
of their work and rest several times daily.

80
 The cosmonauts' e f f i c i e n c y while performing work o p e r a t i o n s was
i n v e s t i g a t e d d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t . The q u a l i t y of performing s p e c i a l
t e s t s was a n a l y z e d .

Moreover, c e r t a i n experiments were conducted w i t h t h e a c t i v e

p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e cosmonauts i n accordance w i t h t h e program of
b i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . The o v e r a l l aim o f t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
was t o s t u d y t h e e f f e c t o f w e i g h t l e s s n e s s on growth, development,and
h e r e d i t y of v a r i o u s t y p e s of l i v i n g organisms. Experiments were con-
d u c t e d on Drosophela, wheat n o d u l e s , b a r l e y , o n i o n s , and C h l o r e l l a
and blue-green a l g a l c u l t u r e s .

The cosmonauts f e l t f i n e d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t . D e s p i t e t h e heavy -

178
l o a d o f t h e f l i g h t program, t h e y r e t a i n e d t h e i r e f f i c i e n c y a t a h i g h
l e v e l . However, t h e y sometimes n o t i c e d some t i r e d n e s s , a f t e r per-
forming complex experiments and a f t e r a busy work day, which d i s a p p e a r e d
completely a f t e r s l e e p .

The cosmonauts' v e r y i n t e r e s t i n g and v a l u a b l e o b s e r v a t i o n s of

t h e i r c o n d i t i o n d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t , l i k e t h e data o f o b j e c t i v e i n v e s -
t i g a t i o n s , made i t p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n i m p o r t a n t data on t h e charac-
t e r i s t i c s o f a d a p t a t i o n of t h e human organism t o w e i g h t l e s s n e s s .

A c e r t a i n amount of t i m e was r e q u i r e d a t t h e beginning of t h e

f l i g h t t o develop new s k i l l s i n performing movements, e s p e c i a l l y for
moving about i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t . By t h e t h i r d o r f o u r t h d a y of t h e
f l i g h t , t h e cosmonauts were a l r e a d y c o n f i d e n t l y moving about i n s i d e
the spacecraft.

The p r o c e s s e s o f a d a p t a t i o n t o w e i g h t l e s s n e s s were m a n i f e s t e d
i n t h e area of t h e v e g e t a t i v e s p h e r e as w e l l . Thus, f o r example,
p u l s e frequency d u r i n g t h e t h i r d t o s i x t h o r b i t s had a l r e a d y reached
p r e f l i g h t l e v e l s and t h e n remained a t a lower l e v e l .

P u l s e and r e s p i r a t i o n frequency and e l e c t r o c a r d i o g r a m i n d i c e s had

s t a b i l i z e d by t h e t h i r d t o f o u r t h d a y of f l i g h t . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e
s y s t o l i c f r e q u e n c y of A . G . Nikolayev varded w i t h i n t h e r a n g e of

81
 68 - 8 0 , and t h a t o f V . I .
Sevast'yanov - 60 - 70 beats p e r
m i n u t e , n a t u r a l l y i n c r e a s i n g when
p e r f o r m i n g p h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e s , as
w e l l as d u r i n g c e r t a i n complex
experiments. Pulse frequency
d e c r e a s e d somewhat d u r i n g s l e e p .

It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e
The computer complex o f t h e Space t h a t A. G. Nikolayev's p u l s e ,
Flight Control Center continuously
p r o c e s s e d t h e d a t a r e c e i v e d from compared t o h i s f i r s t f l i g h t i n
"Soyuz-9. " the V 0 s t o k - 3 ~ ~ and d u r i n g t h e
f l i g h t o f t h e "Soyuz-9" s p a c e c r a f t ,
was somewhat l o w e r d u r i n g comparable l e g s o f t h e f l i g h t . A r t e r i a l
p r e s s u r e a t r e s t h a r d l y v a r i e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e f l i g h t . The r e a c t i o n
of t h e h e a r t t o s t a n d a r d p h y s i c a l l o a d s d i d n o t u n d e r g o any a p p r e c i -
able changes throughout t h e f l i g h t .

The cosmonauts r e p o r t e d t h a t , d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l phase o f t h e

f l i g h t when t h e y a b r u p t l y i n c l i n e d t h e i r body o r h e a d , t h e y e x p e r i -
enced a s e n s a t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t which t h e y f e l t on t h e ground d u r i n g
v e s t i b u l a r l o a d s , which a p p a r e n t l y i n d i c a t e s some d e c r e a s e i n t h e -
/i
t h r e s h o l d of v e s t i b u l a r r e s p o n s e s d u r i n g w e i g h t l e s s n e s s .

T h e i r a p p e t i t e d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t was good. T h i r s t was somewhat

r e d u c e d . The amount of w a t e r consumed ( t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e water
i n t h e i r f o o d ) was e q u a l t o 1 . 6 - 1 . 8 l i t e r s p e r d a y .

The l i f e s u p p o r t s y s t e m s of t h e 1'Soyuz-911 s p a c e c r a f t e f f i c i e n t l y
maintained the given c o n d i t i o n s of gaseous composition, temperature j
h u m i d i t y and a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e i n t h e s p a c e c r a f t c o m p a r t m e n t s .
The cosmonauts were p r o v i d e d w i t h f o o d i n t h e form o f n a t u r a l p r o d u c t s
and t h e a v e r a g e d a i l y c a l o r i c c o n t e n t o f t h e i r r a t i o n s was a b o u t
2600 k i l o c a l o r i e s . The s p a c e c r a f t c o n t a i n e d a f o o d h e a t e r . The cosmo-
n a u t s n o t e d t h e f a v o r a b l e e f f e c t of h a v i n g h o t c o f f e e i n t h e morning.
F o r l u n c h t h e y u s u a l l y h e a t e d up s u c h common f i r s t c o u r s e s as c o o k ' s

82
soup or green borscht. Rational structuring of the work-rest cycle
played an important role in maintaining efficiency.

Valuable data were obtained during postflight observation and

examination of the cosmonauts. Marked changes in the motor sphere
were detected in the cosmonauts on the day of landing. Their sensa-
tions were similar to those observed during the effects of G-forces
of 2 - 2.5 on the centrifuge. The head, extremities and other parts
of the body seemed unusually heavy, and the cosmonauts felt their
weight. This condition continued for about two to three days.
Statics and movements had practically returned to normal by the tenth
day after return to Earth.

And generally, the changes in physiological functions had

basically returned to normal within ten days after the flight.

Thus, scientists concluded that adaptation to the ordinary

conditions of existence on the ground after prolonged periods of
weightlessness proceeds with certain difficulties, and is apparently
achieved by greater stress on the physiological systems than adaptation
to weightlessness.

Maneuvering and Navigation Measurements

The working day of the crew usually comprises 14 - 16 hours.

Besides the medical and biological investigations, further testing
of spacecraft manual control systems and navigation instruments was
carried out during the flight, and complex checking and testing of
practically all onboard systems were accomplished under the conditions
of prolonged space flight.

The cosmonauts corrected their orbit three times using the manual
attitude control system. As already noted, the "Soyuz" spacecraft
may be maneuvered automatically, by commands from ground control,
and with the aid of manual control. The latter method was tested

83
"Soyuz-9" commander A . G . N i k o l a y e v ( f o r e g r o u n d J and f l i g h t e n g i n e e r
V. I . S e v a s t ' y a n o v i n t h e c a b i n o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t .

e s p e c i a l l y c a r e f u l l y i n p r e c e d i n g f l i g h t s . Moreover, t h e c o s m o n a u t s ,
o b s e r v i n g t h e E a r t h w i t h t h e a i d of t h e o p t i c a l s i g h t i n g d e v i c e ,
o r i e n t e d t h e s p a c e c r a f t manually.

The a u t o m a t i c s y s t e m was t h e n s w i t c h e d o n . The g y r o s c o p i c

i n s t r u m e n t s "held" t h e s p a c e c r a f t i n i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n , and t h e
p o w e r f u l r o c k e t e n g i n e f i r e d a t t h e g i v e n moment upon command from
t h e programming-timing u n i t . The s p a c e c r a f t t r a n s f e r r e d t o h i g h e r
o r b i t s , ensuring such a prolonged f l i g h t .

The dynamics o f o r b i t a l f l i g h t and t h e program of s c i e n t i f i c

experiments r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e cosmonauts s t a b i l i z e t h e s p a c e c r a f t
p e r i o d i c a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o a g i v e n d i r e c t i o n toward a s e l e c t e d
s t a r o r some ground r e f e r e n c e p o i n t and t h a t t h e y t h e space-
c r a f t t o w a r d t h e Sun i n o r d e r t h a t t h e s o l a r b a t t e r i e s be exposed t o

84
a c o n t i n u o u s luminous f l u x f o r a prolonged p e r i o d . I n t h i s c a s e ,
s p e c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e was g i v e n t o d e v e l o p i n g methods of autonomous
navigation.

During t h e f l i g h t of t h e "Soyuz-9" s p a c e c r a f t , t h e crew

r e p e a t e d l y made n a v i g a t i o n measurements, u s i n g i n p a r t i c u l a r , a s t a r
s e n s o r of new d e s i g n . The cosmonauts c a l c u l a t e d t h e o r b i t a l para-
meters and g e o g r a p h i c a l l a t i t u d e of t h e p o i n t above which t h e space-
c r a f t was f l y i n g a t t h e moment from t h e p o s i t i o n of a s e l e c t e d s t a r
above t h e h o r i z o n . The d i f f i c u l t y of making such measurements i s
t h a t t h e s p a c e c r a f t i s moving c o n t i n u o u s l y and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e
measured a n g l e s a l s o " d r i f t . " T h e r e f o r e , t h e measurements must be
made many times.

The experiment w i t h t h e s t a r s e n s o r was performed d u r i n g one o f

t h e working days f o r two whole o r b i t s .
I n view of t h e complexity
of t h e measurements, communication was n o t maintained w i t h t h e space-
c r a f t during t h i s period.

A f t e r r e c e i v i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s from ground c o n t r o l t o perform t h i s

experiment, t h e cosmonauts f i r s t t u r n e d t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t i n a
d i r e c t i o n o p p o s i t e t h e Sun. The s t a r Vega i n t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n Lyra,
s e l e c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e program, was t h e n found. I n summer, t h e
Sun and Vega a r e l o c a t e d i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
Earth. The l a r g e and b r i g h t s t a r Vega i s c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d
a g a i n s t t h e n i g h t s k y . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s s t a r was s e l e c t e d .

Having found Vega, t h e cosmonauts t u r n e d t h e s p a c e c r a f t w i t h t h e

a i d o f t h e a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l j e t s , s o t h a t t h e s t a r came w i t h i n t h e ,

f i e l d of v i s i o n of t h e s t a r s e n s o r . The d e s i g n of t h e s e n s o r p e r m i t s
i t s a d j u s t m e n t t.o a s p e c i f i c magnitude of a c e l e s t i a l body. I n t h e
g i v e n c a s e , it was a d j u s t e d t o Vega and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , d i d n o t respond
t o o t h e r l i g h t s o u r c e s o f g r e a t e r o r l e s s e r magnitude.

The i n s c r i p t i o n "Lock-on" l i t up, c o n f i r m i n g t h e r e l i a b l e opera-

t i o n of t h e s e n s o r . This e x p e r i m e n t a l d e v i c e on t h e "Soyuz-9" space-
'

c r a f t was n o t connected t o t h e c o n t r o l s y s t e m s . T h e r e f o r e , keeping

85
t h e s t a r i n t h e c e n t e r of t h e f i e l d of v i s i o n of t h e s e n s o r , t h e
cosmonauts s t a b i l i z e d t h e s p a c e c r a f t manually. Moreover, t h e y -
/8 2
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y photographed t h e t e c h n i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
i n s t r u m e n t under t h e r e a l c o n d i t i o n s of s p a c e f l i g h t .

The s p a c e c r a f t p a s s e s t o t h e d a y l i g h t s i d e of E a r t h . However,
o r i e n t a t i o n on Vega c o n t i n u e s t o be m a i n t a i n e d . A s t r i p of t h e
b r i g h t l y i l l u m i n a t e d E a r t h f a l l s i n t o t h e f i e l d of v i s i o n of t h e
s e n s o r . The i n s c r i p t i o n "Forbidden" l i g h t s up i m m e d i a t e l y . T h i s
means t h a t t h e s e n s o r h a s responded c o r r e c t l y t o e x t r a n e o u s e m i s s i o n s ,
r e g i s t e r i n g only t h e g i v e n s t a r . Henceforth, i t w i l l " n o t i c e " o n l y
Vega.

The cosmonauts t r a n s f e r s t a b i l i z a t i o n c o n t r o l of t h e s p a c e c r a f t
t o t h e g y r o s c o p i c i n s t r u m e n t s , which must now "hold" t h e s t a r i n t h e
f i e l d of v i s i o n of t h e s e n s o r . However, due t o p r e c e s s i o n , t h e
gyroscopes " d r i f t away" from t h e i r i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a s p e c i f i c
t i m e i n t e r v a l . The e x t e n t of t h i s " d r i f t i n g , " which leads t o d i s r u p -
t i o n of p r e c i s e a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l o f t h e s p a c e c r a f t , i s one o f t h e
most i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e i n s t r u m e n t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
cosmonauts c a r e f u l l y r e c o r d e d even t h e s l i g h t e s t " d r i f t i n g " of Vega
from t h e c e n t r a l f i e l d of v i s i o n of t h e s e n s o r d u r i n g prolonged
g y r o s c o p i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e " S O ~ U Z - -s ~p a~c' e c r a f t . The h i g h
a c c u r a c y o f t h e new i n s t r u m e n t confirmed t h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f t h e
d e s i g n s o l u t i o n s f o r f u t u r e n a v i g a t i o n systems.

What importance does t h i s have f o r t h e f u t u r e development of

space f l i g h t t e c h n o l o g y ?

Autonomous n a v i g a t i o n a i d s p e r m i t c a l c u l a t i o n of o r b i t a l
p a r a m e t e r s by i n s t r u m e n t s and d e v i c e s on board t h e s p a c e c r a f t . I n
t h i s c a s e , t h e a i d of t h e ground command m o n i t o r i n g complex i s n o t
required.

I n p r a c t i c e , ground c o n t r o l may o b s e r v e t h e s p a c e c r a f t o n l y
w i t h i n t h e zone of r a d i o v i s i b i l i t y . During prolonged i n t e r p l a n e t a r y
f l i g h t s , r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r s may f a i l and r a d i o communications may b e

86
d i s r u p t e d by magnetic storms induced by s o l a r f l a r e s . Moreover,
t a r g e t d e s i g n a t i o n s from ground c o n t r o l may n o t always a r r i v e i n
time. For example, passage of a r a d i o s i g n a l from t h e r e g i o n o f Venus
t o E a r t h and r e t u r n , even w i t h t h e most f a v o r a b l e p o s i t i o n of them,
r e q u i r e s more t h a n f o u r m i n u t e s .

However, t h e s p a c e c r a f t ' s p o s i t i o n i n space may b e c a l c u l a t e d

w i t h h i g h p r e c i s i o n w i t h t h e a i d of a s p e c i a l onboard s e x t a n t . T h i s
i n s t r u m e n t i s used i n combination w i t h o t h e r n a v i g a t i o n a i d s : s o l a r
and s t a r s e n s o r s , t h e cosmonautls o p t i c a l s i g h t i n g d e v i c e and o t h e r
systems. During t h e f l i g h t o f t h e "Soyuz-9" s p a c e c r a f t , t h e p o s s i -
b i l i t y was checked of o r i e n t a t i o n by o t h e r t h a n t h e most p o p u l a r
s t a r s , S i r i u s and Canopus, i n cosmonautics. Angular d i s t a n c e was
a l s o c a l c u l a t e d by A r c t u r u s i n t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n BoGtes, Deneb i n t h e
c o n s t e l l a t i o n Cygnus, and c e r t a i n o t h e r s . The s e a r c h f o r them was
carried o u t a t d i f f e r e n t times o f day d u r i n g passage of t h e space-
c r a f t t h r o u g h t h e t e r m i n a t o r - t h e boundary of l i g h t and shadow.

After t h e cosmonaut, by f i r i n g t h e j e t t h r u s t e r s , had ''led" t h e

s t a r i n t o t h e f i e l d of v i s i o n of t h e s t a r s e n s o r , t h e s p a c e c r a f t was -
/83
s t a b i l i z e d . Sometimes t h i s p o s i t i o n was m a i n t a i n e d f o r a n e n t i r e
o r b i t , and t h e n t h e s t a r a g a i n " f e l l " i n t o t h e s t a r t r a c k e r .

Moreover, t h e cosmonauts c a l c u l a t e d t h e i r o r b i t a l e l e m e n t s by
g i v e n ground r e f e r e n c e p o i n t s - f o r example, b y t h e most c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c lakes and mountain r i d g e s of A f r i c a and South America. I n
d o i n g s o , one cosmonaut u s u a l l y o r i e n t e d t h e s p a c e c r a f t , o b s e r v i n g
t h e E a r t h w i t h t h e a i d of t h e o p t i c a l s i g h t i n g d e v i c e , and t h e o t h e r
would make t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l c a l c u l a t i o n s . T h i s method may b e u s e f u l
i n t h e f u t u r e when a s p a c e c r a f t i s r e t u r n i n g t o E a r t h from l o n g i n t e r -
p l a n e t a r y voyages, as w e l l as d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n s on l o n g - d u r a t i o n
o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s . The n a v i g a t i o n experiments i n d i c a t e d t h e broad
p o s s i b i l i t i e s of t h e o r i e n t a t i o n and a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l systems of t h e
"Soyuz-9" s p a c e c r a f t .

87
 Investigations of Importance to
the National Economy

During the flight, the crew

completed an extensive program of
scientific investigations of space
and carried out a number of inter-
esting experiments and observations
of importance to the national econom.Y
Thus,photography of the Earth's

analysis permits refinement of the

main characteristics of mountain formations and possible regions of
mineral deposits from them. Photography of sea expanses, carried
out in different regions of the spectrum, aids in determination of
current propagation, accumulations of zooplankton, and determination
of the most promising regions of the seas and oceans for fishing.

Photography of the snow and ice cover establishes water resources,

which is very important for agriculture. The results of recording
the distribution of the Earth's cloud cover is of no less practical
interest. Thus, during this flight multiple investigations of the
meteorological characteristics of the atmosphere and western part of
the Indian Ocean were conducted for the first time. This region was -
/84
"inspected" simultaneously from an altitude of more than 600 kilo-
meters by the "Meteor" satellite, by the "Soyuz-9" spacecraft, and by
the scientific research vessel "Akademik Shirshov," which carried out
soundings of the atmosphere with meteorological sounding balloons.

The investigations will aid more accurate forecasting of the

weather phenomena of our planet.

It should be noted that successful completion of the space

flight was due to a great extent to the well-coordinated work of the
ground command monitoring complex, the flight control center, and

88
f l o a t i n g s c i e n t i f i c m o n i t o r i n g s t a t i o n s , headed by t h e v e s s e l
"Kosmonaut V l a d i m i r Komarov." T h i s f l i g h t demonstrated t h a t modern
space technology r e l i a b l y e n s u r e s t h e cosmonauts' performance of a
l a r g e volume o f s c i e n t i f i c and p r a c t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s d u r i n g o r b i t a l
f l i g h t s of unprecedented d u r a t i o n .

8. THE FIRST ORBITAL STATION OF LONG DURATION I S I N SPACE

"Salyut" I s I n O r b i t

Completion of t h e work of t h e 24th Congress of t h e CPSU, which

noted t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r development of o u r c o u n t r y d u r i n g t h e Ninth
Five-Year P l a n , c o i n c i d e d w i t h a h i s t o r i c a l d a t e : 1 0 y e a r s ago S o v i e t
c i t i z e n Yu. A. Gagarin completed a f l i g h t i n t o space i n t h e l e g e n d a r y
"Vostok" s p a c e c r a f t , a f l i g h t which opened t h e way t o t h e s t a r s f o r
mankind.

Only t e n y e a r s have passed. The s p a c e i n d u s t r y i s now i n t h e

I

s e r v i c e of t h e p e o p l e and c o n t r i b u t e s t o d i s c o v e r y of new s e c r e t s o f
t h e Universe and t o t h e development of s c i e n c e and t h e n a t i o n a l
economy. Space v e h i c l e s have become more complex, more roomy, and
more modernized. They have been equipped w i t h new a p p a r a t u s and
s y s t e m s f o r performing a n e x t e n s i v e complex of e x p e r i m e n t s .

On t h a t day, when p e o p l e were r e c a l l i n g t h e e x p l o i t of Yu. A .

Gagarin and n o t i n g 1 2 A p r i l as t h e Day of Cosmonautics, l a s t - m i n u t e
p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r a r o u t i n e f l i g h t were underway a t t h e Baykonur
Cosmodrome...

A gradiose structure -a
new powerful l a u n c h r o c k e t and an o b j e c t
of enormous dimensions, covered by shrouds, i s on t h e l a u n c h pad.
The e n g i n e e r s c a l l it simply a "payload'' o r space o b j e c t . A new
envoy t o space i s hidden behind t h e s h r o u d s . Who i s he?

...On1 9 A p r i l 1971, t h e r o a r of powerful e n g i n e s a g a i n awakens

t h e Kazakh S t e p p e s , covered t h i s t i m e by b r i g h t m u l t i c o l o r e d t u l i p s .
T h i s r o a r was c o n s i d e r a b l y more powerful t h a n p r e v i o u s l y , and no -
/86
wonder: a heavy v e h i c l e about 20 meters i n l e n g t h i s b e i n g launched
i n t o space!

And w i t h i n a s h o r t p e r i o d , Yu. B. L e v i t a n , announcer of A l l -

Union Radio, read t h e f i r s t l i n e s of a new TASS communication: " I n
accordance w i t h t h e program for i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s p a c e , on 19 A p r i l
1 9 7 1 t h e o r b i t a l s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n ' S a l y u t ' was launched... The
purpose o f l a u n c h i n g t h e s t a t i o n i s t o t e s t t h e d e s i g n e l e m e n t s o f
onboard systems and c a r r y o u t s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and experiments
during space f l i g h t . "

The l o n g - d u r a t i o n o r b i t a l s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n " S a l y u t " i s t a k i n g

a n examination i n s p a c e f l i g h t . The o p e r a t i o n of t h e onboard systems,
u n i t s , and s c i e n t i f i c equipment i s b e i n g checked. According t o t e l e -
metry data, e v e r y t h i n g i s i n o r d e r .

The o r b i t i s c o r r e c t e d a t t h e c a l c u l a t e d t i m e . The s t a t i o n i s
c o n t r o l l e d w i t h t h e a i d of a n e x t e n s i v e network o f m o n i t o r i n g s t a t i o n s ,
l o c a t e d throughout t h e t e r r i t o r y of our c o u n t r y . The s h i p s o f t h e
USSR Academy of S c i e n c e s , t h e "Morzhovets," "Kegostrov" and "Akademik
Sergey Korolev," l o c a t e d i n t h e A t l a n t i c Ocean, a l s o conduct j o i n t
operations with t h e "Salyut" s t a t i o n .

But i t
The s t a t i o n i s now o p e r a t i n g i n t h e a u t o m a t i c mode.
w i l l soon t a k e on board i t s f i r s t - c r e w . The world i s e x c i t e d l y f o l -
lowing t h e b e g i n n i n g of a new s p a c e p r e m i e r e ...
Call S i g n s are " G r a n i t "

Four days l a t e r , on 23 A p r i l , a new launch! The "Soyuz-10"

s p a c e c r a f t i s i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d o r b i t w i t h a crew con-
s i s t i n g o f well-known space c o n q u e r e r s pilot-cosmonauts of t h e USSR
V. A. S h a t a l o v , A. S. Yeliseyev and a new r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e
cosmonaut detachment, N . N. Rukavishnikov. T h i s i s t h e f i r s t manned
f l i g h t o f t h e new s p a c e decade!
 The cosmonauts c a r r y o u t t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e
s p a c e c r a f t f o r j o i n t experiments w i t h t h e "Salyut" s t a t i o n , maneuver
i n o r b i t and check t h e s y s t e m s . "Granit" - " T h i s i s ' Z a r y a . ' Over!"
- i s heard o v e r t h e l o u d s p e a k e r s i n t h e Computer C o o r d i n a t i o n C e n t e r
and i n t h e F l i g h t C o n t r o l C e n t e r .

Thousands of p e o p l e are t a k i n g p a r t i n c r e a t i o n o f t h e s p a c e
o b j e c t and p r e p a r a t i o n o f i t f o r launch. P a r t of them i n t h e shops,
l a b o r a t o r i e s and d e s i g n bureaus are a l r e a d y engaged i n a new p r o j e c t
- t h e y are p r e p a r i n g new s p a c e c r a f t . O t h e r s began work a f t e r t h e
launch - these are t h e b a l l i s t i c s e x p e r t s , t e l e m e t r y , and r a d i o
s p e c i a l i s t s . But all o f them a r e caught up i n t h e e x c i t e m e n t and
p r i d e i n t h e might o f o u r technology and i n t h e beauty and grandeur
of man.

On 24 A p r i l 1971, one d a y a f t e r l a u n c h , t h e "Soyuz-10" s p a c e c r a f t

approaches t o w i t h i n 1 8 0 m e t e r s of t h e " S a l y u t " s t a t i o n . The crew
t h e n takes o v e r c o n t r o l . Approach, mooring and, f i n a l l y , docking
t a k e p l a c e ! Moscow t i m e i s 4 h o u r s 47 m i n u t e s . The f l i g h t o f t h e
s t a t i o n - s p a c e c r a f t system c o n t i n u e s f o r 5 hours 30 minutes i n docking
mode. During t h i s t i m e , t h e most i m p o r t a n t o p e r a t i o n s i n checking
t h e onboard systems were performed, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f o r i e n t a t i o n
and c o n t r o l of t h e complex were a n a l y z e d , and complex t e c h n i c a l
experiments were c a r r i e d o u t . A p i c t u r e of t h e " S a l y u t " s t a t i o n and
i t s i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r a l elements i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o Earth with t h e
a i d of t e l e v i s i o n cameras. F i n a l l y , w e see t h e v e h i c l e s s e p a r a t e and
llSoyuz-lO" moves away from t h e s t a t i o n .

The scheduled program o f experiments has been completed and

o p e r a t i o n s are b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r r e t u r n of t h e
s p a c e c r a f t t o E a r t h . Next day, on 25 A p r i l a t 2 hours 4 0 m i n u t e s ,
t h e s p a c e c r a f t made a s o f t l a n d i n g i n t h e c a l c u l a t e d r e g i o n . S p e c i a l -
i s t s of t h e s e a r c h group, s p o r t s commissars, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e
p r e s s and f r i e n d s embrace t h e crew of llSoyuz-lO.l' The f l i g h t has been
completed and t h e program of scheduled i n v e s t i g a t i o n s has been f u l -
f i l l e d , b u t t h e bold experiments w i t h t h e " S a l y u t " s t a t i o n w i l l b e
c o n t i n u e d and v e r y soon ...
 I n t o Space Toward t h e S t a t i o n

May, 1971. " S a l y u t " c o n t i n u e s i t s f l i g h t , The onboard systems

are b e i n g checked. Upon command from ground c o n t r o l , t h e s c i e n t i f i c
equipment r e c o r d s t h e s i t u a t i o n i n n e a r s p a c e . By 7 May t h e s t a t i o n
has completed 295 r e v o l u t i o n s around t h e E a r t h . Within t h e f o l l o w i n g
days of t h e week, it w i l l complete a n o t h e r 200 o r b i t s . The p a r a m e t e r s
on t h e s t a t i o n are normal: t e m p e r a t u r e i s 1 5 O C and p r e s s u r e i s 920
mm Hg. The s t a t i o n i s r e a d y t o r e c e i v e t h e new envoys of E a r t h . And
t h e days on E a r t h are busy ones: t h e crew of "Soyuz-10" i s g i v i n g
t h e r e s u l t s of t h e i r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and i m p r e s s i o n s t o t h e crew of
"Soyuz-11." P r o c e s s i n g and a n a l y s i s of t e l e m e t r y on t h e f l i g h t of t h e
"Soyuz-10" s p a c e c r a f t have been completed and p r e p a r a t i o n s are underway
f o r a new launch.

I n c i d e n t a l l y , t h e f a m i l y of space envoys i s e v e r expanding.

Three v e h i c l e s - two S o v i e t and one American -a r e r u s h i n g toward
Mars i n t h e y e a r of t h e g r e a t o p p o s i t i o n . The "Mars-3" probe c a r -
r i e s on board, a l o n g w i t h S o v i e t equipment, French a p p a r a t u s , p r e -
p a r e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e program of i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n . The
mass o f t h e "Mars-2" and "Mars-3" p r o b e s i s i m p r e s s i v e - 4.5 tons!

The S o v i e t a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e "Lunokhod-1" c o n t i n u e s i t s work on

t h e Moon. S i x months o f f r u i t f u l work -much more t h a n t h e s p e c i a l -
i s t s c a l c u l a t e d . And t h e l u n a r r o v i n g v e h i c l e c o n t i n u e s t o move a b o u t ,
i t s s c i e n t i f i c equipment f u n c t i o n s f a u l t l e s s l y , and a mass of new and
unique data i s t r a n s m i t t e d ! Automatic v e h i c l e s have an i m p o r t a n t
f u t u r e i n s t u d y i n g d i f f i c u l t - t o - r e a c h r e g i o n s of t h e Universe.
Economically, a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e s are more advantageous; f u r t h e r m o r e ,
t h e y have a h i g h i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t e n t , are r e l i a b l e , and e f f i c i e n t .
The c o o p e r a t i o n of man and a u t o m a t i c d e v i c e s i s i n c r e a s i n g . There
i s no c o n f l i c t h e r e , b u t rather r a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n and i n t e l l i g e n t
s t r a t e g y and t a c t i c s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n and conquest of space.

S p r i n g i n s p a c e i s ending and t h e h o t summer i s beginning: new /88

l a u n c h e s and new a s s a u l t p o s i t i o n s .

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 "Soyuz-11" i s f l y i n g above t h e Earth. T h i s o c c u r r e d on 6 June a t
7 h o u r s 55 minutes Moscow t i m e . The new s p a c e c r a f t was i n j e c t e d i n t o
a low o r b i t . The crew c o n s i s t s of s p a c e c r a f t commander G . T.
Dobrovol'skiy (cosmonaut-24), f l i g h t e n g i n e e r pilot-cosmonaut of t h e
USSR V. N. Volkov and i n v e s t i g a t o r - e n g i n e e r V. I. Patsayev (cosmonaut-
2 5 ) . The m i s s i o n o f t h i s crew i s t o go i n t o space t o t h e "Salyut"
s t a t i o n f o r prolonged o p e r a t i o n s .

A Tour of t h e "Salyut"

On 7 June 1971 t h e manned s t a t i o n llSalyutll was c r e a t e d and began

t o move i n a low o r b i t . At 1 0 hours 45 minutes Moscow t i m e , t h e crew
of t h e "Soyuz-11" s p a c e c r a f t e n t e r e d t h e compartment of t h e s c i e n t i f i c
s t a t i o n a f t e r t h e y e h i c l e s had docked and a l l systems were checked.

The most important e n g i n e e r i n g and t e c h n i c a l problem of d e l i v e r i n g

a crew by t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t t o a s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n - a n E a r t h
s a t e l l i t e - was s o l v e d f o r t h e f i r s t time. The cosmonauts e n t e r e d
t h e s t a t i o n compartment through a n i n t e r n a l passage.

L e t ' s t a k e a b r i e f t o u r of t h e " S a l y u t " w i t h them. Before

e n t e r i n g t h e s t a t i o n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y , w h i l e s t i l l i n t h e llSoyuz"
t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t , t o check t h e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n o f t h e compartments
and o p e r a t i o n of t h e onboard systems o f t h e s t a t i o n , t h e m i c r o c l i m a t e
parameters i n t h e compartments o f t h e docked v e h i c l e s , t o e q u a l i z e
p r e s s u r e , open t h e cover of t h e sealed h a t c h c o n n e c t i n g them and t h e n
e n t e r t h e t r a n s f e r compartment. A number o f c o n t r o l c o n s o l e s and p a r t
of t h e s c i e n t i f i c a s t r o p h y s i c s equipment a r e l o c a t e d i n t h i s compart-
ment. T h i s i s one of t h e l i v i n g compartments of t h e s t a t i o n and,
t h e r e f o r e , i t s diameter i s q u i t e l a r g e , o f t h e o r d e r of two meters. '
The h u l l w i t h i t s p o r t h o l e s i s p r e s s u r i z e d , t h e i n t e r i o r i s covered
w i t h d e c o r a t i v e materials, and t h e a n t e n n a s , s o l a r b a t t e r i e s and
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s a r e mounted on t h e o u t s i d e .

The cosmonauts e n t e r t h e working compartment t h r o u g h a s p e c i a l

h a t c h . A p l a t f o r m i s l o c a t e d beyond t h e h a t c h . On it faci.ng t h e
h a t c h are two cosmonauts i n t h e i r work seats. There are s e v e r a l

93
consoles and instrument panels in front of them and command-signalling
devices and equipment to the sides. The compartment is located in
the center part of the station and is the main compartment. This is
essentially a comfortable laboratory, suitable for prolonged scientific
investigations in the station and control of it. The cosmonauts can
carry out the necessary complex of physical exercises, eat and rest
here.

Inside the hull there are water and food supplies in special
containers, life support systems, radio instruments, equipment for
controlling the complex, an electric power supply, devices for moving
about, attachment and physical training of the crew, and scientific
and experimental equipment. The compartment is equipped with 12 port-
holes with removable equipment for orientation and navigation, photog- &
raphy, and visual observations. The places for the cosmonauts to
work and rest are comfortable. The sleeping arrangement of the station
permits the sleeper to strap himself into a comfortable posture. An
onboard medicine chest is located in the compartment.

Humidity, temperature, and pressure are maintained at normal

levels, which permits the cosmonauts in the work compartment to wear
ordinary light overalls without spacesuits. Part of the scientific
equipment and the main onboard equipment, powering the station, are
installed in this compartment.

A station is located near the equipment compartment for investi-

gating the plasma parameters around the spacecraft. There are also
two additional work sites. The antennas and sensors are located out-
side the work compartment. The equipment compartment is arranged
behind the work compartment. It is unpressurized and consists of a
supporting skirt on which are located antennas, ion sensors, assemblies
of the heat regulating system and the engine compartment, which is
linked to the entire system of servomechanisms, permitting maneuvering
of the station. The fuel tanks, television cameras for external
viewing, and solar battery panels are located in the engine compartment.

94
 The l o n g - d u r a t i o n o r b i t a l s t a t i o n " S a l y u t " i s a m u l t i p u r p o s e
space r e s e a r c h l a b o r a t o r y f o r prolonged i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and r o t a t i o n
of crews. The s c i e n t i f i c equipment and i n s t r u m e n t s i n s t a l l e d i n t h e
s t a t i o n make i t p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y o u t a n e x t e n s i v e complex of a s t r o -
p h y s i c a l , p h y s i c o t e c h n i c a l and m e d i c a l - b i o l o g i c a l experiments, as
w e l l as t o develop e x p e r i m e n t a l methods of c o n t r o l l i n g s y s t e m s o f
the orbital station.

E x t e r n a l l y , "Salyut" l o o k s i m p r e s s i v e : t h e r e i s a cone, on t h e
end of which i s t h e docking u n i t , t h e n a: c y l i n d e r two meters i n
diameter, t h e n expansion of t h e c y l i n d e r t o t h r e e meters, t h e n expan-
s i o n t o approximately f o u r meters, and, f i n a l l y a s p h e r i c a l bottom
and cone - t h e f u e l t a n k s , and behind them, t h e engine. Four s o l a r
b a t t e r y p a n e l s , a n t e n n a s , alid equipment are l o c a t e d on t h e h u l l . The
t o t a l l e n g t h of t h e s t a t i o n i s about 20 meters, and i t s volume i s
a l m o s t 1 0 0 c u b i c meters.

The mass of t h e "Soyuz"-"Salyut" s y s t e m i s a r e c o r d f o r manned

o b j e c t s i n o r b i t - about 25 t o n s . Prolonged o p e r a t i o n of t h e base-
s t a t i o n i s e n s u r e d by t h e l a r g e r e s o u r c e s f o r o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m s ,
a s s e m b l i e s , and equipment, e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e which must f u n c t i o n
continuously .
The g r a n d e u r o f t h e " s p a c e dwelling,i1 i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e low
o r b i t of a n E a r t h s a t e l l i t e , i s s t r i k i n g . It somewhat resembles a
modern submarine. It has t h e same p r e s s u r i z e d compartments, t r a n s f e r
h a t c h e s , work s i t e s w i t h t h e c o n s o l e s f o r d i f f e r e n t equipment, b u t ,
. o f c o u r s e , t h e work compartment i s more s p a c i o u s t h a n t h a t i n a
submarine. The cosmonauts a l s o have a t t h e i r d i s p o s a l t h e compart-
ments of t h e "Soyuzl' t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t , i n which are l o c a t e d p a r t '
of t h e s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h a p p a r a t u s and equipment. They may a l s o
work and r e s t i n t h e s e compartments.

95
 Watch i n Space

The crew has a r r i v e d a t t h e " S a l y u t " s p a c e s t a t i o n and has

t a k e n o v e r c o n t r o l of t h e f l i g h t themselves - t h i s e x c i t i n g news
was r e p o r t e d by t h e newspapers of a l l c o u n t r i e s on t h e evening of
7 June 1 9 7 1 . What i s t h e program o f s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l o b s e r -
v a t i o n s and experiments which awaited completion by t h e crew o f t h e
"Soyuz-11" s p a c e c r a f t ? F i r s t , t h e r e was thorough checking and t e s t i n g
of t h e s t r u c t u r e , assemblies and onboard systems and equipment of
t h e " S a l y u t " under c o n d i t i o n s of extended f l i g h t . The s t a t i o n i s
new, a f i r s t - b o r n of o u r s p a c e i n d u s t r y , and, t h e r e f o r e , l i k e a new
a i r c r a f t o r automobile, e v e r y t h i n g must be checked: t h e e f f i c i e n c y
of t h e systems, t h e i r c o n t r o l l a b i l i t y , communications w i t h t h e c o n t r o l
c e n t e r , and much more.

O p e r a t i o n of t h e s e r v i c e systems, which e n s u r e t h e o p e r a t i o n
of t h e s c i e n t i f i c equipment and l i f e s u p p o r t systems, was checked as
e a r l y as A p r i l , when "Salyut" was f u n c t i o n i n g i n t h e a u t o m a t i c mode.
It p a s s e d t h e examination on s t r e n g t h and adherence t o s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
s u c c e s s f u l l y - t h e m i c r o c l i m a t e p a r a m e t e r s i n t h e compartments a r e
normal, t h e power systems a r e a l s o normal, and r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n
communications w i t h ground c o n t r o l are e x c e l l e n t .

They may now t u r n t o checking t h e maneuvering q u a l i t i e s of t h e

docked space system. The f i r s t experiments on o r i e n t a t i o n were per-
formed a f t e r docking of t h e "Soyuz-10" s p a c e c r a f t . The program has
now been expanded: i t i n c l u d e s experiments on f l i g h t c o n t r o l d i r e c t l y
from t h e s t a t i o n , maneuvering i n o r b i t , and t e s t i n g of methods and
autonomous a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l f a c i l i t i e s and n a v i g a t i o n of t h e s t a t i o n .

O p e r a t i o n s on changing t h e o r b i t had already begun on t h e f o l l o w i n g

d a y . By c o r r e c t i n g i t , t h e s t a t i o n i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o a h i g h e r o r b i t .
The f i r s t t i m e , t h e mooring and a t t i t u d e c o n t r o l t h r u s t e r s were f i r e d
f o r t h i s . The crew observed o p e r a t i o n of t h e t h r u s t e r s : behind t h e
windows of t h e p o r t h o l e s t h e y observed t h e f l a r e s and f l i g h t of
b r i g h t p a r t i c l e s . After changing t h e p e r i g e e - t h e minimum d i s t a n c e

96
from Earth - they began to carry out a routine task: the apogee
also had to be raised somewhat.

The second correction was made on the following day. "Zarya!"

We are reporting: the engines fired for 73 seconds!"

Everything is normal - the station is flying high above the

Earth in optimum orbit. Correction of it, obviously, does not occur
at once. The complex is easy to control, and it is now necessary to
orient the solar battery panels toward the Sun. The cosmonauts also
perform this operation manually. The attitude control systems are
operating normally.

Preparations for conducting scientific investigations began on

the first day that the cosmonauts arrived at "Salyut." But the
scientific equipment must first be unpacked, adjusted, and prepared
for operation. There are many instruments and various systems. A l l
preparatory operations required almost three days of work by the crew.
By this time, stowing of a number of systems of the "Soyuz-11" space-
craft had been completed - after all, undocking and return to Earth
would not take place anytime soon and, consequently, part of the
instruments and equipment of the transport spacecraft are not required
at present. Their condition may be subsequently monitored by
telemetry data.

The scientific instruments installed in the "Salyut" station

permit extensive investigations of the physical processes and
phenomena in the atmosphere and space, observation of celestial bodies,
investigation of the radiation and micrometeor situation in space,
and study of the various types of cosmic radiation.

A wide-angle optical sighting device -a new instrument designed

for precise orientation on the Sun and planets - was tested among the
experiments conducted in the "Salyut" station. While making naviga-
tional measurements, the cosmonauts calculated the orbital parameters
of the station with the aid of the onboard computer.

97
 Experiments carried out with the aid of the station's gamma
telescope are interesting and full of promise for science. The
intensity, angular distribution, and energy spectrum of primary cosmic
radiation were studied. Moreover, the crew commander switched on the
gamma telescope and monitored its operation, while the flight engineer
carried out attitude control and stabilization of the station.

Experiments were performed on investigating the effect of the

space environment on the properties of special optical specimens with
the aim of developing gstronomical telescopes, brought out into space
beyond the atmosphere to eliminate interference. Interesting data
were obtained as a result of investigating different types of radi-
ation, which barely reach the Earth and which are distorted consid-
erably by the atmosphere.

Investigation of geological and geographical objects on the

Earth's surface, various atmospheric formations and the Earth's snow
and ice cover is of great practical importance to develop methods for
utilizing these data to solve national economic problems.

The Earth is a very convenient object for observations from

space. Large areas can be scanned within a very short period of
time, and panoramic observations are very easy. Geologists can judge
the characteristic features of the structure of Earth's core, oceano-
graphers can observe the water surface and estimate the water resources
in the world ocean, icthyologists and fishermen can determine the
locations of fish shoals and plankton, and botanists can compile
accurate charts of the distribution of vegetation (incidentally, the
first such chart was obtained from the photography of the "Zond"
probe) from the results o f the investigations.

A l l crew members of the orbital station carried out systematic

investigations: they made spectrographs of individual sections of
the Earth's surface over the USSR to study natural formations and the
water surface, measured the optical characteristics of the atmosphere, /92
photographed various atmospheric formations, and observed the weather

98
a l o n g t h e f l i g h t r o u t e . The cosmonauts photographed t h e c l o u d c o v e r
i n t h e Volga r e g i o n , and a t e l e v i s i o n s u r v e y was s i m u l t a n e o u s l y made
of i t from t h e "Meteor" s a t e l l i t e . They made a s p e c t r a l s u r v e y i n
t h e r e g i o n of t h e Caspian Sea i n o r d e r t o u t i l i z e t h e data i n a g r i -
c u l t u r e , l a n d r e c l a m a t i o n , geodesy and c a r t o g r a p h y . A e r i a l photography
of t h e same r e g i o n s was c a r r i e d o u t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y from a i r c r a f t by
s c i e n t i s t s of t h e USSR Academy of S c i e n c e s and Leningrad U n i v e r s i t y .

Many t h i n g s came i n t o t h e f i e l d o f v i s i o n of t h e a s t r o n a u t s :
large burned areas, c y c l o n e s and typhoons. And a l l these a r e o b j e c t s
for o b s e r v a t i o n s and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e cosmonauts. T h i s i s n o t
s u r p r i s i n g - man on t h e Earth and i n space i s now h o s t of t h e p l a n e t
and he should b e concerned w i t h i t s p r e s e n t and f u t u r e f a t e .

The m e d i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l e x p e r i m e n t s , d i r e c t e d toward f u r t h e r

s t u d y of t h e e f f e c t of prolonged s p a c e f l i g h t f a c t o r s on t h e human
body, and e x p e r i m e n t s t o determine t h e cosmonauts' a b i l i t y t o perform
d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i o n s , and t o s t u d y t h e i r p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o m p a t i b i l i t y
i n c l o s e d s p a c e were a n e s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t group of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .

Thus began t h e s t a g e of c r e a t i n g l o n g - f u n c t i o n i n g o r b i t a l
s t a t i o n s . W i l l man l i v e and r e t a i n a h i g h l e v e l of e f f i c i e n c y under
these c o n d i t i o n s ? How w i l l t h e p r o c e s s of r e a d a p t a t i o n proceed upon
r e t u r n t o E a r t h ? What measures w i l l have t o be t a k e n by p h y s i c i a n s
and t e c h n i c i a n s t o i n c r e a s e t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e crew's s t a y i n t h e
s t a t i o n ? We know, f o r example, t h a t prolonged exposure t o weight-
l e s s n e s s may lead t o a number o f s e r i o u s c h a n g e s i n t h e human organism.
S o l u t i o n o f t h i s p r c b l e m should proceed b o t h toward i n c r e a s i n g t h e
amount of p h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g e x e r c i s e s of t h e cosmonauts and toward
c r e a t i n g s o - c a l l e d " a r t i f i c i a l g r a v i t y " i n t h e f u t u r e by b r i n g i n g t h e
f o r c e of g r a v i t y i n t h e s t a t i o n t o l e v e l s c l o s e t o t h o s e on E a r t h ,
I n the l a t t e r case, e i t h e r individual sections or the e n t i r e s t a t i o n
must b e r o t a t e d a t s p e c i f i c a n g u l a r v e l o c i t i e s . Many o t h e r problems
must a l s o b e s o l v e d : problems of t h e everyday l i f e and hygiene of
t h e crew d u r i n g f l i g h t , f e e d i n g , s l e e p , r e s t , and c r e a t i o n of c l o s e d

99
ecological systems which provide complete regeneration of the
atmosphere and water in the station. Many of the enumerated problems
were included in the program of the manned flight of the "Salyut"
s t a t ion !

During the flight of the orbital station, the cosmonauts tested

specially created overalls of various designs, permitting them to
tolerate weightlessness. Such overalls permit the cosmonauts' bodies
and their osteomuscular systems to retain their accustomed Earth load.
Due to this, as scientists assume, calcium depletion, which weakens /,93
the bone system and which occurs during weightlessness, may be pre-
vented. The cosmonauts approved the new overall designs and stated
that they were comfortable and suitable for continuous wear.

The program of medical and biological investigations, conducted

by the first crew of the "Salyut," was extensive. Data on the radi-
ation safety of space flights and problems of dosimetric monitoring
were studied, investigations were carried out on the state of the
cardiovascular system, functional samples of expiration, gaseous
metabolism, and energy expenditures were taken, and the light and con-
trast sensitivity of the eyes and the psychophysiological state of
the cosmonauts were investigated.

After completing the large and complex volume of prolonged

scientific experiments on board the world's first long-duration
orbital station "Salyut," its first crew died tragically upon return
to Earth in the "Soyuz-11" transport spacecraft. Spacecraft of this
type had made repeated space flights and had safely returned cosmo-
nauts to Earth. However, it is almost impossible to exclude an acci-
dent when testing new technology.

The heroic exploits of the courageous conquerers of space, G. T.

Dobrovol'skiy, V. N. Volkov and V. I. Patsayev will be permanently
entered in this history of cosmonautics. The first crew of the "Salyut"

100
completed t h e e x t e n s i v e program of s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t o t h e
f u l l e x t e n t and w i t h g r e a t s u c c e s s and f u l f i l l e d t h e m i s s i o n of t h e i r
F a t h e r l a n d w i t h honor.

* *
*

The e f f o r t s of S o v i e t s c i e n t i s t s , d e s i g n e r s , workers, and

courageous e x p e r i m e n t e r s c r e a t e d t h e w o r l d ' s f i r s t l a r g e b u i l d i n g i n
a n E a r t h s a t e l l i t e o r b i t . People were able t o work beyond t h e con-
f i n e s of t h e atmosphere. T h i s b u i l d i n g i s t h a t of a l l mankind.
T r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t w i l l b e a b l e t o p r o v i d e r o t a t i o n of s t a t i o n
crews, t o f e r r y t h e n e c e s s a r y equipment, and food and water s u p p l i e s
t o them, and t o r e p l a c e i n s t r u m e n t s and equipment which break down.

The e x c e l l e n t space l a b o r a t o r i e s a r e a t t r a c t i v e t o s c i e n t i s t s .
There w i l l be more and more o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s . And, D. Dennis, P r e s i -
d e n t o f t h e French N a t i o n a l Space C e n t e r , i s undoubtedly c o r r e c t when
he said i n t h e name of a l l s c i e n t i s t s o f many c o u n t r i e s : "An impor-
t a n t s t e p forward has been t a k e n , which i n d i c a t e s a q u a l i t a t i v e l y new
phase i n t h e s t u d y and i n v e s t i g a t i o n of s p a c e . . . C r e a t i o n of t h e
f i r s t o r b i t a l s t a t i o n d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t what we o n l y r e c e n t l y dreamed
about i s becoming r e a l i t y . . . ' I

Yes, dreams do come t r u e !

9. THE PRINCIPAL METHODS OF DEVELOPING ORBITAL STATIONS

Automatic o r Manned S t a t i o n s ?

V a r i o u s d e s i g n s , sometimes v e r y e x o t i c , of f u t u r e space s t a t i o n s
are o f t e n found i n t h e c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e . When one becomes familiar
w i t h t h e i r d e s c r i p t i o n , many q u e s t i o n s a r i s e . Why does mankind need
manned space s t a t i o n s ? Cannot a l l space r e s e a r c h be conducted by
a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e s a l o n e ? What p o s s i b i l i t i e s do manned space s t a t i o n s
open f o r s c i e n t i s t s ? I s i t n o t p o s s i b l e t o manage s p a c e r e s e a r c h
w i t h o u t t h e d i r e c t p a r t i c i p a t i o n of man?

101 '
 The appearance of these questions is explained by the rapid
development of automatics and telemechanics, improvement of automatic
control systems, means of control and telemetry, and by progress in
the field of programming and computing devices.

In the course of technical progress, individual human functions

- reception, storage, transmission, and processing of information
- are more and more being handed over to automatic machines.
Two organically related aspects must be taken into account when
evaluating the role of man in space research. On the one hand, there
is the ongoing process of automatic machines replacing man, and in
connection with this the range of problemswhicha certain system is
capable of solving. On the other hand, the greater the number of
automatic machines introduced into the control process and the broader
the range of problems solved by them, the more necessary it becomes
to integrate their operation, i.e., the relative role of man increases.

It should be noted that there are serious arguments among the

proponents of pure automation. They feel that scientific research,
for example, study of the parameters of near space, may be accom-
plished ("and is being accomplished) with the aid of automatic Earth
satellites, which have proved themselves as reliable facilities for
scientific research in space. As automatic aids for observation and
telemetry are further developed, more and more complex investigations
can be carried out without the direct participation of man. And what
is especially important, automatic equipment can be employed success-
fully in those cases, when the participation of man in an experiment
is impossible or difficult. For example, study of such planets as
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune may already be begun with the aid of auto-
matic vehicles, while at the same time, expeditionary flights by man
to them with subsequent landing on their surface and take-off are
impossible in the foreseeable future. The gravitational forces on
these planets are many times greater than those on Earth.

102
 Investigations of the Moon, Mars and Venus with the aid of
automatic stations have already permitted much new information about
them to be obtained. Moreover, the cost of launching automatic
vehicles is considerably less than that of manned flights.

Participation of man in space flights should be regarded as

feasible only when it is necessary and justified.

Another argument of the proponents of replacing man by automatic

machines is the complexity of providing life support for man exposed
to the effects of space, which hinders the possibility of a prolonged
stay of man in flight.

Undoubtedly, the requirement for life support systems for man on

board a space station reduces the space available for scientific
equipment by those weights and volumes, but at the same time, because
of the presence of man, some systems (for example, the attitude con-
trol system of stations) may be simplified, and this increases the
possibility of installing additional equipment. And it is quite
obvious that we can only gain from the presence of man as the weight
of space stations in orbit and the time of their active functioning
increase, with expansion of the complex of problems solved by them.

Man is capable of rapidly analyzing a developing situation,

actively interfering in it and taking the necessary actions. Whereas
an automatic machine sometimes wins in the speed of "thinking," it
can hardly be compared to man in the flexibility and completeness of
"thought." The human brain has the ability to generalize, which no
automatic machine yet has. Man can carry out rapid and most precise
analysis and synthesis of information and select from an enormous -
196
amount of diverse information that which he requires at a given moment.

The functions of man on board a space station may be varied.

Besides observations and transmission of information to Earth, man
is also entrusted with the function of monitoring the performance of
the flight, maintenance of the complex onboard equipment, exercising
of manual flight control and landing on Earth in case of failure of
automatic systems and other tasks.
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 Thus, during the flights of the "Soyuz" spacecraft, the cosmo-
nauts not only conducted scientific and technical investigations,
maintained communication with Earth and monitored the instrument
readings, they also oriented the spacecraft toward the Sun with the
aid of the manual control system to ensure optimum power supplies
for the onboard instruments.

Approach of the "Soyuz-4" and "Soyuz-5" spacecraft proceeded

automatically within the range of the search and guidance radar.
Fuqther approach and docking were performed manually by the cosmonauts.
Thus, both man and automatic machines actively participated in the
creation of the first experimental station.

Participation of man in space research increases the efficiency

of fulfilling the task due to utilization of his reactions, ability'
to analyze information, to draw conclusions, and to make decisions in
unexpected situations. The ability of man to select the solution
required from among several possible versions simplifies certain
components of onboard equipment and their principles of operation.

The role of man in monitoring equipment consists of "detecting

manfunctions," i.e., man, by using the display systems, should be
able to detect and localize the failed component.

Man usually combines a number of functions, performing them either

simultaneously or in sequence. Man is capable of changing the methods
of controlling a system in case some previously unforeseen
circumstances occur.

An automatic machine has its own, rather ponderable advantages:

it is not subject to fatigue, irritability, uncertainty, fear and
similar emotions. But only man possesses will, reason, and creativity.
These qualities were clearly demonstrated by our cosmonauts and ensured
magnificent performance of the complete flight program, which included
such complex phases as docking, transfer from spacecraft to spacecraft,
controlled descent, etc. Automatic machines do not exclude man from

104
the sphere of creative activity, and we are concerned here only with
the optimum, most advantageous combination of pzzoperties and qualities
of man and machine for best performance of the assigned task.

The necessity for man's presence in space should not be under-

stood as his presence in every space vehicle or during every scien-
tific investigation. Creation of manned stations does not exclude,
and even assumes, the presence of automatic laboratories during orbits
around the Earth. It may be that they will be serviced by cosmonauts,
and crew members of orbital stations, using llSoyuz"type spacecraft,
will visit them periodically for inspection, readjustment, replacement,
ar repair of failed equipment and to retrieve information.

The necessity of implementing manned flight should be justified

and dictated primarily by the extent and the program of operations,
rather than by a desire for an external effect or emotional impressions.
There are still many problems in cosmonautics which man can solve, but
he should not have to do everything himself.

Design Characteristics of Future Space Stations

One naturally assumes that, following the first long-duration

experimental space station, new stations of various weight, dimensions,
and designation with an extended lifetime will appear in low orbits
in the near future. Let's try to imagine what kind of stations these
will be ana what will be their principal design characteristics.

The method of assembly determines the design of a space station.

Two methods are more probable.

On the ground. In this case, the station is completely assembled

on the ground and launched into orbit ready to perform its tasks
immediately.

In orbit. In this case, the station is assembled in orbit from

several individual units, sections, components o r spacecraft, which
are orbited in sequence by several launch rockets. The station is
r e a d y t o perform i t s t a s k s a f t e r f i n a l assembly. Thus, a s t a t i o n of
any w e i g h t , dimensions and t y p e may be created.

I n t h e f i r s t c a s e , t h e crew may be e i t h e r i n j e c t e d i n t o o r b i t
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e s t a t i o n o r d e l i v e r e d t h e r e s e p a r a t e l y by
a n o t h e r s p a c e c r a f t . I n t h e second c a s e , t h e s t a t i o n may be assembled
a u t o m a t i c a l l y o r by a s p e c i a l a s s e m b l y - r e p a i r team. T h i s team com-
p l e t e s assembly and checks t h e assembled s t a t i o n . A f t e r w a r d s , . s p e c i a l
s p a c e c r a f t d e l i v e r t h e crew t o t h e s t a t i o n and t h e assembly-repair
team may r e t u r n t o E a r t h i n t h e same s p a c e c r a f t .

Both methods of c r e a t i n g o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s have t h e i r a d v a n t a g e s

and d i s a d v a n t a g e s .

Some l o s s e s i n payload weight a r e i n e v i t a b l e d u r i n g o r b i t a l

assembly, because e a c h u n i t o r s e c t i o n from which t h e s p a c e s t a t i o n
i s assembled must have i t s own onboard systems and e n g i n e s f o r
approach.

These l o s s e s are i n c r e a s e d i f l i g h t w e i g h t u n i t s o r s e c t i o n s are

used i n assembly of a l a r g e s t a t i o n . However, o r b i t a l assembly o f
a s t a t i o n p e r m i t s t h e c r e a t i o n o f one of any r e q u i r e d weight o r
dimensions u s i n g e x i s t i n g l a u n c h r o c k e t s f o r o r b i t i n j e c t i o n of
i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s , whereas i n ground assembly t h e weight and dimensions
of t h e s t a t i o n a r e l i m i t e d by t h e t h r u s t o u t p u t of t h e l a u n c h r o c k e t .

Moreover, u n s u c c e s s f u l l a u n c h of one of t h e u n i t s does n o t mean

a n i n t e r r u p t i o n of t h e e n t i r e program, and l a u n c h may be r e p e a t e d ,
whereas a n u n s u c c e s s f u l l a u n c h of a s t a t i o n assembled on t h e ground
may postpone o r b i t i n g of t h e s t a t i o n f o r a prolonged p e r i o d .

It i s obvious t h a t s o - c a l l e d small s t a t i o n s w i l l be c r e a t e d b y
t h e method of assembly on t h e ground. The b a s i s of c r e a t i n g large
s t a t i o n s , on t h e o t h e r hand, i s t h e method of o r b i t a l assembly.

What t h e n a r e "small" and " l a r g e " s t a t i o n s ?

106
 These concepts are, of course, arbitrary, and we will understand
them henceforth as the following.

Small stations, weighing from several tons to several tens of

tons, are intended for solving more important scientific and national
economic problems, which are as similar as possible in nature. The
active lifetime of such stations will obviously not exceed several
months or a year, and they will be more maneuverable than large
stations.

Large stations, weighing hundreds of tons, will be designed for

solving a broad range of scientific and national economic problems.
Stations of this type will have a prolonged active lifetime (up to
several years or even tens of years), which will require the latest
means for delivery of the crew, equipment and material and technical
supplies to the station. The characteristic feature of these stations
is that an entire complex of different scientific and national economic
problems may be solved on them.

What will be the external and internal appearance of future

space stations?

The external appearance of the station will depend mainly on the

method of assembly. By using orbital docking, stations of any weight,
dimensions and configurations may be created, with any number of
compartments. The compartments from which the space stations will be
assembled will obviously be spherical or cylindrical in shape. Such
shapes give the greatest weight in a given volume and are convenient
for assembly and configuration of the equipment inside them. A
station assembled from such sections may have any configuration:
cylindrical, spherical, in the form of a hub with spokes, dumbbell,
toroidal, etc.

Depending on its purpose, the station will consist of different

compartments. However, both small and large stations will apparently
contain the basic compartments found in f'Soyuzff type spacecraft.
 The command compartment (the cosmonauts' cabin in the " S O ~ U Z ~ ~
spacecraft) is a pressurized compartment, designed for disposition
of the cosmonauts' work sites and control consoles of the onboard
equipment of the station. This same compartment may serve t o return
the cosmonauts t o Earth, depending on its design.

The laboratory compartment is a pressurized compartment which

contains the equipment required t o carry out experiments and scientific
investigations, as well as part of the service equipment.

The orbital compartment is a pressurized compartment, designed

for crew members off duty. This compartment will contain everything
necessary for rest and preparation and eating of food. The food stores
and life support equipment will also be located here. The compartment
will be equipped with a special hatch o r airlock chamber for the cosmo-
nauts t o exit into open space (such as, for example, that on the
"Voskhod" spacecraft) and for performing external operations, experi-
ments and scientific investigations outsiee the spacecraft and trans-
fer of the crew and cargo from the transport spacecraft t o the station.

The instrument-equipment compartment is designed for disposition

of the main part of the service equipment, onboard systems, power
sources, fuel supplies for the attitude orientation, stabilization,
approach, and correction thrusters.

The command, laboratory, and orbital compartments will be

equipped with hatches for transfer from one compartment to another.
Of course, small stations may consist of other compartments. A l l
this depends on their specific purpose.

When considering the possible configurations of large stations,

preference is usually given to cylindrical or toroidal shapes. How-
ever,.these shapes have both advantages and disadvantages. Thus,
for example, a cylinder, yielding an ideal geometrical and composi-
tional configuration of a station, has considerable disadvantages
for the creation of artificial gravity by rotation about the main

108
a x i s of i n e r t i a . The s t a t i o n becomes u n r e l i a b l e when t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n
s y s t e m f a i l s , and t h e motions o f t h e crew lead t o o s c i l l a t i o n s of t h e
s t a t i o n . But such s t a t i o n s e a s i l y f i t t h e g e n e r a l c o n t o u r of t h e
l a u n c h r o c k e t , which cannot be said of t o r o i d a l s t a t i o n s . However,
t h e l a t t e r are v e r y convenient f o r c r e a t i n g a r t i f i c i a l g r a v i t y .
S t a t i o n s of t o r o i d a l shape w i l l b e assembled i n o r b i t .

Depending on t h e t y p e o f s t a t i o n , t h e number of crew members may

v a r y and may even r e a c h s e v e r a l t e n s of p e o p l e . The composition of
t h e crew w i l l depend on t h e purpose o f t h e s t a t i o n and may c o n s i s t
of pilot-cosmonauts and e n g i n e e r s , who c o n t r o l t h e f l i g h t and perform
maintenance, e n g i n e e r - i n v e s t i g a t o r s , p h y s i c i a n s , b i o l o g i s t s , p h y s i c i s t s ,
astronomers and s c i e n t i s t s of o t h e r s p e c i a l t i e s .

The o r b i t a l p a r a m e t e r s of t h e s t a t i o n a r e determined by t h e
problems which i t w i l l s o l v e , a s w e l l as by such f a c t o r s as f u e l
e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r o r b i t a l c o r r e c t i o n , e n s u r i n g r e l i a b l e and q u a l i t a t i v e
r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n communication of t h e s t a t i o n w i t h t h e E a r t h , t h e
economy o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n communications between t h e s t a t i o n and
Earth, e t c .

Thus, f o r example, l o w - a l t i t u d e o r b i t s c o n s i d e r a b l y r e d u c e t h e
c o s t of s e r v i c i n g a s t a t i o n , s i n c e t h e lower t h e o r b i t , t h e greater
t h e payload t h a t can be d e l i v e r e d t o t h e s t a t i o n , u s i n g l a u n c h r o c k e t s
of i d e n t i c a l t h r u s t .

O r b i t a l a l t i t u d e a l s o a f f e c t s t h e weight of t h e s t a t i o n i t s e l f ,
because a l e s s powerful r o c k e t may d e l i v e r compartments of g r e a t e r
weight, from which t h e s t a t i o n w i l l be assembled, t o low o r b i t s .

As a n example, l e t ' s t r y t o imagine one of t h e p o s s i b l e d e s i g n s

of a f u t u r e s p a c e s t a t i o n . The s t a t i o n has t h e shape of a "wheel"
i n o r b i t , c o n s i s t i n g of a 1 2 t o 16-angle " r i m , " a "hub," and 6 t o 8
llspokes,'l c o n n e c t i n g t h e r i m and hub. Such a s t a t i o n may be assembled
from c y l i n d r i c a l compartments, which are f i r s t o r b i t e d . The s t a t i o n
i s d i v i d e d i n t o compartments i s o l a t e d from each o t h e r . The compart-
ments a r e l i n k e d t o g e t h e r by sealed h a t c h e s . Each compartment may be
equipped with autonomous life-support systems. This increases the
safety of the station crew members. Since the station is designed
for a prolonged lifetime, artificial gravity is created on it by
slow rotation. This has a favorable effect on the crew's health, and
the crew members may stay in the station for prolonged periods.

The rim compartments are designed for living and working quarters.
Some compartments are designed for sleep, rest, and eating by the
crew members. They contain sleeping bunks, a dining area, lounge,
etc. In short, the conditions in these compartments will hardly
differ from those on Earth.

Other rim compartments will be used to control the station and

to conduct experiments and investigations. They will contain every-
thing necessary for normal work of the crew.

The working and living compartments are connected to the spokes,

which are in turn connected to the hub. The spoke compartments con-
tain the service and scientific equipment, storage areas for dispo-
sition of the life support system supplies, spare equipment, fuel for
the engines, etc.

The hub will serve as a dock for transport spacecraft and as a

laboratory,#in which experiments and scientific investigations may be
conducted under weightlessness.

Transport spacecraft will rotate the crew, deliver components

for the life support system, fuel for the correction and stabilization
thrusters, new equipment for the service systems, scientific equip- '
-
/lo1
ment, etc. These same spacecraft will return the crew, completing
its shift, to Earth, and the equipment and materials of scientific
investigations, which must be returned to Earth.

The crew of such a station may reach several tens of persons,

depending on the tasks being resolved. The crew will be delivered
to the station gradually, after the station has been assembled in

110
o r b i t . S p e c i a l cosmonaut-assemblers w i l l assemble t h e s t a t i o n . The
t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t , t h e r e q u i r e d number of which w i l l be docked t o
t h e s t a t i o n a t a l l times, w i l l be used t o e v a u c a t e the crew i n case
of a n emergency.

It i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e crews o f these s t a t i o n s w i l l
c o n s i s t of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s from d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , who w i l l s e t up
j o i n t experiments, s i n c e t h e problems of s t u d y and conquest o f space
and c e l e s t i a l b o d i e s a r e even now becoming more and more g r a d i o s e ,
concerning t h e i n t e r e s t s of a l l c o u n t r i e s , and space r e s e a r c h and
technology are more and more e n t e r i n g t h e l i f e of mankind, are
beginning t o p l a y a n e v e r g r e a t e r r o l e i n economics, and have a n e v e r
g r e a t e r e f f e c t on t h e development of a l l human c u l t u r e , i n a d d i t i o n
t o s c i e n c e and technology.

Problems of i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n i n c r e a t i o n o f complex
space systems have a l r e a d y been d i s c u s s e d i n d e t a i l a t t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
COSPAR Conference i n May 1970.

The Problem of S e r v i c i n g Space S t a t i o n s

The problem of e n s u r i n g t h e prolonged f u n c t i o n i n g of manned

space s t a t i o n s i s one of t h e main ones. The s t a t i o n s should remain
i n o r b i t f o r one o r s e v e r a l y e a r s . T h e o r e t i c a l l y , a l a r g e o r b i t a l
s t a t i o n may b e r e t u r n e d t o E a r t h and a g a i n i n j e c t e d i n t o o r b i t , b u t
t h i s i s very d i f f i c u l t i n p r a c t i c e (powerful l a u n c h r o c k e t s a r e
r e q u i r e d ) and economically u n f e a s i b l e . T h e r e f o r e , s t a t i o n s w i t h a
prolonged a c t i v e l i f e t i m e should be i n o r b i t permanently. However,
t h e c r e a t i o n of a d e q u a t e r e s e r v e s (components f o r t h e l i f e s u p p o r t
system, f u e l , s p a r e p a r t s and assemblies f o r t h e s e r v i c e equipment,
s c i e n t i f i c equipment, e t c . ) on board o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s f o r autonomous
o p e r a t i o n f o r a prolonged p e r i o d i s p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e . Moreover,
t h e s t a t i o n crew must b e r o t a t e d p e r i o d i c a l l y .

Regular supply of t h e s t a t i o n i s a n extremely important problem.

So-called t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t , c a p a b l e of e x t e n s i v e maneuvering, w i l l
be c r e a t e d f o r s o l v i n g t h i s problem.

111
 T r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t w i l l be launched p e r i o d i c a l l y from Earth-
based cosmodromes, w i l l approach t h e s t a t i o n s and dock w i t h them.
The e x t e r n a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n s of t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t a r e determined
t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e by t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s .

D i f f e r e n t t y p e s of e x t e r n a l shape of t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t are
p o s s i b l e , f o r example :

w i n g l e s s s p a c e c r a f t , u t i l i z i n g t h e l i f t i n g f o r c e c r e a t e d by
t h e i r h u l l upon r e e n t r y i n t o t h e E a r t h ' s atmosphere;
winged s p a c e c r a f t , designed f o r r e e n t r y a t h i g h speeds, b u t
having good aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s when g l i d i n g a t low speeds,
i.e. ;s p a c e a i r c r a f t .

These s p a c e c r a f t w i l l b e c a p a b l e o f maneuvering a t hypersonic

speeds.

The main advantage of a h i g h l i f t - t o - d r a g r a t i o a t h y p e r s o n i c

speeds i s t h e broad c a p a b i l i t y f o r h o r i z o n t a l maneuvering d u r i n g
r e e n t r y , and i n i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s , d u r i n g t a k e - o f f , and t h e c a p a b i l i t y
of r e p e a t e d u s e of t h e s p a c e c r a f t , s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c i n g t h e c o s t
of supply and s e r v i c i n g o f space s t a t i o n s .

Development of a t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t i n v o l v e s a number o f
p e c u l i a r i t i e s , regardless of the s p a c e c r a f t category.

For i n s t a n c e , t h e r e q u i r e d number of cargos d e l i v e r e d i s determined

by t h e purpose of t h e s t a t i o n b e i n g s e r v i c e d , by t h e number o f i t s crew
and by i t s t y p e of onboard systems, i n p a r t i c u l a r , l i f e s u p p o r t and
power supply systems.

The t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t and t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h which i t i s

launched have d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t s on t h e e n t i r e p r o g r a m o f material and
t e c h n i c a l supply. Launch frequency i s a f f e c t e d by t h e number o f crew
members at t h e s t a t i o n , t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e i r s t a y i n o r b i t ( p e r i o d i -
c i t y of crew r o t a t i o n ) , requirement f o r r e p l e n i s h i n g consumables and
d e l i v e r y of new equipment, and by t h e t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t l i f t i n g
power.
112
 Problems, r e l a t e d t o prolonged f u n c t i o n i n g of manned o r b i t a l
s t a t i o n s and a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e s , may b e s o l v e d w i t h t h e a i d o f
transport spacecraft.

T r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t may b e u t i l i z e d f o r :

d e l i v e r y o f crew members t o o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s and r e t u r n t o

Earth;
r e s c u e of s t a t i o n crew members and crews of o t h e r manned space
v e h i c l e s d u r i n g emergencies i n o r b i t ;
r e s u p p l y o f s t a t i o n s w i t h components of l i f e s u p p o r t and v i t a l
systems, v a r i o u s t y p e s of equipment, materials, f u e l , e t c . , which
t h e y consume d u r i n g t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n g ;

d e l i v e r y of e x p e r i m e n t a l equipment t o t h e s t a t i o n f o r conducting
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s under c o n d i t i o n s o f space and r e t u r n of t h e n e c e s s a r y
e x p e r i m e n t a l and s c i e n t i f i c equipment from t h e space s t a t i o n s t o
Earth;
r e p a i r and p r e v e n t i x e maintenance i n s p e c t i o n s of t h e a u t o m a t i c
space equipment i n o r b i t - a t y p e o f " r e s u s c i t a t i o n " of them
( r e s t o r a t i o n of t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n g ) ;
t r a i n i n g t h e crews of f l y i n g v e h i c l e s .

These t a s k s p l a c e t h e f o l l o w i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s on t r a n s p o r t systems:

economy i n o p e r a t i o n of t h e t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t ( e n s u r i n g r e t u r n /lo3
with repeated use);

p r o v i d i n g o p e r a t i o n s f o r rendezvous i n o r b i t , docking and

d e l i v e r y of c a r g o s ;
e x t e n s i v e m a n e u v e r a b i l i t y f o r rendezvous and docking w i t h o r b i t a l
space s t a t i o n s ;
c a p a b i l i t y of r e e n t r y w i t h i n a wide c o r r i d o r and l a n d i n g i n t h e
given region;
h i g h r e l i a b i l i t y , i . e . , t h e c a p a b i l i t y of emergency r e s c u e d u r i n g
a l l s t a g e s of f l i g h t ;

113
 p r o v i d i n g a l l n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e p r e s e n c e of man;
c o n t i n u o u s r e a d i n e s s for r e t u r n t o E a r t h .

Even now t h e "Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t meets many of t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s

placed' on t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t . Thus, f o r example, t h e "Soyuz"
s p a c e c r a f t may:

d e l i v e r t h e crews of manned s p a c e c r a f t t o E a r t h ;
r e s c u e cosmonauts d u r i n g emergencies;
r e s u p p l y manned space s t a t i o n s w i t h t h e n e c e s s a r y c a r g o e s and
e x p e r i m e n t a l and s c i e n t i f i c equipment;
rendezvous, approach, moor and dock i n o r b i t ;
land i n the given region w i t h high precision.

Thus, w e can c o n f i d e n t l y s a y t h a t s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of

s e r v i c i n g space s t a t i o n s has begun t o be s u c c e s s f u l l y s o l v e d i n t h e
S o v i e t Union, and t h a t t h e w o r l d ' s f i r s t p r o t o t y p e of a n o r b i t a l
s t a t i o n and t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t has been c r e a t e d .

Space S t a t i o n s i n t h e S e r v i c e of Man

Manned o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s p e r m i t t h e s o l u t i o n of a n e x t e n s i v e
complex of s c i e n t i f i c problems and t h o s e of n a t i o n a l economic impor-
t a n c e , r e l a t e d t o t h e f u r t h e r conquest o f s p a c e .

Many problems have a l r e a d y been s o l v e d by t h e "Vostok" and

"Voskhod" s p a c e c r a f t , and many a r e b e i n g s o l v e d w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e
"Soyuz" s p a c e c r a f t . But t h e p r o s p e c t s , opened up w i t h t h e appearance '

of o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s , are d i f f i c u l t t o o v e r e s t i m a t e .

L e t u s take astronomy, for example. Rocket technology opened

new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s t u d y i n g t h e p l a n e t s , s t e l l a r worlds, and
cosmic space.

114
 Astronomy has a l r e a d y undergone s e v e r a l r e v o l u t i o n s , and i t s
h i s t o r y may b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s t a g e s . The f i r s t s t a g e i s t h e
s t u d y of c e l e s t i a l b o d i e s w i t h t h e a i d of o p t i c a l f a c i l i t i e s ( f i e l d
glasses, telescopes, etc.). The second i s t h e "era of r a d i o astronomy,"
and t h e t h i r d i s t h e c r e a t i o n of a s p a c e s t a t i o n , opening t h e way t o
l o c a t i n g a s t r o n o m i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s o u t s i d e t h e E a r t h ' s atmosphere.

The atmosphere p l a c e d s e v e r a l b a r r i e r s b e f o r e s c i e n t i s t s , which -

/lo4
c o u l d n o t be overcome on Earth.

Space i s f i l l e d w i t h e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c waves of a l l f r e q u e n c i e s .
Each one c a r r i e s i t s own t y p e of i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e s e c t i o n of
t h e u n i v e r s e where i t was born. But o n l y a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of
r a d i o waves p e n e t r a t e t h e atmosphere and r e a c h t h e E a r t h . Some a r e
r e p e l l e d by r a d i a t i o n b e l t s , some a r e absorbed by t h e atmosphere,
o t h e r s are s c a t t e r e d , e t c .

The atmosphere n o t o n l y c o n c e a l s many t h i n g s from s c i e n t i s t s ,

i t c o n s t a n t l y a t t e m p t s t o b e g u i l e them, even i n t h e s m a l l p o r t i o n
which t h e y manage t o see t h r o u g h i t . It makes t h e stars t w i n k l e , b u t
t h e cosmonauts see t h a t t h e b r i l l i a n t p o i n t s of t h e stars glow s t e a d i l y .

The a i r of t h e atmosphere c i r c u l a t e s c o n t i n u o u s l y and i s mixed

w i t h t h e numerous p a r t i c l e s i n i t . And, t h e r e f o r e , a s t r o n o m e r s
a t t e m p t t o t a k e t h e i r t e l e s c o p e s h i g h upon mountains i n o r d e r t o
e l i m i n a t e somewhat t h e e f f e c t s of t h e atmosphere and i t s t u r b u l e n c e .

The p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e u n i v e r s e , of g r e a t i n t e r e s t
t o a s t r o n o m e r s , r e v e a l themselves i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t , i n f r a r e d o r
X-ray p o r t i o n s of t h e spectrum, which a r e completely absorbed by
t h e atmosphere.

We will f i n a l l y b e a b l e t o c a r r y o u t o b s e r v a t i o n s of t h e
u n i v e r s e i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t band. T h i s means t h a t w e w i l l f i n d o u t
much about b l u e stars and white dwarfs, and, p o s s i b l y , w i l l be a b l e
t o g u e s s t h e o r i g i n o f t h e energy p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e i n them.

115
 Moreover, i t may be p o s s i b l e t o r e v e a l t h e n a t u r e o f such
p u z z l i n g phenomena, a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d t o o u r E a r t h , as counterglow
- t h e o v a l l i g h t s p o t on t h e background of t h e n i g h t sky on t h e side
o p p o s i t e t h e Sun, as well as t o d e t e r m i n e whether the E a r t h i s s u r -
rounded by a cosmic d u s t cloud. It may be p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between z o d i a c a l l i g h t and t h e o u t e r s o l a r corona, i t
may b e p o s s i b l e t o c o l l e c t cosmic material, which f i l l s t h e s o l a r
system, and t o d e t e r m i n e i t s p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s .

A s t u d y of comets would b e o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t . Comets a r e

t h o s e b o d i e s which l i n k u s t o i n t e r s t e l l a r space. They may e x i s t
i n i t f o r i n d e f i n i t e l y l o n g p e r i o d s , b u t b r e a k up r a p i d l y upon
e n t e r i n g t h e s o l a r system. Study of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of comet n u c l e i ,
composition of comets, and t h e o r g a n i c compounds c o n t a i n e d i n them
are of enormous i n t e r e s t f o r t h e development of astronomy. T h i s w i l l
f i n a l l y lead t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of i n t e r s t e l l a r
c l o u d s , from which t h e p l a n e t s a r e formed and from which are c r e a t e d
t h e p r e l i m i n a r y c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e o r i g i n of l i f e .

A space o b s e r v a t o r y w i l l have a c c e s s t o t h e s t u d y of r a d i a t i o n
a t a l l wavelengths, and t h e r e f o r e , i t w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o s t u d y
o b j e c t s of t h e most d i v e r s e n a t u r e , which e x i s t i n space and which
are b a r e l y o r almost completely unknown: s o u r c e s which e m i t gamma-
and X-rays, as i s i n h e r e n t , f o r example, t o n e u t r o n stars, as w e l l as
sources w i t h a n e g l i g i b l e s u r f a c e temperature - b l a c k dwarfs, which /lo5
a r e abundant i n o u r Galaxy and, p o s s i b l y , a d j a c e n t t o t h e s o l a r s y s t e m .

Study of q u a s a r s and p u l s a r s w i l l throw a d d i t i o n a l l i g h t on t h e

s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of t h e o r i g i n of t h e u n i v e r s e as a whole.
There i s no doubt t h a t t h e materials, o b t a i n e d i n a space o b s e r v a t o r y ,
w i l l r e v e a l many s e c r e t s o f t h e u n i v e r s e .

Astronomical i n s t r u m e n t s are u s u a l l y unique and, t h e r e f o r e ,

expensive. They a r e designed f o r prolonged o p e r a t i o n : d i s c o v e r y of
new p r i n c i p l e s i n t h e world of c e l e s t i a l b o d i e s r e q u i r e s prolonged
s y s t e m a t i c o b s e r v a t i o n of n o t j u s t one, b u t o f t e n of many o b j e c t s of
t h e same t y p e . However, even t h e most modern a p p a r a t u s r e q u i r e pre-
v e n t i v e maintenance, a d j u s t m e n t , and s e r v i c i n g .
116
 Manned orbital astronomical observatories, whose personnel may
be rotated from time to time, are the ideal solution to the problem
of efficient and rational use of expensive equipment.

No less important is the role of man as the investigator in

performing scientific experiments. Considerable changes in the pro-
gram of observations, which could not be previously predicted, may
be required during astronomical observations in space. Novae and
supernovae flares, discovery of a previously unknown body, unexpected
intensive solar flares, unusual forms of protuberances, ejection of
a gaseous jet from a star and many other "puzzling" phenomena, which
occur unexpectedly in celestial bodies and which are usually short-
lived, and sometimes, simply unique - all this is valuable material
for scientific research. In such cases, man should act decisively,
analyze the situation quickly, change, if possible, the program of
observations, and also do everything possible to obtain the maximum
amount of data with the aid of available instruments.

It will finally be possible to free the scientific instruments

in an orbital station from the interfering "filter" of the atmosphere,
which absorbs a considerable portion of the radiation spectrum coming
from the planets, the Sun, stars and galaxies.

Physicists will have.an excellent laboratory - the ideal vacuum

of space and all the components of cosmic radiation.

With the creation of orbital stations, geophysics and physics

of the atmosphere will have the opportunity of conducting prolonged
investigations regularly and on a global scale.

It will be interesting to conduct extensive medical and biological

investigations on people, animals, and plants in space stations under
conditions of prolonged exposure to the space environment. A l l this
is necessary for man to fly to other planets and to improve methods
of selection and training of cosmonauts. It does not rule out the /lo6
possibility that weightlessness will be useful in treating certain
human diseases.
 The d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u m e n t s i n s t a l l e d i n o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s w i l l be
a b l e t o s o l v e n a t i o n a l economic problems. I n t h e same way as meteoro-
l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s moni'tor t h e weather on a g l o b a l s c a l e , many problems
o f p r a c t i c a l importance can be s o l v e d w i t h t h e a i d o f o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s .
It i s d i f f i c u l t a t p r e s e n t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p o t e n t i a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s
of o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s , and it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o enumerate t h e problems
o f t h e n e a r f u t u r e , which may b e s o l v e d w i t h t h e i r a i d by s c i e n c e and
technology.

However, i t i s q u i t e obvious t h a t o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s w i l l c o n t r i b u t e
g r e a t l y t o t h e f u t u r e p r o g r e s s of mankind.

The Bridge t o t h e F u t u r e Is Being E r e c t e d Today

The achievements i n t h e conquest of space and t h e f l i g h t s of t h e

cosmonauts have g r e a t l y ceased t o be s e n s a t i o n a l , and are becoming
somewhat r o u t i n e .

A c t u a l l y , a f t e r t h e c r e a t i o n of a n e x p e r i m e n t a l o r b i t a l s t a t i o n ,
simultaneous group f l i g h t o f t h r e e s p a c e c r a f t of t h e ffSoyuzf' s e r i e s ,
photography of Mars, o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e a i d of t h e "Mariner" automatic
probe, d i r e c t i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e atmosphere and s u r f a c e o f Venus
and, f i n a l l y , t h e f l i g h t o f t h e American a s t r o n a u t s t o t h e Moon and
t h e triumphant f l i g h t s of t h e una-16" and "Luna-17" a u t o m a t i c
p r o b e s , i t seems t h a t t h e r e remains no t a s k i n t h e conquest of space
which would c a p t u r e t h e t o t a l a t t e n t i o n o f t h e p u b l i c . Now, i f t h e
cosmonauts were t o f l y f o r y e a r s and f a r f a r away, l e t ' s s a y t o Mars,
t o t h e r i n g s o f S a t u r n o r t o t h e moons o f J u p i t e r , t h i s would a p p a r e n t l y
a g a i n c a p t u r e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n of E a r t h l i n g s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , i s n o t such a t o n e i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e c u r r e n t l e v e l
of t h e conquest of space t o o p r o s a i c ? Could people r e a l l y imagine 2 0 0 ,
1 0 0 and even 30 years ago what k i n d s o f e v e n t s would e x c i t e t h e world
i n t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s and 197Ots? We have reached t h e p o i n t about which our
a n c e s t o r s dreamed, c r e a t i n g l e g e n d s and t a l e s about f l i g h t s i n t h e
s k y , t o t h e Moon and t o t h e p l a n e t s . The a c t u a l e v e n t s have s u r p a s s e d

118
even the most daring predictions, which only yesterday seemed
impossible. Man, armed with the achievements of science, technology,
economics and culture, is transforming the face of our planet,
understanding the secrets of the universe, the microworld, and of
living matter, and is acquiring new types of energy.

Manned flights have opened up extensive opportunities. They

have yielded unique scientific information about near space. Man
has walked on the Moon. Preparations are underway for more complex
and prolonged flights. Automatic vehicles (they already number over
a thousand) have become reliable assistants of man in understanding
the universe.
Space research has laid the basis for new achievements in the
most diverse fields of human knowledge. Within an unprecedented
short period, cosmonautics has become one of the main levers of 1107
scientific and technical progress. A multiple approach to problem
solving, use of the latest achievements of science and technology and
a high level of automation are inherent to it.

The workers, designers, technicians, engineers, scientists, and

pilot-cosmonauts, who are creating space vehicles and who are imple-
menting with their aid a gradiose program of investigation and con-
quest of space, have made a considerable contribution to the labor
exploits of our people.

Space itself is a gigantic, inexhaustable, infinitely diverse

laboratory, created by nature. Such sciences as physics, chemistry,
astronomy, biology, medicine and many others, on whose development
depends the growth of the productive forces of society and its pro-
gress, require information from space to an ever greater extent.

The contribution of cosmonautics to the development of machine

3

building, electronics, study of materials, power engineering and

computer technology is considerable.
 A great deal of practical experience on the creation and operation
of the most diverse highly efficient space facilities has been accumu-
lated, and a powerful scientific and industrial base has been created
in our country -the forefather of theoretical and practical cosmo-
nautics, a country which plays the leading role in the conquest of
space and which is making a significant contribution to world
.
cosmonaut ic s

The new technology, new instruments and assemblies, created for

satellites, automatic interplanetary stations and spacecraft, are
being effectively utilized in the day-to-day practice of enterprises,
which manufacture ordinary "Earth" products. For example, one of the
most important problems faced by industry in constructing rockets
was the creation of new materials, capable of tolerating superlow and
superhigh temperatures and resistant t o variable loads and vibrations.
Such materials were created, and have become widely used.

Many metallurgical processes (for example, bonding of stainless

steel and aluminum alloys and welding of aluminim alloys developed
for space rocket technology) are finding broad application in other
branches of industry. And the industrial equipment and accessories,
developed for forming the large components of rocket hulls, are being
used in shipbuilding.

Limitation of the weight and.size of instruments - a necessary

condition for successful investigations in space - had a significant
effect on progress in the field of microminiaturization of technical
facilities in general.

The unusual operating conditions during space flight, the unique

nature of the problems solved, and the requirements for high reli-
ability led t o the fact that space rocket complexes became one of the
most complex and perfect types of technology. At the same time,
organization itself of space research and the solution of a number of /lo8
problems related t o these investigations, are having and will continue
t o have a considerable effect on the overall level of development of
technology and are stimulating this development.

120
 Everyone knows that the Soviet space program is distinguished by
a structured aspect and strict sequence in completing specific stages.
We go from one important stage to another, concerning ourselves with
exhaustive preparation and reliable support of each new step. The
step-by-step complication of the tasks performed and, as data are
accumulated, the desire to switch from single preliminary experiments
to extensive multiple investigations can be clearly followed.

At present, three main fields for application of space vehicles

may be rather confidently distinguished - near space, the Moon and
circumlunar space, and Venus and Mars.

Near space is the main arena of systematic scientific research

and national economic experiments with the aid of automatic vehicles
and manned spacecraft. It is here that specialized systems of auto-
matic vehicles are formulated for national economic and scientific
purposes. It is here that manned orbital stations will be created
in the future and will begin to function, and it is here that future
launches of expeditions to Mars, Venus and other planets of the solar
system will be possible in the future.

Artificial Earth satellites are serving man even today. Satellites

of national economic importance are operating successfully in low
orbits for communications and meteorology. The "Orbita" communication
system, which employs "Molniya-1" artificial Earth satellites and
which is designed for the relay of television programs and long-range
telephone and telegraph communications, has already recovered its
production costs. Moverover, due to implementation of this system,
it is no longer necessary to erect more than 15,000 kilometers of
overhead radio relay lines.

We are also obtaining much valuable data from the "Meteor"

meteorological satellite system.

The "Kosmos" series of satellites, equipped with different

apparatus, are fulfilling an extensive program of diverse scientific
investigations. The number of satellites in this series is already
approaching 500.
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 The use of satellites for navigation and geodesy is of great
importance for science and technology, transportation and construction.
In the near future, such systems will enter regular service in mari-
time and air traffic control, in laying traverses of intercontinental
power transmission lines and petroleum pipelines, and in selecting
and surveying the locations of new industrial and residential
construction. A new branch of utilizing satellite technology -
/lo9
- direct accumulation of data for the fishing industry, water and
forest management, agriculture and geology t o determine the Earth's
natural resources (including the world ocean) and monitoring the
rationale of their exploitation - will acquire a special role. Both
automatic and manned spacecraft will be employed for these purposes.

It is no longer so fantastic t o imagine launching of entire

industrial-technical installations into near space. Let's say that
it is very difficult t o create a high vacuum on Earth, powerful radi-
ation, superlow temperatures or intense magnetic fields. An orbital
station is an ideal place where all these conditions are present in
combined form. They provide the possibility of developing essentially
new technology of many branches of industrial production. In the more
distant future, we will apparently be forced t o take numerous power
installation beyond the confines of the Earth. Otherwise,
their operation, which involves release of heat into the surrounding
environment, will ultimately lead to an undesirable increase in the
temperature of the Earth's surface.

We may assume that artificial satellites will become more

specialized and will permit a deeper study of certain pro-
cesses. At the same time, the service equipment - heat regulating
systems, telemetry and radio equipment - will be standardized t o a
greater extent and will be designed t o function for many years. If
necessary, specialized systems may be created from this automatic
apparatus. The cost of automatic stations and launch rockets will
decrease significantly in the future, their launches will make a
greater contribution t o science and the national economy, and they
will yield a discernible saving.

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 Manned spacecraft and orbital stations, on the contrary, will
be more universal and will permit extensive scientific investigations
and experiments during flight. Essentially, entire "institutes" will
function in orbit. This will permit technical experiments and flight
tests of ever more complex circumterrestrial stations and spacecraft,
designed for flights t o the planets of the solar system.

In a number of cases, heavy automatic multi-purpose satellites

will be employed for systematic investigations in space. Equipment,
which will be able t o function for a prolonged period, should be
created for these satellites.

International cooperation will acquire a special role in the

conquest of space. Even now the USSR is successfully cooperating with
the Socialist countries and France. We hope that an even greater
number of countries will join forces in the future. This will con-
siderably expand the front of investigations and rational balancing -
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of expenditures for cosmonautics.

The Moon and circumlunar space in the current Soviet space

program is a kind of scientific and technical "test range," where a
diverse program of scientific investigations is being carried out and
where exhaustive checks are being made on the correctness of the
engineering solutions and efficiency of designs and systems under
conditions of sharp temperature drops, vacuum, and weak gravitation.
Stationary and mobile automatic facilities permit a study of the
physical and chemical characteristics of the Moon and circumlunar
space. They expand our concepts about the origin and structure of
the universe. They operate successfully on the Moon, and are pro-
viding scientists and engineers with practical knowledge and necessary
experience for creation of new automatic machines.

Venus and Mars are the nearest planets,,neighbors of Earth.

Like the Moon, they are the objects of study with the aid of space
vehicles. These investigations yield unique data, which even the
latest Earth-based optical and radio astronomical facilities are
unable t o provide. Venus and Mars are unique targets for modern
space technology. Automatic interplanetary probes have already
been launched toward them. Scientific and technical investigations
are being conducted on trajectories, measured in tens of millions of
miles, and near the planets. During prolonged flights at great
distances from the Earth, the onboard and ground-based facilities
for radio control and telemetry, operation of scientific and service
equipment, which is affected by the real factors of interplanetary
flight, are checked exhaustively and complex ballistics calculations
are made. As in a study of the Moon, a foundation is being laid for
more complex space flights in the future.

Scientists and engineers are designing new automatic vehicles

which will replace current ones within a f e w years. In the near
future, automatic vehicles will begin a study of Saturn, Jupiter and
other planets, even t o the most distant planet from us, Pluto, in
addition t o Venus and Mars. Exceptionally broad possibilities for
using automatic vehicles open up in the study of small celestial
bodies: comets, asteroids, satellites of planets, as well as the
remote regions of the solar system, where man cannot yet go. And it
is no accident that automatic vehicles are being given an important
role in the current Soviet space program, because they are tens of'
times more inexpensive than manned vehicles, are highly reliable,
and transmit data from inaccessible regions. Manned flights in both
circumterrestrial space and t o the Moon and planets will be under-
taken in lesser numbers in relation t o automatic vehicles, as required.

Recently different circles of the public, journalists and

specialists in the West, have been studying Soviet space research
more intently. Its clearness of thought and logical development are
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noted. The purposeful development of the space program may be followed
by the example of 1970. In 1970, the Soviet Union continued its
systematic conquest of space in the interests of science, the national
economy and for the welfare of the Soviet people -the builders of
communism. This was a year of a renowned anniversary -the 100th
year from the birth of the founder of the Party and of our state,

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V. I. Lenin -a y e a r , which concluded t h e f i v e - y e a r p l a n , a y e a r of
p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e 24th Congress of t h e CPSU. It was one of
importance and r e f l e c t i o n f o r S o v i e t cosmonautics. More t h a n 85
space v e h i c l e s were launched d u r i n g t h e y e a r . These were t h e s a t e l -
l i t e s of t h e "Kosmos," "Molniya," "Meteor," and "Interkosmos" s e r i e s ,
t h e 11Soyuz-91' manned s p a c e c r a f t , t h e 'IZond-8 ,""Luna-16 ,"and "Luna-17"
a u t o m a t i c p r o b e s , t h e "Venera-7" i n t e r p l a n e t a r y probe and t h e
" V e r t i k a l -1" r o c k e t a s t r o p h y s i c a l o b s e r v a t o r y and g e o p h y s i c a l r o c k e t .

During t h e c o u r s e of t h e S o v i e t experiments, e s s e n t i a l l y new

t y p e s of s p a c e f a c i l i t i e s were approved, t e c h n i c a l systems and equip-
ment were t e s t e d , a s e a r c h was conducted f o r new methods of s c i e n t i f i c
r e s e a r c h and data t r a n s m i s s i o n , and t h e main problems on which f u t u r e
prolonged f l i g h t s of man depend were s o l v e d .

We r e c a l l , f o r example, t h e h i s t o r i c f l i g h t o f t h e "Luna-16"
probe, which r e t u r n e d to E a r t h w i t h samples o f l u n a r r o c k s . The
s u c c e s s f u l f l i g h t of t h i s probe was a new phase i n t h e development
of s p a c e automation. The f l i g h t of t h e " L ~ n a - 1 6 probe ~~ opens pros-
p e c t s f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of p l a n e t s w i t h t h e a i d o f a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e s ,
which o b t a i n n o t o n l y t h e r e q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t r e t u r n i t t o E a r t h .
How c a n w e not r e c a l l t h e a n a l y s i s of t h e f l i g h t o f t h e "Luna-16"
probe, given b y P r o f e s s o r Bernard L o v e l l , d i r e c t o r of t h e J o r d r e l l
Bank Observatory: "The task accomplished by 'Luna-16' i s a r e a l
r e v o l u t i o n i n t h e conquest of s p a c e . . . I a m c o n f i d e n t t h a t 'Luna-16'
w i l l open up p o s s i b i l i t i e s even d u r i n g t h i s decade t o a g a i n t a k e
samples of r o c k , i n p a r t i c u l a r on Mars, w i t h t h e a i d of a u t o m a t i c
v e h i c l e s , I n s h o r t , a new page has been opened i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y
communication and r e s e a r c h . "

And what a b o u t t h e f l i g h t of t h e 11Luna-1711probe?

On 17 November, t h e v e h i c l e d e l i v e r e d t o t h e r e g i o n of t h e Sea
of Rains t h e a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e llLunokhod-lll - t h e w o r l d ' s f i r s t
mobile a u t o m a t i c space v e h i c l e , which completed a n e x t e n s i v e program
of s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n v a r i o u s r e g i o n s of t h e
l u n a r s u r f a c e , and which opened up new p o s s i b i l i t i e s .

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 The instruments for determining the physiocomechanical properties
and chemical composition of the lunar soil, installed on the lunar
roving vehicle, permitted experiments at different points over the
route of its travel. Astrophysical observations were carriedout with
the aid of an X-ray telescope on the lunar roving vehicle. We know
that the stars of galaxies and other astronomical objects emit power- /112
ful X-rays, caused by the superhigh temperatures of the stars and the
unusual and transient processes in development of whole galaxies.
Observations of such emissions are impossible from Earth, because the
Earth's atmosphere is essentially opaque to this type of radiation.
Observations from the Moon, which is devoid of an atmosphere, may
provide much new data unknown t o science.

"Lunokhod-1" also has a laser reflector, manufactured in coopera-

tion with French specialists. This device permits the calculation
of the distance from the Earth t o the Moon with an accuracy of meters.
And such precise measurements are very important, because they permit
the determination of the effect of the Earth's gravitational field on
the motion of the Moon, the effects of slight rotational motions of
the Moon with respect t o the Earth, and much more.

The creators of the llLunokhod-lll vehicle had t o overcome a number

of design and operational problems - the vehicle had to operate
reliably under specific conditions, over terrain with a relief charac-
terized by depressions, cracks, rocks and ridges. Specific require-
ments were also placed on the control system: the distance between
the control center and "Lunokhod-1" is about 400,00O_kilometers! The
kilometers covered over a broken terrain, the mass of scientific and
technical information and the practical experience in controlling the
movement of an automatic mobile investigator - these are far from
complete results which confirm that the idea of using such vehicles
is not only real, but is very promising for a systematic investigation
of the Moon and planets. The " L ~ n a - 1 6and
~ ~ 11Luna-171v
vehicles are
essentially new types of automatic devices which are opening up truly
unlimited possibilities.

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 But l e t ' s r e t u r n t o manned f l i g h t s .

The l a u n c h of e v e r y manned s p a c e c r a f t a t t r a c t s t h e a t t e n t i o n of
the e n t i r e p l a n e t , and p e o p l e of a l l c o u n t r i e s of t h e world f o l l o w
i t s c o u r s e c l o s e l y . The f l i g h t of a s p a c e c r a f t i s a complex s c i e n -
t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l experiment, i n which thousands o f p e o p l e t a k e p a r t ,
and e a c h s u c h experiment means t h a t mankind has g a i n e d y e t a n o t h e r
v i c t o r y over t h e f o r c e s o f n a t u r e , t h a t a n o t h e r s t e p forward has been
made i n t h e development o f s c i e n c e and technology. It i s on these
basis t h a t w e must c o n s i d e r t h e unique s c i e n t i f i c - t e c h n i c a l and medi-
c a l and b i o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , and t h e experiments i n t h e i n t e r e s t s
of t h e n a t i o n a l economy o f t h e c o u n t r y , which were c a r r i e d o u t on
board t h e " S a l y u t " o r b i t a l s t a t i o n .

R e c e n t l y s p a c e f l i g h t s have brought u s c o n s i d e r a b l y c l o s e r t o
t h e c r e a t i o n of o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s , t o l a u n c h e s of a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e s
f o r deep s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y o f v a r i o u s r e g i o n s o f t h e " u n i v e r s e , and t o
t h e c r e a t i o n o f l a r g e l a b o r a t o r i e s and p o s s i b l y e n t i r e c i t i e s i n
c i r c u m t e r r e s t r i a l space.

The d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e of t h e S o v i e t s p a c e program i s i t s
r u s h toward t h e f u t u r e . Even now t h e base i s b e i n g l a i d f o r a unique /113,
s p a c e " b r i d g e " which w i l l p r o v i d e a n e s s e n t i a l l y new approach t o
f u t u r e development o f world cosmonautics.

We have a t t e m p t e d t o c i t e s e v e r a l c l e a r examples of t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s o f S o v i e t cosmonautics, t o show i t s c u r r e n t
l e v e l , t o d e l i n e a t e t h e t r e n d s f o r f u r t h e r development, and t o pre-
s e n t t h o s e b e n e f i t s which mankind may r e a p from s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y .
Yes, even b e n e f i t s , and t h e r e f o r e , everyone needs s p a c e now. The
s p a c e v e h i c l e s of v a r i o u s c o u n t r i e s have a l r e a d y v i s i t e d s p a c e : t h e
__
USSR, United S t a t e s , England, France, Canada, West Germany, A u s t r a l i a ,
I t a l y , J a p a n and t h e Chinese Peoples Republic. Tens o f c o u n t r i e s
are p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n j o i n t experiments ( w i t h i n t h e framework o f
i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n and space programs). The d e v e l o p i n g
c o u n t r i e s are a l s o b e i n g brought i n t o t h i s s p h e r e . The e x p e r i e n c e

127
of s p a c e r e s e a r c h d u r i n g r e c e n t y e a r s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e r e i s
p r e s e n t l y n o t one c o u n t r y which i s a p p a r e n t l y n o t c a p a b l e of i t s e l f
implementing e v e r more v a l u a b l e and t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e p r o j e c t s .
T h i s i s a l l r e l a t e d t o t h e enormous p e c u n i a r y i n v e s t m e n t s and t o
t h e maximum i n p u t o f t h e c r e a t i v e and p r o d u c t i v e e f f o r t s of p e o p l e .
It i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t t h e r o l e of i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n i n
space r e s e a r c h w i l l i n c r e a s e s h a r p l y i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . It w i l l
encompass a s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r number of c o u n t r i e s , and w i l l per-
m i t a more e f f e c t i v e s t u d y and conquest of space. Cosmonautics w i l l
c r o s s n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s more and more o f t e n , w i l l be t h e basis f o r
s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l c o o p e r a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , and w i l l
c o n t r i b u t e t o a mutual u n d e r s t a n d i n g between t h e p e o p l e s o f t h e
world.

Again and a g a i n , w e t h i n k a b o u t t h e enormous c o n t r i b u t i o n o f

o u r c o n t r y t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f s p a c e , a b o u t how t h e homeland of
t h e Great October R e v o l u t i o n i s l e a d i n g world s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i -
c a l p r o g r e s s i n t h i s e s s e n t i a l l y i m p o r t a n t d i r e c t i o n . The S o v i e t
p e o p l e a r e t u r n i n g toward t h e Communist P a r t y , are proud of t h e
s t e a d i l y growing might of S o c i a l i s t economics, t h e r a p i d development
of S o v i e t technology, and t h e i n c r e a s i n g s k i l l s of o u r e n g i n e e r i n g -
t e c h n i c a l and working c a d r e s .

O f c o u r s e , w e a r e s t i l l j u s t l e a r n i n g how t o d e r i v e s p e c i f i c
b e n e f i t s from s p a c e r e s e a r c h . But t h e p r o p e r o r g a n i z a t i o n of i n v e s -
t i g a t i o n s and r a t i o n a l u t i l i z a t i o n of t h o s e achievements of cosmo-
n a u t i c s , which w e now p o s s e s s , w i l l p e r m i t u s even i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e
t o change s p a c e i n t o one of t h e most promising and p r o f i t a b l e branches
of t h e economy.

We have a t t e m p t e d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e p r e s e n t and f u t u r e cosmonautics.

D e t a i l e d a n a l y s e s are s u p e r f l u o u s a t p r e s e n t , and t h e y a r e u s u a l l y
d e b a t a b l e . But one t h i n g i s i n d i s p u t a b l e - space i s n e c e s s a r y f o r
man, and i t w i l l s e r v e man f o r p e a c e f u l p u r p o s e s .

The b r i d g e t o t h e f u t u r e i s b e i n g e r e c t e d even today!

*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1973-739-155/74

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