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• 3 • Fundamental Theory
Introduction 3.1
References 3.7
Chap3-16-29 1/07/02 8:23 Page 17
• 3 • Fundamental Theor y
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The Protection Engineer is concerned with limiting the
effects of disturbances in a power system. These
disturbances, if allowed to persist, may damage plant
and interrupt the supply of electric energy. They are
described as faults (short and open circuits) or power
swings, and result from natural hazards (for instance
lightning), plant failure or human error.
To facilitate rapid removal of a disturbance from a power
system, the system is divided into 'protection zones'.
Relays monitor the system quantities (current, voltage)
appearing in these zones; if a fault occurs inside a zone,
the relays operate to isolate the zone from the remainder
of the power system.
The operating characteristic of a relay depends on the
energizing quantities fed to it such as current or voltage,
or various combinations of these two quantities, and on
the manner in which the relay is designed to respond to
this information. For example, a directional relay
characteristic would be obtained by designing the relay
to compare the phase angle between voltage and current
at the relaying point. An impedance-measuring
characteristic, on the other hand, would be obtained by
designing the relay to divide voltage by current. Many
other more complex relay characteristics may be
obtained by supplying various combinations of current
and voltage to the relay. Relays may also be designed to
respond to other system quantities such as frequency,
power, etc.
In order to apply protection relays, it is usually necessary
to know the limiting values of current and voltage, and
their relative phase displacement at the relay location,
for various types of short circuit and their position in the
system. This normally requires some system analysis for
faults occurring at various points in the system.
The main components that make up a power system are
generating sources, transmission and distribution
networks, and loads. Many transmission and distribution
circuits radiate from key points in the system and these
circuits are controlled by circuit breakers. For the
purpose of analysis, the power system is treated as a
network of circuit elements contained in branches
radiating from nodes to form closed loops or meshes.
The system variables are current and voltage, and in
steady state analysis, they are regarded as time varying The representation of a vector quantity algebraically in
quantities at a single and constant frequency. The terms of its rectangular co-ordinates is called a 'complex
network parameters are impedance and admittance; quantity'. Therefore, x + jy is a complex quantity and is
these are assumed to be linear, bilateral (independent of the rectangular form of the vector |Z|∠θ where:
current direction) and constant for a constant frequency.
Z= (x+ y2
2
)
y
3 . 2 V E C TO R A L G E B R A θ = tan −1
x
A vector represents a quantity in both magnitude and
x = Z cos θ
direction. In Figure 3.1 the vector OP has a magnitude
|Z| at an angle θ with the reference axis OX. —
y = Z sin θ
…Equation 3.2
Figure
Y 3.1 From Equations 3.1 and 3.2:
—
Z = |Z| (cos θ + jsin θ) …Equation 3.3
P
and since cos θ and sin θ may be expressed in
exponential form by the identities:
|Z|
y e jθ − e − jθ
sin θ =
q 2j
X
0 x e jθ − e − jθ
cosθ =
2
Figure 3.1: Vector OP —
it follows that Z may also be written as:
Fundamental Theor y
—
It may be resolved into two components at right angles Z = |Z|e jθ …Equation 3.4
to each other, in this case x and y. The magnitude or Therefore, a vector quantity may also be represented
scalar value of vector Z is known as the modulus |Z|, and trigonometrically and exponentially.
the angle θ is the argument, or amplitude, and is written
—
as arg. Z. The conventional method of expressing a vector
—
Z is to write simply |Z|∠θ. 3 . 3 M A N I P U L AT I O N
This form completely specifies a vector for graphical OF COMPLEX QUANTITIES
representation or conversion into other forms. Complex quantities may be represented in any of the
For vectors to be useful, they must be expressed four co-ordinate systems given below:
—
algebraically. In Figure 3.1, the vector Z is the resultant a. Polar Z∠ θ
of vectorially adding its components x and y;
• 3• algebraically this vector may be written as: b. Rectangular x + jy
c. Trigonometric |Z| (cos θ + jsin θ)
—
Z = x + jy …Equation 3.1
d. Exponential |Z|e jθ
where the operator j indicates that the component y is The modulus |Z| and the argument θ are together known
perpendicular to component x. In electrical as 'polar co-ordinates', and x and y are described as
nomenclature, the axis OC is the 'real' or 'in-phase' axis, 'cartesian co-ordinates'. Conversion between co-
and the vertical axis OY is called the 'imaginary' or ordinate systems is easily achieved. As the operator j
'quadrature' axis. The operator j rotates a vector anti- obeys the ordinary laws of algebra, complex quantities in
clockwise through 90°. If a vector is made to rotate anti- rectangular form can be manipulated algebraically, as
clockwise through 180°, then the operator j has can be seen by the following:
performed its function twice, and since the vector has — —
Z1 + Z2 = (x1+x2) + j(y1+y2) …Equation 3.5
reversed its sense, then: — —
Z1 - Z2 = (x1-x2) + j(y1-y2) …Equation 3.6
j x j or j2 = -1
(see Figure 3.2)
whence j = √-1
Fundamental Theor y
in exponential form. operator is not a physical quantity; it is dimensionless.
When dealing with such functions it is important to The symbol j, which has been compounded with
appreciate that the quantity contains real and imaginary quadrature components of complex quantities, is an
components. If it is required to investigate only one operator that rotates a quantity anti-clockwise through
component of the complex variable, separation into 90°. Another useful operator is one which moves a
components must be carried out after the mathematical vector anti-clockwise through 120°, commonly
operation has taken place. represented by the symbol a.
Example: Determine the rate of change of the real Operators are distinguished by one further feature; they
component of a vector |Z|∠wt with time. are the roots of unity. Using De Moivre's theorem, the
nth root of unity is given by solving the expression:
|Z|∠wt = |Z| (coswt + jsinwt)
11/n = (cos2πm + jsin2πm)1/n
= |Z|e jwt
where m is any integer. Hence: • 3•
The real component of the vector is |Z|coswt.
2 πm 2 πm
Differentiating |Z|e jwt with respect to time: 11/ n = cos + j sin
n n
d
Z e jwt = jw Z e jwt where m has values 1, 2, 3, ... (n-1)
dt
From the above expression j is found to be the 4th root
= jw|Z| (coswt + jsinwt)
and a the 3rd root of unity, as they have four and three
Separating into real and imaginary components: distinct values respectively. Table 3.1 gives some useful
functions of the a operator.
d
dt
( )
Z e jwt = Z ( − w sin wt + jw cos wt )
'imaginary component', X, is the circuit reactance. When steady state terms Equation 3.12 may be written:
the circuit reactance is inductive (that is, wL>1/wC), the
current 'lags' the voltage by an angle φ, and when it is ∑E = ∑I Z …Equation 3.13
capacitive (that is, 1/wC>wL) it 'leads' the voltage by an
and this is known as the equated-voltage equation [3.1].
angle φ.
It is the equation most usually adopted in electrical
When drawing vector diagrams, one vector is chosen as
network calculations, since it equates the driving
the 'reference vector' and all other vectors are drawn
voltages, which are known, to the passive voltages,
relative to the reference vector in terms of magnitude
which are functions of the currents to be calculated.
and angle. The circuit impedance |Z| is a complex
operator and is distinguished from a vector only by the In describing circuits and drawing vector diagrams, for
fact that it has no direction of its own. A further formal analysis or calculations, it is necessary to adopt a
convention is that sinusoidally varying quantities are notation which defines the positive direction of assumed
described by their 'effective' or 'root mean square' (r.m.s.) current flow, and establishes the direction in which
values; these are usually written using the relevant positive voltage drops and voltage rises act. Two
symbol without a suffix. methods are available; one, the double suffix method, is
used for symbolic analysis, the other, the single suffix or
Thus:
diagrammatic method, is used for numerical
calculations.
I = Im 2
In the double suffix method the positive direction of
E = Em 2 …Equation 3.11 current flow is assumed to be from node a to node b and
The 'root mean square' value is that value which has the the current is designated Iab . With the diagrammatic
same heating effect as a direct current quantity of that method, an arrow indicates the direction of current flow.
value in the same circuit, and this definition applies to The voltage rises are positive when acting in the
non-sinusoidal as well as sinusoidal quantities. direction of current flow. It can be seen from Figure 3.4
— — —
that E1 and Ean are positive voltage rises and E2 and
—
Fundamental Theor y
Ebn are negative voltage rises. In the diagrammatic
3.4.2 Sign Conventions method their direction of action is simply indicated by an
— —
In describing the electrical state of a circuit, it is often arrow, whereas in the double suffix method, Ean and Ebn
necessary to refer to the 'potential difference' existing indicate that there is a potential rise in directions na and nb.
between two points in the circuit. Since wherever such Figure 3.4 Methods or representing a circuit
a potential difference exists, current will flow and energy
will either be transferred or absorbed, it is obviously
necessary to define a potential difference in more exact Z3
terms. For this reason, the terms voltage rise and voltage I
drop are used to define more accurately the nature of the Z1 Z2
potential difference.
E1 E2
Voltage rise is a rise in potential measured in the
direction of current flow between two points in a circuit. • 3•
Voltage drop is the converse. A circuit element with a
E1-E2=(Z1+Z2+Z3)I
voltage rise across it acts as a source of energy. A circuit
(a) Diagrammatic
element with a voltage drop across it acts as a sink of
energy. Voltage sources are usually active circuit a
Zab
b
elements, while sinks are usually passive circuit Iab
elements. The positive direction of energy flow is from Zan Zbn
sources to sinks.
Ean Ebn
Kirchhoff's first law states that the sum of the driving
voltages must equal the sum of the passive voltages in a
closed loop. This is illustrated by the fundamental n
equation of an electric circuit: Ean-Ebn=(Zan+Zab+Zbn)Iab
(b) Double suffix
Ldi 1
dt C ∫
iR + + idt = e …Equation 3.12
Figure 3.4 Methods of representing a circuit
where the terms on the left hand side of the equation are
voltage drops across the circuit elements. Expressed in
Voltage drops are also positive when acting in the component of current, and is known as 'reactive power'.
direction of current flow. From Figure 3.4(a) it can be
— — — — As P and Q are constants which specify the power
seen that ( Z1+ Z2+ Z3) I is the total voltage drop in the
exchange in a given circuit, and are products of the
loop in the direction of current flow, and must equate to —
— — current and voltage vectors, then if S is the vector
the total voltage rise E1- E2. In Figure 3.4(b), the voltage —— —
— product E I it follows that with E as the reference vector
drop between nodes a and b designated Vab indicates — —
and φ as the angle between E and I :
that point b is at a lower potential than a, and is positive —
— S = P + jQ
when current flows from a to b. Conversely Vba is a …Equation 3.16
negative voltage drop. —
The quantity S is described as the 'apparent power', and
Symbolically: is the term used in establishing the rating of a circuit.
—
— — — S has units of VA.
Vab = Van - Vbn
— — —
Vba = Vbn - Van …Equation 3.14
3.4.4 Single-Phase and Polyphase Systems
where n is a common reference point. A system is single or polyphase depending upon whether
the sources feeding it are single or polyphase. A source
3.4.3 Power is single or polyphase according to whether there are one
or several driving voltages associated with it. For
The product of the potential difference across and the example, a three-phase source is a source containing
current through a branch of a circuit is a measure of the three alternating driving voltages that are assumed to
rate at which energy is exchanged between that branch reach a maximum in phase order, A, B, C. Each phase
and the remainder of the circuit. If the potential driving voltage is associated with a phase branch of the
difference is a positive voltage drop, the branch is system network as shown in Figure 3.5(a).
passive and absorbs energy. Conversely, if the potential
difference is a positive voltage rise, the branch is active If a polyphase system has balanced voltages, that is,
and supplies energy. equal in magnitude and reaching a maximum at equally
Fundamental Theor y
Since the voltages are symmetrical, they may be system impedances may be converted to those base
expressed in terms of one, that is: quantities by using the equations given below:
— —
Ea = Ea MVAb 2
Zb 2 = Zb1 ×
— — MVAb1
Eb = a2 Ea
— — 2
Ec = a Ea kVb1
…Equation 3.17
Zb 2 = Zb1 ×
kVb 2 …Equation 3.20
where a is the vector operator e j2π/3. Further, if the phase
where suffix b1 denotes the value to the original base
branch impedances are identical in a balanced system, it
follows that the resulting currents are also balanced. and b2 denotes the value to new base
The choice of impedance notation depends upon the
complexity of the system, plant impedance notation and
3.5 IMPEDANCE NOTATION
the nature of the system calculations envisaged.
It can be seen by inspection of any power system
If the system is relatively simple and contains mainly
diagram that:
transmission line data, given in ohms, then the ohmic
a. several voltage levels exist in a system method can be adopted with advantage. However, the
b. it is common practice to refer to plant MVA in per unit method of impedance notation is the most
terms of per unit or percentage values common for general system studies since:
c. transmission line and cable constants are given in 1. impedances are the same referred to either side of
ohms/km a transformer if the ratio of base voltages on the
two sides of a transformer is equal to the
Before any system calculations can take place, the transformer turns ratio
system parameters must be referred to 'base quantities'
and represented as a unified system of impedances in 2. confusion caused by the introduction of powers of
either ohmic, percentage, or per unit values. 100 in percentage calculations is avoided
Fundamental Theor y
The base quantities are power and voltage. Normally, 3. by a suitable choice of bases, the magnitudes of
they are given in terms of the three-phase power in MVA the data and results are kept within a predictable
and the line voltage in kV. The base impedance resulting range, and hence errors in data and computations
from the above base quantities is: are easier to spot
Most power system studies are carried out using
Zb =
(kV )
2
Right selection
where MVAb = base MVA 11.8kV 141kV 141 x 11=11.7kV
132
kVb = base kV
Simple transposition of the above formulae will refer the Figure 3.6: Selection of base voltages
ohmic value of impedance to the per unit or percentage
values and base quantities.
Having chosen base quantities of suitable magnitude all
—
voltage, find the percentage impedances to new base proportional to the potential difference V appearing
— ——
quantities. across the branch, that is, V = I Z .
12.5 × × = 20.1% The algebraic sum of all the driving voltages in any
75 (132 )2 closed path (or mesh) in a network is equal to the
algebraic sum of all the passive voltages (products of the
• 3• NOTE: The base voltages of the generator and circuits
impedances and the currents) in the components
are 11kV and 145kV respectively, that is, the turns
ratio of the transformer. The corresponding per unit branches, that is:
values can be found by dividing by 100, and the ohmic
value can be found by using Equation 3.19. ∑ E = ∑Z I
Alternatively, the total change in potential around a
Figure 3.7 closed loop is zero.
T1
G1
132kV 3.6.2 Circuit Theorems
overhead
lines From the above network laws, many theorems have been
G2
derived for the rationalisation of networks, either to
T2 reach a quick, simple, solution to a problem or to
represent a complicated circuit by an equivalent. These
theorems are divided into two classes: those concerned
Figure 3.7: Section of a power system with the general properties of networks and those
Fundamental Theor y
Any three-terminal network can be replaced by a delta or
star impedance equivalent without disturbing the N
external network. The formulae relating the replacement
of a delta network by the equivalent star network is as Figure 3.9: Typical power system network
follows (Figure 3.8):
— — — — — —
Zco = Z13 Z23 / (Z12 + Z13 + Z23)
Z AO Z NO
and so on. Z AN = Z AO + Z NO +
Z BO
Zao O Zbo Z12 0.75 ×18.85
a b 1 2 = 0.75 +18.85 +
0.45
Zco Z13 Z23 = 51 ohms
c
3
• 3•
Z BO Z NO
(a) Star network (b) Delta network Z BN = Z BO + Z NO +
Z AO
Figure 3.8:Star-Delta
Figure 3.8: Star/Delta network
network reduction
transformation
0.45 ×18.85
= 0.45 +18.85 +
The impedance of a delta network corresponding to and 0.75
replacing any star network is: =30.6 ohms
— —
— — — Zao Zbo
Z12 = Zao + Zbo + ————————
—
Zco Z AO Z BO
Z AN = Z AO + Z BO +
and so on. Z NO
= 1.2 ohms (since ZNO>>> ZAOZBO)
Figure 3.10
0.4 x 30.6
Ω Correct circuit reduction must take account of this
0.4Ω 31
B B coupling.
I
N N P Zab Q
(b) Reduction of right active mesh Ib
Zbb
Figure 3.11: Reduction of active meshes:
(a) Actual circuit
Thévenin's Theorem
Considering each case in turn: The assumption is made that an equivalent star
network can replace the network shown. From
a. consider the circuit shown in Figure 3.13(a). The
inspection with one terminal isolated in turn and a
application of a voltage V between the terminals P
voltage V impressed across the remaining terminals
and Q gives:
it can be seen that:
V = IaZaa + IbZab
Za+Zc=Zaa
V = IaZab + IbZbb
Zb+Zc=Zbb
where Ia and Ib are the currents in branches a and
Za+Zb=Zaa+Zbb-2Zab
b, respectively and I = Ia + Ib , the total current
entering at terminal P and leaving at terminal Q. Solving these equations gives:
Solving for Ia and Ib :
Za = Zaa − Zab
Ia =
(Zbb − Zab )V Zb = Zbb − Zab
Zaa Zbb − Zab
2
Zc = Zab …Equation 3.23
from which
-see Figure 3.14(b).
Ib =
(Zaa − Zab )V
Zaa Zbb − Zab
2
c. consider the four-terminal network given in Figure
and 3.15(a), in which the branches 11' and 22' are
electrically separate except for a mutual link. The
V (Zaa + Zbb − 2 Zab ) equations defining the network are:
I = Ia +Ib =
Zaa Zbb − Zab
2
V1=Z11I1+Z12I2
so that the equivalent impedance of the original
circuit is: V2=Z21I1+Z22I2
Fundamental Theor y
I1=Y11V1+Y12V2
V Zaa Zbb − Zab2
Z= = I2=Y21V1+Y22V2
I Zaa + Zbb − 2 Zab …Equation 3.21
where Z12=Z21 and Y12=Y21 , if the network is
(Figure 3.13(b)), and, if the branch impedances are
assumed to be reciprocal. Further, by solving the
equal, the usual case, then:
above equations it can be shown that:
Z=
1
2
(Zaa + Zab ) …Equation 3.22 Y11 = Z22 ∆
(Figure 3.13(c)). Y22 = Z11 ∆
Y12 = Z12 ∆
b. consider the circuit in Figure 3.14(a).
∆ = Z11Z22 − Z122 …Equation 3.24
In order to evaluate the branches of the equivalent defining the equivalent mesh in Figure 3.15(b), and
mesh let all points of entry of the actual circuit be inserting radial branches having impedances equal
commoned except node 1 of circuit 1, as shown in to Z11 and Z22 in terminals 1 and 2, results in
Figure 3.15(c). Then all impressed voltages except Figure 3.15(d).
V1 will be zero and:
I1 = Y11V1
3.7 REFERENCES
I2 = Y12V1
3.1 Power System Analysis. J. R. Mortlock and
If the same conditions are applied to the equivalent M. W. Humphrey Davies. Chapman & Hall.
mesh, then:
3.2 Equivalent Circuits I. Frank M. Starr, Proc. A.I.E.E.
I1 = V1Z11 Vol. 51. 1932, pp. 287-298.
I2 = -V1/Z12 = -V1/Z12
These relations follow from the fact that the branch
connecting nodes 1 and 1' carries current I1 and
the branches connecting nodes 1 and 2' and 1 and
2 carry current I2. This must be true since branches
between pairs of commoned nodes can carry no
current.
By considering each node in turn with the
remainder commoned, the following relationships
are found:
Z11’ = 1/Y11
Z22’ = 1/Y22
Fundamental Theor y
Z12’ = -1/Y12
Z12 = Z1’ 2’ = -Z21’ = -Z12’
Hence:
Z11’ = Z11 Z 22 -Z2
12
_______________
Z22
Z22’ = Z11 Z22-Z212
_______________
Z11
Z12 = Z11 Z22-Z212
_______________
Z12 …Equation 3.25
A similar but equally rigorous equivalent circuit is
• 3• shown in Figure 3.15(d). This circuit [3.2] follows
from the fact that the self-impedance of any circuit
is independent of all other circuits. Therefore, it
need not appear in any of the mutual branches if it
is lumped as a radial branch at the terminals. So
putting Z11 and Z22 equal to zero in Equation 3.25,
Z11
1 1 1'
Z12
Z11 Z12 Z12 -Z12 -Z12
Z12
C 2 2'
Z12
(c) Equivalent with all (d) Equivalent circuit
nodes commoned
except 1