0L systems, 82-85, 893
see also Substitution systems
Sqrt[163]
and almost integers, 915
17-gons
and constructible reals, 1129
1/f noise
in electronic systems, 969
and limits to randomization, 970
in radioactive decay, 970
and self-organized criticality, 989
1/f^2 noise, 1082
see also Random walks
1L systems, 85-88, 893
see also Substitution systems
1/n expansion, 1040
Sqrt[2]
continued fraction for, 144
digits of, 142
in musical chords, 917
and sine curves, 146
and substitution systems, 892, 904
2001: A Space Odyssey
extraterrestrial artifacts in, 1183
extraterrestrial contact in, 1190
21 cm line
on Pioneer 10 plaque, 1190
and water hole, 1189
24 dimensions
isotropy of lattices in, 980
sphere packing in, 987
2SAT (2-satisfiability problem), 1146
3 Acorns
powers of, 119, 903
Sqrt[3], and substitution systems, 904
3-regular graphs
see Networks, trivalent
3/2
powers of, 121, 903
3n+1 problem, 904
cellular automaton for, 904
as precursor to my work, 879
and register machines, 100
and Turing machine 600720, 1145
see also Arithmetic systems
3SAT (3-satisfiability problem), 1146
4-color theorem
see Four-Color Theorem
4 dimensions
isotropy of lattices in, 980
lattices in, 930
and spacetime, 481-486
see also Four manifolds
411 services
name lookups in, 1100
5 dimensions
and Kaluza-Klein theory, 1028
5-fold symmetry
CA patterns with, 930
5/2
multiplication system, 123
5D hypercubes
and Penrose tilings, 932
60 (base)
of Babylonian numbers, 902
6j symbols
and spin networks, 1055
8 dimensions
isotropy of lattices in, 980
sphere packing in, 986
A_4 (tetrahedral group), 1032
A_5 (icosahedral group), 938
Abacus
and history of computing, 1107
and history of numbers, 902
Abacus machines, 97-102
see also Register machines
ABC conjecture
and nearby powers, 1166
Abelian groups
axioms for, 773, 1153
CAs based on, 887, 956
shortest axioms for, 806
word problems in, 1141
see also Commutative groups
Abelian semigroups
see Commutative semigroups
Aboav-Weaire law, 1039
Aboriginal peoples
and animism, 1195
maze logos used by, 873
Absolute infinity, 1162
Absolute motion, 1042
Absorption laws (in logic), 817
Abstract algebra
and models of math, 1150
see also Algebra
Abstraction
and children, 1102
and human intelligence, 823, 1178
in mathematics, 792, 1149
and modelling, 366
for ultimate theory of physics, 468
Abundant numbers, 910
Acceleration
as equivalent to gravity, 1047
and finding geodesics, 1049
particle production by, 1062
and time dilation, 1042
Accounting
detecting fraud in, 1184
Accumulation points
in iterated maps, 961
Ackermann, Wilhelm (Germany, 1896-1962)
and Ackermann functions, 906
Ackermann functions, 906
and Church's Thesis, 1125
and growth rates, 1162
and recursive functions, 907, 908
and symbolic systems, 897, 897'
phyllotaxis in, 409
Acoustic diffusers
and flat spectra, 1081
Action
Einstein-Hilbert for gravity, 1052
in path integrals, 1061
Activator-inhibitor processes
and animal growth, 419
and animal pigmentation, 427
and plant growth, 409
see also Reaction-diffusion processes
Active cell
in mobile automata, 71
Active media, 1013
and history of CAs, 878
Adaptation
and complexity in biology, 383
and definition of life, 1178
and fluid flow, 823
and human intelligence, 823, 1178
in visual system, 1075
Adaptive algorithms
for numerical integration, 1134
see also Genetic algorithms
Adaptive Huffman coding, 1069, 1071
Addition
cellular automata based on, 952
in digit sequences, 118
NC parallel algorithms for, 1142
representing numbers using, 916
Turing machines for, 760, 1144
see also Plus
Addition chains, 1095
Addition formulas
and logistic maps, 1098
Addition systems, 255
computational difficulty in, 1147
state transition graphs for, 961
Additive cellular automata
with 3 colors, 886
basic examples of, 870
block frequencies in, 594
continuous, 922
cryptanalysis of, 1087
cryptography with, 600
in d dimensions, 1092
difference patterns in, 950
encodings of arithmetic with, 1164
enumeration of, 952
as exactly soluble models, 1133
finding periods in, 1147
fractal dimensions in, 870, 955
generalized, 1018
and generalized additivity, 952
generating functions for, 1091
 higher-order, 1018 asymptotic oscillation of, 917
history of, 878 curve of, 145
with limited numbers of cells, 951 Akaike information criterion, 1083
and multiplication systems, 1094 Albertus Magnus (Germany, ~1200-1280)
NC computations of, 1149 and mathematics in science, 859
as not universal, 694 Alcázar of Seville, 874
self-emulation in, 271 Alchemy
self-reproduction in, 824 and history of complexity, 861
self-similarity in, 955 and understanding nature, 876
sequential versions of, 1034 and universal objects, 1127
and shift registers, 974-975 Alder, Berni J. (USA, 1925- )
spacetime entropies for, 960 and inspirational book cover, 864
and spacetime symmetry, 1032 and molecular dynamics, 879, 999
speeding up, 1094 in Preface, xiii
state transition graphs for, 963 Alekseev, Vladimir M. (Russia, 1932-1980)
and successive differences, 1091 and 3-body problem, 973
temporal sequences in, 960 aleph_0 (aleph zero)
and texture generation, 1078 and orders of infinity, 1127, 1162
two-dimensional, 824 and symbolic representation, 788
see also Finite fields Alexander, James W. (USA, 1888-1971)
Additive processes and moves on networks, 1038
and Gaussian distributions, 976 Alexander moves
Additivity and general networks, 1038
generalized, 952 and spin networks, 1055
one-sided, 604, 1088 Algae
in quantum mechanics, 1060 growth of, 1004
and surjectivity, 959 shapes of, 385, 401
Addressing (computer memory) Algebra
and computer architecture, 1108 axioms for, 773
decoder trees for, 1183 Boolean, 1097
emulating with CAs, 663 of classes, 1171
Adequate connectives (universal logic functions), 1173 history of notation for, 1182
for reversible logic, 1098 and history of posets, 1041
Adjacency matrices and history of proof, 1149
and cycles, 958 history of real, 1153
Adjacency tensors and models of mathematics, 1150
for hypernetworks, 1029 non-universality of basic real, 784
AEA statements (predicate logic) undecidability in, 1138
sets associated with, 1139 universal, 1171
universality of, 1152 use of predicate logic in, 1152
Aerial reconnaissance Algebraic analysis
cellular arrays used in, 1076 of additive CAs, 951
and recognizing artifacts, 1183 Algebraic cellular automata
Aesthetics see Additive cellular automata
of music and bird songs, 1180 Algebraic coding theory, 1101
of physical models, 1025 Algebraic complexity theory, 1143
of pictures in this book, 11 Algebraic computation
of ultimate theory of physics, 1026 and constraints on formulas, 945
Aether and three-body problem, 972
see Ether see also Computer algebra
Affine transformations Algebraic curves
and 2D substitution systems, 933 and linkages, 1129
Aggregation systems in parameter space sets, 1006
continuum behavior in, 331, 978 Algebraic equations
and crystal growth, 993 compared to Diophantine, 944
enumeration in, 980 and linear recurrences, 906
generalized, 978 solution of, 945
and growth of cities, 1014 and theta functions, 1092
implementation of, 978 Algebraic forms
and insect artifacts, 1011, 1184 of CA rules, 869, 884
as models of drainage, 1001 Algebraic functions
in one dimension, 979 and nested digit sequences, 913
and tumor growth, 1011 in three-body problem, 972
Aging and Thue-Morse sequence, 890
non-genetic aspects of, 1014 Algebraic generating functions
AGM (ArithmeticGeometricMean) and hypergeometric functions, 1092
and computation of pi, 912 Algebraic geometry
difficulty of evaluating, 1134 and Diophantine equations, 1164
Agriculture Algebraic logic
history of statistics and, 1082 see Boolean algebra
visible from space, 1187 Algebraic notation
Aharanov-Bohm effect, 1059 and history of universality, 1109
AI origin of, 1182
see Artificial intelligence Algebraic number fields
Aiken, Howard H. (USA, 1900-1973) as generalizing numbers, 1168
and Mark I computer, 1107 Algebraic number theory, 1165
Air Algebraic numbers, 912
patterns in flow of, 376 CA entropies as, 958
viscosity of, 996 cryptanalysis of, 1089
Airfoils and Diophantine equations, 1164
characteristic shapes of, 1183 and Fermat's Last Theorem, 1166
Airplanes and Fibonacci-like sequences, 891
and analogy with birds, 1100 and hard hexagon problem, 959
fluid flow past, 996, 997 in hierarchy of numbers, 916
fracture as issue for, 995 and Penrose tilings, 932
identifying wreckage of, 1183 and spectra, 1081
turbulence in flight of, 1001 Algebraic quantum field theory (axiomatic field theory), 1057, 1065
AiryAi (Airy function) Algebraic simplification
 and iterated maps, 1098
undecidability in, 1138
Algebraic systems
CAs based on, 886, 956
generators and relations in, 1169
universality of, 784
ways to use axioms in, 1159
Algebraic topology
and origins of category theory, 1154
Algebraic varieties
and additive CAs, 1018
Algol (computer language), 1104
Algorithmic complexity theory, 1143
Algorithmic information
compared to Shannon, 1071
and computational irreducibility, 1132
and defining randomness, 1067
and definition of complexity, 1069
with respect to CAs, 1186
Algorithmic randomness
defining randomness, 554
and quantum measurement, 1064
and randomness generation, 973
Algorithmically simple integers, 916
Algorithms
fast types of, 1141
fastest Turing machine, 761
general structures of, 990
for math functions, 1134
optimal, 1143
see also Programs
Alhambra in Granada, 874
Alien intelligence
see Extraterrestrial intelligence
Aliquot sums, 910
iterated, 911
Alkanes, 1194, 1194'
Allometry (differential growth), 421, 1010
Alloys
searching for, 1193
Almost integers, 915
alpha helices in proteins, 1003
Alphabetical order
as lookup mechanism, 622
Alternative denial
as name for Nand, 1173
Aluminophosphates
as radiolarian analogs, 1011
Aluminum
dendritic crystals in, 993
AM (amplitude modulation), 1188
Amateur science, 857
Ambiguity problem
for context-free languages, 1138
Amino acid sequences
and evolution, 1003
and protein folding, 988
statistics of, 1184
Ammann, Robert (USA, 1946-1994)
and nested tilings, 942
Ammonite septa, 385, 1008
Amorphous materials, 994
Amphibians
genetic programs of, 1002
pigmentation patterns on, 426
Amplification
and chaos theory, 971
Amplifiers
noise in, 302
Amplitude modulation (AM), 1188
Amplitudes in quantum theory, 541, 1062
continuous nature of, 1148
Anagni, Italy
and Cosmati mosaics, 873
Analog computers
and chaos theory, 971
and Gibbs phenomenon, 899
and history of computing, 1107
and history of numbers, 902
linkages in, 1129
Shannon's general purpose, 1129
sound output from, 1080
theoretical power of, 730, 1128
Analog electronics
and form of radio signals, 1188
Analogy
in human thinking, 627
Analysis
by extraterrestrials, 836
definition of, 549
and NP completeness, 771
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 722
processes of, 547-635
and recognizing meaning, 826
statistical, 588-596
traditional idealization of, 736
using mathematics, 606-620
Analysis (mathematical)
axioms for, 774, 1155
non-standard, 1172
Analysis of variance (ANOVA), 977
Analytic continuation
of cellular automata, 1092
of mathematical functions, 1092
in quantum field theory, 1061
Analytic number theory
axioms needed for, 1166
Analytical engine, 1107
Analytical results
and computational reducibility, 1133
Analyticity
of S matrices, 1057
in three-body problem, 972
see also Continuity
Anatomy
and studies of form, 967
Anaxagoras (Greece, ~500 - ~428 BC)
and purpose in nature, 1185
And
as associative function, 1094
axioms for, 803
axioms in terms of, 1151
and Boolean formulas, 1095
confluence of, 1037
emulated by CAs, 662, 1112
encoded as integer equation, 1160
and junctional calculus, 1170
in multivalued logic, 1175
and P completeness, 1149
and satisfiability, 1146
theorems involving, 817
truth tables for, 802, 806
words in languages for, 1173
Angelfish
pigmentation pattern of, 426
Angle bisection
in decorative constructions, 873
Angles
of CAs on lattices, 473
in differential geometry, 1048
of images on retina, 1076
Moire patterns from, 1078
of stems in plants, 408
Angular momentum
intrinsic of particles, 1046
quantization of, 1056
and spin networks, 1055
Anharmonic oscillator
lack of solution to, 1133
Animal behavior, 1011
and game theory, 1104
randomness in, 970
Animal breeding
as randomized algorithm, 1193
Animals
branching in, 1008
camouflage of, 1077
color vision in, 1075
communication among, 1180
evolution of plans for, 395
evolution of prediction in, 1105
free will in, 752, 1135, 1136
growth of, 413-422
growth of farm, 1010
intelligence in, 825, 1178
as models for extraterrestrials, 1190
objects created by, 1184
overall forms of, 417
perception in, 827
pigmentation patterns of, 422-429
and security systems, 1183
shapes of and mathematics, 859
similarity of forms in, 421
territories of, 987
use of randomness by, 1192
Animism, 845, 1195
Anisotropy
in aggregation systems, 978
in code 746, 979
of patterns on lattices, 980
of random walks, 977
Annualized models
and iterated maps, 918
Anomalies (quantum field theory)
as basic quantum effects, 1059
and high-mass particles, 1047
Anomalous magnetic moments, 1057, 1060
Anonymous functions
and lambda calculus, 1121
Anosov maps, 921
periodic points of, 955
ANOVA (analysis of variance), 977
Ant pheromones, 1194
Antarctica
Mars meteorite from, 1179
Anteaters
patterns on, 1013
Antennas
nesting in shapes of, 1183
Anthropic Principle, 1026
and teleology, 1185
Anthropology
and history of complexity, 862
and theories of communication, 1181
Anti-reflection in acoustic diffusers, 1183
Antibodies
randomness in, 970, 1184
Antichains (in posets), 1041
Antidiffusion equation, 923
Antikythera device
and history of computing, 1107
identifying purpose of, 1184
Antimatter
rarity of and T violation, 1019
Antiparticles
and T violation, 1019
and vacuum fluctuations, 1062
Antlers
growth of, 1008
Ants
artificial, 931
Aphorisms, 1196
Apical meristems (in plants), 409
APL (computer language), 1104
Apollo astronauts, 1180
Apollonian packing, 986
vs. Cosmati pattern, 873
and network evolution, 1037
Apollonius (Turkey/Egypt, ~262 BC - ~190 BC)
and circle packing, 986
Apoptosis (cell death), 419
Applications
to biology, 383-428
to financial systems, 429-432
general issues about, 857
to mathematics, 772-821
to physics, 369-382, 433-545
summaries of, 7-11
to technology, 840-843
Apply
basic example of, 853
for computing factorial, 1110
Aquinas, Thomas (Italy, 1225-1274)
and argument by design, 861
AR (automated reasoning)
see Automated theorem proving
Arab-Norman style, 873
Arabic script, 43, 874
Arc length, 418, 1048
ArcCos
and tent map, 919
Archeology
and extraterrestrials, 1190
identifying purposes in, 1184
recognizing artifacts in, 1183
recognizing purposes in, 829
Arches
characteristic shapes of, 1183
Archimedean solids
and trivalent networks, 1029
Archimedes (Sicily, 287-212 BC)
and pi, 911
and use of mathematics, 859
Architecture (building)
as affecting perception, 1106
ornament in, 872, 873
rules in, 874
study of form in, 967, 1010
Architecture (computer), 869
ArcSin
and logistic map formulas, 1098
ArcTan
and shift map, 919
Area
and axioms for geometry, 1154
Area law
for Nand expressions, 1097
Arecibo radio telescope, 1190
Argonne National Laboratory
and theorem proving, 1158
Argument by design
and complexity, 861
and teleology, 1185
Arguments of functions
currying of, 896, 1122
and Hilbert's 13th problem, 1128
and primitive recursion, 908
Aristotle (Greece, 384-322 BC)
and complexity, 861
and definition of life, 1178
and embryology, 1010
and gnomons, 1008
and history of logic, 1099
and logic in science, 860
and nature of space, 1028
and origins of randomness, 967
and purpose in nature, 1185
and theoretical biology, 1003
Arithmetic
algorithmic randomness in, 1067
axioms for, 773, 1152
of Babylonians, 859
as basis for science, 44
cellular automaton based on, 614
emulated by set theory, 1160
and history of proof, 1149
and intelligence, 1178
non-locality of, 124, 731
non-standard models of, 800, 1169
and origin of math, 792, 859
Presburger, 1143, 1152
processes of, 117
recursive functions and, 907
rules in, 875
universal equation in, 786
universality in, 784
see also Peano arithmetic
Arithmetic coding, 1071
Arithmetic hierarchy
and oracles, 1139
Arithmetic operations
and computational power, 730
performed by CAs, 639
Arithmetic progressions
and Ramsey theory, 1068
Arithmetic puzzles, 875
Arithmetic recurrences, 123
and register machines, 100
Arithmetic systems, 122-124
emulating register machines, 673, 1114
history of, 1115
and Turing machine 600720, 1145
see also 3n+1 problem
Arithmetization of metamathematics, 1158
ARMA processes
spectra of, 1082
and texture discrimination, 1077
Armadillo skin
texture of, 385
Array computers
and history of CAs, 877
Arrow function (nested power)
and Ackermann function, 906
and symbolic systems, 103
Arrowheads
characteristic shapes of, 1183
Art
as affecting perception, 1106
applications to, 841, 872
astronomical systems like, 835
and cellular automata, 872, 929
examples of ornamental, 43
 and form of extraterrestrials, 1191 see Sequential cellular automata
recognition of, 839, 874 Atanasoff, John V. (USA, 1903-1995)
shell patterns in, 1012 and early electronic computers, 1107
and simple rules, 42, 872 Atmosphere
study of form in, 967, 1003, 1010 2D fluid flow in, 999
summary of relations to, 11 of extrasolar planets, 1179
and visual perception, 1076 and origin of life, 1179
Arthropods and randomness in lightning, 995
growth of, 1011 turbulence in, 1001
Artichoke and weather patterns, 1177
phyllotaxis in, 409 Atomic models
Artifacts of crystal growth, 993
on astronomical scales, 834 of fracture, 995
compared to nature, 3 Atomic physics
created by animals, 1184 6j symbols in, 1055
in data, 1184 and quantum theory, 1056
on Earth from space, 1187 Atomic-scale devices, 841, 1193
historical forms of, 1183 Atomic-scale features
problem of recognizing, 828, 1183 and future forms of perception, 1106
in turbulence computations, 997 Atomic-scale mapping of wear, 1184
universe as, 1191 Atomism
Artificial intelligence (AI), 628, 1099 and elementary particles, 1044
and complexity history, 862 as general theory, 1125
and defining intelligence, 1178 history of, 876
and extraterrestrial intelligence, 839 Atoms
and free will, 1135 arrangement of in crystals, 369
predicate logic and, 1152 and chaos theory, 310
summary of relations to, 12 and concept of programs, 860
and theorem proving, 1157 early models of, 1026
and visual perception, 1076 and history of complexity, 861
Artificial life and history of quantum theory, 1056
and biological form, 1004 as knots in the ether, 1028
and natural selection, 1001 in models of space, 1028
summary of relations to, 12 as source of randomness, 967
Artificial organs, 842 and thermodynamics, 445, 1019
Artificial snowflakes, 992, 992' ATP
Artificial tissues, 842 and definition of life, 825
ASCII versions (InputForm) Attractors, 275
of programs in notes, 854 effective reversibility on, 1018
ASICs (Application-Specific Integrated Circuits), 1097 in finite systems, 961
Asparagus in iterated maps, 961
phyllotaxis in, 409 and memory, 625
AspectRatio nested structure of, 959
and GoldenRatio, 891 and phase transitions, 341
Assembler in root finding, 1101
and my early programs, 854, 864 and structures in PDEs, 1129
and register machines, 101, 1114 in systems based on numbers, 961
Associative algebras, 801 in Turing machines, 961
as generalizing numbers, 1168 in visual perception, 1076
Associative calculi Auctions
see Multiway systems game theory and, 1105
Associativity Audio representation
3-argument analog of, 1171 for cellular automata, 869
of And and Or, 817 for data, 1080
in Boolean functions, 1173 Auditory cortex, 1079
cellular automata based on, 886 Auditory perception, 585-588
and fast evolution, 1094 Augustine (Algeria, 354-430 AD)
and generalized additivity, 952 and free will, 1135
in operator systems, 801 Aurora
as source of self-similarity, 956 and natural radio emissions, 1187
see also Flat Australia
Assyrian military drill, 875 straight road in, 1187
Asteroids Authentication
and chaos theory, 973 and hashing, 1100
Astrology, 1135 Autoactive decay processes, 905
Astronauts Autocorrelations
quarantine of, 1180 in shift registers, 1084
Astronomical clocks, 1184 and spectra, 1080
Astronomy in textures, 1076
Babylonian, 859 Automata
extraterrestrial artifacts in, 834 see also Cellular automata
geometrical patterns in, 1187 see also Finite automata
Greek, 861 see also Mobile automata
and history of computing, 1107 Automated theorem proving, 1157
and history of statistics, 1082 for axioms of logic, 811
measurement errors in, 967 and chemical synthesis, 1194
and prehistoric structures, 1184 and group axioms, 1153
radio phenomena in, 1187 and paramodulation, 1156
randomness in, 313 and proof frameworks, 1177
and time in universe, 1021 proofs not useful from, 811, 1156
Asymptotic freedom in QCD, 1057, 1062 for Robbins axioms, 1151
Asymptotic growth rates, 1162 of universality, 1115, 1127
difficulty of finding, 1146 Automatic groups, 1141
Asymptotic series Autoplectic processes (intrinsic randomness generation), 973
in perturbation theory, 1060 Auxins (plant hormones), 1004
Asymptotic states Auxology
and quantum field theory, 1130 and recursive growth, 877, 929
Asynchronous cellular automata Avalanches
 in sandpile models, 989 as mechanistic model, 1026
in snow, 993 Bak, Per (Denmark/USA, 1947-[2002])
Average-case difficulty, 1143 and self-organized criticality, 989
Averaging Baker, Alan (England, 1939- )
in diffusion equation, 1024 and Diophantine equations, 1164
and Gaussian distributions, 976 Baker's method
as source of continuity, 327 and Diophantine equations, 1164
as source of uniformity, 353 Baker's transformation (tent map), 150
Avoidable patterns (repetition-free sequences), 944 Balance equations (rate equations), 984
Axelrod, Robert M. (USA, 1943- ) Balanced binary trees, 897, 898
and prisoner's dilemma, 1104 Balanced delimiters, 989
Axiom of choice, 774, 1154 Ball rolling
and additive functions, 953 in bistable system, 341
Axiom of infinity, 1154 as source of randomness, 970
Axiom of replacement, 1154 Balladonia-Caiguna road, 1187
Axiom schemas, 1156, 1176 Ballistics tables
Axiom systems and history of computing, 1107
based on multiway systems, 1173 Balls
for basic logic, 808 cyclic tag systems made with, 895
for cellular automata, 794, 1168 packing of, 349, 986
and defining complexity, 1068 Bamboos
effect of expanding, 1159 growth of, 1004
enumeration of, 809 Banach-Tarski result
for extended set theory, 1167 in set theory, 1154
forcing an operator in, 1172 Bands
general structure of, 1150 in Moire patterns, 1078
vs. generators and relations, 1169 Bandwidth
interpreting algebraic, 1153, 1159 in perception, 1079
model theory of, 1172 of radio signals, 1188
for multivalued logic, 1175 Banks, E. Roger (USA, 1944- )
and operator evolution systems, 898 and 1D universal CA, 1115
for operator systems, 801 and 2D universal CA, 1117
and P=NP, 1146 Barnacles
proving correctness of, 802, 1170 patterns on, 385
sampled by mathematics, 795 Barnsley, Michael F. (England/USA, 1946- )
table of in mathematics, 773 and parameter space sets, 1006
theorems holding in simple, 812 and pictures of ferns, 1005
and Turing machines, 1145 Base 1 (unary), 560, 1070
and universality proofs, 1127 Base 2 (binary), 116
as way to handle infinity, 788 and chaos experiments, 919
Axiomatic quantum field theory, 1057, 1065 history of, 902
Axiomless formulations as natural notation, 1182
of logic, 1156 in practical computers, 1108
Axons Base 6
of nerve cells, 1075 powers of 3 in, 614, 903
B particles Base 10 (decimal), 116
time reversal violation for, 1019 and chaos experiments, 919
Babbage, Charles (England, 1791-1871) powers of 2 in, 614, 749
and computers, 1107 Base 16 (hex)
and universality, 1110 digits of pi in, 912
Babylonian mathematics Base 60
and calculation, 1149 and history of numbers, 902
and computing pi, 911 Base -2 notation, 902
and computing Sqrt, 913 Bases (number), 116
current influence of, 792 complex, 932, 933
and definition of math, 859 conversions between, 1094
and labelling in geometry, 1182 Fibonacci, 560, 892, 902
and math in science, 859 generalized, 902
numbers in, 901 locality of powers in, 1093
and primes, 908 and normal numbers, 912
rules in, 875 and substitution systems, 891
Babylonians Basic forms
and constellations, 1187 in image compression, 574
military drill of, 875 Basic language
and rule 30 artifacts, 42 and history of computing, 1108
Bachelier, Louis (France, 1870-1946) and register machines, 101
and randomness in markets, 1014 Basins of attraction
Bachet's problem (operator representations), 916 boundaries of, 1101
Back-biased zener diodes, 970 for cellular automata, 276
Backpropagation and phase transitions, 341
in neural networks, 1102 Basis functions
Backtracking in data compression, 574
in 3n+1 problem, 904 Basket star
in cellular automata, 1089 nested pattern in, 1008
and proof searching, 1157 Batcher, Kenneth E. (USA, 1935- )
in rule 30, 605 and sorting networks, 1142
in satisfying constraints, 941 Bats
in tiling problems, 217 auditory system of, 1079
Backus, John (USA, 1924- ) Battles
and computer languages, 1104 instabilities in infantry, 1014
Backus-Naur form, 1104 Bayesian inference, 595, 1083
Backward evolution in CAs, 435 Bays, Carter (USA, 1940- )
Bacon, Roger (England, ~1219 - ~1292) and 3D class 4 CAs, 949
and math in science, 859 bcc (body-centered cubic), 930
Bacteria and deformable packing, 988
genetic programs of, 1002 Voronoi diagram, 987
smallest self-replicating, 1179 BDDs (binary decision diagrams), 1097
Bag model Beacons
 extraterrestrial, 836 Bibliometrics
Beam buckling for axiom systems, 1153
and chaos theory, 971 for cellular automata, 878
Bearings Biedenharn-Elliott identity (for 6j symbols), 1055
characteristic shapes of, 1183 Bifurcations
Beat notes, 146, 1079 and chaos theory, 972
Beatty sequences, 890 and fluid flow, 998
Beauty in rate equations, 984
see Art Big bang model
Beaver dams and basic cosmology, 1055
as animal artifacts, 1184 and thermodynamics, 1021
Beehives (in Game of Life), 964 Billiards model, 971, 1022
Beehives (made by bees), 1011 and thermodynamics, 446
Beeler, Michael D. (USA, 1944- ) Billion (as 1,000,000,000), 849
and 2D Turing machines, 930 Billowing (in clouds), 1001
Begriffsschrift Binary alloys, 985
of Frege, 1149 Binary cellular automata, 53
Behaviorism, 1099, 1135 see also Elementary cellular automata
Beilstein database, 1194 Binary-coded decimal (BCD), 919
Bell, Alexander Graham (USA, 1847-1922) Binary-coded ternary, 560, 1070
and speech sounds, 1080 Binary counter
Bell, David I. (USA/Australia, 1953- ) in non-periodic tiling, 219
and structures in Life, 965 pattern made by, 117
Bell, John S. (England/Switzerland, 1928-1990) Turing machine acting as, 888
and quantum mechanics, 1058 see also Digit sequences
Bell curve (Gaussian), 977 Binary decision diagrams, 1097
Bell Laboratories, xiii Binary mixtures of circles, 350, 985
Bell's inequalities, 1064 Binary numbers, 116
history of, 1058 history of, 902
in quantum field theory, 1065 see also Base 2
Belousov, Boris P. (Russia, 1893-1970) see also Digit sequences
and oscillatory chemical reactions, 1013 Binary operators
Bénard convection, 1000 axioms for, 805
as repetitive behavior, 988 and generalized additivity, 952
Bendix, Peter B. (USA, 1946- ) number of, 1171
and Knuth-Bendix procedure, 1037 possible Boolean, 806
Benford, Frank (USA, 1883-1948) Binary power method, 1093
and leading digits, 914 Binary star system
Benford's Law, 914 randomness in, 313
and powers, 903 Binary trees
Bennett, Charles H. (USA, 1943- ) balanced, 897, 898
and logical depth, 1069 as combinator expressions, 1123
in Preface, xiii infinite, 196
and reversibility of computation, 1020 space of possible, 405, 1006
and sphere packing, 985 and symbolic expressions, 897
Bentley, Wilson A. (USA, 1865-1931) Binomial (binomial coefficients)
and snowflakes, 992 article of mine on, 882
Berger, Robert (USA, 1938- ) and associative CAs, 956
and non-periodic tilings, 943 and balanced parentheses, 989
and undecidability in tiling, 1139 and Cantor set, 890
Berlekamp, Elwyn R. (USA, 1940- ) and computational reducibility, 747
and Berlekamp-Massey algorithm, 1087 and continuous CA, 922
Berlekamp's algorithm (for Factor), 1192 and correspondence systems, 1139
Bernoulli, Daniel (Netherlands/Switzerland, 1700-1782) encoded as integer equation, 1160
and molecular theory of gases, 1019 and encodings of arithmetic, 1164
BernoulliB (Bernoulli numbers) and entropy of particles in box, 1022
difficulty of evaluating, 1134 equations involving, 945
BesselI (modified Bessel function) and Fibonacci, 890
and continued fractions, 914 modulo k, 955
and Egyptian fractions, 915 and nested patterns, 610
BesselJ (Bessel function) and number of conserving CAs, 1023
asymptotics of, 917 and number of expressions, 897, 1175
curve of, 145 and primitive recursion, 907
and Klein-Gordon equation, 922 and rule 90 pattern, 870
in Mie scattering, 1133 and Sierpinski pattern, 931
and transcendental numbers, 912 and trinomial coefficients, 1091
BesselY (Bessel function of second kind) Binomial distribution
in Mie scattering, 1133 and basic statistics, 1083
Beta (volatility) and pegboard, 312
of prices in markets, 1015 Biological evolution, 383-399, 1001-1003
Beta decay CA idealization of, 391
parity violation in, 1019 compared to technology evolution, 398, 1183
and quantum field theory, 1057 and definition of life, 824
beta sheets in proteins, 1003 and features of proteins, 1003
Bethe lattice and form of DNA sequences, 1184
see Tree and intelligence, 822
Bianchi classification and leaf shapes, 1005
for Einstein equations, 1053 major new features in, 1003
Bianchi identity, 1049 optimization strategies in, 985
Bias of perception, 634, 1105
randomness to avoid, 841, 1192 and shell shapes, 415
Bible see also Natural selection
and origins of complexity, 861 Biological growth, 400-422
randomness generation in, 968 Eden model for, 978
and understanding nature, 876 history of studies of, 1003
Bibliographic information see also Growth
on my papers, 881 Biological systems
in this book, 850 compared to physical ones, 967
 and definition of complexity, 1069
and extraterrestrial life, 1179
organization through partitioning in, 457
in relativity theory, 1042
and thermodynamic behavior, 453, 1021
Biology, 383-428
and argument by design, 861
attitudes in, 1001
defining features of, 824
vs. engineering, 393, 1004
Gaussian distribution in, 977
history of complexity in, 1001
mathematics in, 859
as molecular engineering, 842
molecules used in, 1194
Occam's razor in, 1025
physics applied to, 1003
probabilistic models in, 1082
purposes of systems in, 1185
randomness applied in, 1192
randomness seen in, 326, 970
regularities in, 384
summary of relations to, 8, 863
undecidability in, 1138
Biomedical applications, 9, 842
Biomedical devices
and nanotechnology, 1193
Biomedical image processing, 1076
Biometric data
randomness in, 970, 1014
Biprism
and non-periodic tiling in 3D, 943
Birds
vs. airplanes, 1100
color vision in, 1075
nests of as artifacts, 1184
patterns in flocks of, 1011
pigmentation patterns of, 426
songs of, 826, 1180
Birkhoff, Garrett (USA, 1911-1996)
and equational logic, 1172
Bismuth hopper crystals, 993
Bistable systems, 341
see also Metastable states
Bit reversal
systems based on, 125
in Walsh transforms, 1073
BitAnd (bitwise And)
in Batcher sort, 1142
in CA implementation, 865
integer equation for, 1160
patterns generated by, 871
and rule 90 pattern, 870
and Sierpinski pattern, 931
and zero boundaries, 951
Bitmaps
compression of, 560
images as, 1108
lines in, 916
BitOr (bitwise Or)
integer equation for, 1160
iteration of, 906
patterns generated by, 871
and representing integers, 916
and weighted randomness, 976
Bitpacking
and cellular automata, 866
Bits
in numbers, 116
in practical computers, 1108
see also Digit sequences
Bitslicing
and cellular automata, 866
Bitwise functions
iterated, 906, 921
and logic in computer languages, 1173
patterns generated by, 871
Bitwise implementation
of cellular automata, 866
of rule 30 center column, 871
BitXor (bitwise Xor)
and Gray code, 901
iteration of, 906
and nim, 939
patterns generated by, 871
and representing integers, 916
and Sierpinski pattern, 931
sounds from, 1080
Bivalve shells, 1008
Black, Fischer (USA, 1938-1995)
and options pricing, 1015
Black Cloud (science fiction), 1190
Black holes, 1053
as dual to particles, 1045
gravity theories without, 1054
Hawking radiation from, 1062
and history of gravity, 1048
and singularities in PDEs, 923
and singularity theorems, 1053
as source of decoherence, 1063
and string theory duality, 1029
and time in computation, 1130
Black-Scholes model, 1015
Blackbody radiation
and quantum theory, 1056
Blinker (in Game of Life), 964
Blinker ship (in Game of Life), 964
Block (in Game of Life), 964
Block (scoping construct)
and notes programs, 854
and sorting networks, 1142
Block cellular automata, 459-464
converting to ordinary CAs, 1023
implementation of, 1023
number of rules for, 1023
repetition periods in, 1023
for Schrödinger equation, 1060
and visual perception, 580
Block concatenation systems (correspondence systems), 757, 1139
Block diagrams
and computer interfaces, 1103
Block encoding, 563
maximal compression in, 1071
Block maps
as cellular automata, 878, 961
Blocking transformations
in CAs, 269, 701, 1118
and renormalization, 955
Blocks
conservation laws for, 1022
in error-correcting codes, 1101
frequencies of, 590, 1068, 1084
in rule 30 pattern, 569, 725, 871, 1127
visual patterns of repeating, 582
Blood vessels
branching pattern of, 413
Blotting paper
spreading on as diffusion, 978
Bluff bodies in fluid flow, 998
Blum, Lenore C. (USA, 1942- )
in Preface, xiii
and random generators, 1090
Blum, Manuel (USA, 1938- )
in Preface, xiii
and random generators, 1090
BMP format
compression in, 1070
Boat
fluid flow past, 996
on ocean as random system, 301
Bobrow, Daniel G. (USA, 1935- )
and simple Turing machines, 1143
Body-centered cubic (bcc), 930
and deformable packing, 988
Voronoi diagram, 987
Bohm, David J. (USA/England, 1917-1992)
and discreteness of space, 1027
and hidden variables, 1058
Bohm-Aharanov effect, 1059
Bohr, Niels H. D. (Denmark, 1885-1962)
and quantum theory, 1056
Boiling
as discrete transition, 337
models of, 994
as phase transition, 981, 983
Boiling points
of alkanes, 1195
difficulty of computing, 1194
Boltzmann, Ludwig E. (Austria, 1844-1906)
and statistical mechanics, 1019
Boltzmann equation
and H theorem, 1020
Monte Carlo studies of, 1192
Boltzmann factors
and 1/f noise, 969
 and Ising model, 982 Boyer-Moore theorem prover, 1158
and path integrals, 1061 Brachiopod
Bones form of opened, 385
development of, 1010 Brachistochrone
facial, 1010 as exactly soluble, 1133
formation of, 420 Brackets
growth of, 417, 421 balanced sequences of, 897
Bonnet shell, 415 and symbolic systems, 103
Book of Changes Brady, Allen H. (USA, 1934- )
and substitution systems, 893 and 2D Turing machines, 930
Book of Kells Bragg reflection, 1082
nested patterns in, 873 Brain
Boole, George (England/Ireland, 1815-1864) of birds and bird songs, 826, 1180
and axioms for logic, 1151 computational equivalence of, 721, 844
and Boolean functions, 1097 determinism in, 1135
and continuous logic, 1175 and free will, 750
and model for thought, 1099 mathematics and the, 1177
Boolean algebra, 1151 memory in, 624
as example of lattice theory, 1153 physiology of human, 1098
as generalizing numbers, 1168 repetitive rhythms in, 1011
representations of, 1171 source of will in, 1136
see also Logic and speech generation, 826
Boolean expressions, 1095 and universals in language, 1181
for cellular automata, 616, 869, 884 visual processing in, 580
and defining complexity, 1069 Brain coral
history of, 1097 maze-like patterns in, 1013
and learning theory, 1102 Brainteasers, 1104
lower bounds in, 1143 Branch cuts (in complex plane)
minimizing, 1095 and equality testing, 1192
minimizing as NP-complete, 1145 Branching
satisfiability of, 768 in animals, 413, 1008
Boolean functions history of models of, 1005
16 basic possible, 806 in plants, 400, 1004
emulated by CAs, 662 as producing nesting, 357
emulated by rule 30, 704 in proofs, 1155
generated by finite automata, 1097 and study of form, 967
number of, 1096 in substitution systems, 84
and quantum computers, 1148 Branching processes
represented by perceptrons, 1102 and multiway systems, 938
Boolean hypercube Branching programs
and layout of networks, 1031 register machines as, 97
Boolean networks, 936 Bravais, Auguste (France, 1811-1863)
and Nand expressions, 1096 and phyllotaxis, 1007
as precursors to my work, 879 Bravais, Louis F. (France, 1801-1843)
Boomerangs and phyllotaxis, 1007
characteristic shapes of, 1183 Bravais lattices, 929
Boone, William W. (USA, 1920-1983) Bray, William C. (USA, 1879-1946)
and word problem for groups, 1141 and oscillatory chemical reactions, 1013
Bootstrap hypothesis (in particle physics), 1044 Breadth-first recursion
Bora Bora in substitution systems, 1033
symmetric shape of, 1187 Breakdown
Borel, F. E. J. Emile (France, 1871-1956) as source of randomness, 302, 970
and defining randomness, 1068 of vacuum, 1062
and normal numbers, 912 Breakers
Born interpretation (in quantum mechanics), 1058 patterns of, 997
Borrows Breeding season
in subtraction, 870 bird songs in, 1180
Bose-Einstein condensation, 1058 whale songs in, 1180
Bosons Bresenham's algorithm, 916
spin-statistics of, 1046 Bricks patterns
Botany, 400-412 and CA updating, 885
classification in, 1004 as origin of ornament, 872
growth processes in, 400 see also Block cellular automata
Bouncing of objects Brillouin zones, 987
and randomness, 312, 971 and CA lattices, 929
Boundaries British Museum, 873
of 2D CA patterns, 929 Brittle materials, 994
and image processing, 1077 Broadband noise, 586
motion of in 2D CAs, 335 in electronics, 968
Boundary cases and SETI, 1189
in CA classification, 240 Broadcasting
and computational difficulty, 1147 and extraterrestrials, 836
and undecidability, 948 Broadwell, James E. (USA, 1921- )
Boundary conditions and CA fluids, 999
in CA implementations, 866, 951 Broccoli shape, 385
random, 947 Broglie, Louis-V.-P.-R. de (France, 1892-1987)
and shift registers, 1088 and wave-particle duality, 1056
Boundary layer (in fluid flow), 997 Bronchioles
Boundary value problems branching pattern of, 413, 1008
for additive CAs, 601 Bronze Age ornament, 873
as constraint satisfaction, 940 Brouwer, Luitzen E. J. (Netherlands, 1881-1966)
in PDEs, 923 and character of math, 1176
Bounded depth logic, 1096 Brownian motion
Bounded fan-in logic, 1096 randomness in, 302
Bourbaki group, 1150 see also Random walks
Bowditch figures, 917 Bruns, E. Heinrich (Germany, 1848-1919)
Box counting and three-body problem, 972
and dimensions, 933 Bubbles
 as artificial-looking, 828 and continuous computation, 1129
in boiling, 994 equations based on, 161
in evolving foams, 1039 history of notation for, 1182
Buch, Arnim (Germany, 1969- ) and natural selection, 394
and automated proofs, 1158 origin of word, 925
Buchberger, Bruno (Austria, 1942- ) proofs in, 1177
and Gröbner basis approach, 1037 role in history of science, 44
in Preface, xiii see also Propositional logic
Buckling Calculus of variations
and chaos theory, 971 and geodesics, 1049
Buddhism, 1196 Calculus ratiocinator
Buffon's needle (for evaluating pi), 1192 of Leibniz, 1149
Bugs California Institute of Technology, xiii
in CA programs, 866 Calligraphy
in first universal TM, 1119 Kufi, 874
intuition from, 46, 872 Calls
and proofs about programs, 1168 of birds, 1180
in proofs of universality, 1117 Calogero-Moser model, 1133
in purposeful CA, 1185 Camouflage
in random generators, 320 stripes of zebras as, 1012
in theorems, 899 use of randomness in, 1192
Buildings and visual perception, 1077
purposes of early, 1184 Campbell, John H. (USA, 1938- )
Built-in cellular automaton function, 867 and patterns on shells, 1012
Bumpy roads in Preface, xiii
and chaos theory, 304 Cams
Buntrock, Jürgen (Germany, 1958- ) characteristic shapes of, 1183
and long-running TMs, 889 for randomness generation, 969
Burger's equation, 925 Canalizing behavior (class 2 Boolean networks), 936
Burgess Shale fossil, 385 Canals
Burks, Arthur W. (USA, 1915- ) on Earth and Mars, 1180
and cellular automata, 876 Cancers
in Preface, xiii from DNA errors, 970
Bush, Vannevar (USA, 1890-1974) see also Tumor growth
and differential analyzer, 1107 Cannon balls
Business cycles packing of, 986
iterated maps as models of, 918 Canonical ensemble
theories of, 1015 in 2D Ising model, 982
and time series, 1083 and path integrals, 1061
Business systems Canonical forms
and complexity research, 863 establishing axioms with, 1170
Busy Beaver Problem in multiway systems, 1036
and growth rates, 1163 in proof searching, 1157
for register machines, 896 and proofs in logic, 1175
for symbolic systems, 897 see also Confluence
for Turing machines, 889, 1144 Canonical quantization, 1057
Butterflies of gravity, 1054
opposite wings of, 1013 Canonical systems
pigmentation patterns of, 389 see Multiway systems
Butterfly network, 905 Canons
Byzantine style, 873 rules for musical, 875
C (programming language) Cantor, Georg F. L. P. (Germany, 1845-1918)
and chaos experiments, 919 and Cantor set, 893
as example of language, 1109 and the continuum, 1127
and history of computing, 1108 and definition of dimension, 1030
and my first CA experiments, 864 and diagonal arguments, 1128
my use of, 854, 899 and digit sequences, 902
programs for CAs, 865 and history of numbers, 901
and register machines, 101 and real numbers, 1153
C curve and set theory, 1154
from 1D substitution system, 892 and transfinite numbers, 1162
from 2D substitution system, 190 Cantor normal form
C60 and Goodstein sequences, 1163
and spherical networks, 1049 for ordinal numbers, 1162
Cabala (universal object), 1127 Cantor pairing function (sigma), 1127
Cabbage Cantor set
phyllotaxis in, 409 attractors as forming, 959
Cable (wire rope) and CA cardinality, 1128
and nesting in, 874 and CA state space, 869, 958
Cactus from continuous systems, 1130
phyllotaxis in, 409 generating function for, 1092
regular shape of, 385 properties of, 890
CAD (cylindrical algebraic decomposition), 1154 Sarkovskii's theorem for, 955
Caesar, Julius (Italy, 100-44 BC) and shift registers, 975
and cryptography, 1085 spectrum of, 586, 1081
Caesar ciphers, 1085 from substitution system, 83
Cages (small girth networks), 1029 Cantor's diagonal argument, 1127
Cahn-Hilliard equation, 980 Capacity (dimension), 959
Calabi-Yau manifolds, 1028, 1052 Capillaries
Calcite branching in, 413, 1008
hopper crystals in, 993 Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), 1015
Calculators Caps on sphere
chaos experiments on, 919 areas of, 1050
and history of computing, 1107 Carbon dioxide
reverse Polish notation in, 896 and life on Mars, 1180
Calculus Cardinality
axioms for, 774 and the continuum, 1127
and computational reducibility, 1132 Cardinals
 as generalizing numbers, 1168 Cauchy functional equation, 953
as transfinite numbers, 1162 Cauchy problem
Cards vs. constraints, 940
shuffling of, 968, 974 for general relativity, 1053
for storing programs, 1107 Cauchy surfaces, 1041
CarmichaelLambda Cauliflower shape, 385
and linear congruential periods, 974 Causal invariance, 503
and quadratic generators, 975 and concept of motion, 522, 529
Carnot, Sadi N. L. (France, 1796-1832) and distributed computing, 1035
and thermodynamics, 1019 and emulated CAs, 1035
Carpets and gauge invariance, 527
and 2D cellular automata, 929 for networks, 515
Sierpinski, 188 and quantum phenomena, 542
Carrier frequencies, 835, 1188 in simulating mobile automata, 1034
Carrot leaves, 385, 1006 Causal networks
Carry digits and cosmology, 1056
in arithmetic, 124 curvature in, 534
non-locality of, 730 difficulty of deducing, 493
in powers, 1093, 1112 as directed graphs, 1033
in subtraction, 870 from evolution history, 1033
and Turing machines, 760 exponential growth in, 496
Cars and general relativity, 1053
engine knocking in, 1194 as Hasse diagrams, 1033
evolution in, 1003 history of, 1032
as randomness analogy, 304 implementation of, 1033
traffic models, 1014 and information transmission, 520
turning tracks of, 418 invariance of, 503
Cartesianism loops in, 494
and matter in space, 1028 from mobile automata, 488, 1033
see also Descartes, René from multiway systems, 507
Cartilage vs. multiway systems, 1037
as precursor of bone, 1010 in network evolution, 514
Cartoons and perceived spacetime, 516
and visual perception, 1076 and posets, 1040
Cartwright, Mary L. (England, 1900-1998) random, 1052
and chaos theory, 971 and replacement orders, 501
CAs reversibility in, 495
see Cellular automata slices through, 516
Cascades of eddies, 997 from substitution systems, 497
Casimir, Hendrik B. G. (Netherlands, 1909-2000) and torsion, 1052
and electron model, 1044 Causality
Casimir effect, 1062 and Bell's inequalities, 1065
and uniform spectra, 988 and free will, 1136
Casinos Causes
and randomness of dice, 969 compared to regularities, 352
Castel del Monte Caustics
and nested architectural forms, 874 and classical limits, 1059
Catalan, Eugène C. (Belgium, 1814-1894) discreteness from, 984
and iterated aliquot sums, 911 Cave paintings
Catalan (Catalan's constant) interpretation of, 839
and dimer problem, 959 purposes of, 1184
from rational integral, 916 recognition of, 874
Catalan numbers (Binomial) and visual perception, 1076
and balanced parentheses, 989 Cayley, Arthur (England, 1821-1895)
and Cantor set, 890 and group theory, 1153
and number of expressions, 897 and iterated maps, 918
Catalan's Conjecture, 1166 Cayley graphs, 938
Catalysis cellular automata on, 930
repeatable randomness in, 976 and hyperbolic space, 1050
Catalysts limiting geometry of, 1051
searching for, 1193 and network constraints, 1032
Catastrophe theory and sorting networks, 1142
and biological form, 1004 Cayley's theorem
and curved surfaces, 1009 as example theorem, 1159
discreteness from, 984 CCITT compression standard, 1070
in rate equations, 984 CCSR (Center for Complex Systems Research), xiii
summary of relations to, 12 CDC 7600 computer, 854
Catch CDMA
and context-free parsing, 1103 and radio signals, 1188
and pointer-based encoding, 1071 and SETI, 1190
and testing invariances, 1022 and shift registers, 1086
and testing reversibility, 1017 CDs (compact discs)
Categoricity bandwidth of, 1079
of axiom systems, 799, 1172, 1172' Ceiling (integer above)
Category theory basic example of, 854
axioms for, 774 Celestial bodies
history of, 1154 and fate, 752
and idealization of math, 1150 Celestial mechanics
and spin networks, 1055 and Bohr atom, 1056
Catenary and computational irreducibility, 1133
characteristic shape of, 1183 difficulty of computation in, 1146
as exactly soluble, 1133 randomness in, 314
Caterpillars and three-body problem, 972
eating paths of, 1011 Cell complexes, 1050
Catfish Cell division
pigmentation pattern of, 426 in embryos, 1009
Cats in networks, 1039
patterns in tortoiseshell, 1014 in plants, 1004
 randomness in, 970 firing squad problem in, 1035
Cells (biological) formulas for evolution of, 1134
adhesion of, 418 fractals in, 25, 58
fossils of early, 1179 see also Additive cellular automata
migration of, 418 and fracture, 995
programmed death of, 419 games between, 1105
sensory, 577 Gray code sequence of, 352
shapes of, 1007 from groups, 887
shapes of in plants, 404 growth rules for 2D, 928
types of, 1002 halting problems for, 1137
and Voronoi diagrams, 987 hand computation of, 42
Cellular arrays, 877 hardware simulators for, 928
see also Cellular automata for hash codes, 622
Cellular automata history of, 48, 876
1D, 53-65 history of 2D, 928
2D, 170-181 history of my work on, 880
3D, 182-183 history of universal, 1115
for 3n+1 problem, 904 ideal gas modelled by, 445
5-neighbor 2D, 927 implementation of
9-neighbor 2D, 927 see CellularAutomaton
additive implementation of 1D, 865
see Additive cellular automata implementation of 2D, 927
and aggregation, 994 implementation of general, 886, 927
from algebraic systems, 886 implementation of totalistic, 886
algorithmic information in, 1067 invariant states in, 348
with associative rules, 956 invertible
asynchronous see Reversible cellular automata
see Sequential cellular automata as iterated bitwise maps, 921
at-angle evolution of, 1118 of limited size, 258, 961
attractors in, 275 as mappings, 959
axioms for, 794, 1168 and math morphology, 1077
and biological form, 1004 meaning of, 1183
block memory of, 621
see Block cellular automata minimal for given sequences, 1186
blocking transformations in, 269, 701 and modelling history, 992
Boolean formulas for, 616, 869, 1096 modelling with, 366
cardinality of, 1127 as models for crystal growth, 369
and causal invariance, 1035 as models for fracture, 375
and chaos history, 972 as models for space, 472
circles from, 334 as models in finance, 431
classes of, 231-249 as models of fluids
compared to Go, 875 see Cellular automaton fluids
and complexity in biology, 1001 and models of traffic, 1014
and complexity research, 862 with more colors, 107
compositions of, 886 from multiplication tables, 614
computational irreducibility in, 740 my first pictures of, 19, 864
computational reducibility in, 744 my first use of, 17
computations in, 638-641 Nand forms for, 619, 1096
conservation laws in, 458, 1023 and nanotechnology, 841
continuous, 155-160 nearby rules in, 948
continuous models of, 976 neighborhoods for 2D, 928
continuum limits of, 327 nesting in, 25, 58
and cowrie patterns, 1012 see also Additive cellular automata
and cryptography, 603 on networks, 930, 936
crystals growth and, 369 non-computability in, 1128
in d dimensions, 927 NP completeness in, 767
and data compression, 569 number of symmetric, 886
deducing rules for, 1089 origins of nesting in, 270
density conservation in, 459 outcome of evolution in, 753
density transitions in, 341 and P completeness, 1149
difference patterns in 2D, 950 as parallel computers, 1109
diffusion equation from, 1024 and patterns on shells, 389
and dimensions of networks, 1030 perceptrons for, 1102
for doubling, 832 with periodic initial conditions, 267
elementary perturbations on, 325
see Elementary cellular automata phase transitions in, 339
emulated by cyclic tag systems, 668 and pigmentation patterns, 427
emulated by mobile automata, 664, 1112 possible sequences from, 1186
emulated by other systems, 664-673 from powers, 1093
emulated by PDEs, 1129 for powers of 3, 903
emulated by substitution systems, 666, 1035 probabilistic, 591
emulated by symbolic systems, 668, 1113 purpose in, 830
emulated by tag systems, 667, 1113 quantum analogs of, 1147
emulated by TMs, 665, 765, 1113 quantum-dot, 1193
emulating logic circuits, 662, 1112 for quantum systems, 1060
emulating mobile automata, 657, 1111 r=1
emulating multiplication, 661, 1112 see Elementary cellular automata
emulating non-deterministic Turing machines, 1146 r=1/2, 806, 885
emulating other systems, 656-663 r=3/2, 1088
emulating register machines, 661, 1112 with random initial conditions, 224-228
emulating substitution systems, 659, 1111 random initial conditions for 2D, 246
emulating Turing machines, 658, 1111 random mutations in, 391
equivalences of rules, 883 as randomness generators, 973
evolution as P computation, 1142 and reaction-diffusion, 427, 1013
experiments on, 112 and regular languages, 1138
factorization of, 956 repetitive behavior in, 267
for finding primes, 640, 1109 reversible
finite-size, 258 see Reversible cellular automata
 rotational invariance in 2D, 473
as rule-based systems, 860
rule numbering for, 53
in sandpile models, 989
for Schrödinger equation, 1060
second-order
see Reversible cellular automata
and self-gravitating systems, 1021
self-reproducing, 1179
from semigroups, 887
sequences of rules in, 241
sequential, 1034
and shell patterns, 423, 1012
and shift registers, 975, 1088
smooth shapes in, 333
spectra of, 1082
speed of light in, 518
for squaring, 639, 1109
state space of, 869, 958
states vs. digit sequences, 950
as statistical tests, 596
structures in, 281-296
structures in as particles, 525
and study of form, 967
surjective, 280
symmetry in 2D, 927
synchronization in, 1035
as syntax checkers, 1109
technology applications of, 841
as texture generators, 578, 1078
thermodynamic behavior in, 443
three-color, 60
and tiling problems, 1139
time vs. space in, 481
as too rigid for ultimate theory, 467
totalistic
see Totalistic cellular automata
ultimate theory of physics and, 1026
undecidability in, 753, 1136, 1138
universal, 644-656, 675
universal 2D, 693
for Voronoi diagrams, 987
weighted totalistic, 427
Cellular automaton fluids, 378-382
as application of randomness, 1192
compressible flow in, 1000
detailed issues with, 999
and generalized fluid flow, 1000
history of, 999
my papers on, 882
on square grids, 999
Cellular logic systems, 877
Cellular spaces
see Cellular automata
Cellular structures
and networks, 1039
from superposed waves, 984
Cellular telephones
radio signals from, 1188
and shift registers, 1086
CellularAutomaton (in Mathematica), 867
framework for, 886
Cellulose
and rigidity of plants, 1004
Celtic art, 43, 873
Census data
and soundex system, 1100
as source of randomness, 968
Center for Complex Systems Research, xiii
Center-surround cells
in visual system, 1075
Central groupoids, 1171
Central Limit Theorem, 329, 976
and differences in 2D CAs, 950
history of, 977
and nesting, 990
and typical data, 1083
Central pattern generators (in animals), 1011
Ceremonial functions, 830
Cerenkov light, 984
CFD (computational fluid dynamics), 1000
Chain (unbranched) hydrocarbons, 1194
Chains
in evaluation, 907
in hashing, 1100
in posets, 1041
Chains (metal)
characteristic shapes of, 1183
Chaitin, Gregory J. (USA/Argentina, 1947- )
and algorithmic randomness, 1068
and experimental math, 899
in Preface, xiii
and randomness in arithmetic, 1067
and universal objects, 1127
Chaitin-Kolmogorov complexity
see Algorithmic information
Chalk
fracture in, 994
Champernowne, David G. (England, 1912-2000)
and normal numbers, 912
Champernowne number, 913
continued fraction of, 915
Change of variables
and amount of computation, 732
Changes
in initial conditions, 252
Chaos (book), 971
Chaos theory
artifacts in computations on, 1184
audio studies of, 1080
and Bianchi IX cosmology, 1053
and computational irreducibility, 1133
and computer experiments, 899
and continuous computation, 1128
and divergence of geodesics, 1049
executive toys illustrating, 1183
and financial markets, 1015
and fluid flow, 381
and free will, 752, 971, 1135
and hard sphere gases, 1022
history of, 971
and history of complexity research, 862
and history of numbers, 901
and history of randomness, 968
in iterated maps, 149-155
as limit on science, 1135
and Lyapunov exponents in CAs, 950
and my work on CAs, 19
in ODEs, 922
and origin of randomness, 304-314
and QCD, 1061
and quantum measurement, 1063
and recognizing chaos, 972
and solar system, 973
summary of relations to, 13
and thermodynamics, 1020
in three-body problem, 972
and turbulence, 997
and weather prediction, 1178
Chaperone molecules, 988
Characteristic polynomials
and CA entropies, 958
Characteristica universalis (universal language), 1109, 1149
Charcoal
in archeology, 1183
Charge
conservation of, 527, 1022
and gauge invariance, 1045
quantization of, 528, 1046
Charge carriers
and thermal noise, 968
Chartres
maze at, 873
Chaté, Hugues (France, 1961- )
and CA classes, 948
and continuous CAs, 922
ChebyshevT (Chebyshev polynomials)
and logistic map formulas, 1098
Checkerboard
generated by rule 250, 25
as updating pattern, 982
Cheetah
pigmentation pattern of, 426
Chemical kinetics
rate equations in, 984
Chemical networks
and origin of life, 1179
Chemical perception, 1105
Chemical processes
and animal growth, 419
and animal pigmentation, 427
and plant growth, 409
randomness from, 970
and reaction-diffusion, 1012, 1013
Chemical synthesis
basic theory for, 1194
 and nanotechnology, 1193
Chemistry
as analog of science in this book, 843
arguments for atoms in, 876
and computational irreducibility, 1193
and definition of life, 825
interesting compounds in, 1194
of martian soil, 1179
networks with analogies in, 1040
success of math in, 859
Chemotherapy
search for compounds for, 1193
Chervil (cow parsley)
shape of wild, 385
Chess
programs for, 1099
Chi-rho page (of Book of Kells), 873
Child development, 1102
history of, 1099
and language, 630
Children
and animism, 1195
and concept of programs, 1177
and free will, 1136
and purposes in nature, 1185
randomness in games of, 968
recognition of intelligence in, 825
China
Pascal's triangle in, 870
Chinese lattice, 874
Chinese Remainder Theorem
and encoding of lists, 1120
and GCD array, 1093
Chips (integrated circuits)
and Boolean minimization, 1097
and history of CAs, 877
and history of computing, 1108
and Nand, 1173
randomness sources on, 970
Chirality of molecules
and definition of life, 1178
Chirping (of radar pulses), 1188
Chladni figures, 984
Chloroplast
form of, 385
Choice
axiom of, 774, 1154
Chomsky, Noam (USA, 1928- )
and generative grammars, 939
and models of language, 1104
and universals in language, 1181
Chomsky hierarchy (of formal languages), 939
Chords (musical), 917
in audio for CAs, 869
perception of, 587, 1079
waveforms of, 146
Chorus (natural radio signals), 1187
Christianity
and free will, 1135
rejecting animism, 1195
Christoffel symbols, 1049
Chromatic number
of networks, 1029
Chromaticity values, 1074
Chromosomes
random distribution into, 970
Chunks (in short-term memory), 1102
Church, Alonzo (USA, 1903-1995)
and Church's Thesis, 1125
and defining randomness, 1068
and lambda calculus, 1121
and models of computation, 879
and number combinators, 1122
and origins of universality, 1110
and undecidability, 1136
Church numerals
in combinators, 1122
in symbolic systems, 897
Church-Rosser property, 1036
for combinators, 1122
for symbolic systems, 898
Church's Thesis, 1125
Cicero, M. Tullius (Italy, 106-43 BC)
and free will, 1135
Cilia
symmetries in, 1007
Ciphers, 598
see also Cryptography
Circadian rhythms, 1011
Circle method (in number theory), 1165
Circle packings, 349
history of, 985
with unequal circles, 350
Circles
areas of, 1050
and constructible reals, 1129
lattice points inside, 910
in ornamental art, 873
Circuits (logic)
and computational complexity theory, 1148
and DNF, 1095
layout of, 985
minimal sizes of, 1096, 1143
multilevel minimization in, 1096
and names for operators, 1173
as network system analog, 193
optimal blocks in, 1193
and P completeness, 1149
in practical computers, 1108
as representing functions, 1095
use of Nand in, 806
Circular (cyclic) boundary conditions, 255
Circular growth
in 2D cellular automaton, 178, 979
in 2D random walks, 329
in aggregation systems, 331, 978
Circular reflector
caustics from, 984
chaos from, 311
Circular shapes
of heavenly bodies, 875
Circumference (of networks), 1029
Cirrus clouds
pattern formation in, 947
Cissoids, 875
Citations
for cellular automata, 878
in this book, 850
Cities
growth patterns of, 1014
lack of nesting in, 874
pattern of lights of, 1187
Civet
pigmentation pattern of, 426
Clam shell
growth of, 414
Class 1 behavior, 231
and non-universality, 694
as origin of uniformity, 353
and reversible CAs, 1018
Class 2 behavior, 231
attractors in, 275
in class 3 systems, 269
and limited size, 255
and non-universality, 694
in reversible CAs, 1018
and transition graphs, 962
Class 3 behavior, 231
in 2D cellular automata, 248
attractors in, 278
class 2 behavior in, 269
in continuous CAs, 922
in early neural nets, 1102
and finite-size periods, 258
and fracture patterns, 995
localized structures in, 526
in power cellular automata, 1093
randomness in, 261
in reversible CAs, 1018
and transition graphs, 962
universality in, 698
see also Rule 30, 90, etc.
Class 4 behavior, 231, 235-239
in 2D cellular automata, 248, 948
in 3-color 2-neighbor CAs, 1116
in 3-color totalistic CAs, 948
in 3D cellular automata, 949
attractors in, 278
as between class 2 and 3, 240
in continuous CAs, 244, 922
and defining complexity, 1069
and extraterrestrials, 839
fluctuations in, 960
and history of universality, 1115
number of structures in, 1047
particle collisions in, 540
 in reversible CAs, 440, 1018 Cocconi, Giuseppe (Italy/USA/Switzerland, 1914- )
structures in, 281-296 and SETI, 1189
and universality, 691 Cochlea
see also Rule 110, etc. and audio perception, 1079
Class field theory Cochrane, Canada
and almost integers, 915 and patterns from space, 1187
Classes, theory of (in foundations of math), 1151, 1171 Cockle shell
Classes of cellular automata, 231-249 growth of, 415
chaos in, 250 Codd, Edgar F. (USA, 1923-[2003])
entropies in, 960 and universal CAs, 1117
frequencies of, 948 Code
history of, 948 in notes to this book, 854
undecidability of, 948 see also Programs
Classes of systems Code (hash), 622
universality of, 1123 Code (machine), 101
Classification Code 10
in biology, 1003 and my CA history, 882
of plants, 1004 Code 12
Classification schemes and Ulam systems, 929
undecidability of, 1138 Code 20
Classifier systems (sequential substitution systems), 894 attractors in, 958
Clausius, Rudolf J. E. (Germany, 1822-1888) as candidate for universality, 1115
and thermodynamics, 1019 excluded blocks in, 958
Clay halting probability in, 964
in archeology, 1183 persistent structures in, 281, 284
self-replication in, 1179 transient lengths in, 964
Clebsch-Gordan coefficients Code 52
and spin networks, 1055 as candidate for universality, 692
Cliques phase transition in, 981
and discrete packings, 987 Code 52 (2D)
Clock domains in, 980
and Descartes on complexity, 861 Code 111 (2D)
as model of planets, 860 domains in, 980
as seed for random generator, 970 Code 177
Clocksprings randomness from, 64
characteristic shapes of, 1183 Code 204 (2D)
Closed curve self-reproduction in, 824
as origin of repetition, 355 Code 224 (2D)
Closed forms, 1133 see Game of Life
for 3-body problem, 972 Code 237
for logistic map, 1098 nesting in, 65
for nested patterns, 610 Code 293 (2D)
see also Exact solutions domains in, 980
see also Formulas Code 294
Closed systems localized structures in, 526
thermodynamics in, 455 Code 295 (2D)
Clothes domains in, 980
parametrizations of, 1010 Code 357
Clothoid curve, 418 persistent structures in, 282, 286
Cloud seeding, 992 from simple seed, 69
Cloud streets Code 420
discreteness in, 984 as additive CA, 886
as repetitive, 988 nesting in, 63
Clouds Code 468 (2D)
patterns of, 377 isotropy in, 473
snowflake formation in, 372, 992 Code 600
turbulent convection in, 1001 repetition in, 62, 69
and weather prediction, 1178 Code 686
Club of Rome (world models), 862 and Ulam systems, 929
Cluster analysis Code 686 (2D)
and Voronoi diagrams, 987 isotropy in, 473
Clusters Code 746 (2D)
in aggregation systems, 332, 978 circular shape from, 178, 334, 979
in diffusion-limited aggregation, 994 interior of, 929
in sphere packings, 986 isotropy in, 473
Clusters (in networks), 510, 1039 Code 843
total numbers of, 1029 and computational reducibility, 738
CM-1 (Connection Machine) computer, 854 Code 867
CMOS FETs examples based on, 868
and Nand, 1173 Code 870
CNF (Conjunctive Normal Form), 1095 and computational reducibility, 738
and satisfiability, 1146 Code 912
Coal randomness in, 64
and interesting chemicals, 1194 Code 920 (2D)
Coarse-graining domains in, 980
and defining randomness, 1068 Code 942 (2D)
history of, 1020 nested pattern from, 171
in thermodynamics, 448 slices through, 928
Coarsening Code 948
in cellular structures, 1039 nesting in, 65
Coastlines Code 976 (2D)
origin of shapes of, 1001 domains in, 336, 980
Coats of animals phase transition in, 340
patterns on, 426 Code 1041
Cobol complex behavior in, 66
and history of computing, 1108 Code 1329
Coccolithophorid persistent structures in, 282
shape of, 385 from simple seed, 62
Code 1599 Collective behavior
complex behavior in, 69, 70 general theory of, 3
and computational irreducibility, 738, 740 Collectives
and free will, 750 and defining randomness, 1068
Code 1635 Collisions
complex behavior in, 66, 67 and chaos theory, 971
Code 1659 on inspirational cover, 17
class 4 behavior in, 238 law for in rule 110, 964
Code 1749 of planets, 973
nesting in, 65 in rule 110, 684
Code 1815 of structures in rule 110, 294
class 4 behavior in, 236 and thermodynamic model, 445
and universality, 692 Colonization of galaxy, 839
Code 1893 Color
localized structures in, 526 and pictures in this book, 851
nested domains in, 360 vision, 577, 1074
Code 2007 Color charges
class 4 behavior in, 237 and QCD, 1057
Code 2040 Coloration of animals, 426, 1012
randomness in, 64 Coloring of networks, 1029, 1031
Code 2043 Combinatorial chemistry, 1193, 1194
class 4 behavior in, 239 Combinatorial optimization, 985
Code 2049 Combinatorial physics, 1027
complex behavior in, 66, 68 Combinatorial topology, 1051
Code 2058 Combinatorics
from simple seed, 69 posets in, 1041
Code 3702 (2D) and substitution systems, 893
examples based on, 868 undecidability in, 1138
Code 29408 Combinators
shape produced by, 980 behavior of, 712
Code 174826 emulating cellular automata, 1123
shape produced by, 929, 980 emulating rule 110, 713
Code 175850 halting in, 897
shape produced by, 980 history of, 1121
Code 1004600 and history of universality, 1110
and undecidability, 754, 1137 as idealization of math, 1150
Code books and network systems, 936
and cryptography, 1085 as precursors to my work, 879
in sound compression, 1080 properties of, 1122
Codes single universal, 1123
error-correcting, 1101 and symbolic systems, 102, 898
Huffman, 564 as symbolic systems, 711
Shannon-Fano, 1069 as universal systems, 711
for totalistic CAs, 60 and variables in axioms, 1156
for Turing machines, 888 Combinatory algebra, 1172
see also Cryptography Comet orbits
Codewords and Gaussian distribution, 977
in block encoding, 563 Common subexpressions
in error-correcting codes, 1101 in equation solutions, 945
self-delimiting, 1071 in multilevel logic, 1096
Coding theory and networks, 1040
algebraic, 1101 and speedups, 1094
and block emulations, 1119 Communication
CoefficientList animal, 1180
and Sierpinski pattern, 931 between computers, 1182
Coffee grains, 986 and definition of intelligence, 826
Cognition of effects in CAs, 252
see Thinking with ETs in science fiction, 1191
Cogs theories of, 1181
characteristic shapes of, 1183 and use of language, 630
Cohen, Paul J. (USA, 1934- ) Communications systems
and continuum hypothesis, 1155 and data compression, 549, 560
Coherence and layout of networks, 1031
and definition of purpose, 830 and shift registers, 878
and human will, 1136 simulations of, 968
Coherent states (in quantum theory), 1059 and theories of communication, 1181
Coherent structures Commutative
in QCD, 1061 see Orderless
in turbulent fluids, 997 Commutative Boolean functions, 1173
see also Localized structures Commutative diagrams
Coiling in category theory, 1154
in animals, 413 Commutative groups
Coin tossing axioms for, 773, 1153
randomness from, 305, 971 decidability for, 1160
in water, 971 enumeration of, 805
Coincidences and forcing by axioms, 1172
and randomness, 967 incompleteness of theory, 1160
Coins shortest axioms for, 806
maze patterns on, 873 total number of, 1172
packing of identical, 349 see also Abelian groups
Cold War Commutative monoids
and beliefs about SETI, 1191 enumeration of, 952
Collagen and generalized additivity, 952
repetitive structure of, 1003 Commutative rings, 1153
Collatz problem, 904 Commutative semigroups
see also 3n+1 problem Cayley graphs of, 938
Collect enumeration of, 805, 1173
analog in Boolean formulas, 1095 word problems in, 1141
Commutativity
of And, 817
and generalized additivity, 952
in operator systems, 801
of Or, 817
proof in Nand axioms, 775
and speedups in evolution, 1095
unprovability in reduced arithmetic, 800
Commuting operations
and causal invariance, 1036
Companding
in sound compression, 1080
Comparative anatomy
and studies of form, 967
Competition
between programs, 1105
in phase transitions, 983
Compile
and CA evolution, 865
Compiled languages, 1109
Compiler generators, 1104
Compilers
for functional languages, 898
optimal code searches in, 1193
and register machines, 1114
Compiling
see Emulation
Complement
and finite set theory, 1171
Complement cellular automaton, 883
Complete bases
for data, 1072
for logic, 1173
Complete graphs
and planarity tests, 1045
Completely connected sets
and discrete packings, 987
Completeness
vs. Incompleteness Theorem, 1159
meanings of, 1152
in multiway systems, 782, 797
of number representations, 1070
in predicate logic, 1152
of real algebra, 1154
see also Universality (computational)
Completeness theorem
for equational logic, 1172
for first-order logic, 1167
Completion
algorithms for, 1037
and automated proofs, 1158
in multiway systems, 782
Complex analysis
and growth shapes, 1010
and S matrix theory, 1057
Complex bases, 932
Complex maps, 933, 933'
Complex numbers
and branching patterns, 1005
cellular automata based on, 886
as defining poset, 1041
and multiway systems, 939
not related to complexity, 1069
as number generalizations, 1168
powers of, 1094
and Sierpinski pattern, 931
Complex plane
nested patterns in, 1093
Complex rules
with simple behavior, 351
Complex systems research
and defining complexity, 1069
history of, 20
organizational structure of, 862
Complexity
adaptive value of, 1002
and animism, 845
applications of, 841
biology as prime example of, 383
in biology vs. thermodynamics, 1003
compared to randomness, 557
definition of, 557-559
and definition of life, 824
explaining in biology, 396
explaining phenomenon of, 735-737
formula size as measuring, 1096
history of definitions of, 1068
of human thinking, 628
of individual integers, 916
ingredients for, 1131
limited by natural selection, 392
as limited in biology, 391
of logic circuits, 1096
and lossy compression, 574
of math formulas, 1068
in mathematics, 772
in models, 364
mystery of in nature, 2
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 719
of proofs in math, 777
from random initial conditions, 228
in rule 110, 39
and science, 861
as special to humans, 844
and theology, 861
of Turing machine rules, 1119
in Turing machines, 709
and universality, 643
Complexity engineering, 882
Complexity theory
history of, 862
summary of relations to, 13
Complexity theory (computational complexity theory), 1142
Composite heads
in symbolic expressions, 896
Compositeness
of elementary particles, 1044
Composition (music)
with substitution systems, 1080
Compositions
of cellular automata, 886
of functions, 896
of polynomials in iterated maps, 1098
Compound leaves, 1005
Compounds
chemical, 1194
Compressible flow (in fluids)
see Supersonic flow
Compression
audio, 1080
of CA patterns, 562
and computational reducibility, 746, 1134
and computer communication, 1182
of data, 560-576
in extraterrestrial signals, 836
lossy, 572
maximal in block encoding, 1071
in mobile automata, 72, 488
and recognition of meaning, 827
software for, 1069
Compton scattering, 1060
Computability
see Decidability
Computable reals, 1128
Computation
analog, 730, 1128
in cellular automata, 638-641
as conceptual foundation, 5
continuous, 730, 1128
efficiency of, 758
math notation for, 1182
minimal systems for specific, 832
not for definite tasks, 715
notion of, 637-714
reversible, 1018
and thermodynamic behavior, 444
thermodynamics of, 1018, 1020
universality as basis for study of, 674
see also Computing
see also Programs
Computation universality
history of, 1109
see also Universality
Computational complexity theory, 758, 1142
and computational irreducibility, 1132
of computing pi, 912
and defining randomness, 1068
and definition of complexity, 1069
of math function evaluation, 1134
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 766
summary of relations to, 14
Computational Equivalence, Principle of, 715-846
see also Principle of Computational Equivalence
Computational fluid dynamics, 1000
and Navier-Stokes, 996
Computational geometry
 and nearest neighbors, 1101 and P equivalence, 764
recursive algorithms in, 1142 redundancy in, 1086
and Voronoi diagrams, 987 and universality, 642
Computational irreducibility, 737-750 see also Languages (computer)
and chemistry, 1193 Computer programs
and complexity, 748 in notes, 853
and computational complexity theory, 1148 see also Programs
and epistemology, 1196 Computer science
and extraterrestrial trade, 1191 education and this book, 855
and free will, 750 structure of algorithms in, 990
and Gödel's Theorem, 788 summary of relations to, 10, 863
history of, 1132 undecidability in, 1138
and human responsibility, 1136 Computer simulations
and intractability, 758 see Simulations
introduction to, 6 Computerized data taking, 992
and limits of science, 1135 Computers
in mathematics, 779 communication between, 1182
my discovery of, 881 and definition of intelligence, 822
in operator systems, 815 and discoveries in this book, 46
origins of, 1133 free will for, 1135
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 738 future of, 1196
in QED, 1060 future technology of, 841
and three-body problem, 972 historical cost of using, 45
ubiquity of, 745 and history of CAs, 876
and weather prediction, 1178 physical components in, 1195
Computational learning theory, 1102 quantum, 1147
Computational neuroscience randomness in, 970
and visual perception, 1076 and rule-based systems, 860
Computational reducibility, 738 and universality, 642
in additive CAs, 1094 used in creation of book, 854
and associative evolution, 1094 Computing
as basis for existing science, 741 causal invariance in distributed, 1035
and compression, 746 history of, 1107
and engineering, 829 intuition from, 40, 46, 872
and exact solutions, 1133 number representations in, 1070
examples of, 744, 747 see also Computation
in network of theorems, 821 Concatenation
and regularities, 746 as semigroup operation, 938, 1172
Computational science, 44 Concatenation sequences, 913
Computational work block statistics in, 594
and computational irreducibility, 739 continued fractions for, 915
Computer-aided design (CAD) difficulty of CAs producing, 1186
and discrete surfaces, 1050 and pointer-based encoding, 1072
Computer algebra sounds from, 1080
and computer experiments, 899 Conchoids (math curves), 875
and Feynman diagrams, 1057 Concurrent systems
and gravity theory, 1048 and causal invariance, 1035
see also Algebraic computation Condensates
Computer art, 11 topological defects in, 1045
Computer-assisted proofs Conditional entropies
see Automated theorem proving and texture discrimination, 1077
Computer experiments Conditional probabilities
basic, 23 and Bayes's theorem, 1083
and chaos theory, 899 Cone cells
and computational irreducibility, 1132 in color vision, 1074
and continuous systems, 167 Cone shells
and ergodicity, 1020 growth of, 414
and iterated maps, 919 neurotoxins from, 1011
lack of meaningful, 898 patterns on, 423
and learning about this book, 856 Cones
methodology of, 108-113 in Lorentzian spaces, 1051
my first on CAs, 880 Confinement in QCD, 1061
my need to do more, 20 Confluence, 1036
on natural selection, 1002 for combinators, 1122
problems with chaos in, 919 and generalized aggregation rules, 979
and solitons, 899 getting using completion, 1037
and symbolic computation, 899 in multiway systems, 507
and theorems, 899 in symbolic systems, 1113
for this book, 46, 111, 854 see also Canonical forms
Computer graphics see also Church-Rosser property
and discrete surfaces, 1050 Conformal mappings
and history of modelling, 992 and flatness in growth, 1007
and models of plant growth, 1005 and hypergeometric functions, 1092
and models of shell shapes, 1008 and transformation of biological forms, 1010
and nesting, 934 Conformal transformations
and substitution systems, 893 and gauge invariance, 1045
surface roughness in, 996 Conformations of proteins, 1184
textures in, 1077 Congruence
use of randomness in, 841, 1192 in axioms of geometry, 1154
Computer interfaces Conifers
graphical vs. language, 631 branching in, 1004
history of, 1102 Conjugacy
Computer languages in additive systems, 952
and context-free grammars, 939 and CA conservation laws, 1023
and history of computing, 1108 in iterated maps, 921
and human thinking, 627 Conjugate systems
influence on thinking of, 1181 and reversible cellular automata, 961
logic primitives in, 1173 Conjunction
 as name for And, 1173 rule 30 repetition as, 266
Conjunctions satisfied by operators, 805
in human languages, 1173 self-assembly and, 1011, 1193
starting sentences with, 849 systems based on, 210-221
as words for logic functions, 1173 undecidability of satisfying, 756
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF), 1095 and undecidability of tiling, 1139
and resolution method, 1157 Constructibility
Connected clusters and intuitionism, 1158
in percolation theory, 983 Constructible reals, 1129
Connection Machine computer Constructions
my use of, 854, 881 of 48-gon, 873
Connections (on fiber bundles), 1045 vs. computer experiments, 108
Connectives and purposes, 830
possible Boolean, 806 rules in geometrical, 875
in well-formed formulas, 1150 of universal CA, 648, 675
Connectivity Constructive proofs
of branching patterns, 1006 and computer experiments, 899
in network evolution, 1039 Consumer electronics
of networks, 1029 use of randomness in, 1192
Conscious thinking use of statistics in, 1082
and free will, 1135 Contact (movie)
in visual perception, 582 extraterrestrial contact in, 1190
Consciousness Context
and quantum theory, 1058, 1063 and recognition of purpose, 830
see also Intelligence and theories of communication, 1181
see also Thinking Context-free languages, 939, 1103
Conservation laws, 458-464 math notation as, 1182
in cellular automaton fluids, 379 parentheses and, 989
finding in CAs, 1022 patterns generated by, 1091
for particles in 2D CA, 445 PCP and, 1139
in PDEs, 923 pumping lemma for, 944
in physics, 1022 random, 1084
for quantum probabilities, 1059 rule 184 as recognizing, 1109
in three-body problem, 972 undecidability in, 1137
topological, 1045 Context-sensitive languages, 939
undecidability of, 1138 Continental drift
for vector quantities, 1024 as non-math theory, 859
Conserved quantities Continued fraction map (Gauss map), 914, 955
from algebraic structures, 1023 Continued fractions, 143, 914-915
Conserved traits, 395 and billiard systems, 971
Consistency computation of, 914
of arithmetic, 1160, 1163 and digital slopes, 916
of axiom systems, 1168 and encoding of reals, 1127
in multiway systems, 797 generalized, 914
Consistency of action history of, 915
and human will, 1136 and iterated maps, 919
Consonants and multiplication systems, 903
sound of, 1079 and Pell equation, 944
and soundex system, 1100 and phyllotaxis, 411
Constancy as precursors to my work, 878
color, 1074 and quadratic Diophantine equations, 1164
Constancy (K) combinator, 1121 and sine curves, 147
Constants ContinuedFraction, 914
mathematical, 136-144 see also Continued fractions
in operator systems, 1169 Continuity
Constants of motion and axioms of topology, 1155
in three-body problem, 972 of CA mappings, 869
see also Conserved quantities and confusion about Gödel's Theorem, 1132
Constellations and the continuum, 1127
patterns of, 583, 1187 and difficulty of computer experiments, 899
and SETI, 1189 discreteness from, 337
Constraints in genetic programs, 1002
in 1D systems, 940 in geometry axioms, 1154
axioms as, 803 and mathematical intuition, 925
as basis for uniformity, 354 in natural selection and engineering, 394
biological schemes for satisfying, 985 nesting as historical counterexamples in, 934
and concept of purpose, 829, 1185 origins of, 327-336, 463-464
in correspondence systems, 1139 origins of in fluids, 379
Darwinian evolution and, 386 and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 729
defining networks using, 483 of space, 472
as determining spacetime networks, 482 Continuous cellular automata, 155-160
difficulties in modelling with, 368 additive, 1092
enumerating cases satisfying, 959 cardinality of, 1128
and mathematical thinking, 1177 classification of, 948
vs. mechanisms, 940 history of, 921
in multiway systems, 766 implementation of, 921
as NP problems, 1142 as models of boiling, 994
on operators, 1172 as models of phyllotaxis, 1007
PDEs as, 923 and probabilistic rules, 976
for periodic behavior in CAs, 954 for quantum mechanics, 1059
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 729 with random initial conditions, 243
probability of violating, 343 Continuous computation, 730, 1128
problem of satisfying, 342-351 Continuous functions
producing complexity with, 351 additivity of, 953
proofs as systems based on, 1157 cellular automaton maps as, 961
and quasicrystal growth, 994 evaluation of, 1134
in random systems number of, 1127
see Markov random fields Continuous models
 of crystal growth, 993
of fracture, 995
Continuous Pascal's triangle, 922
Continuous systems
and Church's Thesis, 1126
vs. discrete systems, 167
emulating discrete, 731, 1129
isotropy in, 980
in physics, 729
and undecidability, 1138
Continuous truth values, 1175
Continuous variables
invention of, 901
models with, 368
Continuum, the, 1127
Continuum equations
see Partial differential equations
Continuum Hypothesis, 1127
in set theory, 1155
and truth from incompleteness, 1167
unprovability of, 1163
Continuum limits
different forms of, 1023
for diffusion equation, 1024
of networks, 1030
Contours
in landscapes, 1001
in visual perception, 578
Contractive mappings, 277, 959
Contradictions
and proofs of undecidability, 1137
as scheme for proofs, 1177
Control theory
and artificial intelligence, 1099
and complex behavior, 841
and cybernetics, 862
time series in, 1083
Convection, 1000
and history of pattern, 947
maze patterns in, 1013
patterns of, 377
repeatable randomness in, 976
repetitive cells in, 988
and snowflake development, 372
Convention in languages, 1181
Convergence
of fractal dimensions, 933
of isotropy in finite differences, 980
of iterated maps, 918
of metric expansion, 1050
in multiway systems, 507, 1036
in natural selection, 392
in negotiation processes, 430
of PDE solutions, 924
in plant phyllotaxis, 410
Convergent evolution, 397
Convergent series
as exact solutions, 1133
Conversation
and defining intelligence, 1178
Convolution
in visual perception, 1075, 1076
see also ListConvolve
Convolutional codes
and CA encodings, 1119
Conway, John H. (England/USA, 1937- )
and 2D Turing machines, 930
and arithmetic recurrences, 1115
and Game of Life, 877, 880, 949
and iterated run-length encoding, 905
and non-periodic tilings, 943
in Preface, xiii
and recursive sequences, 907
and universality of Life, 1117
Cook, Matthew (USA, 1970- )
and cyclic tag systems, 895
and polyomino tiling, 943
in Preface, xii
and rule 110, 1115
Cook, Stephen A. (USA/Canada, 1939- )
and NP completeness, 1143
Cooking recipes, 1193
Cooley-Tukey transform, 1074
Cooperation
theories of evolution of, 1104
Coordinate singularities
in general relativity, 1048, 1053
Coordinates
and multiway strings, 1036
for network nodes, 478
Copernican astronomy
and extraterrestrial life, 1180
and history of gravity, 1047
vs. ideas of this book, 844
Copy operations
and Nand expressions, 1096
Coral
as animal artifacts, 1184
Coral reefs
symmetry of, 1187
Coralbells (plant), 1006
Córdoba, Great Mosque of, 873
Core collapse
in self-gravitating systems, 1021
Core memory
of early computer, 864
Cores
of elementary particles, 527
Corn
structure of, 385
Corner-overlapping patterns, 941
Corners
in code 976, 980
Cornu spiral, 418
Corollaries
defining features of, 1176
Coronas (in splashes), 988, 1000
Corpuscular theories, 876, 1024
Correlation entropy, 959
Correlations
in 2D Ising model, 982
and Bell's inequalities, 1064
between digits, 902
and CA difference patterns, 950
in CA evolution, 953
in class 3 CAs, 949
and defining communication, 827
and defining complexity, 1069
in DNA sequences, 1184
in H theorem, 1020
in human languages, 1086
in noise with given spectrum, 969
and non-standard diffusion processes, 1024
in phase transitions, 989
in quantum theory, 543
in random environments, 304
and random networks, 1039
in random patterns, 584
and randomness tests, 595, 1085
and spectra, 587, 1082
in stirring and shaking, 969
in visual textures, 1078
see also ListCorrelate
Correspondence systems (PCP)
NP completeness in, 1145
and undecidability, 757, 1139
Corrugation
in ammonite septa, 1008
in animal development, 418
characteristic shape of, 1183
in tissue sheets, 413
Cortex
auditory, 1079
sensorimotor, 1099
visual, 580
Cos (cosine)
and area of circle on sphere, 1050
and Bell's inequalities, 1064
and limit of 6j symbols, 1055
and logistic map formulas, 1098
and nested radicals, 915
and tent map, 919
Cosets
and state transition graphs, 963
Cosh
in solution of catenary, 1133
in solution of logistic map, 1098
Cosine transform
in data compression, 1070, 1074
Cosmas (Italy, ~1210 - ~1235)
and mosaic patterns, 873
Cosmati mosaic work, 873
Cosmic microwave background
and alignment of time, 1022
as analog of ether, 1042
and galaxy formation, 1021
 and history of gravity, 1048 and scale invariance, 955
and initial conditions, 1026 Crossovers
origin of uniformity of, 1055 in genetics, 970
as source of radio noise, 1187 Crosstalk
Cosmic rays and Walsh functions, 1073
particles produced by, 1044, 1047 Crowds
as possible artifacts, 1187 motion of people in, 1014
Cosmological principle (uniformity of universe), 1055 Crumpling
Cosmological term (in Einstein equations), 1052 patterns of, 996
and inflationary universe, 1055 Crushing (of solids), 995
and vacuum solutions, 1053 nesting in, 988
Cosmology and sphere packing, 986
and Anthropic Principle, 1185 Crust (of Earth)
basic issues in, 1055 and origin of life, 1179
and Einstein equations, 1053 patterns on, 1001
and ether in, 1042 Crutchfield, James P. (USA, 1955- )
formation of galaxies in, 1021 and Markov models, 1084
and history of gravity, 1048 in Preface, xiii
my work in, 17, 864 Cryptanalysis
network models of, 1056 of additive cellular automata, 601
and Second Law, 1020, 1021 and dead languages, 1185
and simple initial conditions, 1026 and defining randomness, 1068
topological defects in, 1045 history of, 1086
see also Universe and history of computing, 1107
Cot (cotangent) of linear congruential generators, 1089
and shift map, 919 and meaning of programs, 1183
Coth and rule 30 NP completeness, 770
continued fraction for, 914 of shift registers, 1087
and solution of Ising model, 982 of Vigenère ciphers, 599
Countable models Cryptography, 598-606
of operator systems, 1172 as application of randomness, 1192
Counter and defining randomness, 1068
Turing machine acting as, 888 with digit sequences, 1089
Counter machines (register machines), 97-102, 896 electronic randomness for, 968
Counterfactuals (quantum values), 1064 as example of technology, 840
Counterpoint and hashing, 1100
rules of musical, 875 history of, 1085
Countries and history of complexity, 49
of people in the index, 852 as process based on rules, 875
Coupled map lattices, 155-160, 922 quantum, 1058
see also Continuous cellular automata random keys for, 970
Coupling constants and recognizing meaning, 827
in quantum field theory, 1057 and shift registers, 878, 1086
and renormalization group, 955 Crystal growth, 369-373
Coupon collector's test, 1085 history of, 993
Courant condition (for PDEs), 924 models of, 993
Covalent forces Crystal lattices
and virtual electrons, 1060 systems on, 169, 929
Cover Crystals
of inspirational book, 17, 864 as artificial-looking, 828
of this book, 851 Brillouin zones in, 988
Covers diffraction patterns in, 1082
in Boolean minimization, 1095 effect of seeds on, 992
Cow parsley formation as phase transition, 983
shape of, 385 fracture in, 374
Cowe, Russell J. (UK, 1946- ) hopper, 993
and shell patterns, 1012 lack of continuum limit for, 327
Cowfish as not artifacts, 1183
pigmentation pattern of, 426 randomness in shapes of, 373
Cowrie shells as self-organizing systems, 824
growth of, 415, 1008 shapes of, 929
patterns on, 1012 trivalent network and, 1030
CP violation (time reversal violation), 1019 Csc (cosecant)
CPT invariance, 1019 and Moire patterns, 1078
Crackling Cube-free sequences, 944
in natural radio emissions, 1187 Thue-Morse and, 890
Cracks Cube network, 476
nesting of, 988 transformed to tetrahedron, 1038
randomness of, 374 Cube roots
Craters and Cantor set generating function, 1092
circular shapes of, 1187 digits of, 141
as landscape elements, 1001 Cubes
Creation myths equations involving sums of, 945
as models, 992 produced by CAs, 1186
Creeping flow, 377 Cubic equations
Crete and computational reducibility, 1132
maze at Knossos on, 873 Diophantine, 1164
Criminal law as exactly soluble, 1133
free will in, 1135 iterative solutions to, 1101
Crinkling size of solutions to, 945
patterns of, 996 Cubic graphs
Critical exponent see Networks, trivalent
in 2D Ising model, 982 Cubic lattices
Critical pairs cellular automata on, 182
in completion algorithms, 1037 class 4 rules on, 949
Critical phenomena as crystal lattices, 929
and nesting, 989 random walks on, 977
and phase transitions, 981 Voronoi diagrams for, 987
Cuboid
and 3D cellular automata, 927
Cucumber leaves, 1006
Cultural relativism
not connected to relativity, 1042
Culture
and character of perception, 635
and defining intelligence, 1178
and recognizing intelligence, 825
and response to events, 827
Curie point
in Ising model, 981
Curl
and vector potential, 1045
Curry, Haskell B. (USA, 1900-1982)
and combinators, 898
Currying
and combinators, 1122
of function arguments, 896
Curvature
of curves, 1049
curves defined by, 418, 1009
in differential geometry, 1048
of fronts in crystal growth, 993
gauge fields as, 1045
of growing tissue, 1007
higher-dimensional, 1009
in non-integer dimensions, 1051
in plant growth, 412
in rivers, 1001
singularities in, 1053
Curves
curvature of, 1049
Lissajous, 917
mathematical, 145-148
space-filling, 893
Cusps
in light caustics, 984
Custering
in 2D cellular automata, 877
Cut elimination in proofs, 1155
Cuttlefish
communication by, 1181
pigmentation pattern of, 426
Cybernetics
and biology, 1004
and computational irreducibility, 1132
and definition of complexity, 1068
and free will for machines, 1135
history of, 862
and models of thinking, 1099
as precursor to my work, 879
and self-reproduction, 1179
summary of relations to, 14
Cycles
in attractors, 958
longest in networks, 1029, 1031
in random networks, 963
and repetition periods, 950
in shift rules, 963
shortest in networks, 1029
in state transition graphs, 961
Cyclic
see Repetitive
Cyclic addition systems, 255, 950
state transition graphs for, 961
Cyclic boundary conditions
in CA implementation, 866
periods in CAs with, 950
Cyclic groups
decomposition into, 1172
Cyclic multiplication, 257, 950
state transition graphs for, 961
Cyclic negation
in multivalued logic, 1175
Cyclic shift instructions, 951
Cyclic subgroups
and nested patterns, 956
Cyclic tag systems, 95
emulated by rule 110, 678
emulated by tag systems, 1113
emulating cellular automata, 668
emulating tag systems, 669, 1116
generalizations of, 895
implementation of, 895
mechanical version of, 895
and pointer-based encoding, 1071
random initial conditions in, 949
randomness generation in, 920
vs. shift registers, 1088
Cyclones (in weather), 1178
Cyclotomic (cyclotomic polynomials)
and shift register periods, 975
and solution of logistic map, 1098
Cylinders
in curved space, 1050
and definition of Ricci tensor, 534
fluid flow past, 996
Cylindrical algebraic decomposition, 1154
Cypress leaves, 1006
D0L systems, 82-85
see also Substitution systems, neighbor-independent
D1L systems, 85-87
da Vinci, Leonardo (Italy, 1452-1519)
and fluid turbulence, 997
and geometrical rules, 878
and math in science, 859
and phyllotaxis, 1007
and rule-based pictures, 875
and theory of lunes, 873
Daedalus
as designer of maze, 873
Daisies
phyllotaxis in, 409
regular form of, 385
Damping
and attractors, 957
of fluid perturbations, 381
Dante Alighieri (Italy, 1265-1321)
and rhyming schemes, 875
Dappled patterns
from 2D cellular automata, 428
Darwin, Charles R. (England, 1809-1882)
and Origin of Species, 1001
and origins of complexity, 861, 861'
Darwinian evolution, 386
summary of relations to, 14
see also Natural selection
Data
analysis of, 548
artifacts in, 1184
information content of, 1181
recognizing meaning in, 826
Data compression, 560-576
history of, 1069
lossy, 572
practicalities of, 1069
two-dimensional, 567
see also Compression
Data Encryption Standard (DES), 1085
and history of CAs, 960
as randomness generator, 975
Data processing
and history of computing, 1107
Data structures
and network systems, 936
Databases
as analogy for memory, 621
of chemical compounds, 1194
Dataflow systems
and causal invariance, 1035
Dates
conventions for in book, 851
Daubechies wavelets, 1074
Davis, H. Chandler (USA/Canada, 1926- )
and dragon curves, 893
Davis, Martin D. (USA, 1928- )
and Diophantine equations, 1161
in Preface, xiii
Davis-Putnam rules, 1171
Dawn chorus
natural radio signals and, 1187
DCT (discrete cosine transform), 1074
de Broglie, Louis-V.-P.-R. (France, 1892-1987)
and wave-particle duality, 1056
de Bruijn, Nicolaas G. (Netherlands, 1918- )
and maximal sequences, 1089
de Bruijn networks, 940
and CA attractors, 957
and local conservation laws, 1023
for shift registers, 1089
and sorting networks, 1142
de Moivre, Abraham (France/England, 1667-1754)
and Gaussian distribution, 977
de Morgan's law (in logic), 817
Dead languages, 1184
Dead time and Boolean minimization, 1095
in randomness generators, 303 and recursive sequence, 906
Deadlocks DeleteCases
using randomness to avoid, 841, 1192 and minimal finite automata, 957
Dean's Eye cathedral window, 873 and pattern-avoiding sequences, 944
Debugging Delimiters
intuition from, 872 balanced and nesting, 989
and proofs about programs, 1168 Delta functions
Decidability, 753 and spectra, 1081
see also Undecidability Deltas (of rivers)
Decimal numbers, 116 nesting in, 988
recurring, 138 Democratic hypothesis (in particle physics), 1044
Decimation Democritus (Greece, ~460 - ~370 BC)
in additive CA patterns, 955 and atomism, 876
and self-similarity in rule 90, 870 and extraterrestrial life, 1180
Decimation systems, 909 Demodulation (substitution)
and firing squad problem, 1035 in proofs, 1155
Decision analysis Dendrimers, 1194
and causal networks, 1033 Dendrites
Decision making in nerve cells, 1075
and game theory, 1104 Dendritic crystal growth, 371, 993
Decision problem Dendritic erosion patterns, 1001
and history of universality, 1110 Dendritic patterns
Decision procedures in 2D cellular automata, 171
see also Algorithms in 2D substitution systems, 188
see also Undecidability Denominators
Deck of cards and continuous CA background, 922
perfect shuffle of, 974 minimal in rational numbers, 950
Decoding Densest packings, 986
see Cryptanalysis Density
Decoherence (in quantum mechanics), 1063 of circle packings, 986
Decompilers, 1184 of difficult problems, 1147
Deconstructionism in percolation theory, 983
and limitations of science, 1196 in tag systems, 894
and postmodernism, 1196 of universal systems, 1126
and theories of communication, 1181 Density in cellular automata, 265, 953
Decorative art, 43, 872 conservation of, 458
see also Art diffusion of in block, 463
Decrement function estimates of, 953
combinators for, 1122 as non-computable, 1128
Decrement-jump instructions phase transition in, 341
in register machines, 97 undecidability of limiting, 1138
Dedekind, J. W. Richard (Germany, 1831-1916) Density perturbations
and axioms for arithmetic, 1152 and sound in fluids, 1000
and categoricity of models, 1172 Dentin
and primitive recursion, 907 mammoth ivory, 873
and real numbers, 1153 Denudation (in landscapes), 1001
DedekindEta Deposition
difficulty of evaluating, 1134 and landscape structure, 1001
Deduction see also Aggregation systems
automated mathematical, 1157 Depth
of cellular automaton rules, 1089 for combinator expressions, 1123
in mathematics, 775 and Horton stream order, 1001
of rules from data, 592 and symbolic systems, 897
see also Intelligence Depth-first recursion
see also Perception in substitution systems, 1033
Deep inelastic scattering, 1044 Depth-first traversal
Deep theorem of backtracking trees, 1089
definition of, 1176 Depths
Defects of logic expressions, 1096, 1096', 1148
as localized structures, 990 Derandomization
topological, 1045 of randomized algorithms, 1192
Deficient numbers, 910 Derivations
Definability in formal languages, 1103
of operations in arithmetic, 1163 in mathematics, 775
Definitions Derivative (differential derivative)
and character of principles, 1126 as composite head, 896
of existing sciences, 863 and relation to DigitCount, 902
of intelligence, 822, 1178 Derivatives (financial), 1015
of life, 823, 1178 DES (Data Encryption Standard), 1085
of mathematics, 859 and history of CAs, 960
of purpose, 829 as randomness generator, 975
Deformable objects Desborough Mirror, 873
packing of, 988 Descartes, René (France/Netherlands, 1596-1650)
Degrees of unsolvability (arithmetic hierarchy), 1126, 1139 and complexity in biology, 861
Dehn, Max W. (Germany, 1878-1952) and discrete space, 1027
and word problem for groups, 1141 and equiangular spirals, 1008
Deism, 1196 and snowflakes, 992
Deity and sums of three squares, 910
see God and theoretical biology, 1003
del and Turing test, 1099
and isotropy, 980 Deserts
Delay equations landscape in, 1001
and road traffic flow, 1014 Design in nature
Delay lines and origin of complexity, 861
and history of CAs, 877 and teleology, 1185
Delayed choice experiments, 1059 Det (determinant)
Delete and Hadamard matrices, 1073
 metric related to volume by, 1050
and NC computations, 1149
and polynomial time, 1146
and testing for dimension, 1031
and zeta functions, 959
Detachment rule
in axioms, 1150
and proofs, 1155
Determinism
and fate, 967
and free will, 750, 1135
and Gödel's Theorem, 1132
vs. probability in models, 588
Deterministic chaos
recognizing, 972
see also Chaos theory
Deterrents, 1136
Deutsch, David (England, 1953- )
in Preface, xiii
and quantum computers, 1147
Development (in biology), 400-428
see also Growth
Developmental constraints
on forms of organisms, 387
Developmental pathways
invariance of in evolution, 395
/dev/random (randomness pool), 970
DFA (deterministic finite automaton), 957
see also Finite automata
Diabolus in musica (tritone), 917
Diagnosis
and causal networks, 1033
Diagonal arguments, 1128
and Ackermann function, 907
and computational complexity, 1143
and the continuum, 1127
Diagonal bands
in rule 30, 28
Diagonalization
and Church's Thesis, 1125
and growth rates, 1162
and recursive functions, 908
Diameters of networks, 1029
Diamond shape
generated by CAs, 171
Diatoms
forms of, 385, 1011
Dice
and legal randomness, 1068
randomness from, 305, 968, 969, 971
Dicotyledons (plants)
branching in, 1004
symmetries in, 1007
Dictionaries
as lookup mechanism, 622
Dictionary-based encoding, 565, 1071
Difference approximations
see Finite differences
Difference engines, 1107
Difference patterns in CAs, 251
probabilistic estimates of, 953
properties of, 949
for reversible rules, 1018
Difference tables
patterns in, 1091
Difference vectors
in multiway system states, 937
Differential analyzer, 1107
Differential equations
for almost periodic functions, 917
attractors in, 961
compression of time in, 732
and continuous computation, 732, 1129
and curves from curvature, 1009
exact solutions to, 1133
existence of solutions to, 940
and financial markets, 1015
for fluid convection, 971
for GegenbauerC, 1091
for geodesics, 1049
machines for solving, 1107
modelling with, 366
for noisy vacuum tubes, 971
numbers generated from, 916
ordinary, 922
partial, 161-164
renormalization group, 955
second-order CAs and, 1018
and special functions, 1092
and time series, 1083
and universality, 1129
and weather prediction, 1178
see also Partial differential equations
Differential geometry, 1048
and shell growth, 1009
Differential growth
in animals, 421
and folding, 417
history of, 1010
in horns, 413
in shells, 414
Differentiation (biological)
in biological evolution, 386
Differentiation (mathematical)
and computability, 1128
Diffie, Whitfield (USA, 1944- )
and cryptography, 1089
in Preface, xiii
Diffraction
exactly soluble problems in, 1133
and image processing, 1077
path integral theory of, 1061
patterns from, 1082
Diffuse reflection
and surface roughness, 996
Diffusion
and biological growth, 419
in block cellular automata, 463
in continuous CAs, 156
and crystal growth, 993
and harmonic growth, 1008
in model of boiling, 994
non-standard, 1024
of plant hormones, 404
in plant phyllotaxis, 1007
Diffusion equation, 163
derivation of in CAs, 1024
emerging from block CAs, 464
minimal approximation to, 1024
origin of, 922
as parabolic equation, 940
and path integrals, 1057
and random walks, 978
and Schrödinger equation, 1060
Diffusion-limited aggregation (DLA), 979, 994
and biological form, 1004
and lightning, 995
and randomness tests, 1085
Digestive systems
branching structures in, 1008
Digit count sequences, 905
Digit reversal systems, 125-127, 905
Digit sequences, 116-127, 136-142
and 2D substitution systems, 931
amplification of, 308
arbitrary operations on, 1091
and arithmetic coding, 1071
and chaos theory, 149-155, 307-314
in complex bases, 933
of complex numbers, 1094
computable, 1128
and computational reducibility, 743, 747
computing nth elements of, 912
in computing powers, 615
conversion between bases, 1094
correlations within, 902
cryptography with, 1089
and data compression, 560
and diagonal arguments, 1128
evidence for randomness in, 912
and fast evolution rules, 1094
Fibonacci, 560
and formulas for nesting, 608
history of, 902, 1182
and history of chaos theory, 971
and history of computing, 1107
implementation of, 901
in iterated maps, 149
leading elements in, 914
and linear congruential generators, 318
for mathematical functions, 1134
multiplicative, 902
and multiway systems, 207
for negative numbers, 942
nested, 913
non-locality in, 124
 in non-periodic tiling pattern, 219
normal, 912
operations in terms of, 731
as origins of nesting, 358
of pi, 136
of pi and universe, 1027
of pi as precursors, 878
on Pioneer 10 plaque, 1189
of powers, 614, 903
as procedures for making numbers, 143
randomness in, 967
of rational numbers, 138
reversal and Walsh functions, 1073
reversal of, 905
see also Digit reversal systems
robustness of, 920
self-delimiting, 560
of square roots, 139
and substitution systems, 891
for transfinite numbers, 1162
and trees, 891
and Turing machines, 760
see also Sequences
Digital computation
compared to analog, 730, 1128
Digital electronics
as avoiding noise, 302
and practical computers, 1108
Digital filters (FIR)
and sequential CAs, 1035
Digital image processing
see Image processing
DigitCount, 902
and 3n+1 problem, 904
and additive CAs, 1092
basic example of, 854
and computational reducibility, 747
in densities from rule 90, 953
as inverse recursive sequence, 906
and nested networks, 1037
and operator representations, 916
and recursive sequences, 131, 906
and rule 90 pattern, 870
and solution of logistic map, 1098
and Thue-Morse sequence, 890
Dilation, time
see Time dilation
Dilation (in mathematical morphology), 1077
Dimensional analysis
and fluid flow, 996
and Kolmogorov spectrum, 997
and Planck length, 1027
Dimensions
above 3 and reality in math, 860
of attractors in CAs, 958
in axioms of geometry, 1154
definitions of, 1030
differential geometry of non-integer, 1051
fractal, 933
general effects of, 170
in network systems, 936
of networks, 478, 533
of physical space, 515
of posets, 1041
Dimer problem, 959
Diminished fifth
curve of, 146
Diophantine equations
and algorithmic randomness, 1067
assuming randomness in, 1165
and axiom systems, 1166
as constraint systems, 944
cubic, 1164
enumeration of, 1165
Hilbert's Tenth Problem and, 1161
history of, 1164
largest solutions for quadratic, 1164
linear and polynomial time, 1146
and Moire patterns, 1078
and multiway systems, 1157
NP completeness and quadratic, 1146
table of, 790
and undecidability, 787, 1138
universal, 786, 1164
Diophantus (Egypt, ~246 - ~330 AD)
and Diophantine equations, 944
Diploid cells
and randomness in biology, 970
Dirac, Paul A. M. (England, 1902-1984)
and history of quantum mechanics, 1056
Dirac delta functions, 1081
Dirac equation
discretization of, 1060
as simple model, 1025
Directed acyclic graphs (DAGs)
causal networks as, 1033
Directed network systems, 1040
Directed percolation (probabilistic cellular automaton), 591, 976
Directional entropies
in cellular automata, 960
Directional reversibility
in cellular automata, 1017
Dirichlet domains, 987
and CA lattices, 929
Disassemblers (decompilers), 1184
Discharge tubes
randomness from, 969
Discontinuities
and catastrophe theory, 1009
and phase transitions, 981
Discontinuous functions, 901, 918
Discord
perfect (tritone), 917
Discrete packings, 987
Discrete space, 472
history of in math, 1050
history of in physics, 1027
and quantum gravity, 1055
Discreteness
and atomism, 876
averaging out of, 327
in computer programs, 976
in models vs. continuous, 368
origins of, 337
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 729
in space, 984
Discretization
of PDEs, 924
Discrimination
learning of in neural nets, 1102
Disjunction
as name for Or, 1173
Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF), 616, 1095
lower bounds on Xor in, 1143
multilevel, 1096
and proof lengths in logic, 1175
and proofs of axiom systems, 1170
Disk (computer) traffic
randomness from, 970
Disks
packing of, 350
Dislocations
patterns of in fracture, 375
Dispersion relations
and repetitive behavior, 988
Display hacks
for nested patterns, 932
as precursors to my work, 879
Displays
of 3D cellular automata, 927
and history of computing, 1108
lines on digital, 916
studying CAs using, 46
Dissipative structures
and history of complexity, 862
and reaction-diffusion, 1013
Distances
defined by geodesics, 1048
defined on networks, 478
general properties of, 1030
non-symmetric and torsion, 1052
Distribute
and powersets, 1171
Distributed computing
and causal invariance, 1035
and computer experiments, 899
Distributive laws (in logic), 817
Distributivity
and additive CAs, 952
Districting
and Voronoi diagrams, 987
Dithering, 1077
Divaricate patterns on shells, 423
Divergence in chaos theory, 153, 307, 921
Divergent series
in QED, 1060
Diversity Drag coefficients, 998
of animal shapes, 421 for airplanes, 997
in biological organisms, 395 Dragon curves, 189, 893, 932
in branching patterns, 402 Drainage patterns
of leaf shapes, 401 and landscape structure, 1001
Divide (/) seen from space, 1187
and NC computations, 1149 Drake, Frank D. (USA, 1930- )
in terms of digits, 139 and SETI, 1189
Divide-and-conquer algorithms, 1094, 1141 Drake equation, 1191
Divination (fortune-telling), 1135 Drawing lots, 968, 1192
Divine proportion (GoldenRatio), 890 Drawing straws, 968
Divisibility Drexler, K. Eric (USA, 1955- )
as defining poset, 1041 and nanotechnology, 1193
of numbers, 132 Drill (military)
see also GCD use of rules in, 875
Division in groups, 1153 Drip tips of leaves, 1005
Divisors Drop (drop elements)
and cycles in shift rules, 963 basic example of, 853
distribution of, 909 Droplets
and maximal periods, 950 in 2D cellular automata, 980
DivisorSigma (number of divisors), 135, 910 Drops
iteration of, 911 in water streams, 984
DLA Drugs
see Diffusion-limited aggregation and brain function, 1099
DNA from cone shells, 1011
1/f noise in, 969 origins of current, 1194
in Arecibo radio message, 1190 random trials of, 1192
and definition of complexity, 1069 searching for, 842, 1193
and definition of life, 825, 1178 and spider webs, 1184
as evolutionary artifact, 1184 Drums
extraterrestrial messages in, 1184 as sending signals, 827
fingerprinting, 970 sound from, 1079
and genetic programs, 1002 DSolve
and nanotechnology, 1193 see also Differential equations
NP completeness in, 1146 see also Partial differential equations
random changes in, 970 Duality
use of randomness in, 1192 between And and Or, 1151
DNF between evolution and causal network, 496
see Disjunctive Normal Form between particles and extended objects, 1044
Do (Do loop) in string theory, 1029
for computing factorial, 1110 Ductile materials, 994
Documentation length Duhem, Pierre M. M. (France, 1861-1916)
as definition of complexity, 1069 and chaos theory, 971
Dodecahedron Dummy variables
in deformable packings, 988 in predicate logic, 1152
elongated, 930 Dunes (sand)
network of, 476, 1049 repetitive patterns of, 1187
rhombic, 929, 986, 987 Dungeons & Dragons
rhombo-hexagonal, 930 shapes of dice in, 971
trapezoid-rhombic, 986 Duplication formulas (functional relations)
Dogs and function evaluation, 1134
and sense of smell, 827 and logistic map formulas, 1098
Dolphins Dürer, Albrecht (Germany, 1471-1528)
communication by, 1180 and parametrizing growth, 1010
and sense of fluid motion, 827 Dust
Domains as seed for crystals, 369, 992
in 2D cellular automata, 335 Dutch
effective rules for in CAs, 980 logic operations in, 1173
and repetitive behavior, 356 Dyadic order
Domino problems, 211-221 for Walsh functions, 1073
approximate solutions to, 345 Dyadic pure predicate logic, 1152
enumeration in, 959 Dynamic programming
undecidability in, 1139 and CA implementation, 869
see also Tilings and recursive sequences, 906
Don't care elements (in Boolean formulas), 1095 Dynamic spin systems, 982
Doodles Dynamic triangulation
rule-based, 875 and quantum gravity, 1054
Dot (dot product) Dynamical symmetry breaking, 1047
as associative function, 1094 Dynamical systems theory
and differential geometry, 1048 and 1D constraints, 941
Dot-coms and cellular automata, 960
as speculative stocks, 1015 and continued fractions, 915
Double-angle formulas and digit sequences, 901
and iterated maps, 1098 finite automata in, 958
Double exponential growth and history of CAs, 877
in primitive recursive functions, 908 and history of chaos theory, 971
Double negation and history of complexity, 862
law of, 817 and my work on CAs, 880
Doubling and ODEs, 922
using cellular automata, 832 and spectra in, 1081
using combinators, 1122 summary of relations to, 14
Doubling map e (exponential constant)
and chaos theory, 149, 306 continued fraction for, 144
computational difficulty in, 1147 digits of, 142
periods in, 257 as not from rational integral, 916
see also Shift map and random networks, 963
Draft lottery e-commerce
randomness of, 969 use of randomness in, 1192
E8 (group) lattice
isotropy of, 980
and sphere packings, 987
Eanna temple, 873
Ear lobes
folding in formation of, 417
Early computers
and cellular automata, 45
Early universe
particles surviving from, 1047
and thermodynamics, 1021
Ears
operation of, 585, 1079
see also Auditory perception
Earth
conditions for life on, 1179
and extrasolar planets, 1179
formation of the, 1179
origin of life on, 1179
viewed from space, 835, 1187
Earth-Moon-Sun system, 313, 972
Earthquakes
1/f noise in, 969
and fracture, 374
Earthworks
as artifacts, 1184
Eastern philosophy, 1195, 1195', 1196
ECAD
multilevel logic in, 1096
Ecology
and complexity research, 863
of extraterrestrial colonization, 1191
iterated maps and models in, 918
Economics
applications to, 429-432
and complexity in science, 861
and computational irreducibility, 1132
and extraterrestrial trade, 1191
and free will, 1135
history of models from, 1015
iterated maps and models in, 918
and notion of purpose, 1185
and pragmatic theory of law, 1136
quantitative laws in, 1014
successes of math in, 859
ed (text editor)
and regular expressions, 958
and substitution systems, 894
Eddies
in fluid flow, 376
Eddington, Arthur S. (England, 1882-1944)
and models of the universe, 1025
Eddy viscosities, 997
Eden, Murray (USA, 1920- )
and aggregation systems, 978
Eden model, 331, 978
see also Aggregation systems
Edge detection in images, 1077
and scale invariance, 1076
Edgerton, Harold E. (USA, 1903-1990)
and splashes, 1000
Edison, Thomas A. (USA, 1847-1931)
and searching for materials, 1193
Education
and defining intelligence, 1178
and exact solutions, 1133
and recognizing intelligence, 825
and the science in this book, 855
EDVAC (computer)
and early CA, 1117
EEG, 1099
Eel
pigmentation pattern of, 426
Effective computability
see Decidability
Effectively computable sets, 1138
Efficiency of computations, 758
Efficient causes, 1185
Efficient Market Hypothesis, 432, 1015
Egg
randomness in fertilization of, 970
Egmont volcano
circular shape around, 1187
Egyptian art, 873
Egyptian fractions, 915
Egyptian mathematics, 1149
and evaluation chains, 1095
and pi, 911
Egyptian pyramids, 874
Ehrlich, Paul (Germany, 1854-1915)
and chemotherapy, 1193
Eigenvalues
and dimension of networks, 1031
of distance matrices, 1031
and entropies of CAs, 958
and fractal dimensions for additive rules, 955
of nested systems, 1081
nesting in pattern of, 1130
of random matrices, 918, 977
Eikonal approximation, 1061
Einstein, Albert (Germany/Switzerland/USA, 1879-1955)
and EPR experiment, 1058
and general relativity, 1047
and math in science, 860
and particles as gravity, 1054
and quantum theory, 1056
and special relativity, 1041
and unified field theory, 1028
Einstein equations, 1052
exact solutions to, 1133
as examples of PDEs, 161, 923
history of, 1047
matter vs. space in, 1028
quantization of, 1054
specifying curvature of space, 531
vacuum solutions to, 1053
Einstein-Hilbert action
and spin networks, 1055
Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) experiment, 1064
Elasticity theory
and fracture, 995
Electric breakdown, 302, 995
see also Lightning
Electric fields
particle production in, 1062
Electric light bulb filaments, 1193
Electricity
as defining feature of life, 1178
Electromagnetic fields
and gauge invariance, 1045
quantization of, 1056
and radioactive randomness, 970
and relativistic invariance, 1041
theories of based on space, 1028
as ultimate constituents, 1024
and virtual photons, 1060
Electromagnetic radiation
and information transmission, 1069
Electromagnetic signals
see Radio signals
Electromechanical machines
as computers, 1107
and finite automata, 958
Electron diffraction
and visualizing fracture, 995
Electron levels
in nested potentials, 1081
Electron-photon scattering, 1060
Electronic computers
and Church's Thesis, 1125
history of, 1107
and history of universality, 1110
numbers in history of, 902
and proofs of universality, 1117
Electronic design
and Boolean formulas, 1097
Electronic noise, 302, 968
randomness from, 969
Electronics
making reliable, 981
and studying complexity, 862
Electrons
discovery of, 1024, 1044
as initiators of randomness, 303
lack of intuition about, 537
limits on sizes of, 1044
magnetic moment of in QED, 1060
mass of, 1046
in practical computers, 1108
theories of structure of, 1044
wave-particle duality of, 1056
Elegant theorem
definition of, 1176
Element
in set theory, 1155
Elementary cellular automata, 53, 883
 emulation of rules by, 705
legal rules for, 948
my first pictures of, 19, 864
with random initial conditions, 232, 424
rule equivalences, 883
table of Boolean forms for, 884
uniqueness of patterns from, 956
as universal logic functions, 1174
see also Cellular automata
see also Rule 30, Rule 90, etc.
Elementary functions
difficulty of evaluating, 1134
and math impossibilities, 1137
numbers generated from, 916
vs. special functions, 1092
Elementary particles, 525-530
decays and time quantization, 1032
detection of, 969
discovery dates of, 1043
as dual to black holes, 1045
enumerating in networks, 1045
interactions between, 539
known types of, 1043
and limit of networks, 1030
masses of, 528, 1046
motion of, 528
motion of along geodesics, 531
motion of through network, 536
quantum threads between, 544
searching for additional, 1047
spin of, 1046
in unified field theory, 1028
upper limits on mass of, 1047
Elements
of Euclid, 909
Elephants
communication by, 1181
Elkies, Noam D. (USA, 1966- )
and nearby powers, 1166
in Preface, xiii
Elliott 903 computer
my use of, 854, 864
Elliptic curves
and Diophantine equations, 1164, 1165
and Fermat's Last Theorem, 1166
Elliptic equations (PDEs), 923, 940
Elliptic functions
and background for PDE, 924
difficulty of evaluating, 1134
and logistic map formulas, 1098
EllipticK (elliptic integral)
in 2D Ising model, 982, 1133
EllipticTheta (elliptic theta functions)
and algebraic equations, 1092
as generating function, 1092
nested patterns from, 1093
and quintic equations, 945, 1133
and runs of digits, 914
Embeddings of networks, 193, 476, 1031
Embryos
development of, 417, 419, 1009
history of study of, 1004, 1010
pigmentation precursors in, 425
randomness in, 970
Emergence
of order from randomness, 223
Emergent behavior
general theory of, 3
Emotions
and learning, 1102
Empirical mathematics
see Experimental mathematics
Empiricism
and theories of communication, 1181
and visual perception, 1076
Emulation
between cellular automata, 1118
by universal CA, 652
and computational irreducibility, 742
rates of, 765
and universality, 642
see also entries for specific systems
Encoding
arithmetic, 1071
of arithmetic by set theory, 1160
block, 563
dictionary-based, 565
Huffman, 564
in mathematics, 815
pointer-based, 565
run-length, 560
theory of cellular automaton, 1118
of three colors by two, 655, 1111
in universal CA, 652
and universality proofs, 1126
Encryption
see Cryptography
Encyclopedia Britannica
leaf shapes in first edition of, 1005
Endogenous randomness
see Intrinsic randomness generation
Endomorphisms
cellular automata as, 959
and generalized additivity, 952
Endpapers in this book, 851
Energy
and advanced technology, 1191
in gravity theory, 537
heat as form of, 1019
Energy conditions
and general relativity, 1053
Energy conservation
in cellular automata, 458
in Einstein equations, 1052
in Ising model CAs, 982
in network evolution, 529
in PDE, 923
in physics, 1022
and thermodynamics, 445
in three-body problem, 972
Energy levels
in nested potentials, 1081
Energy minimization
and adaptation, 823
in chemistry, 1194
and NP completeness, 1146
in proteins, 988, 1003
and purpose, 831
and quasicrystals, 994
Energy-momentum tensor
in Einstein equations, 1052
Engineering
avoiding complexity in, 723
vs. biological evolution, 393
vs. biological forms, 1004, 1180
and computational reducibility, 829
correctness proofs in, 1157
fracture as issue in, 995
future of, 840
historical forms in, 828, 1183
and history of complexity, 862
intuition from, 40
optimization of designs in, 1193
of universal systems, 678
and universality proofs, 698
used in building computers, 822
English
and cryptanalysis, 599
frequency of letters in, 1069
hashing of words in, 1100
logic operations in, 1173
redundancy of, 1086
ENIAC (computer)
and digits of pi, 911
and history of computing, 1107
Enigma rotor machine, 1085
Ensembles
evolution of in CAs, 278
in Ising model, 982
in rule 37R, 457
in statistical mechanics, 1020
in statistics, 593
Entanglement (in quantum theory), 544
as basic quantum effect, 1059
and Bell's inequalities, 1064
Entrails of goats
and fortune-telling, 968
Entropy
as algebraic number in CA, 958
analogy of to amount of computation, 1133
vs. biological complexity, 1003
in block encoding, 1071
in cellular automata, 958
as defining CA classes, 960
and definition of life, 1178
estimation of, 959, 1084
 history of, 1019
and Lyapunov exponents, 960
measure, 959
origins of increasing, 441-457
of particles in box, 1022
and redundancy of text, 1086
and repetitive CA behavior, 954
of rule 30 mapping, 1087
and self-organization, 948
spacetime, 960
temporal, 960
in thermodynamic systems, 448
undecidability of in CAs, 958, 1138
see also Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem), 1110
Enumeration of
alkanes, 1194
balanced parenthesis strings, 989
CA periodic points, 954
CAs to find doubling rules, 832
cases in proofs, 1177
commutative monoids, 952
cycles in shift rules, 963
finite automata, 957
programs, 758
reachable states in CAs, 958
string constraints, 1140
surjective cellular automata, 959
tiling configurations, 959
Turing machines, 888, 1120
Envelopes
masking patterns on, 1077
Environmental sciences
math morphology in, 1077
and systems theory, 862
Epicureans
and atomism, 876
and complexity, 861
and contents of space, 1028
Epicurus (Greece, 341-270 BC)
and randomness, 967
Epicycles
as examples of models, 992
Epistemology
and computational irreducibility, 1132
and Gödel's Theorem, 1167
implications for, 1196
and models vs. reality, 365, 991
EPR (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen) experiment, 1064
epsilon_0 (transfinite ordinal), 1162
and unprovability in arithmetic, 1163
epsilon-delta arguments, 1177
Equal ( == )
calculus of expressions, 1170
in multivalued logic, 1175
non-universality of, 1174
truth tables for, 802
Equality testing
randomized methods in, 1192
Equational logic
automated proofs in, 1158
proofs in, 1172
Equational systems
vs. modus ponens, 1151
operator systems as, 801
see also Operator systems
Equations
antidiffusion, 923
axioms as, 1153
computation based on, 731
and concept of purpose, 1185
as constraints, 940
and defining mathematics, 860
as defining numbers, 916
in different axiom systems, 812
difficulties in models with, 368
difficulties of solving, 1129
in history of science, 44
integer
see Diophantine equations
linear, 940
ordinary differential, 922
partial differential, 161-164
sequence, 1141
for sequences, 944, 1141
for snowflakes, 372
of state and gravity, 1053
for strings, 944, 1141
time vs. space in, 1032
undecidability of integer, 787
see also Burger's equation
see also Differential equations
see also Diffusion equation
see also Diophantine equations
see also Dirac equation
see also Einstein equations
see also Functional equation
see also Hodgkin-Huxley equation
see also KdV equation
see also Klein-Gordon equation
see also KPZ equation
see also Kuramoto-Sivashinsky equation
see also Laplace equation
see also Lorenz equations
see also Maxwell's equations
see also Navier-Stokes equations
see also Nonlinear Schrödinger equation
see also Partial differential equations
see also Polynomial equations
see also Quartic equations
see also Quintic equations
see also Schrödinger equation
see also Sine-Gordon equation
see also Transcendental equations
see also van der Pol equation
see also Wave equation
Equiangular spirals
generated from curvature, 418
in shells, 1008, 1008'
Equidistribution
and concatenation sequences, 913
of digit sequences, 912
of sequences, 903
statistical test for, 1084
in three-squares problem, 910
Equilibrium
approach to, 449
in chemical reactions, 984
in early universe, 1055
in Ising model, 982
and quantum measurement, 1063
in random networks, 1038
in self-gravitating systems, 1021
in thermodynamic systems, 450
Equivalence
between logic expressions, 775
in context-free languages, 1138
of NP-complete problems, 1145
in operator systems, 801
Principle of Computational
see Principle of Computational Equivalence
topological of manifolds, 1051
undecidability in problems of, 1138
see also Universality
Equivalence operations
and confluence, 1036
Equivalence principle, 530, 1047
and gravitational energy, 1054
and particle production, 1062
Equivalential calculus, 803, 1170
possible models of, 805
theorems in, 813
Eratosthenes (Egypt, 276-195 BC)
and prime sieve, 909, 909'
Erector sets
and history of CAs, 876
Erf (error function)
in diffusion equation, 1024
Ergodic theory
history of, 1020
Ergodicity
in dynamic spin systems, 982
of hard sphere gas, 1022
and Lissajous figures, 917
and rule 37R, 457
in search process, 347
vs. Second Law, 1020
Ermentrout, G. Bard (USA, 1954- )
and patterns on shells, 1012
ERNIE (randomness generator), 969
Erosion
and landscape structure, 1001
in mathematical morphology, 1077
Error-correcting codes, 1101
and data compression, 1069
found by searches, 1193
 and Hadamard matrices, 1073 and free will, 1135
and quantum computers, 1148 Evoked potentials, 1098
and sphere packings, 986 Evolution theory
and Voronoi diagrams, 987 summary of relations to, 14
Error-diffusion algorithm, 1077 see also Biological evolution
Errors of measurement Exact solutions, 1133
and history of statistics, 1082 for additive CAs, 610, 951
and origin of randomness, 967 and computational irreducibility, 1132
Escapements for dimer problem, 959
characteristic shapes of, 1183 for hard hexagon model, 959
Escher, Maurits C. (Netherlands, 1898-1972) for Ising model, 982
and ornamental art, 874 for iterated map periodic points, 955
Esperanto (artificial language), 1103 for Kondo model, 1057
Espresso, 1097 lack of for 3-body problem, 972
Essential incompleteness, 1159 for logistic map, 1098
Essential singularities and math functions, 610
in QED perturbation theory, 1060 for multiway systems, 1168
Essential undecidability, 1159 to Navier-Stokes equations, 996
Estimation for shift map, 919
of entropies, 959 for Turing machines, 1144
in statistics, 1083 see also Closed forms
Ethane, 1194 Excess (flicker) noise, 969
Ether (physics) see also 1/f noise
atoms as knots in, 1044 Excitable media, 1013
as content of space, 1028 Excluded blocks
discrete model for, 1027 from 1D constraints, 941
history of, 1024 in cellular automata, 278, 958
and theory of light, 1041 in code 20, 958
Ethernet Excluded middle
randomization in, 1192 law of in logic, 817, 1158
Ethics Exclusion principle (in quantum theory), 1059
and free will, 750 Executive toys
and responsibility, 1136 and chaos theory, 1183
Euclid (?Egypt, ~300 BC) plasma-filled globes as, 995
and axioms for geometry, 1154 Exhaustive search, 217, 343
and foundations of math, 1149 and cryptanalysis, 604
and math in science, 859 and mechanism vs. purpose, 838
and mathematical induction, 1152 for optimal programs, 842
and nature of space, 1028 Existence of solutions
and perfect numbers, 911 to constraints, 940
and primes, 909 to Navier-Stokes equations, 997
theorem network of, 1176 in PDEs, 923
and theory of lunes, 873 Exists
Euclidean geometry in predicate logic, 1151
systematic proofs in, 1177 and r.e. sets, 1139
Euclid's algorithm Exogenous randomness, 301-314
and ContinuedFraction, 915 in cellular automata, 947
and GCD, 1093 Exoskeleton in arthropods, 1011
as iterative algorithm, 1141 Exp (exponential function)
running time of, 1147 and canonical ensemble, 982
Euler, Leonhard (Switzerland/Russia/Germany, 1707-1783) continued fractions for, 144
and continued fractions, 914, 915 difficulty of evaluating, 1134
and a cubic Diophantine equation, 1165 digits of values of, 141
and differential geometry, 1009 in Gaussian distribution, 976
and equations for geodesics, 1049 as non-computable, 1128
and Fermat's Last Theorem, 1166 and path integrals, 1061
and number theory, 878 Expand
and perfect numbers, 911 Boolean analog of, 1095
and primes, 909 Expansion of universe, 1055
Euler circuits and arrow of time, 1021
and polynomial time, 1146 and cosmological term, 1052
EulerGamma (Euler's constant) and Einstein equations, 1053
and Egyptian fractions, 915 and network evolution, 530
and growth of DivisorSigma, 910 and particle production, 1062
as not from rational integral, 916 and relativity history, 1048
as transcendental number, 912 and thermodynamics, 455
EulerPhi (totient) Experience
and cycles in shift rules, 963 and perception, 547, 634
and cyclic multiplication, 950 Experimental design
and encoding of lists, 1120 and Hadamard matrices, 1073
and GCD pattern, 1093 Experimental mathematics
and RSA cryptography, 1090 foundations of, 793
and shift register periods, 975 and foundations of math, 821
Euler's formula history of, 899
for planar networks, 1038 practical methods in, 1090
and spherical networks, 1049 summary of relations to, 14
Europa this book as work of, 863
and extraterrestrial life, 1179 see also Computer experiments
Evaluation schemes Experiments
and recursive sequences, 906 and computational irreducibility, 748
Evens and Odds game, 1105 crucial for this book, 23-39
Event horizons detecting fraud in, 1184
and black hole formation, 1053 experience of modelling and, 991
and particle production, 1062 and learning from this book, 856
and time and computation, 1130 problems with chaos, 919
Events repeatable randomness in, 326, 976
causal network of, 488 and thermodynamic initial conditions, 444
Evil ExpIntegralEi (exponential integral)
 and Egyptian fractions, 915 number with digits at, 914
Explicitness and QED perturbation series, 1060
in design of Mathematica, 1177 as recursive sequence, 906
importance of, 880 and transcendental numbers, 914
Exploratory computer experiments, 46 see also Gamma
Exponent Factorial2 (double factorial)
of groups, 1172 and isotropic tensors, 980
Exponential distribution Factories
in laws for human behavior, 1014 and self-reproducing systems, 876
of mobile automaton periods, 887 FactorInteger (integer factorization)
Exponential divergence and arithmetic system encoding, 1115
in chaos theory, 921 basic methods for, 1090
Exponential growth difficulty of evaluating, 1134
in biology, 1010 and Fermat's Last Theorem, 1166
in combinators, 713, 1123 and multiplicative digit sequences, 902
in Makanin's algorithm, 1141 and MultiplicativeOrder, 1147
of modes in PDEs, 988 and NP completeness, 1146
in multiway systems, 207 and number of commutative groups, 1172
in primitive recursion, 908 and quantum computers, 1148
in proof sizes, 1155 running times for, 1090
in substitution systems, 82, 890 unique domains for, 915
in Turing machines, 762, 1144 Factorization
Exponential system of cellular automata, 956
periods in, 257 False
Export definition from And and Not, 817
and image compression, 1074 Falsifiability of models, 365
Expressions Faltings theorem (Mordell conjecture), 1164
number of Nand, 1175 Family trees
numbering of, 1170 and substitution systems, 893
representing integers, 916 Fano, Robert M. (USA, 1917- )
representing numbers, 143 and data compression, 1069
structure of symbolic, 896 Farey sequences, 916
in symbolic systems, 102 Farm animals
EXPTIME (exponential time), 1143 growth of, 1010
Extended objects in quantum field theory, 1057 Fast algorithms, 1141
ExtendedGCD Fast Fourier transform (FFT)
and linear congruential cryptanalysis, 1089 recursive algorithm for, 1142
and linear Diophantine equations, 944, 1164 see also Fourier
Extensive quantities Fast Walsh transform, 1073
in cellular automata, 1022 Fastest programs, 760
Extrapolation of data, 549 Fate
Extrasolar planets, 1179 vs. randomness, 967, 1135
Extraterrestrial intelligence, 822 Fax
history of, 1180 data compression in, 1070
messages to send, 1189 fcc (face-centered cubic)
and perception, 550 lattice, 930
perception by, 635 sphere packing, 986
search for, 1188 Voronoi diagram, 987
Extraterrestrial life, 825, 1179 Feasible computations, 1143
Extreme value distribution see also Polynomial time
as general result, 977 Feathers
for random walks, 978 coloration of, 1012
Extrinsic curvature Feature detection
and Einstein equations, 1052 as basis for perception, 549
and initial value general relativity, 1053 in human visual system, 577
Extrinsic randomness, 301-314 Fedorov, Evgraf S. (Russia, 1853-1919)
Eyes and shapes of 3D domains, 929
appearance of data to, 577 Feedback
of flies, 385 control and cybernetics, 862
randomness in saccades of, 1011, 1192 in growth of bones, 1010
Fabric in visual system, 1075
wrinkling of, 996 Feedback shift registers, 974
Face-centered cubic (fcc) see also Shift registers
lattice, 930 Feigenbaum, Mitchell J. (USA, 1944- )
sphere packing, 986 and computer experiments, 899
Voronoi diagram, 987 and iterated maps, 921
Faces (geometrical) in Preface, xiii
in deformable packings, 988 Feigenbaum's constant, 913
and discrete spaces, 1051 Fejes Tóth, László (Hungary, 1915- )
in planar networks, 1038 and circle packing, 985
Faces (human) Fermat, Pierre de (France, 1601-1665)
development of bones in, 1010 and Fermat's Last Theorem, 1166
parametrization of, 1010 and primes, 909
random variations in, 1192 Fermat primes conjecture
recognition of, 626 as unsolved problem, 1166
Faceted crystal growth, 370 Fermat's Last Theorem, 1166
Factor (polynomial factorization) and Diophantine equations, 1164
analog for Boolean formulas, 1095 as having long proof, 779
and cycles in shift rules, 963 and number theory history, 910
and quadratic congruential generators, 975 and sparse solutions, 945
randomized algorithm for, 1192 Fermat's little theorem, 909
and shift register periods, 975 Fermat's principle (in optics), 1061
Factorial (n!) Fermi, Enrico (Italy/USA, 1901-1954)
encoded as integer equation, 1160 and computer experiments, 879, 899
and examples of universality, 1110 and extraterrestrial contact, 1191
and hypersphere volume, 1050 and statistical mechanics, 1020
leading digits in, 914 Fermi-Pasta-Ulam experiment, 1020
and number of reversible block cellular automata, 1023 Fermilab
 circular shape of, 1187 as non-power base, 902
Fermions and substitution systems, 892
and basic quantum effects, 1059 Fibonacci substitution system, 83
and classical limits, 1059 and cyclic tag system, 895
spin-statistics of, 1046 and cyclic tag systems, 96
Ferns in music, 875
branching in, 401, 1004 and Penrose tilings, 932
and iterated function systems, 1005 properties of, 890
Ferrite core memory, 864 and sine curves, 147
Ferrites spectrum of, 586, 1081
as components in technology, 1195 two-dimensional, 932
Ferrofluids Field Museum of Natural History, 1011
maze-like patterns in, 1013 Field operators
phyllotaxis-like patterns in, 1007 measurement of, 1065
Ferromagnetic materials Field theory (in abstract algebra), 1153
Ising model for, 981 axioms for, 773
phase transitions in, 981 decidability with ordering predicates, 1159
Fertilization and generalizing numbers, 1168
randomness in, 970 universality of, 1159
Feynman, Carl R. (USA, 1962- ) see also Finite fields
and cryptanalysis of rule 30, 1087 Field theory (physics)
in Preface, xiii history of, 1024
Feynman, Richard P. (USA, 1918-1988) nonlinear PDE as, 923
and cryptanalysis of rule 30, 1087 quantum, 1061
and discrete quantum models, 1060 see also Quantum field theory
and discreteness of space, 1027 Fields (agricultural)
and path integrals, 1057 patterns of from space, 1187
and physics and computation, 1126 Fifths (musical chords)
in Preface, xii, xiii, xiv curves of, 146
Feynman diagrams, 1060 perfect, 1079
exact calculations of, 1133 Fig leaves, 1005
history of, 1057 Figurate numbers, 911
Monte Carlo methods in, 1192 Filters (for data)
not as mechanistic model, 1026 cellular automata as, 225
in QCD, 1061 in visual perception, 1076
for quantum gravity, 1054 Filters in posets, 1040
and random networks, 1039 Final cause, 1185
vs. space networks, 1040 Final theory
and spin networks, 1055 see Ultimate theory of physics
FFT (fast Fourier transform) Financial systems
digit reversal sequences in, 905 applications to, 429-432
implementation of, 1074 data from as source of randomness, 969
multiplication using, 1093 history of models of, 1015
recursive algorithm for, 1142 meaning of random data in, 1183
see also Fourier simulations of, 968
Fiber bundles using randomness to verify contracts in, 968
and continuum limits of networks, 1030 FindMinimum
and gauge theories, 1045 and network layouts, 1031
Fiber optics FindRoot
vs. broadcasting, 1188 difficulty of evaluating, 1134
Fibers (biological) iterative algorithm for, 1141
and folding of tissue, 417 Fine structure constant (alpha)
Fibonacci, Leonardo (Pisano) (Italy, ~1170 - ~1250) numerology for, 1025
and digital numbers, 902 and perturbation theory, 1057
and Fibonacci numbers, 891 Fine tuning
and rabbit populations, 1002 and self-organized criticality, 989
and tables of primes, 910 Fingerprints
and trees, 893 origin of patterns in, 1013
Fibonacci (Fibonacci sequence) randomness in, 1014
difficulty of making with CAs, 1186 Fingers
and entropy in rule 32, 958 formation of human, 419
generalized, 891 Finite automata
generalized for randomness generation, 975 and attractors for CAs, 277
generating function for, 1091 and Boolean functions, 1097
as initial condition for rule 60, 1091 and CA encodings, 1119
leading digits in, 914 and defining complexity, 1069
and multiway system states, 205 and formulas for nesting, 608
and multiway systems based on numbers, 939 and groups, 1141
number with digits at, 914, 1070 history of, 958
in ordering of math constructs, 1177 lower bounds in, 1143
and plant phyllotaxis, 1006 minimization of, 957
and polyominoes, 943 as networks, 957
as precursors to my work, 878 probabilistic, 1084
properties of, 890 and regular languages, 939
and prosody, 875 and semigroups, 1153
and randomness generators, 975 and soundex system, 1100
and recursion history, 907 spectra of, 1081
as recursive sequence, 128 and substitution systems, 891, 931, 1091
and rule 150 pattern, 885 total number of, 957
as solution to Diophantine equation, 1161 Finite axiomatizability, 1176
and spectral maxima, 1081 Finite complement languages, 941
and substitution systems, 82, 890 2D generalizations, 959
as term in continued fraction, 913 and excluded blocks, 958
uniform distribution mod 1, 904 and repetition in 1D CAs, 954
as values of polynomial, 1161 Finite differences
Fibonacci multiway system, 205 and CA diffusion, 1024
Fibonacci number representation, 560, 1070 and continuous CAs, 921
and multicolor encodings, 1111 explicit schemes and sequential cellular automata, 1035
 and history of CAs, 876 undecidability of, 1138
isotropy in, 980 FixedPoint
methods based on, 940 and gradient descent, 985
neighborhood compared to cellular automata, 928 undecidability in, 1138
for PDEs, 924 FixedPointList
and reaction-diffusion, 1013 and length prefixed numbers, 1070
Finite element methods, 940 and prime implicants, 1095
Finite fields Flagellated microorganisms
as not universal, 1160 random motion of, 970
see also Additive cellular automata Flames
see also Field theory (in abstract algebra) as self-organizing systems, 824
Finite groups as self-reproducing, 1178
axioms for, 1176 Flash photography
Cayley graphs of, 1032 and forms of splashes, 1000
as extraterrestrial messages, 1190 Flat (associative)
rules for, 938 and associative CAs, 886, 956
Finite impulse response and Boolean functions, 1173
and sequential CAs, 1035 and confluence property, 1037
Finite-size scaling and fast evolution rules, 1094
in Ising models, 983 and generalized additivity, 952
Finite-size systems, 255-260, 961 and sequential substitution systems, 894
Finite state machines Flat spectra, 1081
see Finite automata Flatness (geometry)
Finitely presented groups of growing sheets of tissue, 1007
see Groups Flatten
Finitistic mathematics, 1158 basic examples of, 853
Finkelstein, David R. (USA, 1929- ) and correspondence systems, 1139
and discreteness of space, 1027 generalized to 2D, 931, 1073
in Preface, xiii generalized to any dimension, 932
Finnish and sequence equations, 944, 1141
logic operations in, 1173 Flatworm
Fins (heat exchanger) pigmentation pattern on, 426
characteristic shapes of, 1183 Flicker noise, 969
Fire see also 1/f noise
as artifact, 1183 Flint arrowheads, 1183
as basis for universe, 1125 Floating-point computation
as visible from space, 1187 and arithmetic coding, 1071
Firing of neurons and chaos experiments, 919
in neural networks, 1102 Flocks of birds
repeatable randomness in, 976 patterns in, 1011
Firing squad problem (in cellular automata), 876, 1035 Floor (integer below)
First digits, 914 basic example of, 854
of powers, 903 and digital slopes, 916
First Law of Thermodynamics, 1019 encoded as integer equation, 1160
First-order phase transitions, 981 and nesting in sine curves, 917
Fisher, Ronald A. (England, 1890-1962) and three-body problem, 973
and random number tables, 968 Flory exponents, 978
Fisher-Tippett distribution, 977 Flow of fluids, 376-382
Fishes see also Fluid flow
color vision in, 1075 Flowcharts
iterated maps for populations of, 918 and causal networks, 1033
pigmentation patterns of, 389, 426 and computer interfaces, 1103
shapes of related by transformations, 1010 and defining complexity, 1069
Fishhooks and systems theory, 862
characteristic shapes of, 1183 Flowering plants
Fit (least-squares fit), 1083 growth of, 1004
Fitness Flowers
optimization of in biology, 386 phyllotaxis in, 409, 1007
and purpose, 1185 symmetries of, 1007
Fitting Floyd-Steinberg algorithm, 1077
of models, 589, 1083 Fluctuations
Fitting of clothes in cellular automata densities, 954
and allometry, 1010 of entropies in class 4, 960
FitzGerald, George F. (Ireland, 1851-1901) and initiating crystal growth, 992
and relativity theory, 1041 in market prices, 429
FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction, 1041 order in universe as, 1020
Five-body problem, 1130 in recursive sequences, 130
Five-fold symmetry and shot noise, 968
in biology, 1007 spectrum of in turbulence, 997
cellular automata with, 930 in thermodynamics, 447
and Penrose tilings, 932, 943 violating Second Law in rule 37R, 453
in quasicrystals, 994 Fluid convection
Five-neighbor rules (in CAs), 927 and Lorenz equations, 971
Fixed points Fluid flow, 376-382
in 1D cellular automata, 224, 954 analog of in crowds, 1014
in 2D cellular automata, 954 analog of in sand, 1001
as attractors, 276 as analogy for networks, 535
of blocking transformations, 270, 955 as analogy for quantum field theory, 1059
in combinator evolution, 712, 1122 in bird songs, 826, 1180
for differential equations, 961 in chaos toys, 1183
in Game of Life, 964 community studying, 1000
in iterated maps, 955, 961 continuity of vs. space, 472
in Mathematica, 1137 and continuous idealizations, 729
of pigmentation patterns, 427 as continuous limit, 327
in recursive evaluation, 906 past cylinders, 998
of sandpile model, 989 discrete models for, 999
and satisfying constraints, 348 generalizations of, 1000
in symbolic systems, 897 and intelligence, 822, 837
 and memory, 823 and constraint systems, 944
minimal cellular automata showing continuity of, 464 and my work on CAs, 881
as model for animal growth, 1010 of networks, 1040
and my work on CAs, 881 and substitution systems, 893
and random fertilization, 970 undecidability in, 1137
sensed by dolphins, 827 see also Languages (abstract)
solving PDEs in, 924 Formal logic, 1151
two-dimensional, 999 see also Logic
and weather, 1177 Formal power series
Fluid turbulence, 376 and regular languages, 957
and history of complexity, 862 Formal systems
see also Turbulence as foundation of math, 1176
Fluttering, 971 and foundations of science, 1197
Flux tubes in QCD, 1061 in mathematics, 1150
Fluxions transfinite hierarchy of, 1159
invention of, 901 Formants
Fly eye in speech sounds, 1079
form of, 385 Formatting hacks
FM (frequency modulation) and nested patterns, 932
in radio signals, 1188 Formula language
FM synthesis of Frege, 1149
curves from, 918 Formulario project
sounds from, 1079 of Peano, 1149
Foams Formulas
evolution of, 1039 analysis with, 606-620
model for ether as, 1027 based on Nand, 1097
and Voronoi diagrams, 987 Boolean, 616, 1095
Focusing for cellular automata, 869, 1134
as origin of discreteness, 984 and computational irreducibility, 737
Fold and computational reducibility, 1134
basic example of, 853 constraints on, 945
for computing factorial, 1110 for primes, 909
and pairwise sorting, 1142 and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 728
and paths in networks, 957 in three-body problem, 972
and primitive recursion, 907 see also Exact solutions
in random recursive function, 908 Fortran
and repeated squaring, 1094 and chaos experiments, 919
and unwinding primitive recursion, 907 and computer language history, 1104
Folding as example of language, 1109
and forms of animals, 417 and history of computing, 1108
Folding map, 150 my use of, 854
FoldList Forts
basic example of, 853 nested architecture of, 874
and implementing proofs, 1155 Fortune-telling, 968, 1192
and nested patterns, 931 Fossil record
and random walks, 977 common features across, 395
and Sierpinski pattern, 931 and complexity in biology, 389
understanding operation of, 1177 of early life, 1179
Folk theorem of leaf shapes, 1005
in game theory, 1104 symmetries in, 1007
Fonts in this book, 852 Foundations of mathematics, 772-821
Foods and history of universality, 1110
odors in, 1105 schools in, 1176
Foot (animal) and SETI, 838
development of, 419 Foundations of modelling, 363
For (For loop) Foundations of science, 1196
for computing factorial, 1110 Four-color printing
Foraging rosettes in, 1078
randomness in, 1002, 1011, 1192 Four-Color Theorem
ForAll and coloring of networks, 1029
in predicate logic, 1151 graph grammars in proof of, 1040
Forces as having long proof, 779, 1156
and gauge invariance, 1045 Four-manifolds
Forcing equivalence of, 1051, 1138
of nested patterns, 942 Four squares problem, 910
of operators, 1172 Four-vectors
Forcing, method of in relativity theory, 1042
and unprovability, 1163 Fourier, J. B. Joseph (France, 1768-1830)
Forecasting and Fourier analysis, 1072, 1072'
weather, 1178 Fourier (Fourier transform), 1074
see also Predictability of 2D nested patterns, 1082
Forests of stunted trees and data compression, 1074
as additive cellular automata, 878 implemented by diffraction, 1077
Forks and JacobiSymbol, 1081
characteristic shapes of, 1183 multiplication using, 1093
Form of number theory functions, 911
historical study of, 967 and power spectra, 969
living vs. non-living, 1003 and quantum computers, 1148
of organisms and random walks, 977
see Growth recursive algorithm for, 1142
Form factors and spectra, 1080
and sizes of particles, 1044 Fourier series, 917, 1072
Formal cause, 1185 Fowle, Frank F. (USA, 1877-1946)
Formal experiments and Walsh transforms, 1073
and philosophy of science, 1197 Fractal dimension, 933
see also Computer experiments of additive CAs, 870, 955, 1092
Formal languages of Apollonian packing, 986
and CA encodings, 1119 and defining complexity, 1069
 as entropy, 959 Freeways
of fracture surfaces, 995 and growth of cities, 1014
of reversible CAs, 1018 Freezing
of rule 90, 870 of water, 370
of strange attractors, 961 Frege, F. L. Gottlob (Germany, 1848-1925)
and texture discrimination, 1077 and axioms for logic, 1151
of Weierstrass functions, 918 and character of math, 1176
Fractal geometry and foundations of math, 1149
and history of numbers, 901 and logic as basis for science, 860
Fractal network, 197 and predicate logic, 1152
Fractals Frenet frames
and 1D substitution systems, 83 and growth of shells, 1009
and 1/f noise, 969 Frequencies
in 2D cellular automata, 171 of blocks, 555, 1068, 1084
and 2D substitution systems, 187 of leading digits, 914
in additive cellular automata, 270 in statistics, 589
and biological form, 1004 of words, 1014
in cellular automata, 58 Frequency modulation (FM), 1188
and complex maps, 933 Frequency spectra, 1080
and computer experiments, 899 and acoustic diffusers, 1183
in Cosmati mosaics, 873 in auditory perception, 585
and fluid turbulence, 997 in data compression, 1072
and general study of form, 967 in human hearing, 1079
history of, 934 in musical notes, 917
and history of complexity, 862 in natural radio emissions, 1187
and history of modelling, 992 of noise, 968
in landscape structure, 1001 of random walks, 977
and my work on CAs, 19 and SETI, 835
in network evolution, 509 Frequency test, 1084
origins of, 357-360 FresnelC (Fresnel integral)
and plant branching, 1005 in half-plane diffraction, 1133
as precursors to my work, 880 FresnelS (Fresnel integral)
and price fluctuations, 1014 and Cornu spiral, 1009
from random initial conditions, 273 Freudenthal, Hans (Netherlands, 1905-1990)
in rule 90, 25 and Lincos language, 1189
in self-gravitating systems, 1021 Friction
snowflake shapes as, 371 origins of, 996
summary of relations to, 15 randomness in, 970, 1193
and texture generation, 1077 and self-organization, 947
see also Nesting Friedberg, Richard M. (USA, 1935- )
Fraction systems, 1115 and intermediate degrees, 1130
Fractional integration Friedman, William F. (USA, 1891-1969)
and 1/f noise, 969 and cryptanalysis, 1086
Fractional linear transformations Frogs
and continued fractions, 914 pigmentation patterns of, 426
and nested patterns, 933 and sound of Cantor set, 586
FractionalPart FromDigits
and chaos theory, 308 and additive CAs, 951
and continuous CAs, 922 basic example of, 854
difficulty of evaluating, 1134 and carries, 1094
iterated map based on, 955 implementation of, 901
and Lorenz equations, 971 and recursive functions, 1121
in model of boiling, 994 Fronts (weather), 1178
of powers, 121 Froths
Fractons, 1081 evolution of, 1039
Fractran (universal fraction system), 1115 Fruit
Fracture, 374-375 packing of spherical, 986
history of, 995 Fruit flies
models of, 995 genetic programs of, 1002
phenomenology of, 994 Fuchsian groups
as randomness source, 968 and hyperbolic space, 1050
sound of, 1079 Full shifts (in dynamical systems theory), 961
Fraenkel, Abraham A. (Germany/Israel, 1891-1965) Fullerenes
and set theory, 1154 and nanotechnology, 1193
FrameMaker as spherical networks, 1049
and layout of this book, 852 as synthesized molecules, 1194
Frameworks FullForm
for mathematical proofs, 1177 and axioms as strings, 1156
Fraud detection as parse tree, 1103
in random data, 1184 FullSimplify
Freckles and iterated maps, 1098
coloration of, 1012 and proofs, 1158
Fredkin, Edward (USA, 1934- ) and undecidability, 1138
and CA self-reproduction, 1179 Function
and cellular automata, 877, 879 see Purpose
and discreteness of space, 1027 Function (pure function)
in Preface, xiii basic examples of, 853
and reversible CAs, 1018 and lambda calculus, 1121
and universe as CA, 1026 and recursive functions, 907
Free group Function evaluation
network for, 196 searches for optimal algorithms in, 1193
Free semigroup, 938 Functional analysis
Free will, 750-753 and spectra, 1081
and chaos theory, 971 Functional equation
and computational irreducibility, 1132 for additivity, 953
and defining randomness, 1067 and function evaluation, 1134
implications for, 1197 for ModularLambda, 1093
and randomness, 967 and solving logistic map, 1098
 for spectra, 1081 and history of 2D CAs, 928
Functional integrals and history of CAs, 877
see Path integrals and history of complexity, 50
Functional iteration (iterated mapping), 149, 918 implementation of, 949
Functional languages persistent structures in, 964
and combinators, 898 as precursor to my work, 880
Functional operations random initial conditions in, 249
examples of in Mathematica, 853 unbounded growth in, 965
FunctionExpand universality in, 693, 1117
and constructible reals, 1129 Game theory, 1104
Functions and computational irreducibility, 1132
applied to digit sequences, 731 and laws in economics, 1014
computed by TMs, 1144 and models of markets, 1015
history of concept of, 1109 and relation to cybernetics, 862
mathematical, 145-148 Games
notion of in mathematics, 898 and AI, 1099
possible Boolean, 806 between programs, 1105
rapidly growing, 1162 and history of CAs, 877
standard in mathematics, 1091 and multiway systems, 939
structural representations of, 896 randomness in, 968
systems based on symbolic, 102 rules in, 875
see also Mathematical functions Games of chance
Fundamental domains and defining randomness, 1067
and repetition, 607 and history of statistics, 1082
Fundamental groups (of manifolds), 1051 randomness in, 305, 968, 1192
Fundamental theory and tests of randomness, 1084
see Ultimate theory of physics Gaming regulations, 969
Fur Gamma (gamma function)
coloration of, 1012 argument structures for, 896
Furrowing and curves from curvature, 1009
in animal growth, 418 emulating If, 1129
Fusion (S) combinator, 1121 from rational integrals, 916
Future, 1196 as special function, 1092
artifacts in, 829 and transcendental numbers, 912
data compression in, 836, 1069 see also Factorial
extraterrestrials portrayed in, 1190 Gamma ray bursts, 1187
of science in this book, xi, 856 Gamuts
of technology, 1195 color, 1074
see also Predictability Gap test, 1085
Fuzzy arithmetic Gaps
and generalizing numbers, 1168 between primes, 133, 909
Fuzzy logic, 1083, 1175 Garbage collection
Fuzzy searching, 623 in network systems, 199, 935
g (general intelligence factor), 1178 Garden of Eden
Gabor functions in cellular automata, 876, 961
in visual system, 1075 Gardner, Martin (USA, 1914- )
Gacs, Peter (USA, 1947- ) and Game of Life, 877
in Preface, xiii Gas clouds
and transitions in CAs, 981 as source of radio emissions, 1187
Gaia Hypothesis, 1195 Gases
Galaxies CA idealization of, 446
distribution of, 1021 and chaos theory, 971
and expansion of universe, 1055 discrete models for, 999
formation of, 455, 1021 extraterrestrials based on, 1180, 1190
formation of and my work, 880 flow of, 376
formation of and Voronoi diagrams, 987 see also Fluid flow
patterns in, 835 as main application of Second Law, 451
and Second Law, 1021 thermodynamic theories of, 1019
and simple initial conditions, 1026 Gasket
Galaxy see Sierpinski pattern
colonization of, 1191 Gastrulation (biological folding), 417, 1009
radio emission in, 1188, 1188' Gates
Galena in practical computers, 1108
hopper crystals in, 993 quantum, 1147
Galilean invariance reversible logic, 1098
in cellular automata fluids, 999 see also Boolean functions
in fundamental physics, 522 Gauge bosons, 1043
and relativity, 1042 Gauge invariance, 1045
Galilei, Galileo (Italy, 1564-1642) and causal invariance, 527
and Galilean invariance, 1041 Gauge theories
and math in science, 859 origin of, 1028
and models vs. reality, 991 and quantum history, 1057
and nature of gravity, 1047 Gauss, J. Carl Friedrich (Germany, 1777-1855)
and the nature of space, 1028 and Central Limit Theorem, 977
and theoretical biology, 1003 and curvature of surfaces, 1049
Galois, Evariste (France, 1811-1832) and Diophantine equations, 1164
and group theory, 1153 and experimental math, 899
and quadratic continued fractions, 915 and extraterrestrials, 1189
Galois fields, 1153 and iterated maps, 919
see also Finite fields and primes, 909
Galton board and sphere packings, 985, 986
randomness in, 312 Gauss circle problem, 910
Gambling Gauss map
and defining randomness, 1068 and iterated maps, 919
and Gaussian distribution, 977 Gaussian curvature
and randomness sources, 968 and biological growth, 1009
Game of Go, 875 as invariant quantity, 1049
Game of Life Gaussian distributions
 as assumed in statistics, 1083
and Central Limit Theorem, 976
of constraint violations, 984
in laws of human behavior, 1014
vs. non-standard diffusion, 1024
not from self-avoiding walks, 978
as PDE initial conditions, 163
of price fluctuations, 1014
in quantitative traits, 1003
from random walks, 329
in visual system responses, 1075
Gaussian elimination
as iterative algorithm, 1141
Gauss's law
in cellular automata, 1023
GCD (greatest common divisor)
as associative function, 1094
and computational reducibility, 747
and correspondence systems, 1140
and cyclic addition periods, 950
encoded as integer equation, 1160
and Euclid's algorithm, 915
and FactorInteger, 1090
iterative algorithm for, 1141
and limited size periods, 257
pattern from, 613, 1093
and primitive recursion, 907
and sine curves, 917
sounds from, 1080
Gears
and computing devices, 1107
Geese
patterns in flocks of, 1011
Gegenbauer, Leopold B. (Austria, 1849-1903)
and GegenbauerC, 1091
GegenbauerC (Gegenbauer polynomials)
history of, 1091
and isotropy measures, 980
and rule 150 pattern, 612
and trinomial coefficients, 1091
Geiger counters, 969
Gels
in living systems, 1180
Gemstones
as faceted crystals, 370
synthetic, 993
Genealogical trees
as nested, 988
from substitution systems, 893, 1002
General intelligence factor, 1178
General-purpose computers
and history of universality, 1110
and universality, 642
General recursive functions, 907, 1121
and Church's Thesis, 1125
General relativity
and animal growth models, 1010
difficulty of solving, 1132
and gauge invariance, 1045
history of, 1048
need for explicit matter in, 537
as simple physical model, 1025
and space vs. contents, 1028
as theory of gravity, 530
and time and computation, 1130
and time travel, 1043
and ultimate theory of physics, 1025
variants of, 1048
with varying spacetime dimension, 1056
General systems theory
and history of complexity, 862
summary of relations to, 15
Generalization
in human thinking, 627
in mathematics, 792, 821, 1168
Generalization rule
in axioms, 1150
Generalized mobile automata, 76
Generating function
for additive cellular automata, 951
for balanced parentheses, 989
for cycles, 958
for DigitCount, 902
for Fibonacci, 890
modulo 2, 1092
for nested patterns, 1091
for regular languages, 957
for Thue-Morse sequence, 890
for Thue-Morse spectrum, 1081
Generative grammars, 938
Generators
in groups, 1141
and relations, 1169
Generic behavior
in chaos theory, 971
Genes
as analogs of functions in software, 1003
as components of genetic programs, 1002
Genetic algorithms, 1002
and combinatorial optimization, 985
for design optimization, 1193
and sequential substitution systems, 894
Genetic analysis
and multiway systems, 938
Genetic code
and theoretical biology, 1004
Genetic networks
and Boolean networks, 936
Genetic programming
and methods of prediction, 1105
Genetic programs
and cell positions, 1009
compared to laws of physics, 397
as foundation of biology, 383
and growth of animals, 419
and parts of animals, 417
searching for in biology, 842
smooth variations in, 394
structure of, 1002
Genetic sequences
matching of, 1101
Genetics
and definition of life, 1178
discrete features of, 1003
and mollusc shell patterns, 1012
randomness assumed in, 970
use of simple rules in, 860
Genomes
as programs, 383
Gentzen, Gerhard (Germany, 1909-1945)
and consistency of arithmetic, 1168
and transfinite induction, 1163
Genus
of algebraic surfaces, 1164
of networks, 1045
Geodesic balls
volumes of, 1050
Geodesic deviation
and Riemann tensor, 1049
Geodesic domes
characteristic shapes of, 1183
and curved space, 532
and spherical networks, 1049
Geodesics
and definition of dimension, 1031
distance defined by, 1048
divergence of and chaos, 971
in flat space, 1048
and paths of particles, 531
on surfaces, 1049
Geographic cycle (in landscapes), 1001
Geological fractures, 374, 995
Geometric mean
of continued fraction terms, 914
Geometric series
and branching patterns, 1005
Geometrical constructions
and history of universality, 1109
of real numbers, 1129
rules in, 875
Geometrical forms
in aggregation systems, 979
of artifacts, 835
in astronomy, 1187
in biology, 384
and diversity in biology, 395
on Earth seen from space, 1187
molecules made for their, 1194
of shocks in fluids, 1000
Geometrical optics, 1061
Geometrical Play
of Leonardo da Vinci, 875
Geometrical substitution systems, 189-192
implementation of, 933
visualizing evolution of, 933
Geometry
 of animal shapes, 421 God
applied to biology, 1004 and character of space, 1028
of attractors for ODEs, 961 and complexity, 861
axioms for, 774, 1154 and free will, 1135
as basis for science, 44 identified with universe, 1196
of branching patterns, 401 and objects in nature, 828
of cellular automaton lattices, 929 and origin of complexity, 3
curvature in, 532 and phenomena in astronomy, 834
curves in Greek, 875 and physics as intelligence, 1191
differential, 1048 and purpose for universe, 1185
as historical basis of math, 792 as source of complexity in biology, 1001
labelling in diagrams, 1182 and ultimate theory of physics, 1025
and math in science, 859 and universe as intelligent, 1196
network of theorems in Euclid's, 1176 see also Religion
non-universality in, 784 see also Theology
and origin of math, 859 Gödel, Kurt F. (Austria/USA, 1906-1978)
in parametrizing biological forms, 1010 and character of math, 1176
of plant phyllotaxis, 409 and consistency of arithmetic, 1168
and proof in math, 1149 and defining computability, 1126
puzzles, 875 and experiment in math, 899
reasoning in terms of, 1177 and Gödel's Theorem, 879, 1158
rules for planet motion using, 860 and origins of universality, 1110
of shell shapes, 417 and predicate logic, 1152
space as uniform in early, 1028 and register machines, 896
of space of CA rules, 948 and undecidability, 1136
theorems and computational irreducibility, 1132 Gödel beta function, 1121
Geomorphology, 1001 and primitive recursion, 908
Geons Gödel numbers
and matter from gravity, 1054 and encoding lists, 1120
and unified field theory, 1028 and history of universality, 1110
Gestalt (in psychology), 1076 Gödel's Completeness Theorem, 1152, 1167
Gestures for equational logic, 1172
in animal communication, 1180 Gödel's Theorem, 1158
grammatical rules for, 1181 and arithmetic systems, 673
Gibbs, J. Willard (USA, 1839-1903) and Church's Thesis, 1125
and statistical mechanics, 1020 and determinism, 1132
Gibbs phenomenon, 917 and Diophantine equations, 1161
and experimental math, 899 encoding of statements in, 785
and image compression, 1074 encodings used in, 816
Gibbs-Thomson effect, 993 and free will, 1135
GIF compression, 1070 and history of math, 1149
Gila monster and history of universality, 1110
pigmentation pattern of, 426 as limitation on math, 7, 1135
Gilbreth, Frank B. (USA, 1868-1924) practical relevance of, 791
and causal networks, 1033 as precursor to my work, 879
Gilbreth, Lillian E. M. (USA, 1878-1972) proof of using rule 110, 786
and causal networks, 1033 and truth, 1167
Gilgamesh, Epic of, 873 and universality of arithmetic, 784, 1152
Ginger leaves, 1006 and unprovable statements, 782
Giraffe use of recursive functions in, 907
pigmentation pattern of, 426 Gods
Girth animism and, 1195
of networks, 1029 as source of randomness, 967
Glaisher, James W. L. (England, 1848-1928) Goethe, Johann W. v. (Germany, 1749-1832)
and binomials mod k, 870 and morphology, 1004
Glare filters (polarizers), 1064 Golay, Marcel J. E. (USA, 1902-1989)
Glass (material) and error-correcting codes, 1101
as amorphous material, 994 and hexagonal CAs, 928
fracture in, 994 Golay codes
Gleick, James W. (USA, 1954- ) and sphere packings, 987
and chaos theory, 972 Golay neighborhood (hexagonal cellular automata), 928
Glider gun Gold
in code 1329, 288 hopper crystals in, 993
in Game of Life, 965 Goldbach, Christian (Russia, 1690-1764)
in rule 110, 293, 964 and polynomials for primes, 909
Gliders, 284 Goldbach's Conjecture, 135, 911
in continuous CAs, 160 stated in Peano arithmetic, 1162
and emulation of Nand, 1117 true if unprovable, 1167
in Game of Life, 249, 964 as unsolved problem, 1166
in rule 110, 292, 964 GoldenRatio
see also Localized structures and 2D substitution systems, 932
Global minima, 347 and entropy in rule 32, 958
Global Positioning System and Fibonacci encoding, 1070
see GPS and general study of form, 967
Globular clusters and growth rate of multiway system, 205
and thermodynamics, 1021 and Penrose tilings, 932
Glueballs (in QCD), 1061 as Pisot number, 903
Gluons (in QCD), 1057 and plant phyllotaxis, 408, 1006
confinement of, 1061 properties of, 890
Glycerine and running time of Euclid's algorithm, 1147
viscosity of, 996 and spectra, 1081
Gnomons Golf balls
and Euclid's algorithm, 915 and circle packings, 985
and forms of growth, 1008 Golomb, Solomon W. (USA, 1932- )
and substitution systems, 932 and nonlinear shift registers, 878
Go, game of, 875 and polyominoes, 943
Goats in Preface, xiii
fortune-telling from, 968 and shift registers, 879, 1088
Goodstein, Reuben L. (England, 1912-1985)
and Goodstein sequences, 1163
Goodstein sequences
proofs about in set theory, 1160
and unprovability, 1163
Goosefoot leaves, 1006
Gosper, R. William (USA, 1943- )
and dragon curves, 893
and experimental math, 899
and Game of Life, 965
in Preface, xiii
Gothic windows
nesting in, 873, 874
Government control
and computational irreducibility, 1132
Government regulation
of games of chance, 1084
GPS (Global Positioning System)
and SETI, 1190
and shift registers, 1086
and time dilation, 524, 1042
Gradient descent
implementation of, 985
in neural networks, 1102
for satisfying constraints, 344
Gradualism
in biological evolution, 395
Grain patterns
and repeatable randomness, 976
Grains (in solids)
evolution of, 1039
and Voronoi diagrams, 987
Grammar-checking software, 1104
Grammars
and concept of programs, 860
context-free, 939, 1103
context-sensitive, 939
of formal languages, 938
of human languages, 630, 1103, 1181
of math expressions, 1150
of ornament, 872
random, 1084
and redundancy, 1086
regular, 939
as systems based on rules, 875
and Turing machines, 961
two-dimensional, 1104
unrestricted, 939
Grand unified models (in physics), 1025, 1043
Granular materials
flow in, 1001
packing in, 986
Grape leaves, 401, 1006
Graph-based systems, 193-203
Graph grammars, 1040
Graph isomorphism
and NP completeness, 1146
Graph layout, 193
Graph theory
and discrete packings, 987
and planarity of networks, 1045
Graphical interfaces, 1102
Graphical representation of time, 1031
Graphical user interfaces
as alternative to language, 631
and history of computing, 1108
Graphics
as basis for analysis, 111
production of in this book, 851
Graphics3D
and 3D cellular automata, 927
Graphs
for attractors, 277
cellular automata on, 930, 936
small, 194
see also Networks
Grass
growth of, 1004
and Kant on complexity, 861
Grassmann, Hermann G. (Germany, 1809-1877)
and axioms for arithmetic, 1152
Grassmann algebra
as generalizing numbers, 1168
Gravitational waves
detectors of, 1048
and speed of light, 1041
in vacuum, 536, 1053
Gravitons, 1054
as particles, 1043
and space vs. matter, 1028
Gravity, 530-537
CPT violation in, 1019
in early universe, 1021
history of, 1047
n-body systems subject to, 1021
particle production by, 1062
randomness in systems under, 313
and time and computation, 1130
in ultimate theory of physics, 469
and vacuum fluctuations, 1062
Gray, Alfred (USA, 1939-1998)
and parametric curves, 1009
in Preface, xiii
Gray code, 901
and concatenation sequences, 913
and constraint satisfaction, 984
and math functions, 731
as ordering of CAs, 352, 885
and ordering of Walsh functions, 1073
Gray levels
dithering to get, 1077
Great Chain of Being, 1197
Great circles
as geodesics, 1049, 1050
Great Mosque of Córdoba, 873
Great Pyramid, 874
Great Wall of China, 1187
Greek art, 43, 873
Greek biology, 1003
Greek embryology, 1010
Greek grammars, 875
Greek mathematics
and labelling in geometry, 1182
and proof, 1149
rules in, 875
Greek mineralogy, 993
Greek number system, 1182
Greek philosophy
and atomism, 876
and complexity, 861
and definition of life, 1178
and extraterrestrial life, 1180
and free will, 1135
and math in science, 859
and universality, 1109
Greek physics
and ultimate theories, 1024
Green, Milton W. (USA, 1926- )
and sorting networks, 1142
Greenberg, James M. (USA, 1940- )
and reaction-diffusion, 1013
Green's functions
for additive systems, 952
for cellular automata, 950
grep
and regular expressions, 958
Grids
cellular automata on, 169
lines at slopes on, 916
superimposing, 613, 1078
visible from space, 1187
Grigorchuk, Rostislav I. (Ukraine/Russia, 1953- )
and intermediate growth groups, 938
GroebnerBasis
and completion algorithms, 1037
and NP completeness, 1143
Gromov, Mikhael L. (Russia/France/USA, 1943- )
in Preface, xiii
and random groups, 938
Ground state
of quantum field theories, 1062
of spin systems, 944
Groupoids, 1171
Groups (mathematical), 1153
and abstraction in math, 792
axioms for, 773
axioms for finite, 1176
and CA conservation laws, 1023
CAs based on, 887, 956
Cayley graphs of, 1032
commutative
see Commutative groups
constraints defining, 945
decidability with commutativity, 1159
emulating Peano arithmetic, 1159
enumeration of, 805
 and forcing by axioms, 1172
and gauge theories, 1045
from generators and relations, 1169
inessential incompleteness of, 800
limiting geometry of, 1051
and multiway systems, 938
number of, 945
and operators allowed by axioms, 1172
and particles in physics, 528
PCP and undecidability in, 1139
polyadic, 1171
random, 938
shortest axioms for, 806
and sphere packings, 986
symmetry for lattices, 980
theorems in pure theory of, 1159
undecidability of equivalence of, 1138
universality of, 784, 1159
word problem for, 1141
Growth
as amplifying randomness, 970
of animals, 413-422
of crystals, 369-373
of cyclic tag systems, 96
Eden model for, 331, 978
general constraints on, 1010
general schemes for, 1011
history of studies in biology, 1003
and maintaining flatness, 1007
parametrizations of, 1010
of plants, 400-413
of sheets of tissue, 412
undecidability of continued, 1138
Growth and Form (book), 1004
Growth inhibition
in plant phyllotaxis, 409
in snowflake growth, 370
Growth rates
in computational complexity theory, 1143
and curvature in networks, 533
general theory of, 1162
in multiway systems, 205, 937
and network dimensions, 478, 1030
of number of trivalent networks, 1029
in recursive functions, 908
in substitution systems, 890
in symbolic systems, 897
in Turing machines, 761, 1145
see also Differential growth
Growth rules
for 1D cellular automata, 24
for 2D cellular automata, 928
Growth totalistic rules, 928
Grzegorczyk hierarchy, 906
GUIs (graphical user interfaces), 1103
and history of computing, 1108
Gullies (in landscapes), 1001
Gustatory (taste) sense, 1105
Gusting of wind, 1001
H theorem of Boltzmann, 1020
Haar wavelets, 1074
Hackers
and precursors to my work, 879
and universe as computer, 860
Hadamard, Jacques S. (France, 1865-1963)
and chaos theory, 971
and Hadamard matrices, 1073
Hadamard matrices, 1073
Hadamard order
for Walsh functions, 1073
Hadrons
as particles, 1043
in QCD, 1061
Hailstone numbers (3n+1 problem), 904
Hair cells
in inner ear, 585, 1079
Hair follicles
and animal coloration, 1012
Haken, Hermann P. J. (Germany, 1927- )
and reaction-diffusion, 1013
Hales, Stephen (England, 1677-1761)
and leaf growth, 1005
Hales, Thomas C. (USA, 1958- )
and sphere packings, 986
Halftoning, 1077
Halite (rock salt) hopper crystals, 993
Halting
in aggregation systems, 979
in function definitions, 1163
longest times for, 1144
in one-way TMs, 759, 1143
in register machines, 896
in small Turing machines, 1119
in symbolic systems, 897, 897'
in Turing machines, 889
Halting probabilities
and algorithmic randomness, 1067
for code 20, 964
for Turing machines, 1143
and universal objects, 1127
Halting problems, 1137
analog of, 754
axioms for proofs about, 1167
for cellular automata, 1137
and correspondence systems, 1140
and integer equations, 788
in Mathematica, 1138
for multiway systems, 1137
and negation, 1158
and oracles, 1126
proofs of undecidability of, 1137
and proving undecidability, 1130
and sets, 1139
in specific axiom systems, 1163
trivial for primitive recursion, 907
for Turing machines, 1137
undecidability of, 1128, 1136
Halton (digit reversal) sequences, 905
Hamiltonian paths
and NP completeness, 1146
trivalent networks with, 1029
Hamiltonians
in discrete quantum systems, 1060
for PDEs, 923
Hamming, Richard W. (USA, 1915-1998)
and error-correcting codes, 1101
Hamming codes, 1101
Hamming distance
and error correction, 1101
and layout of networks, 1031
Hamming weight (DigitCount), 902
Handles on networks, 527, 1045
Handprints
purpose of in cave paintings, 1184
Handwriting
randomness in, 1192
Hankel, Hermann (Germany, 1839-1873)
and generalization in math, 1168
Haploid cells
and randomness in biology, 970
Hard hexagon model
and 2D entropies, 959
as exactly soluble, 1133
Hard sphere gas, 1022
and CA fluids history, 999
CA idealization of, 446
and chaos theory, 971
on inspirational book cover, 864
with stationary scattering, 312
and thermodynamics, 1020
Hard square models (lattice gases), 999
Hardware
for 1D cellular automata, 868
for 2D cellular automata, 928
structure of computer, 1108
Hardy, G. Harold (England, 1877-1947)
and Goldbach's Conjecture, 911
and iterated maps, 919
Harmonic analysis
of substitution systems, 1081
and Walsh functions, 1073
Harmonic analyzer, 1107
Harmonic functions
and flatness in tissue growth, 1007, 1010
Harmonic oscillator
as exactly soluble, 1133
Harmony (musical)
and math thinking, 1177
perception of, 1079
Harmony in nature, 967
Harrington, Leo A. (USA, 1946- )
and unprovable statements, 1163
Hartley, Ralph V. L. (USA, 1888-1970)
and information theory, 1181
Hartman, Hyman (USA, 1936- )
and CA classes, 948
 in Preface, xiii and computing devices, 1107
Harvard Mark I computer, 1107 Heterostructures, 1082
Hashing, 622, 1100 Hewlett-Packard calculators
as application of randomness, 1192 reverse Polish in, 896
to speed up evolution, 1134 Hexagonal cellular automata
Hasse diagrams of posets and fluid flow, 378
and causal networks, 1040 implementation of, 992
Hasse's algorithm (3n+1 problem), 904 as models of crystal growth, 369
Hasse's Principle and momentum conservation, 1024
for Diophantine equations, 1165 number of rules in, 928
Hastings, Stuart P. (USA, 1937- ) Hexagonal close packing, 986
and reaction-diffusion, 1013 Hexagonal lattice
Hauptvermutung (of combinatorial topology), 1051 of animal pigment cells, 1012
Hausdorff dimension, 933, 958, 1030 circle packings in, 349, 985
Hawking, Stephen W. (England, 1942- ) of circles in ornament, 873
and black hole radiation, 1062 of deformable objects, 988
Hawking radiation, 1062 enumeration on, 959
and uniform spectra, 988 implementation of CAs on, 992
Hayek, Friedrich A. (Austria/England/USA/Germany, 1899-1992) isotropy on, 980
and free will, 1135 and r=1/2 1D CA, 885
hcp (hexagonal close packing), 986 random walks on, 329
Head size and shapes of cells, 1007
in animal growth, 421 Turing machines on, 930
Heads (of expressions), 896 Hexagonal prism, 929
depth of in trees, 897 Hexagrams
as type specifications, 898 of I Ching, 893
Hearing, 585-588 Hidden Markov models, 590, 1084
of elephants, 1181 Hidden units
human, 1079 in neural networks, 1102
Heart (human) Hidden-variables theories, 543, 1058, 1064
1/f noise in beating of, 969 Hierarchies
as excitable medium, 1013 as avoiding thermodynamics, 453
modelling and history of CAs, 878 in computational complexity theory, 1142
Hearts of palm, 1004 and defining complexity, 1069
Heat in embryo development, 419
analogies with computation, 726 of function growth rates, 1163
character of, 445 and history of complexity, 862
history of theories of, 1019 in probabilistic models, 1084
Heat bath and randomness in markets, 1015
and 2D Ising model, 982 Higgs field
Heat capacities and expansion of universe, 1055
and quantum history, 1056 and notion of ether, 1042
Heat exchangers particle associated with, 1047
geometrical forms of, 1183 and particle masses, 1047
Heated fluids High-energy collisions
and convection, 1000 Monte Carlo simulation of, 968
Heaven High-level programming
and form of extraterrestrials, 1191 and programs in notes, 854
Heavenly bodies High-school algebra
perfection of, 875 axioms of, 1153, 1153'
Hebb, Donald O. (Canada, 1904-1985) Higher-order logics, 1167
and neural networks, 1099 Higher organisms
Hebrew religion phenomenon of existence of, 398
and free will, 1135 Highest common factor
Hedlund, Gustav A. (USA, 1904-1993) see GCD (greatest common divisor)
in Preface, xiii HighLife (2D class 4 CA), 949
and shift-commuting block maps, 878 Higman, Graham (England, 1917- )
and surjective CAs, 960 and axioms for groups, 1153
Heights of humans Hilbert, David (Germany, 1862-1943)
distribution of, 977, 1003 and axioms for geometry, 1154
Heighway, John E. (USA, 1930- ) and character of math, 1176
and dragon curves, 893 and Diophantine equations, 1161
Heisenberg, Werner K. (Germany, 1901-1976) and foundations of math, 1149
and matrix mechanics, 1056 and general relativity, 1052
Heliozoan and math in science, 859
pattern formed in, 385 and metamathematics, 1150
Helium and space-filling curves, 893
lack of quantum solution to, 1133 and undecidability, 1136
randomness in convection of, 976 and zeros of zeta function, 918
Helix Hilbert space
in shell models, 1008 in quantum theory, 1059
Hellman, Martin E. (USA, 1945- ) Hilbert's Tenth Problem, 1161
and math cryptography, 1089 Hilbert's Thirteenth Problem, 1128
Helmholtz, Hermann L. F. v. (Germany, 1821-1894) Hill climbing, 346
and sound perception, 1080 Hillenbrand, Thomas (Germany, 1970- )
Henkin semantics (for higher-order logics), 1167 and automated proofs, 1158
Heptagons Hillman, David (USA, 1955- )
hyperbolic tiling with, 1050 and axioms for logic, 1151
and negative curvature, 532 in Preface, xii
Herbs Hindu-Arabic number system, 902, 1182
leaf shapes for identifying, 1005 Hindu temples
Herds nesting in, 874
and randomness in markets, 1015 Hinton, Geoffrey E. (England/USA/Canada, 1947- )
Heredity and neural networks, 1100
use of simple rules in, 860 Hippocampus (in brain), 1102
HermiteH (Hermite polynomials) Hippocrates of Chios (Greece, ~460 BC)
in solution of harmonic oscillator, 1133 and embryology, 1010
Hero (Heron) (Egypt, ~62 AD) Hiss
 sound of random sequence, 585 Huffman coding, 564
Historians adaptive, 1069
and free will, 1135 implementation of, 1071
Historical perspectives, 844-846 and JPEG compression, 1074
see also history items in specific entries Human behavior
History and computational irreducibility, 1132
accidents of in universe, 505 free will in, 750-753, 1135
as central to human condition, 846, 1196 and game theory, 1104
of complexity research, 862 laws of, 1014
computations done in human, 837 Occam's razor for, 1025
of definition of sciences, 863 Human condition
effect on math of, 792 defining features of, 1196
as explaining axiom systems, 816 scientific approaches to, 845
general comments about, 850 Human form
of life on Earth, 387, 825 parametrizations of, 1010
of math and ease of concepts, 1177 Human history
recorded by physical objects, 1195 vs. biological evolution, 399
role of in biological evolution, 388 Human languages
theory of and chaos, 971 see Languages (human)
uniqueness of for universe, 504 Human relics in archeology, 1183
History register Human thinking, 620-631
see Shift registers and constructs in math, 1177
Hobbes, Thomas (England, 1588-1679) emulation by computers of, 733
and free will, 1135 and Gödel's Theorem, 1159
and nature of space, 1028 and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 733, 1130
Hodgkin-Huxley equation Human will
as example of PDE, 161 see Free will
Hofmeister, Wilhelm F. B. (Germany, 1824-1877) Humanities
and phyllotaxis, 1007 relativism in, 1131
Hofstadter, Douglas R. (USA, 1945- ) summary of relations to, 9, 863
and recursive sequences, 880, 907 Humans
Hokusai, Katsushika (Japan, 1760-1849) artifacts of early, 1184
and fluid turbulence, 997 defining properties of intelligence of, 822
Hölder exponents, 959 and future technology, 1195, 1196
Holland, John H. (USA, 1929- ) genetic programs of, 383, 1002
and genetic algorithms, 985 height distributions of, 977, 1003
in Preface, xiii making randomness, 306, 970
Homeobox genes, 419, 1010 mathematical power of, 1126
Homoclinic tangles, 972 as only intelligence, 822
Homogeneity uniqueness of, 844, 1195
origins of, 353 visual system of, 577
Homogeneous structures weight distributions of, 977
see Cellular automata Humboldt, F. W. H. Alexander v. (Germany, 1769-1859)
Homomorphisms and branching in plants, 1004
and generalized additivity, 952 Hume, David (Scotland, 1711-1776)
Homoplectic processes (extrinsic randomness generation), 973 and purposes in nature, 1185
Homotopy Humidity
and structures in networks, 1046 and weather, 1177
and topological defects, 1045 Huntington, Edward V. (USA, 1874-1952)
Homunculus hypothesis, 1010 and axioms for logic, 1151
Honda, Hisao (Japan, 1943- ) Huntington axioms for logic, 773, 1151
and branching in plants, 1005 Hurwitz numbers, 914
Honeycomb Hydraulic jump, 377
form of, 1011 Hydrocarbons
length minimization in, 988 considered interesting, 1194
Hooke, Robert (England, 1635-1703) Hydrodynamics
and snowflakes, 992 see Fluid flow
Hopfield, John J. (USA, 1933- ) Hydrogen atom
and neural networks, 1100, 1102 as exactly soluble, 1133
in Preface, xiii and history of quantum theory, 1056
Hopi language Hydrology
and Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, 1181 and forms of landscapes, 1001
Hopper crystals, 993 Hyena
Horizon problem (in cosmology), 1055 pigmentation pattern of, 426
Hormones Hyperbolic equations, 923, 940
in brains, 1099 Hyperbolic space, 1049
in plants, 404 Hypercube
Horn shell Boolean, 1095
growth of, 415 and trivalent networks, 1029
Horner form Hypercycles
and evaluation of powers, 1093 and origin of life, 1179
Horns (animal) Hyperelliptic Diophantine equations, 1164
as artificial-looking, 828 Hyperelliptic functions
compared to antlers, 1008 in solution of spinning top, 1133
growth of, 413 Hypergeometric functions
Horse races asymptotic behavior of, 917
as source of randomness, 968 and continued fractions, 914
Horton stream order (in tributaries), 1001 and curves from curvature, 1009
Hours-minutes-seconds and nested patterns, 612
origin of, 902 Hypergeometric1F1
Hoyle, Fred (England, 1915-2001) in Calogero-Moser model, 1133
and extraterrestrials, 1190 Hypergeometric2F1
HP 700 and caps on hyperspheres, 1050
and creation of this book, 854 and quintic equations, 945
HP calculators in Seiberg-Witten model, 1133
reverse Polish notation in, 896 and special functions, 1092
Huffman, David A. (USA, 1925-1999) and Thue-Morse sequence, 1092
and data compression, 1069 and trinomial coefficients, 1091
HypergeometricPFQ and combinatorial chemistry, 1194
and 6j symbols, 1055 and growth of animals, 418
difficulty of evaluating, 1134 randomness in, 970, 1002
from rational integral, 916 shape space in, 1184
Hypergraphs, 1029 Impact craters
Hyperreals as landscape elements, 1001
as generalizing numbers, 1168 Implementation
Hypersonic flow see also Emulation
see Supersonic flow see also entries for specific systems
Hypersphere Implicants
volume of, 479, 1050 in Boolean formulas, 1095
Hyphenation Implicational calculus, 803, 1170
lack of in this book, 852 models in, 1171
I-1 base, 932 possible models of, 805
I Ching theorems in, 813
and substitution systems, 893 Implicit rules
IBM 370 computer constraints as, 210, 940
my use of, 854 Implies
IBM 7090 computer axioms for, 803
and pi, 911 axioms in terms of, 1151
ICBMs in multivalued logic, 1175
radar used by, 970 non-confluence of, 1037
radars for detecting, 1188 non-universality of, 1174
Ice and structure of proofs, 1155
hopper crystals in, 993 truth tables for, 802
snowflake crystals of, 370 Impossibilities
Ice-ray style of Chinese lattice, 874 mathematical, 1137
Icosahedral group, 938 Impulse response
Icosahedral symmetry for additive systems, 952
in quasicrystals, 994 spectrum of, 1081
Icosahedron Incompleteness, 782
clusters in sphere packing, 986 essential, 1159
and GoldenRatio, 891 in multiway systems, 783, 797
IDEA cryptographic system, 1086 of Robinson arithmetic, 1169
Ideal forms see also Gödel's Theorem
and Platonism, 1176 Inconsistency
Ideal gas in axiom systems, 781
CA idealization of, 446 in multiway systems, 797
Idealism Increment function
and free will, 1135 in combinators, 1122
and history of universality, 1109 in register machines, 97
and logic as foundation, 860 in Turing machines, 1144
and models of math, 1149 Incremental improvement
and nature of space, 1028 and natural selection, 392
and theories of communication, 1181 Incremental programming, 894
and universe as intelligence, 1196 Independence
Idealizations from axioms, 1167
of mathematics, 776 of axioms, 803
in modelling, 364 from more powerful axioms, 1166
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 728 of theorems in logic, 818
in traditional science, 736 Independence results
and ultimate theory of physics, 465 since Gödel's Theorem, 1163
Ideals (algebraic) Indeterminism
as generalizing numbers, 1168 and free will, 750, 1135
Idempotence Index
of And, 817 features of this, 852
in operator systems, 801 names in this, 852
of Or, 817 Indian studies of prosody, 875
Identity cellular automaton, 883 Indigenous peoples
Identity function and animism, 1195
in combinators, 1122 Indo-European languages, 1103
IEEE floating-point standard Induction (mathematical)
and chaos experiments, 919 and automated proofs, 1158
If (conditional) in axioms of arithmetic, 1152
emulated by Gamma, 1129 and recursive sequences, 907
Illative logic in reduced arithmetic, 800
and symbolic systems, 102 as scheme for proofs, 1177
ILLIAC IV statements unprovable without, 1169
and history of CAs, 877 Induction (scientific)
Illinois, University of, xiii and experimental math, 899
Illusions and ultimate theory of physics, 466
visual, 1076 Inequivalence
Image compression as name for Xor, 1173
lossless, 560 Inertia
lossy, 572 and uniformity of space, 1028
Image processing Inertial motion, 521
by averaging, 1073 Infeasible computations, 1143
history of, 1077 Inference
and history of 2D CAs, 877, 928 of cellular automaton rules, 1089
and visual perception, 1076 statistical, 589
and Walsh transforms, 1073 Inference rules
Imaginary time formalism, 1043 in proofs, 1151
as example of model feature, 992 Infinite acceleration
Imitation in 5-body problem, 1130
and bird songs, 1180 Infinite evolution
see also Emulation and undecidability, 755
Immune system Infinite impulse response
and Boolean networks, 936 cellular automata as, 1035
Infinite loops in PDEs, 940
in Mathematica, 1137 Injectivity
and proving undecidability, 1137 in cellular automata, 959
Infinite objects Ink
and non-standard arithmetic, 1169 and printing of this book, 852
Infinite patterns spreading of as diffusion, 978
generated in finite time, 732 Inner
Infinite trees and associative CAs, 956
and symbolic systems, 898 InputForm
Infinitesimals for programs in notes, 854
and computational irreducibility, 1132 Insanity
as generalizing numbers, 1168 and free will, 1136
and non-standard analysis, 1172 Inscribed circles, 986
and PDEs, 161 Insert (insert element)
Infinities and random networks, 1038
in QED, 1057 Insertion sort, 1142
Infinity Instabilities
and the continuum, 1127 in CA evolution, 950
forms of, 1162 and chaos theory, 153, 971, 972
and symbolic representation, 788 in crowds of people, 1014
and transfinite numbers, 1162 in financial systems, 430
and undecidability, 788 of fluid vortex sheets, 997
Inflationary universe, 1026, 1055 in numerical PDEs, 924
Information in numerical turbulence, 997
in axiom systems, 819 in PDEs, 988
in block encoding, 1071 and quantum measurement, 542
in cellular automata, 959 in reaction-diffusion, 1013
and definition of life, 1178 and the Second Law, 1020
in multicolor encodings, 1111 in self-gravitating systems, 1021
and radiation in rule 37R, 455 in splashes, 1000
in theorems of logic, 818 Instantons
and thermodynamics, 1020 in path integrals, 1057
Information content Instincts
algorithmic, 1067 and defining intelligence, 1178
vs. amount of computation, 1133 Institute for Advanced Study, xiii
of biological organisms, 1002 Institutions
entropy as, 960 and complexity research, 862
and history of chaos theory, 971 role of in science, 857
in initial conditions, 920 Instruments (musical)
and lower bounds, 1143 as nonlinear oscillators, 971
measures of, 1181 sounds produced by, 1079
Information dimension, 959 Insurance
Information-preserving data compression, 560 and history of statistics, 1082
Information theory Integer equations, 790, 944
algorithmic, 1067 and undecidability, 787
and cryptography, 1086 see also Diophantine equations
and data compression, 1069 Integer factoring, 1090
and defining complexity, 1068 see also FactorInteger
and defining randomness, 1068 Integer functions
and human languages, 1181 patterns generated by, 870
Information transmission Integer linear programming
and causal networks, 520 NP completeness of, 1145
in cellular automata, 252 Integer sequences, 123, 128-131
in class 4 systems, 281 IntegerDigits
and data compression, 1069 basic examples of, 854
and error-correcting codes, 1101 and computational reducibility, 747
in financial markets, 1015 concatenation of, 913
limited by speed of light, 518 implementation of, 901
in PDEs, 923, 925 and rule 90 pattern, 870
and quantum entanglement, 1065 and substitution systems, 889, 891
and universality, 694 and sums of three squares, 910
Initial conditions IntegerExponent
for cellular automaton fluids, 381 and 3n+1 problem, 904
and complexity, 41 and additive CA attractors, 963
and computability, 1129 behavior of, 911
finding as NP problem, 1142 and binomial coefficients, 870
information content in, 920 and cyclic multiplication, 950
as input for computations, 637 and decimation systems, 909
nested in rule 184, 272 and period doubling, 892
NP completeness of finding, 769 and a recursive sequence, 906
and oracles, 1126, 1129 relation to DigitCount of, 902
periodic, 266 and rule 150 pattern, 885
persistent structures from, 283 and spectra, 1081
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 724 and symbolic systems, 897
random, 223-296 TM computation of, 1144
randomness from, 304-314 and TM enumeration, 1139
for rule 110 universality, 689 and Turing machine 600720, 1145
sensitive dependence on, 153 and Turing machine for increment, 759
sensitivity to, 250-252 IntegerQ (integer test)
sets of for Turing machines, 1139 and fraction systems, 1115
shape dependence on, 179 Integers
and thermodynamics, 443 algorithmically simple, 916
and time travel, 1043 as encodings of lists, 1120
for Turing machines, 710 and human experience, 1177
and undecidability, 756 number of, 1127
for the universe, 1026 as ordered set, 1152
Initial value problems represented by symbolic expressions, 1121
in general relativity, 1053 transfinite, 1162
Integrability and continuum behavior, 333
of PDEs, 1023 early reactions to, 971
in three-body problem, 972 in early universe, 1056
Integrals experiments showing, 976
as exact solutions, 1133 in financial systems, 432
Integrate in fluid flow, 382
and distance in curved space, 1048 in fluttering, 971
impossibilities in, 1137 and free will, 752
numbers generated by, 916 in Ising models, 982
systematic methods for, 1177 my first paper on, 882
Integrated circuits in quantum systems, 543, 1063
see Chips in reversible conserving systems, 462
Intelligence and Second Law, 450
analysis using human, 620 see also Randomness generators
and Anthropic Principle, 1026 Intrinsically defined curves, 1009
attributed to universe, 1195 Introspection
definition of, 822, 1178 and free will, 1135
in Drake equation, 1191 Intuition
extraterrestrial, 635, 822 about objects in nature, 828
machine, 628, 1099 and computer experiments, 856
and Maxwell's demon, 1021 and continuous math, 925
and philosophical implications, 1197 development of my, 21
physics as showing, 1191 in human thinking, 627
as special feature of humans, 844 mathematical and proofs, 1156
testing of, 1104, 1178 mechanism for in brain, 1136
in the universe, 822 need for new, 39-41
see also Thinking from practical computing, 716, 872
Intelligent design and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 726
and complexity, 861 and ultimate theory of physics, 468
and teleology, 1185 Intuitionism
Intentionality as foundation of math, 1176
see Purpose Intuitionistic logic
Interdependence and double negation, 1158
and definition of life, 1178 and Peano arithmetic, 1152
Interestingness Invagination
of chemicals, 1194 in animal development, 418, 1009
in mathematics, 793, 816 Invariances
of theorems in general, 821, 1176 and cellular automata state transition graphs, 963
of theorems in logic, 817 Invariant configurations
Interfaces (boundaries) in 1D cellular automata, 941, 954
effective rules for in CA, 980 in 2D cellular automata, 942, 954
Interfaces (computer) as attractors, 276
and concept of halting, 1137 in Game of Life, 964
graphical vs. language, 631 and satisfying constraints, 348
history of, 1102 undecidability of, 1138
Interference Invariant entropy (spacetime entropy), 960, 961
and quantum computers, 1148 Invariant interval (in relativity theory), 1042
in quantum mechanics, 1059, 1062 Invariants
of string updates, 503 and axiom system proofs, 1170
Interferometer in dynamical systems, 961
device like, 311 for knots, 1046
Intermediate degrees (in computation theory), 734, 1130 see also Conserved quantities
Intermediate growth groups, 938, 945 Inventions
Intermediate steps vs. discoveries in math, 1176
in multilevel logic, 1096 for randomness generation, 969
in proofs, 811, 1155, 1157 Inverse problems
in solving PCP, 1140 and NP completeness, 771
Intermittency and perception, 551
and 1/f noise, 969 Inverse square law for gravity, 536, 1047
Internationalism InverseFunction
in mathematical notation, 1182 and CA encodings, 1118
Internet businesses Invertible cellular automata
and speculative stocks, 1015 see Reversible cellular automata
Interpolation Involute of circle, 418
of CA patterns, 1092 Involutions
and fitting models, 1084 cellular automata as, 1017
Interpretability Ion traps
axiom system encoding, 816 for quantum gates, 1148
Interpretation of quantum mechanics, 1058 Ionosphere
Interpreted languages, 1109 radio emissions from, 1187
Interrupts (computer) IQ (intelligence quotient), 1178
as source of randomness, 970 tests, 1104
Intersection Iran
and finite set theory, 1171 ornamental art in, 874
Interstellar radio communication, 1189 Iraq
Interstellar space ornamental art in, 873
molecules in, 1179 Iris (eye) patterns
turbulence in, 1188 randomness of, 1014
Interstices Iron Age
packings that use, 986 ornamental art from, 873
Interval, maps on the Irrational numbers
see Iterated maps and 3D non-periodic tiling, 943
Interval arithmetic generating additive systems, 953
and generalizing numbers, 1168 generating quantum gates, 1148
Intractability (computational), 758-771 and idealized billiards, 1022
and cryptography, 1089 iterated multiplication by, 903
Intrinsic curvature, 1049 and musical chords, 1079
Intrinsic randomness generation, 315-326 in Peano arithmetic, 1162
Irreducibility
see Computational Irreducibility
Irreducible representations (of groups)
and isotropy, 980
and spin, 1046
Irregularities
see Regularities
Irreversibility
in data compression, 572-576
and memory, 625
in physical systems, 441-457
and quantum measurement, 1063
Ising, Ernst (Germany/USA, 1900-1998)
and Ising model, 981
Ising model, 981
exact solution of 2D, 1133
ground state of, 944
and history of CAs, 876
lack of exact 3D solution, 1133
and lattice gas models, 999
and my work on CAs, 880
and P completeness, 1149
phase transition in, 982
as precursor to my work, 879
as probabilistic model, 1083
and randomness tests, 1085
undecidability in, 1138
see also Spin systems
Islam
and ornamental art, 872
as rejecting animism, 1195
Islamic art, 43
Isocorrelation textures, 1078
Isomers (variant molecular structures), 1194
Isotropic tensor, 980
Isotropy
in aggregation systems, 978
in biological growth, 1007, 1010
in code 746 CA, 334
of differences in 2D CAs, 950
in discrete systems, 980
in physics and CAs, 473
of random walks, 977
of sums of squares, 910
Iterated aliquot sums, 911
Iterated bitwise operations, 906
Iterated division
and continued fractions, 143
Iterated function systems, 191
and pictures of ferns, 1005
Iterated maps, 149-155
algebraic iterates in, 1098
attractors in, 961
of bit operations, 921
from CA densities, 953
on the Cantor set, 869
complex, 933
and computation universality, 1129
and computer experiments, 899
emulating discrete systems, 1129
as evidence of determinism, 972
and financial markets, 1015
and fluid flow, 998
history of, 918
and history of chaos, 971
and history of complexity, 49
of integers, 122
in Newton's method, 1101
periodic points in, 955
as precursors to my work, 879
and QCD, 1061
and recurrence relations, 906
spectra in, 1080
and substitution systems, 921
two-dimensional, 921
Iterated morphisms (substitution systems), 893
Iterated radicals, 915
and GoldenRatio, 891
Iterated rules
sizes of formulas for, 1096
Iterated run-length encoding, 905
Iteration
as basis for algorithms, 1141
compared to repetition, 990
examples of in Mathematica, 853
Iteration theory
and iterated maps, 918
$IterationLimit
and avoiding undecidability, 1138
Iterative automata
see Cellular automata
Iterative improvement
for engineering designs, 1193
in satisfying constraints, 344
IUPAC chemical nomenclature, 1194
J combinator, 1123
Jacobi, Carl G. J. (Germany, 1804-1851)
and sums of four squares, 910
JacobiP (Jacobi polynomial)
and trinomial coefficients, 1091
JacobiSN (Jacobi elliptic function)
asymptotic oscillation of, 917
and background for PDE, 924
and logistic map formulas, 1098
in solution of spinning top, 1133
JacobiSymbol
and Hadamard matrices, 1073
and quadratic residues, 1090
and spectra, 1081
Jacquard, Joseph-Marie (France, 1752-1834)
and programmable looms, 1107
Jamming-resistant radio
and shift registers, 878
Jansky, Karl G. (USA, 1905-1950)
and radio astronomy, 1188
Japanese work on CAs, 877
Java (computer language)
and chaos experiments, 919
and computer communication, 1182
as example of language, 1109
and register machines, 101
Jellies
large alkanes as, 1194
Jen, Erica (USA, 1952- )
in Preface, xiii
and rule 30, 871
Jet stream, 1001
Jets
turbulence in, 377
Jevons, W. Stanley (England, 1835-1882)
and logic machines, 1107
Job, Book of
and understanding nature, 876
Johnson noise, 968
Join
in lattice theory, 1153
Join (join lists)
as associative function, 1094
basic example of, 853
evaluation chains based on, 1095
theorems about, 1168
Joint denial
as name for Nor, 1173
Joints
characteristic shapes of, 1183
Jones, James P. (USA/Canada, 1941- )
and Diophantine equations, 1161
Josephus problem, 909
Joule, James P. (England, 1818-1889)
and nature of heat, 1019
JPEG compression, 573, 1074
Judaism
and free will, 1135
and human uniqueness, 1195
as rejecting animism, 1195
Judgement
as crucial in modelling, 365
in social sciences, 9
Julesz, Bela (Hungary/USA, 1928- )
and texture perception, 1076
Julia, Gaston M. (France, 1893-1978)
and iterated maps, 879
Julia sets, 933, 934
analog of in tree space set, 1006
Junctional calculus, 803, 1170
possible models of, 805
theorems in, 813
Jupiter
and extraterrestrial life, 1179
radio emissions from, 1187
Red Spot of, 377, 999
K combinator, 711, 1121
K^0 particle
and time reversal violation, 1019
K_33 non-planar graph, 527
Kabala (universal object), 1127
Kaluza, Theodor F. E. (Germany, 1885-1954) and almost integers, 915
and notions of space, 1028 Knapping (of stone tools), 1183
Kampé de Fériet hypergeometric functions, 1009 Kneading
Kaneko, Kunihiko (Japan, 1956- ) randomness in, 306
and continuous CAs, 922 Kneading sequences, 955
in Preface, xiii Knossos
Kansas maze at, 873
grid of towns in, 1187 Knots
Kant, Immanuel (Germany, 1724-1804) Alexander moves in, 1038
and complexity in biology, 861 as complex artifacts, 1183
and free will, 1135 as constructed by rules, 875
and purposes in nature, 1185 in ether as atoms, 1028, 1044
Karatsuba, Anatolii A. (Russia, 1937- ) model of atoms as, 1024
and multiplication, 1142 as not in 1D systems, 927
Kardar-Parisi-Zhang (KPZ) equation, 925 theory of, 1046
Kari, Jarkko J. (Finland/USA, 1964- ) Knuth, Donald E. (USA, 1938- )
and undecidability in 2D cellular automata, 1138 and dragon curves, 893
Kármán, Theodore von (Hungary/Germany/USA, 1881-1963) and Knuth-Bendix procedure, 1037
and vortex streets, 998 in Preface, xiii
Karnaugh maps, 1097 and tests of randomness, 1084
Kasiski, Friedrich W. (Poland, 1805-1881) Knuth-Bendix procedure, 1037
and cryptanalysis, 1086 Koch, N. F. Helge von (Sweden, 1870-1924)
Kauffman, Stuart A. (USA, 1939- ) and nested curves, 934
and Boolean networks, 936 Koch curve, 191, 933
in Preface, xiii history of, 934
Kazakhstan Kolakoski, William G. (USA, 1944-1997)
straight railroad in, 1187 and cyclic tag systems, 895
KdV equation Kollectiv (collective)
as exactly soluble, 1133 and defining randomness, 1068
Kells Kolmogorov, Andrei N. (Russia, 1903-1987)
Book of, 873 and algorithmic randomness, 1068
Kelvin (William Thomson) (Scotland, 1824-1907) and fluid turbulence, 997, 997'
and harmonic analyzer, 1107 Kolmogorov complexity
and minimum area packings, 988 see Algorithmic information
and models of space, 1027 Kondo model, 1057
and Monte Carlo methods, 1192 Koran
and thermodynamics, 1019 calligraphy from the, 874
and vortices in ether, 1044 Korec, Ivan (Slovakia, 1943-1998)
Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities, 988 and encodings of arithmetic, 1163
Kepler, Johannes (Germany, 1571-1630) and register machines, 1121
and 2-body problem, 972 KPZ (Kardar-Parisi-Zhang) equation, 925
and computers, 1107 Krohn-Rhodes decompositions, 1069
and Fibonacci numbers, 891 Kronecker product, 1073
and inhabitants of Moon, 1190 KroneckerDelta
and rules of nature, 860 and orthogonal bases, 1072
and snowflakes, 992 Kufi calligraphy, 874
and sphere packings, 986 Kummer, Ernst E. (Germany, 1810-1893)
Keratin and Fermat's Last Theorem, 1166
repetitive structure of, 1003 Kuramoto-Sivashinsky equation, 925
Kernels Kuratowski's theorem, 1045
in visual perception, 579 Kurdyumov, Georgii L. (Russia, 1953- )
Kerr solution and transitions in CAs, 981
as exact solution, 1133 L-shaped tiles, 932
and time and computation, 1130 L systems, 82-87
Key sequences 2D, 187-189
in cryptography, 598 and biological models, 1004
Keyboard characters and plant branching, 1005
for programs in notes, 854 see also Substitution systems
Keystrokes Labyrinth
number to create this book, xiv pattern of, 873
as source of randomness, 970 Labyrinthine patterns
Khinchin (Khinchin's constant), 914 from 2D cellular automata, 427
Kidney ducts in code 746, 334
branching in, 1008 Lag systems, 894
Kinetic theory Lagrange, J. Louis (La Grange) (Italy/Germany/France, 1736-1813)
and diffusion equation, 1024 and continued fractions, 915
and thermodynamics, 1019 Lagrange points
"Kingdom was lost" simple geometry of, 1187
and chaos theory, 971 in three-body problems, 972
Kingdoms of organisms, 1003 Lagrangian density
Kingsnake in general relativity, 1053
pigmentation pattern of, 426 for PDEs, 923
Kirby, Laurence A. S. (England/USA, 1952- ) in quantum field theory, 1061
and unprovable statements, 1163 LaguerreL (Laguerre polynomials)
Kirkpatrick, E. Scott (USA, 1941- ) in hydrogen atom, 1133
in Preface, xiii Lambda calculus, 1121
and simulated annealing, 985 and Church's Thesis, 1125
Kites and combinators, 1122
characteristic shapes of, 1183 confluence in, 1036
Kleene star (RepeatedNull), 957 and history of universality, 1110
Klein, Oskar (Sweden/Denmark/USA, 1894-1977) as idealization of math, 1150
and notions of space, 1028 undecidability in, 1136
Klein-Gordon equation Lamé equations, 995
discretization of, 1060 Laminar fluid flow, 376
vs. sine-Gordon, 922 in the atmosphere, 1001
Kleinian groups Laminated sphere packings, 986
and circle packings, 986 Land grants
KleinInvariantJ (modular elliptic function) and regular grid patterns, 1187
Land use
effects on weather of, 1177
Landau, Lev D. (Russia, 1908-1968)
and fluid turbulence, 997
Landau-Ginzburg equation, 925
Landscapes (abstract)
constraint satisfaction on, 346
for memory, 1101
Landscapes (geological), 1001
Langton, Christopher G. (USA, 1948- )
and 2D Turing machines, 930
and CA classes, 948
in Preface, xiii
Langton's ant (2D Turing machine), 931
Language games, 1181
Language of mathematics
and science, 859
Languages (abstract)
as attractors in TMs, 961
context-free, 939, 1091, 1103
context-sensitive, 939
regular, 939
universal and Leibniz, 1149
unrestricted, 939
see also Formal languages
Languages (computer), 1103
as examples of software, 1108
functional and combinators, 898
and history of computing, 1108
intuition from existence of, 872
logic programming, 1158
Mathematica, 853
meaning in, 1182
notion of types in, 898
for parallel computing, 1035
thinking in, 1104
universals in, 1182
see also Computer languages
Languages (human), 1103
as analogy in atomism, 876
animals trained to use, 826
center in brain, 1099
conventional aspect of, 1181
and cryptanalysis, 599
and defining intelligence, 822, 1178
frequency of words in, 1014
and history of universality, 1109
influence of on thinking, 1181
information content in, 1181
logic in everyday, 806, 1173
and math thinking, 1177
reasons for features of, 1181
recognizing meaning in, 826
redundancy of, 1086, 1181
relativity hypothesis in, 1181
rules for and programs, 860
rules in grammar for, 875
and theories of communication, 1181
and thinking, 630
translation of and AI, 1100
translation of and universality, 643
understanding dead, 1184
and Zipf's law, 1014
Laplace, Pierre-Simon (France, 1749-1827)
and Central Limit Theorem, 977
and determinism, 1135
Laplace equation
as constraint, 940
and diffusion-limited aggregation, 994
and flatness of growing tissue, 1007
and network dimensions, 1031
Laplacian
in curved space, 1050
LARC computer
and gas simulation, 864
Large cardinal axioms, 1167
Lasers
as technology components, 1195
Latencies
in circuits, 1095
Latent heat
and crystal growth, 370, 372
Lateral inhibition
and pigmentation patterns, 427
in plant phyllotaxis, 409
in snowflake growth, 370
Latin
logic operations in, 1173
Latin squares
and quasigroups, 1171
as satisfying constraints, 945
Lattice dynamical systems, 155-160, 922
see also Continuous cellular automata
Lattice gases, 999
enumeration in, 959
see also Cellular automaton fluids
see also Spin systems
Lattice gauge theories, 1057, 1061
and computational irreducibility, 1133
and discrete space, 1027
and quantum gravity, 1054
Lattice models
see also Cellular automata
see also Spin systems
Lattice packings, 987
Lattice points
numbers inside spheres, 910
Lattice theory
axioms for, 1153
and posets, 1041
Lattice vectors
and linear congruential generators, 974
LatticeReduce
and digit sequence cryptanalysis, 1089
Lattices
isotropic behavior on, 980
lines at slopes on, 916
possible, 929
random walks on, 329, 977, 978
Law of large numbers, 976
Laws (human)
and defining randomness, 1068
and free will, 1135
and regularities in radio spectrum, 1188
and responsibility, 1136
Laws of Form
and Nand, 1173
Laws of physics
vs. mathematics, 772
vs. programs in biology, 397
and ultimate theory, 470
Layout of networks, 193
NP completeness of, 1145
LCDs
see Liquid crystals
LCGs
see Linear congruential generators
LCM (lowest common multiple)
and Lissajous figures, 917
and Riemann Hypothesis, 918
Leading digits, 914
and number compression, 1070
of powers, 903
Leaf shapes
see Leaves
LeafCount (expression size)
and algebraic expressions, 945
and combinator expressions, 1122
and number of recursive functions, 908
and symbolic systems, 897
for universal Diophantine equation, 1161
Learning
of bird songs, 1180
of computer languages, 1104
and defining intelligence, 823, 1178
human, 626
models of, 1099, 1102
the science in this book, 855
as trick in evolution, 1002
Learning curves, 1014, 1102
Least squares fitting, 1082, 1083
Leaves
arrangements of (phyllotaxis), 408-412, 1006
evolutionary theories of, 1005
flatness in growth of, 1008
growth of, 401, 412, 1005
shapes of, 401-407, 1005
LED segments
and textons, 1076
Leech lattice
isotropy of, 980
and sphere packings, 987
Leftmost innermost evaluation, 906
Leg (animal)
development of, 419
Legendre, Adrien-Marie (France, 1752-1833)
 and sums of three squares, 910
LegendreP (Legendre polynomials)
and isotropy measures, 980
in solution of Mie scattering, 1133
Lehmer, Derrick H. (USA, 1905-1991)
and linear congruential generators, 974
Lehr, Eduard (Germany, ~1932)
and parametric curves, 1009
Leibniz, Gottfried W. v. (Germany, 1646-1716)
and binary numbers, 902
and calculators, 1107
and free will, 1135
and I Ching, 893
and idealizations of math, 1149
and logic, 1099
and logic as basis for science, 860
and math notation, 1182
and the nature of space, 1028
and origins of universality, 1109
and symbolic logic, 1151
and universal language, 1181
Lemmas
defining characteristics of, 1176
and lengths of proofs, 1175
in proof of axiom for logic, 811
in proof searching, 1157
in structure of proofs, 1155
Lempel, Abraham (Israel, 1936- )
and data compression, 1069
Lempel-Ziv encoding, 565
Lemur
pigmentation pattern on, 426
Length
basic example of, 853
Lenses
characteristic shapes of, 1183
Lenticular clouds, 1183
Lenz, Wilhelm (Germany, 1888-1957)
and Ising model, 981
Leonardo da Vinci
see da Vinci, Leonardo
Leopard
pigmentation pattern of, 426
Leptons
as types of particle, 1043
Less (<)
encoded as integer equation, 1160
Letters
frequencies of in English, 1069
visual perception of, 1076
Lettuce
ammonite septa like, 1008
growth of, 413
Leucippus (Greece, ~480 - ~420 BC)
and atomism, 876
Levin, Leonid A. (Russia/USA, 1948- )
and NP completeness, 1143
in Preface, xiii
and transitions in CAs, 981
Lévy, Paul P. (France, 1886-1971)
and nested C curve, 893, 934
Lévy flights, 969
lex
and regular languages, 958
Lexical analysis
and regular languages, 958
LFSRs (linear feedback shift registers)
see Shift registers
LHASA (chemical synthesis software), 1194
Li, Wentian (USA, 1959- )
and CA classes, 948
in Preface, xiii
Lichens
on Mars, 1180
Lichtenberg figures, 995
Lie groups
and additive systems, 953
and sphere packings, 987
Life
definition of, 557, 823, 1178
and definition of complexity, 1069
on Earth, 825
and history of complexity, 50
on Mars, 1179
origin of, 1179
Life, Game of
see Game of Life
Life force, 1178
Life insurance
and history of statistics, 1082
Lifeforms
alien, 825
LIFO (last-in first-out) stacks
and context-free languages, 939
Light
caustics in, 984
perception of, 577
and quantum history, 1056
Light bulb filaments, 842
Light cones, 519
for cellular automata, 949
differential geometry of, 1051
and random causal networks, 1052
Light levels
and object recognition, 1076
Lightning
and origin of life, 1179
pattern of from space, 1187
randomness in, 995
as source of radio emissions, 1187
Lights of cities
patterns of from space, 1187
Likelihood
maximum, 589, 1083
Lily pads, 401
Limit cycles
for differential equations, 961
in iterated maps, 961
see also Repetitive behavior
Limit ordinals, 1162
Limitations of science, 6, 748, 846
and ultimate theory of physics, 471
Limited size systems, 255-260, 267
Limits
of cellular automaton rules, 948
and fractal dimensions, 933
of networks as space, 1030
undecidability of, 1138
see also Continuum limits
Lincoln cathedral, 873
Lincos language, 1189
Lindenmayer, Aristid (USA/Netherlands, 1925-1989)
and L systems, 893
and plant branching, 1005
in Preface, xiii
Lindgren, Kristian (Sweden, 1960- )
in Preface, xiii
and universal CAs, 1115
Line defects, 1045
Line-printer output
of my early cellular automata, 19
Linear algebra
and CA invariances, 1022, 1023
and dimensions of networks, 1031
and models of memory, 1101
Linear cellular automata
see also Additive cellular automata
see also Elementary cellular automata
Linear codes, 1101
Linear congruential generators, 318, 974
based on powers of 3, 903
and chaos on calculators, 920
cryptanalysis of, 1089
historical use of, 968
and randomized algorithms, 1085
as shift register analogs, 975
Linear differential equations
and time series, 1083
Linear differential operators, 953
Linear Diophantine equations, 944, 1164
and polynomial time, 1146
Linear equations, 940
as defining rationals, 916
and free field theories, 1061
Linear feedback shift registers
see Shift registers
Linear filters
in sound compression, 1080
and spectra, 1082
in visual perception, 1076
Linear models
and computational irreducibility, 1132
in statistics, 589
Linear predictive coding
in sound compression, 1080
Linear programming
 NP completeness of integer, 1145
for optimizing designs, 1193
Linear recurrences, 891, 906
and additive CAs, 1018
and history of CAs, 878
and time series, 1083
see also Linear congruential generators
Linear stability analysis, 988
Linear systems
vs. nonlinear, 940
Linearity
compared to additivity, 952
in quantum mechanics, 541, 1060
LinearSolve
iterative algorithm for, 1141
and LFSR cryptanalysis, 1087
and linear systems, 940
and NC computations, 1149
Linguistics
see Languages (human)
Linial (Gulden), Samuel (USA, 1927- )
and underivability of logic axioms, 1170
Linkages
in chaos toys, 1183
characteristic shapes of, 1183
and constructible reals, 1129
for randomness generation, 969
Linked lists
for Game of Life, 949
Linker
for register machines, 1114
Linnik's problem, 910
Linux
and creation of this book, 854
Liquid crystals
as components in technology, 1195
phase transitions in, 981
topological defects in, 1045
Liquid-gas phase transitions, 981
Liquids
flow of, 376
see also Fluid flow
Lisp (computer language)
grammar of, 1104
and network systems, 936
representing expressions in, 897
theorems about, 1158, 1168
Lissajous figures, 917
List manipulation
examples of in Mathematica, 853
Listable
and implementing CAs, 866
ListConvolve
and aggregation systems, 978
and autocorrelation, 1080
basic example of, 853
and CellularAutomaton, 886
and elementary CAs, 865
and fast evolution rules, 1094
and general CAs, 886
and hexagonal CAs, 992
and image processing, 1077
and integer multiplication, 1093
and Ising model, 981
and multidimensional CAs, 927
recursive algorithm for, 1142
in sandpile models, 989
and Sierpinski pattern, 931
and visual perception, 1076
ListCorrelate
and additive CAs, 870, 952
and visual feature extraction, 1077
ListPlay
and sound output, 1080
Lists
encoded as integers, 1120, 1127
see also Sequences
Lithic analysis, 1183
Little group (spacetime symmetries), 1046
Littlewood, John E. (England, 1885-1977)
and chaos theory, 971
and Goldbach's Conjecture, 911
and iterated maps, 919
and numbers of primes, 910
Livermore (Lawrence Radiation Laboratory), 864
Lizards
pigmentation patterns of, 426
Local conservation laws, 1023
see also Conservation laws
Local minima, 346
Localization
in class 1 and 2, 252
as origin of repetition, 355
Localization (of eigenstates)
and randomness tests, 1085
Localized structures
and 3n+1 problem, 904
in class 4 systems, 281-296
in code 20 CA, 285
in code 357 CA, 286
in code 1329 CA, 287
in continuous CAs, 160, 244
as engineering components, 678
finding in 2D CAs, 965
and long-range communication, 252
in network evolution, 525
origins of, 990
and particles in physics, 525
in PDEs, 164, 1129
in presence of randomness, 526
in QCD, 1061
from random initial conditions, 228
in reversible CAs, 440
in rule 30 CA, 700
in rule 37R CA, 455
in rule 45 CA, 701
and rule 110 axiom system, 1168
in rule 110 CA, 31, 292, 964
same in different 2D rules, 949
in three dimensions, 949
in turbulent fluids, 997
in Turing machines, 888
and universality, 692
see also Gliders
Locomotion in animals, 1011
Log (logarithm)
algebraic independence of, 1164
computation of nth digits in, 912
and computational reducibility, 744, 747
continued fractions for, 144
digits of, 141
leading digits in, 914
randomness in digits of, 967
as source of randomness, 968
uniform distribution mod 1, 904
and Weber's law, 1014
Log-periodic antennas, 1183
Logarithmic growth
of number representations, 1070
Logarithmic law
for leading digits, 914
Logarithmic series, 1134
Logarithmic spiral, 418
Logging
and messages to Moon, 1189
regular patterns of, 1187
Logic
as applied to math, 780
axioms for, 773, 808
and combinators, 711, 898
and communication, 1181
and computational irreducibility, 1196
and defining intelligence, 1178
difficult notation in, 1104
and discreteness in programs, 976
as example of lattice theory, 1153
as example of rules, 875
and finite set theory, 1171
as foundation of math, 1176
history of, 1097, 1099, 1151
history of notation for, 1182
and history of universality, 1109
in human languages, 1173
in human thinking, 627
implications for, 1197
interesting theorems in, 816
lengths of proofs in, 1175
machines for doing, 1107
multilayer, 1096
multivalued, 814, 1175
and natural science, 860
non-universality of basic, 784
as not mainstream math, 859
possible models of, 805
in practical computers, 1108
and quantum mechanics, 1058
 reversible, 1097
shortest And, Or axioms for, 1174
shortest Nand axioms for, 808
ternary, 814
and Thue on substitution systems, 893
see also Predicate logic
Logic circuits
emulated by CAs, 662, 1112
emulated by Game of Life, 1117
and universality, 1119
Logic expressions
see Boolean expressions
Logic minimization, 1095
compared to searching, 1193
Logic programming languages, 1158
Logic Theory Machine, 1157
Logical depth
and defining complexity, 1069
for Turing machines, 1144
Logical functions
see Boolean functions
Logical positivism
and theories of communication, 1181
Logical rules
see Rules
Logicism
as foundation of math, 1176
LogIntegral (logarithmic integral li)
and distribution of primes, 133, 909
and Zeta, 918
Logistic differential equation
and iterated maps, 918
Logistic map, 920
closed forms for iterates of, 1098
and continuous CAs, 922
and history of chaos theory, 971
see also Iterated maps
Logistics
and causal networks, 1033
and complex systems, 862
Lognormal distribution
for human weights, 977, 1003
and multiplicative processes, 977
Logo (computer language)
and 2D TMs, 930, 931
Long division, 139
Long-term memory, 1102
Long-time tails
in molecular dynamics, 999
and shaking, 969
Longest paths
and NP completeness, 1146
Looms
and history of computer, 1107
Loop general relativity, 1048
Loop quantum gravity, 1054
and spin networks, 1055
Loop switching method
and network layout, 1031
Lorentz, Hendrik A. (Netherlands, 1853-1928)
and relativity theory, 1041
Lorentz contraction, 1041
Lorentz gas, 1022
Lorentz transformations, 1041, 1042
Lorentzian spaces, 1051
Lorenz, Edward N. (USA, 1917- )
and chaos theory, 971
and complex ODE, 879
and experimental math, 899
and fluid turbulence, 998
in Preface, xiii
Lorenz equations
as giving strange attractor, 922
and history of chaos theory, 971
and Lissajous figures, 917
and weather prediction, 1178
Los Alamos
and history of CAs, 877
and my work on CAs, xiii, 880
Lossless data compression, 560
Lossy data compression, 572
Lotka, Alfred J. (USA, 1880-1949)
and oscillatory chemical reactions, 1013
Lotteries, 969
Lovelace, A. Ada (Byron) K. (England, 1815-1852)
and universality, 1110
Low-level languages
and practical computing, 1109
and register machines, 101
Löwenheim-Skolem theorem, 1172
Lower bounds
on computations, 761, 1143
on parity, 1096
on sorting algorithms, 1142
LPC
in sound compression, 1080
Lucas, F. Edouard A. (France, 1842-1891)
and binomials mod k, 870
Lucas-Lehmer test
for primes, 911
Lucas numbers, 891
Lucian (Greece, 120 - ~180 AD)
and inhabitants of Moon, 1190
Lucretius, Titus Carus (Italy, ~95 - ~55 BC)
and atomism, 876
and models based on rules, 860
Lukasiewicz, Jan (Poland, 1878-1956)
and axioms for logic, 1151
and multivalued logic, 1175
Lukasiewicz representation, 896
Lunes
and ornamental art, 872
theory of, 873
Lungs
branching in, 1008
Lyapunov exponents
in cellular automata, 950
and entropies, 960
in iterated maps, 921
probabilistic estimates of, 953
LZW compression, 565, 1069, 1072
MacArthur Foundation, xiii
Mach, Ernst (Austria/Czech., 1838-1916)
and Mach's Principle, 1047, 1053
and origins of relativity, 1042
Mach numbers, 997
Machiavelli, Niccolò (Italy, 1469-1527)
and rules for military drill, 875
Machine 1447
function computed by, 761
and longest halting times, 1144
Machine 1507
as complicated TM, 1144
function computed by, 761
Machine 596440
as candidate for universality, 709
properties of, 1120
Machine 600720
behavior of, 763
and longest halting times, 1144
properties of, 1145
Machine code
and history of computing, 1109
and implementation of CAs, 866
of programs by Alan Turing, 1013
and register machines, 97
Machine integers
and linear congruential generators, 974
Machine intelligence, 628, 1099
Machine numbers
for Turing machines, 888
Machines
see also Register machines
see also Turing machines
Machining plans
and Voronoi diagrams, 987
Macintosh
and computer interfaces, 1102
Magic Eye random dot stereograms, 1076
Magic squares
as defined by constraints, 945
for SETI, 1190
Magnetic chaos toys, 1183
Magnetic field
compared to gravitational, 530
and gauge invariance, 1045
Magnetic moments
and size of particles, 1044
Magnetic monopoles, 1046
Magnetization
in Ising model, 981
phase transition in, 981
Magnetosphere
radio signals from, 827, 835, 1187
Magnus, Wilhelm (Germany/USA, 1907-1990)
and word problem for groups, 1141
Mainframes (computers)
random generators on, 320, 974
Maintainability of software
and defining complexity, 1069
Majority cellular automaton
and P completeness, 1149
Majorization of functions (growth rates), 1162
Makanin, Gennadií S. (Russia, 1938- )
and sequence equations, 1141
and undecidable word problems, 1141
Malacology (study of molluscs), 1008
Mallow leaves, 1006
Mammoth ivory, 873
Man
see Humans
Management
of machines that think, 629
Management science
and Boolean networks, 936
and defining complexity, 1069
and history of complexity, 862
Mandelbrot, Benoit B. (France/USA, 1924- )
and branching models, 1005
and computer experiments, 899
and financial processes, 1014
and fractal landscapes, 1001
and fractals, 880, 934
and history of complexity, 862
and Mandelbrot set, 934
in Preface, xiii
and random walks, 990
Mandelbrot set, 934
as precursor to my work, 880
and tree space set, 407, 1006
Manicouagan, Canada
circular crater in, 1187
Manifolds
in differential geometry, 1048
discrete approximations to, 1050
undecidability in equivalence of, 1051, 1138
Manneville, Paul (France, 1946- )
and CA classes, 948
and continuous CAs, 922
Manufacturing
causal network systems for, 1032
Many-fingered time, 1035
Many-to-one mappings, 960
Many-worlds models, 1035
for quantum mechanics, 1063
Map
basic example of, 853
MapAt
and implementing proofs, 1155
and representation of TMs, 888
MapIndexed
basic example of, 853
and causal networks, 1033
Mappings
on Cantor set, 869
cellular automata as, 959
complex, 933
functions as, 898
history of iterated, 918
iterated, 149-155
from linear congruences, 974
local and linear, 953
many-to-one, 960
piecewise linear, 921
Marconi, Guglielmo (Italy, 1874-1937)
and SETI, 1188
Margolus, Norman H. (USA, 1955- )
and 2D CA simulators, 928
in Preface, xiii
Mark I computer, 1107
Market research
and random sampling, 1192
Markets
price fluctuations in, 429
Markov, Andrei A. (Russia, 1903-1979)
and sequential substitution systems, 894
and statistics of language, 1181
and undecidability, 1136
and word problem for semigroups, 1141
Markov partitions
and digit sequences, 901
Markov processes, 1084
and 3n+1 problem, 904
and finite automata, 958
and game strategies, 1105
history of, 1181
spectra of, 1081
as statistical models, 590
Markov random fields
and texture discrimination, 1077
and visual perception, 584
Markov systems (sequential substitution systems), 894
Marr, David C. (England/USA, 1945-1980)
and visual perception, 1076
Mars
question of life on, 1179, 1179', 1180
sending messages to, 1189
as source of radio signals, 1188
Martin, Olivier C. (USA/France, 1958- )
and additive CAs, 951
as coauthor of paper, 881
in Preface, xii, xiii
Martin-Löf, Per E. R. (Sweden, 1942- )
and randomness, 1068
Martingales (gambling systems), 1068
Marxen, Heiner (Germany, 1957- )
and Turing machines, 889
Masers, natural, 1187
Masking
of sounds, 587
visual with textures, 1077
Mass
of elementary particles, 1046
equality of inertial and gravitational, 1047
in relativity theory, 1041
in Schwarzschild solution, 1053
in ultimate theory of physics, 528
Massey, James L. (USA/Switzerland, 1934- )
and Berlekamp-Massey algorithm, 1087
Massively parallel computers
and history of CAs, 877
Massless particles
and speed of light, 1041
spin states of, 1046
Master equations
in cellular automata, 953
Matching
of networks, 1038
and paramodulation, 1156
of parentheses, 1091
of strings, 1038, 1101
MatchQ (test for matching)
and constraint systems, 941
Material equivalence
as name for Equal, 1173
Material implication
as name for Implies, 1173
Materialism
and free will, 1135
Materials
fracture in, 994
search-based discoveries of, 1193
Mates
and bird songs, 1180
Mathematica
algorithms in discovered by searches, 1193
analysis of internal code of, 1003
and authoring system for book, 852
avoidance of data types in, 898, 1154
axiom systems in, 1150
as basis for discoveries, 46
cellular automata in, 867
chaos experiments with, 919
computation of pi with, 911
computation of PrimePi in, 909
computation of PrimeQ in, 909
and computer communication, 1182
and computer experiments, 113, 899
and concept of halting, 1137
confluence of rules in, 1037
creation of, 20
and creation of this book, xii
and creation of this index, 852
curves of math functions in, 145
and definition of math, 859
design of for human use, 1177
diversity of universality in, 644
evaluation order in, 898, 906
as example of language, 1109
and examples in education, 1133
and experimental math, 899
function names in index, 852
 general notes about, 853
generic inequality of symbols in, 1169
grammar of, 631
history of my work on, 864, 881
and human thinking, 627
as idealization of math, 1150
infinite loops in, 1137
and math insight vs. proofs, 1156
mathematical functions in, 1092
mathematical notation in, 1104
minimal model for, 102
name of, 859
as necessary skill, 856, 857
as notation for computation, 1182
notations for logic in, 1173
NP completeness in, 1143
number of names in, 1103
number representation in, 1070
operator precedence in, 1150
patterns
see Patterns (in Mathematica)
patterns and network evolution, 1037
patterns and operator systems, 898
and pictures in this book, 851
proofs and design of, 1158
pure functions in, 1121
random programs in, 1183
randomness generation in, 317, 973
scoping of variables in, 1152
and sequential substitution systems, 894
size compared to genomes, 383
structure of, 1103
and structure of proofs, 1155
symbolic expressions in, 896
theorem proving and, 1158
theorems about, 1168
thinking in, 1104
ultimate theory of physics in, 468
undecidability in, 1138
as universal system, 642
universality in, 1110
and use of digit sequences, 902
use of hashing in, 1100
Mathematica Book, 853
writing style in, 849
Mathematical constants, 136-144
Mathematical equations
as foundation for science, 1
in history of science, 44
see also Equations
Mathematical formulas
and computational irreducibility, 737
and engineering, 829
as results of models, 368
and science education, 1133
Mathematical functions, 145-148
as computable, 1128
difficulty of evaluating, 1134
evaluated by CAs, 639
evaluation of as P computations, 1142
interpretation of TMs as, 1144
see also Standard mathematical functions
Mathematical impossibilities, 1137
Mathematical induction, 1152
Mathematical logic
combinators in, 898
and defining complexity, 1068
and DNF, 1097
history of, 1150
and history of universality, 1110
and intermediate degrees, 734
and neural networks, 1099
and problem of free will, 1135
structure of proofs in, 1151
undecidability in, 1138
unfamiliarity of notation in, 853
see also Foundations of mathematics
Mathematical models
history of, 992
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 728
Mathematical morphology, 1077
Mathematical notation, 1182
grammar of, 1104
influence on thinking of, 1181
for logic, 1173
vs. Mathematica, 853
relations vs. axioms in, 1169
Mathematical physics
functions of, 145
Mathematical theories
distributions of theorems in, 1175
Mathematicizing power
and Church's Thesis, 1126
Mathematics
analysis using, 606-620
applied to biological form, 1004
axioms in, 773
as central in education, 855
and continuity of space, 472
definition of, 859
in economic systems, 1015
and extraterrestrial intelligence, 837, 1189
as foundation for science, 1
and history of complexity, 862
history of in science, 5, 859
and human intelligence, 822
idealizations of, 795, 1149
implications for, 772-821
invention vs. discovery in, 1176
and models of thinking, 629
new results in this book in, 863
notation in, 853
numbers in, 116
ordering of constructs in, 1177
and PDEs, 161
in physics, 433
vs. physics, 821
self-limiting of, 792
set theory in education, 1154
in social sciences, 9
summary of relations to, 7, 863
and systems with constraints, 221
types of theorems in, 1176
use of rules in, 875
see also Foundations of mathematics
MathieuC (Mathieu function)
asymptotic oscillation of, 917
MathLink
and CA programs, 865
and computer experiments, 899
and creation of this book, 854
Mating
and defining species, 1003
Matiyasevich, Yuri (Russia, 1947- )
and Diophantine equations, 1161
in Preface, xiii
and word problem for semigroups, 1141
Matrices
and 2D substitution systems, 933
and cryptanalysis, 602
as generalizing numbers, 1168
Hadamard, 1073
mappings of, 921
and non-commutative rings, 1153
random, 977
satisfying constraints, 945
and solving linear systems, 940
Matrix mechanics, 1056
Matrix memories, 1101
MatrixPower
and CA entropies, 958
and correlation functions, 1082
and Fibonacci, 890
and substitution systems, 890
and undecidability, 1138
Matter
as distinct from space, 1028
in Einstein equations, 1052
as generating curvature, 532, 536
Mauritania
Richat structure in, 1187
Max (maximum)
as associative, 1094
related to Or, 952
Maximal periods
of cellular automata, 950, 1088
of linear congruences, 974
of random generators, 318
of shift registers, 975
and symmetries, 950
Maximal principles
variational principles, 1185
Maximum entropy method, 1083
Maximum likelihood, 589, 1083
Maximum-of-t test, 1085
Maxwell, James Clerk (Scotland/England, 1831-1879)
 and chaos theory, 971
and electromagnetism, 1041
and fluttering of paper, 971
and gauge invariance, 1045
and Maxwell's demon, 1021
and statistical mechanics, 1019
and stochastic models, 968
Maxwell's demon, 1021
Maxwell's equations
as examples of PDEs, 161
and relativistic invariance, 1041
as simple physical models, 1025
May, Robert M. (Australia/USA/England, 1936- )
and chaos theory, 971
Maze designs, 873, 875
Maze-like patterns, 1013
from 2D cellular automata, 427
in code 746, 334
in visual cortex, 1075
Mazoyer, Jacques (France, 1947- )
and firing squad problem, 1035
McCarthy, John (USA, 1927- )
and theorems in Lisp, 1168
McCulloch, Warren S. (USA, 1898-1972)
and neural networks, 880, 1099
and universality, 1110
McCulloch-Pitts models, 1099
and finite automata, 958
McCune, William W. (USA, 1953- )
and axioms for groups, 1153
and axioms for logic, 1151
Mean curvature, 1009
Mean field theory
for cellular automata, 953
and rate equations, 984
for self-avoiding walks, 978
Meander patterns (mazes), 873
Meanders (in rivers), 1001
Meaning
of axiom systems, 797
and intelligence, 826
in languages, 1181
in programs, 1182
and regularity, 1183
of the universe, 1027
Measure entropy
for cellular automata, 959
computing, 1084
spacetime, 960
Measure theory
and defining randomness, 1067
Measurement
in quantum theory, 542, 1062
in thermodynamics, 448, 1020
Measures
and fractal dimensions, 934
and spectra, 1081
Mechanical automata, 1183
Mechanical calculators, 1110
Mechanical computers, 1107
Mechanical devices
as not universal, 643
Mechanical perception, 1105
Mechanical processes
for real numbers, 1129
Mechanical systems
for cyclic tag systems, 895
proofs in, 1157
randomness in, 969
and repetitive motion, 829
self-reproducing, 1179
Mechanical toys
randomness in, 969
Mechanics
and history of mathematics in science, 859
Mechanisms
captured in models, 367
compared to purposes, 830
in programs and nature, 297
for randomness, 299
Mechanistic explanations
for complexity in nature, 861
in physics, 860, 1026
Medians
and robust statistics, 1083
Medical applications, 9, 842
Medicinal plants
leaf shapes for, 1005
Medieval logic, 1151
Mediterranean
patterns of lights around, 1187
Meet (in lattice theory), 1153
Meier, Willi (Switzerland, 1948- )
and cryptanalysis of rule 30, 1087
MeijerG (Meijer G function)
and Integrate, 1177
Meinhardt, Hans (Germany, 1938- )
and patterns on shells, 1012
in Preface, xiii
and reaction-diffusion, 1013
Meiosis, 970
Melting
of ice, 372
as phase transition, 981
Melting points
of alkanes, 1194
difficulty of computing, 1194
MemberQ (list membership test)
in aggregation systems, 978
Memo functions, 869, 906
Memory (animal)
in lower organisms, 623
and shell patterns, 1012
Memory (computer)
emulated by CA, 663
and history of computing, 1108
in practical computers, 1108
and PSPACE completeness, 1142
Memory (extraterrestrial)
in Black Cloud, 1190
Memory (human), 1102
and free will, 753, 1136
and future technology, 1195
and human intelligence, 823
and human thinking, 621
inanimate analogs of, 1178
visual, 623
and weather prediction, 1177
Memory-based encoding, 565
Menger, Karl (Austria/USA, 1902-1985)
and nested patterns, 934
Mental functions, 1099
see also Brain
Menu interfaces, 1102
vs. languages, 631
Mercury
advance of perihelion of, 1047
Meredith, Carew A. (Ireland, 1904-1976)
and axioms for logic, 1175
Meredith axioms
for logic, 808, 1175
Merging
in multiway systems, 937
Meristems (in plants), 409, 1004
Mersenne, Marin (France, 1588-1648)
and primes, 909
Mersenne primes
and perfect numbers, 911
Mertens Conjecture, 910
Mesh generation
and discrete spaces, 1050
and Voronoi diagrams, 987
Mesons (in particle physics), 1057
spins of, 1046
Mesopotamian art, 43, 873
Mesoscopic systems
and quantum theory, 1058
Metabolism
and definition of life, 1178
Metamathematics, 1150
empirical, 1176
and Gödel's Theorem, 1158
Metaphysics
implications for, 1196
Metastable states
and phase transitions, 341
and quantum measurement, 1063
Meteorites
and origin of life, 1179
Meteorology
and history of chaos theory, 971
Meter
speed of light and defining, 1041
Meter in poetry
rules for, 875
Methane, 1194
Method of lines
for PDEs, 924
Methodology
of computer experiments, 108
and definition of math, 860
development of my, 21
of math in science, 859
for studying sequences, 1091
in this book, 1193
Metric
in differential geometry, 1048
for Lorentzian spaces, 1051
for numerical data, 1101
Riemann tensor expansion of, 1049
in space of CA rules, 948
in space of CA states, 869
in unified field theory, 1028
volume density from, 1050
Metric spaces
networks as, 1030
Metric tensors, 1048
Metrics
for complexity of software, 1069
Michelson, Albert A. (USA, 1852-1931)
and experimental math, 899
and Michelson-Morley experiment, 1041
Michelson-Morley experiment, 1041
Microcanonical ensemble
for 2D Ising model, 982
Microcosm, 1196
Microorganisms
random motion of, 970
Microprocessors
randomness instructions in, 970
Microsoft Windows
and creation of this book, 854
Microspine
pattern from, 385
Microwave background radiation
see Cosmic microwave background
Middle A
frequency of, 1079
Middle Ages
animism in, 1195
concept of microcosm in, 1196
understanding of nature in, 876
Middle-square method, 975
for molecular dynamics, 864
Midwest
field patterns in, 1187
Mie scattering
as exactly soluble, 1133
Military camouflage, 1077
Military cryptography, 1085
and shift registers, 878, 1088
Military drill
use of rules in, 875
Military GPS (P-code), 1086
Military secrets
and history of complexity, 49
Military SETI, 1188
Military vehicles
use of randomness by, 1192
Millen, Jonathan K. (USA, 1942- )
and code 20 CA, 877
Miller, Stanley L. (USA, 1930- )
and origin of life, 1179
Miller-Rabin algorithm (for PrimeQ), 1192
Millipedes
locomotion patterns of, 1011
Mimesis, 1178
Mind
see also Brain
see also Thinking
Mind-body problem, 1197
Minds
of extraterrestrials, 1191
and free will, 1135
in inanimate objects, 822
and theories of communication, 1181
Mineralogy
and forms of crystals, 993
Minimal surfaces
computing forms of, 1009
and deformable packings, 988
vs. Einstein equations, 1052
and general study of form, 967
and radiolarians, 1011
as shapes of exoskeletons, 1011
Minimal systems
for particular purposes, 1186
for particular sequences, 1186
see also Shortest programs
Minimal theories, 1186
Minimality
and recognition of purpose, 831
Minimization
of Boolean formulas, 617, 1095
of energy, 940
of finite automata, 957
as model of drainage, 1001
of multilevel logic, 1096
and variational principles, 1185
Minkowski, Hermann (Germany, 1864-1909)
and relativity theory, 1042
Minkowski space, 1051
and quantum field theory, 1061
as solving Einstein equations, 1053
Minors (in networks), 1045
Minotaur
home of the, 873
Minsky, Marvin L. (USA, 1927- )
and discreteness of space, 1027
in Preface, xiii
and register machines, 896, 1115
and simple Turing machines, 879, 889, 1143
and tag systems, 1120
and universal Turing machine, 1115, 1119, 1119'
Miracles
and ultimate theory of physics, 1025
Mirror
as amplifier, 310
Mises, Ludwig E. von (Austria/USA, 1881-1973)
and free will, 1135
Mises, Richard von (Austria/USA, 1883-1953)
and defining randomness, 1068
Missiles
radar pulses used by, 970
MIT
and my work on CAs, 880
and Paterson worms, 930
and precursors to my work, 879
and work on nesting, 934
Mitotic cell division, 970
Mixed states (in quantum theory), 1062
Mixing
of initial conditions in rule 30, 976
Mobile automata, 71-77
2D, 931
2D and causal networks, 1033
active cell motion in, 887
causal-invariant systems for, 1033
causal networks from, 1033
emulated by CAs, 657, 1111
emulating CAs, 664, 1112
experiments on, 112
generalized, 76
implementation of, 887
implementation of generalized, 887
on networks, 1040
random initial conditions in, 949
reversible, 1018
and time in universe, 486
Möbius transformations
and complex maps, 933
and continued fractions, 914
and elliptic functions, 1093
Mod (modulo)
and algebraic forms for CA rules, 885
basic example of, 854
and computational reducibility, 747
computed by rule 132, 638
and cyclic addition systems, 950
difficulty of evaluating, 1134
emulated by continuous functions, 1129
encoded as integer equation, 1160
and formulas for repetition, 607
and idealized billiards, 1022
and primitive recursion, 907
in rolling motion, 971
TMs to compute, 1144
Mod 1
uniform distribution, 904
see also FractionalPart
Mod 2 rule, 25
see also Rule 90
Mod k rules, 870, 952 Momentum
see also Additive cellular automata basic mechanism for, 537
Modal logic, 1158 Momentum conservation
Model theory (in mathematical logic), 1172 in 2D cellular automata, 1024
of operator systems, 805 in cellular automaton fluids, 379
and Peano arithmetic, 1169 in Einstein equations, 1052
Models in network evolution, 529
based on grammars, 1084 in physics, 1022
based on programs, 860 Monadic pure predicate logic, 1152
compared to reality, 991 Monads
complexity of, 1068, 1083 models for space with, 1028
of data, 550 Monasteries
and epistemology, 1196 ornamental art from, 873
general issues about, 363-369, 857 Monocotyledons (plants)
history of making, 992 branching in, 1004
of mathematics, 776 symmetries in, 1007
mechanistic for physics, 1026 Monoids
origins of physical, 1025 axioms for, 773
personal experiences of, 991, 992 enumeration of, 805
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 728 and generalized additivity, 952
probabilistic, 588 and multiway systems, 938
programs as more than, 434 vs. semigroups, 1153
rarity of new, 368 universality of, 1159
undecidability in, 1138 Monolith in 2001, 1183
of universe, 466 Monopodial branching (in plants), 400
see also Ultimate theory of physics Monotheism
see also Simulations and rejection of animism, 1195
Modems and teleology, 1185
data compression in, 1070 Monster Group, 938
Modes and sphere packings, 987
in PDEs, 988 Monte Carlo methods
Modesty aggregation systems as, 332
and clarity of explanation, 849 as application of randomness, 1192
Modular addition, 255, 950 for CA conservation laws, 1022
state transition graphs for, 961 and computational irreducibility, 1132
Modular functions and digit reversal, 905
difficulty of evaluating, 1134 in Ising models, 982
and nested patterns, 1093 in lattice gauge theories, 1061
Modular groups, 933 and probabilistic models, 1083
Modular multiplication, 257, 950 quasi-randomness in, 1085
state transition graphs for, 961 for satisfying constraints, 344
ModularLambda and stochastic models, 968
and nested patterns, 1093 Moon
Modulo arithmetic circular craters on, 1187
system based on, 255 circular shape of, 861, 875
see also Mod computing orbit of, 313, 1107
Modus ponens, 1150, 1151 sending signals to, 1189
and equational axioms, 1151 supposed life on, 1180, 1190
and equivalential calculus, 1170 and three-body problem, 972
and implicational calculus, 1170 times of rising of, 973
MoebiusMu Moore, Cristopher (USA, 1968- )
difficulty of evaluating, 1134 and P completeness, 1149
and distribution of primes, 910 Moore, Edward F. (USA, 1925- )
and maximal periods, 950 and 2D cellular automata, 928
Moire patterns, 1078 Moore neighborhood (for 2D cellular automata), 177, 928
Molding profiles Moorish (Islamic) art, 874
as examples of patterns, 874 Moral responsibility, 1136
Molds Moral theories
and self-reproduction, 1179 and free will, 1135
Molecular biology Moray eel
and complexity in biology, 390 pigmentation pattern of, 426
and recognition of purpose, 1184 Mordell conjecture, 1164
Molecular chaos assumption Mordell equation, 1165
and H theorem, 1020 Morning glory leaves, 1006
Molecular dynamics Morphisms
and cellular automaton fluids, 378 in category theory, 1154
computer simulations of, 999 of words, 82-87
fluid equations from, 996, 999 see also Substitution systems
and fracture processes, 995 Morphogenesis (in biology), 400-422, 1003
and inspirational book cover, 864 undecidability in models of, 1138
as precursor to my work, 879 Morphogenesis (of landscapes), 1001
Molecules Morphogens, 1004
and Brownian motion, 302 Morphology
defining life, 1178 of biological systems, 386
in fluids, 376 history of, 1004
idealized in CA fluids, 379 mathematical, 1077
and quantum theory, 1056 Morphometrics, 1010
in smell, 1105 Morrison, Philip (USA, 1915- )
unpredictable properties of, 1194 and SETI, 1189
vibrational modes of, 1081 Morse, H. C. Marston (USA, 1892-1977)
Mollusc shells and substitution systems, 893
see Shells Morse code, 1069
Molluscs Morse-Thue sequence, 83
classified by shell patterns, 1012 see also Thue-Morse sequence
pigmentation patterns of, 389 Mortality problem for matrices, 1138
Moments of data, 1083 Mosaics, 873
Moments of inertia Moseley, Henry (England, 1801-1872)
and isotropy, 980 and shell shapes, 1008
Mosses
growth of, 1004
Motion
absolute, 1042
of class 4 structures, 281
concept of in physics, 521
Motivation
Occam's razor for, 1025
and thinking, 629
Motor skills
memory for, 1102
Mountains
patterns of, 1001
Mouse motion
miles of in creating this book, xiv
as source of randomness, 970
Movie effects
and substitution systems, 893
MP3 sound compression, 1080
Mu-law sound encoding, 1080
mu operator (in general recursion), 907, 1121
Muchnik, Albert A. (Russia, 1934- )
and intermediate degrees, 1130
Mud
and spontaneous generation, 1179
Mug (circular reflector)
caustics from, 984
Mules
as not self-reproducing, 1178
Mullins, William W. (USA, 1927-2001)
and dendritic growth, 993
Multichannel analysis
in SETI, 1189
Multifractals
generalized dimensions for, 959
and history of fractals, 934
Multilayer logic, 1096
Multinomial (multinomial coefficients)
and additive CAs, 1092
patterns generated by, 870
Multiplication
CAs based on generalized, 886
computation of, 1093
in digit sequences, 118
lower bound on, 1143
NC algorithms for, 1142
number of steps required for, 1134
performed by CAs, 661, 1112
recursive algorithm for, 1142
see also Times
Multiplication systems, 257
reversibility in, 1018
state transition graphs for, 961
Multiplication tables
CAs based on, 614, 886
consistent with axioms, 805
for groups, 945, 1172
see also Operator systems
Multiplicative digit sequences, 902
Multiplicative processes
and lognormal distribution, 977
MultiplicativeOrder
and additive CAs, 951, 1133
and cyclic multiplication, 950
difficulty of computing, 1147
and digits of rationals, 912
and linear congruence periods, 974
as period in doubling system, 257
and quantum computers, 1148
Multipole moments
and isotropy, 980
Multiregister machines, 1114
Multiresolution analysis, 1074
Multispin coding (bitwise optimization)
and cellular automata, 866
Multivalued logic, 814, 1175
Multivariate hypergeometric functions, 916, 1092
Multiverse (many-worlds), 1035, 1063
Multiway systems, 204-209
based on numbers, 939
and branching of time, 504
canonical forms in, 1036
causal invariance in, 507
vs. causal networks, 1037
and cell division in animals, 1009
and chemical synthesis, 1194
compared to sequential substitution systems, 204
completion algorithms for, 1037
computational reducibility in, 1134
confluence in, 1036
convergence in, 1036
emulated by predicate logic, 1159
emulated by TMs, 765
emulating multicolor, 1115
equivalences in, 1172
frequency of behavior in, 938
generating Euclidean spaces, 1036
and Gödel's Theorem, 782
halting problems for, 1137
history of, 938
limited size versions of, 939
as models of math, 776
multidimensional, 939
and NP completeness, 1145
vs. operator systems, 1169
and quantum mechanics, 771
random initial conditions in, 949
randomness in, 205
reversible, 1018
sampling of as axiom systems, 795
searching for paths in, 1157
simulation as NP problem, 1142
spacetime networks from, 1036
states generated by, 207
and string matching, 1101
terminating and confluence, 1036
in terms of operators, 1172
undecidability in, 1136, 1137
word problems in, 1141
Multiway tag systems, 1141
and correspondence systems, 1140
Munching foos
as precursors to my work, 879
Munching squares program, 871
Municipal districting
and Voronoi diagrams, 987
Muon
mass of, 528, 1046
models of, 1044
as type of particle, 1043
Murray, James D. (England/USA, 1931- )
in Preface, xiii
and reaction-diffusion, 1013
Muscles
CA models for, 878
control of, 625, 1099
as excitable medium, 1013
patterns of cells in, 385, 1007
randomness in twitching of, 1011
Music
and auditory perception, 585
in bird and whale songs, 826, 1180
chords in, 917
and extraterrestrials, 1191
frequencies in, 1079
grammatical rules in, 875, 1181
and math thinking, 1177
scores from programs, 1080
on Voyager spacecraft, 1190
Musical chairs
randomness in, 968
Musical instruments
and nonlinear oscillators, 971
shapes of, 1183
Mutations (biological)
effects of, 390
Mutual information
and defining complexity, 1069
Mycoplasma bacterium, 1179
Myhill, John R. (USA, 1923-1987)
and firing squad problem, 1035
Myhill-Nerode theorem (minimal finite automata), 957, 957'
Mysticism
and combinatorics, 1082
and non-Western thinking, 1196
and universal objects, 1127
Mythology
as models, 992
and origin of complexity, 861
n-body problem
gravitational, 1021
n Log[n] algorithms
and associative evolution, 1095
in automaton minimization, 957
in evaluating powers, 1093
in Fourier transforms, 1074
 for multiplication, 1142 and computational fluid dynamics, 1000
for pi, 912 vs. Einstein equations, 535
for PrimeQ, 1090 next-order corrections to, 997
in sorting, 1142 simplified versions of, 997
in Walsh transforms, 1073 singularities in, 923
see also Computational complexity theory as subsonic approximations, 997
Nakaya, Ukichiro (Japan, 1900-1962) in two dimensions, 999
and snowflakes, 992 Navigation beacons
Name-value pairs, 1182 radio signals from, 1188
Named theorems in logic, 817 NC (computational complexity class), 1142, 1149
Names and Boolean minimization, 1096
of functions as symbolic expressions, 896 NDFA (non-deterministic finite automaton), 957
in the index, 852 see also Finite automata
lookup by sound, 623 NDSolve
of variables in math logic, 1150 and curves from curvature, 1009
Nand difficulty of evaluating, 1134
axioms for, 803, 808, 1151 and PDEs, 924
emulated by Life, 1117 and Sitnikov problem, 973
expression trees, 619, 1096 and three-body problem, 972
forms for cellular automata, 619 NDTM
interesting theorems for, 819 see Non-deterministic Turing machines
lengths of proofs involving, 1175 Nearest-neighbor algorithms, 1101
as motivating combinators, 1121 Nebulas
in multivalued logic, 1175 patterns in, 835, 1187
as operation on sets, 1171 Necklaces
and reversible logic, 1098 and maximal periods, 950
single axiom for, 808 and shift rules, 963
tautologies based on, 781, 1157 Needle
theorems for, 1175 Buffon's for pi, 1192
truth table for, 802 Needle-like crystals, 372
as universal function, 807, 1096, 1173 Negation
and universality, 1119 in multivalued logic, 1175
words in languages for, 1173 in multiway systems, 796
Nanotechnology, 1193 notion of, 780, 1158
cellular automata and, 841, 869 Negative bases, 902
and human future, 1196 power CAs and, 1093
and new forms of perception, 1106 Negative numbers
summary of relations to, 15 representation of, 902, 942
Napier, John (Scotland, 1550-1617) Negatively curved space, 531
and binary numbers, 902 and automatic groups, 1141
Natural equations (curves defined by curvature), 1009 and chaos theory, 971
Natural language divergence of geodesics on, 1049
see Languages (human) and hyperbolic networks, 1049
Natural language query systems, 1100 Negotiations
Natural order and price determination, 430
for Walsh functions, 1073 Neighbor-dependent substitution systems, 85-87
Natural selection Neighbor-independent network rules, 509, 1037
Biological evolution, 415 Neighbor-independent substitution systems, 82-85
difficulties in simulating, 1002 Neighborhoods
as engineering, 842 possible in cellular automata, 929
vs. engineering, 393 symmetry classes of, 928
and extraterrestrial life, 1180 Neon discharge tubes
as force of limited power, 392 randomness from, 969
and games, 1104 Nerve cells, 1075
history of, 1001 determinism in, 1135
and leaf arrangements, 408 as excitable media, 1013
as non-math theory, 859 and feature extraction, 623
as not producing complexity, 392 in inner ear, 1079
of orbits in solar system, 973 and mollusc shell patterns, 1012
as origin of complexity, 383, 861 monitoring with sound, 1080
and pigmentation patterns, 423, 1012 repeatable randomness in, 976
as predictive theory, 397 and song generation in birds, 1180
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 1002 structure of and free will, 751
and purpose, 831, 1185 in visual system, 578
and shapes of leaves, 404 and Weber's law, 1014
and shapes of shells, 417, 1008 Nest
and shell patterns, 425 basic example of, 853
summary of relations to, 14 and branching patterns, 1006
and teleology, 1185 constructing expressions with, 897
vs. thermodynamics, 1003 and lambda calculus integers, 1121
value of intelligence in, 1191 and recursive functions, 1121
Natural theology Nested expressions, 102
and history of complexity, 861 Nested radicals, 915
and intelligent universe, 1195 Nested sequences
Nature block frequencies in, 594, 1084
compared to artifacts, 40, 828, 967 compression of, 566
computations in, 716 as initial conditions, 272, 956
mimicked by technology, 1193 pointer-based encoding of, 1071
undecidability in, 1138 shown in scan lines, 892
universality in, 718 Nested tilings, 219
Nature Nesting
article of mine in, 882 and 1/f noise, 969
Nature's God, 1196 in 2D cellular automata, 171
Nautilus shell in 2D substitution systems, 187
chamber structure of, 1008 in additive cellular automata, 955
growth of, 414 in animal skeletons, 420
shape of, 385 at phase transitions, 983
Navier-Stokes equations, 996 and auditory perception, 586
 as basis for algorithms, 1141
in biological systems, 384
in bitwise functions, 871
in cellular automata, 25, 57
and circle packings, 986
and computational reducibility, 741
in continuous systems, 1130
in Cosmati mosaics, 873
in curves from curvature, 1009
in cyclic tag systems, 96
and defining arithmetic, 1164
in digit count sequences, 905
in digit sequences, 117, 913
display hacks for, 871, 932
in eddies in fluids, 997
in elliptic functions, 1093
in erosion patterns, 1001
in firing squad problem, 1035
in flocks of birds, 1011
in forms of artifacts, 1183
formulas for, 608
in Game of Life, 965
with general associative rules, 956
history of, 934
and history of math, 735
in Ising model, 983
in iterated maps, 921, 961
and lack of universality, 694, 734
in lists, 931, 989
in mobile automata, 73
in multiway systems, 207, 937
and musical scores, 1080
in networks, 197, 509
in Newton iteration, 1101
and Nim, 939
as only recently familiar, 1106
origins of, 357-360
in ornamental art, 872
in pattern-avoiding sequences, 944
in patterns of cracks, 995
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 722
from projections of lattices, 932
in quasicrystals, 994
from random initial conditions, 273
recognizing visual, 582
in recursive sequences, 130
in rule 45, 701
in rule 90, 25, 270
in sequential substitution systems, 91
in snowflakes, 371
in sorting networks, 1142
in structure of attractors, 959
in substitution systems, 83
in symbolic systems, 104
in systems based on numbers, 988
in Turing machines, 79, 1119
and visual uniformity, 1078
in Walsh functions, 1073
in Weierstrass functions, 918
see also Fractals
NestList
basic example of, 853
in CA evolution, 865
and random walks, 977
understanding operation of, 1177
NestWhile
and computation of pi, 912
and concatenation sequences, 913
and context-free parsing, 1103
and encoding of lists, 1121
and general recursion, 907
NestWhileList
and length prefixed numbers, 1070
and network distances, 1031
Nets of polyhedra, 476
Network constraint systems, 483, 1032
and self-assembly, 1011
Network systems, 193-203
dimensions in, 936
implementation of, 935
random initial conditions in, 949
sequential, 936
Networks
algebraic systems based on, 1172
approximating flat space, 477
approximating spheres, 1049
for attractors, 276
and Boolean functions, 619, 1096, 1097
of CA emulations, 1118
causal invariance for, 515
and Cayley graphs, 1032
cellular automata on, 930, 936
chemical analogies for, 1040
and chemical properties, 1195
and chemical synthesis, 1194
chromatic number of, 1029
circumference of, 1029
colored, 1029, 1039
coloring of and dimension, 1031
coloring of and planarity, 1040
conditions for planarity of, 1045
connectedness of, 1039
of contacts between circles, 986
from continuous space, 533
from continuous systems, 1031
continuum limits of, 1030
and cosmological horizon problem, 1055
curvature in, 532
and cybernetics, 862
de Bruijn, 940
defined by constraints, 482
diameter of, 1029
as difficult to understand, 1177
dimensions of and growth rates, 478
eigenvalues of distance matrix for, 1031
evolution of, 508-515
face distribution in random, 1038
Feynman diagrams as, 1060
girth of, 1029
growth rates on, 1031
homogenous, 1032
implementation of, 1031, 1037
layouts of, 193, 476, 1031
localized structures in, 525, 1045
and Markov processes, 590, 1084
mobile automata on, 1040
as models of space, 475-480
molecules as, 1194
from multiway systems, 209
Nand, 1096
nested, 197
non-overlapping, 515
non-planarity in planar, 527
NP completeness of equivalence of, 1146
NP completeness of matching in, 1038, 1145
NP completeness of path finding in, 1146
number of replacements for, 1038
numbers of trivalent, 1029
overlaps in, 515
planar, 1038
planarity in evolution of, 515
and quantum information, 544
random, 963, 1038
random causal, 1052
random replacements in, 1038
random walks on, 1030
relations between types of, 1037
replacements in directed, 1040
reversible evolution of, 1040
rules for getting to any, 1038
of shift register states, 1089
of signs in languages, 1181
sorting, 1142
state transition, 961
substitution systems, 508-515
symbolic representation of, 1040
symbolic systems based on, 898
and systems theory, 862
of theorems in math, 820, 1176
trivalent as covering all, 476
trivalent examples of, 476
trivalent in 3D, 1030
see also Boolean networks
Neumann, Bernhard H. (England/Australia, 1909- )
and axioms for groups, 1153
Neural networks, 1102
for bird songs, 826
for design optimization, 1193
and finite automata, 958
history of, 1099
and history of CAs, 878
and history of statistics, 1083
and history of universality, 1110
and memory, 624
and my work on CAs, 880
as rule-based systems, 860
 and undecidability, 1138 Non-Archimedean fields
and visual perception, 1076 as generalizing numbers, 1168
Neurons Non-commutative geometry
in brain, 1098 and general relativity, 1048
in cybernetics, 862 Non-compact groups
properties of, 1075 and tachyon spin, 1046
repeatable randomness in, 976 Non-computability
see also Nerve cells of entropies, 958
Neurotoxins of fractal dimension, 933
from cone shells, 1011 see also Undecidability
Neurotransmitters, 1099 Non-computable patterns
Neutral traits, 399 from constraints, 943
Neutrinos, 1043 Non-computable reals, 1128
identified with gravitons, 1054 Non-constructibility
limit on number of, 1047 and additive functions, 953
and parity violation, 1019 in set theory, 1154
for SETI, 1189 Non-determinism
and speed of light, 1041 and multiway systems, 939
Neutron diffusion Non-deterministic finite automata, 957
Monte Carlo of, 968, 1192 Non-deterministic polynomial time (NP), 1142
Neutron stars Non-deterministic Turing machines
radio signals from, 835, 1188 and aggregation systems, 979
New Age movement emulated by CAs, 766, 1146
and animism, 1195 Non-equilibrium thermodynamics
New moons, 973 and history of complexity, 862
New Zealand Non-Euclidean geometry, 1149
circular shape in, 1187 and abstraction in math, 792
Newcomb, Simon (USA, 1835-1909) and history of space, 1028
and leading digits, 914 Non-locality
Newell, Allen (USA, 1927-1992) and Bell's inequalities, 1064
and automated proofs, 1157 in digit sequences, 730
Newspapers Non-measurable sets, 1154
reporting canals on Mars, 1180 Non-overlapping networks, 515
Newton, Isaac (England, 1642-1727) Non-overlapping strings, 503, 1033
and 2-body problem, 972 and completion algorithms, 1037
and calculus, 901 total number of, 1036
and color vision, 1075 Non-periodic crystals (quasicrystals), 994
and computational irreducibility, 1132 Non-periodic tilings, 219
and invariance of mechanical laws, 1041 Non-standard analysis, 1172
and law of gravity, 1047 and axioms of analysis, 1155
and math in science, 859, 860 Non-standard arithmetic, 800, 1169
and nature of space, 1028 Non-standard integers
in quote by Kant, 861 as generalizing numbers, 1168
and theology, 861 Non-verbal communication, 1181
Newtonian physics Non-Western thinking, 1196
and determinism, 967 Noncontradiction law
Newton's Laws in logic, 817
character of as principle, 1126 Nonlinear differential equations
Newton's method and history of complexity, 862
attractor basins in, 1101 for ModularLambda, 1093
for computing square roots, 913 and special functions, 1092
and gradient descent, 985 Nonlinear dynamics
and iterated maps, 918 summary of relations to, 15
as iterative algorithm, 1141 Nonlinear feedback shift registers, 1088
NeXT (computer) and cryptography, 1085
and creation of this book, 854 and history of CAs, 878
Nicod, Jean (France, 1893-1924) as precursors to my work, 879
and axioms for logic, 1151 see also Shift registers
Night sky Nonlinear field theories
observed darkness of, 455 topological defects in, 1045
and Olbers' paradox, 1021 Nonlinear maps
Nilpotent groups in complex plane, 933
Cayley graphs of, 1032 on the interval, 918
Nim (game), 939 Nonlinear models
Nine-neighbor CA rules, 927 and time series, 1083
NIntegrate Nonlinear oscillators
difficulty of evaluating, 1134 arrays of, 921
NK models (random Boolean networks), 936 and history of chaos, 971
NLS equation, 925 Nonlinear Schrödinger equation, 925
NMR Nonlinear wave equations, 165, 923
and quantum computers, 1148 Nonlinearity
Noise and computational irreducibility, 1133
effect of on transition to turbulence, 996 and equation solving, 940
effect on CAs of, 325, 976 and interactions in field theory, 1061
in electronic devices, 302, 968 in PDEs, 923
in natural radio emissions, 1187 Noodles
produced by crack propagation, 374 and chaos theory, 306
radio in galaxy, 836 Nor
and time series, 1083 as universal function, 807, 1173
in vacuum tubes, 971 words for in languages, 1173
see also Randomness Nordahl, Mats G. (Sweden, 1958- )
Nomography (Hilbert's thirteenth problem), 1128 in Preface, xiii
Non-Abelian groups and universal CAs, 1115
CAs based on, 887, 956 Normal algorithms (sequential substitution systems), 894
and charge quantization, 1046 Normal coordinates
in gauge theories, 1045, 1057 and Riemann tensor, 1049
see also Groups (mathematical) Normal distribution
Non-Abelian plane waves, 1061 see Gaussian distributions
Normal forms
in multiway systems, 1036
see also Canonical forms
Normal modes
of nested systems, 1081
Normal numbers, 912
and concatenation sequences, 913
and defining randomness, 1068
Normal ordering (in quantum field theory), 1062
Norms of tensors, 1050
Nose (human), 1105
Not
in multivalued logic, 1175
and satisfiability, 1146
table for, 806
theorems involving, 817
words in languages for, 1173
Notation
for chemical compounds, 1194
in logic, 1173
mathematical, 1182
for numbers, 1182
for operators, 1182
for symbolic expressions, 896
used in this book, 852
Notes (musical), 585, 1080
Noughts-and-crosses (tic-tac-toe), 939
Nouns
in human languages, 1103
in mathematical notation, 1182
Novikov, Petr S. (Russia, 1901-1975)
and word problem for groups, 1141
NP (non-deterministic polynomial time), 1142
NP completeness, 766, 1145
and approximate solutions, 984
and automated proofs, 1157
in Boolean minimization, 1096
in cellular automata, 767
and combinatorial optimization, 985
and cryptography, 1086, 1089
density of difficulty in, 1147
of finding addition chains, 1095
of finding discrete packings, 987
of finding network genus, 1045
of finite PCP, 1139
of knot equivalence, 1046
in Mathematica, 1143
and network evolution rules, 1038
and proof lengths in logic, 1175
and proof searching, 1157
and quantum computers, 771, 1148
relation to undecidability of, 769
in rule 30, 770
of satisfiability, 768
and systems in nature, 1146
of tensor simplification, 1048
of tiling problems, 942, 984
Nqthm (theorem prover), 1158
NSolve
difficulty of evaluating, 1134
NTSC television signals
bandwidth of, 1079
Nuclear explosions
and computer simulations, 1133
and extraterrestrial contact, 1190
patterns of, 377
Nuclear physics
and quantum theory, 1056
Nucleation of crystals, 992
Nucleus (atomic)
discovery of, 1044
forces in, 1057
spins of, 1046
NullSpace
and CA conservation laws, 1022
Number classes
and transfinite numbers, 1162
Number conservation
in cellular automata, 458
in cellular automaton fluids, 379
Number representations, 142
and data compression, 561
length prefixed, 1070
in symbolic systems, 897
Number theory, 135
and acoustic diffusers, 1183
analytic, 909
and cryptography, 1090
and Diophantine encodings, 1160
and Diophantine equations, 1164
evaluating functions from, 1134
experimental math in, 899
functions in, 1092
history of, 909
and history of complexity, 862
and history of iterated maps, 919
and linear congruential generators, 974
network of theorems in, 820
and origin of substitution systems, 893
and Peano axioms, 1152
and quadratic congruential generators, 975
spectra in, 1081
and Turing machine 600720, 1145
undecidability in, 791, 1138
unsolved problems in, 1166
Numbering
of CA rules, 866, 883
of TM rules, 888, 1143
Numbers
bases of, 116
chaos theory and, 309
and computational reducibility, 743
equivalence problem for, 916, 1138
generalizations of, 1168
historical notation for, 1182
history of, 901
models based on, 365
natural distributions of, 1070
normal, 912
operator representations for, 916
prime, 132
and Pythagoreans, 859
recognition of, 1089
systems based on, 115-168
tree representations for, 916
Numbers games, 969
Numerical analysis
and chaos experiments, 919
and continuous CAs, 921
for differential equations, 924
and repeatability, 898
Numerical computation
artifacts in, 1184
characterizing difficulty of, 1143
in fluid flow, 996
of gravitational fields, 1053
and history of computing, 1108
and weather prediction, 1178
Numerical data
lookup of, 1101
Numerical integration
Monte Carlo methods in, 1192
searches for optimal algorithms in, 1193
Numerology, 1025
Nuts
segregation of mixed, 986
Object-oriented programming, 867
Object recognition, 624
Objects
described by axiom systems, 797
and image compression, 1074
Observables
in quantum mechanics, 1056
Observational errors
and Gaussian distribution, 977
and origin of randomness, 967
Observers
and Anthropic Principle, 1026
computational abilities of, 737
definition of particles for, 1062
and origin of causal networks, 487
Occam's razor, 1025
Ocean currents
and weather, 1177
Ocean waves, 1001
as example of randomness, 301
nested breaking of, 997
pattern formation in, 947
repetitive behavior in, 988
Oceans
exploration of, 1191
finding artifacts under, 1183
whale songs in, 1180
Ocelot
pigmentation pattern of, 426
OCR (optical character recognition)
 and cellular automata, 877
Octahedra
extraterrestrial in 2001, 1190
truncated, 930, 987
Octanes, 1194
Octaves (in music), 917, 1079
Octonions
as generalizing numbers, 1168
Octopus
communication by, 1181
form of tentacles of, 385
visual system of, 1075
Ocular dominance stripes
CA model for, 1012
maze-like patterns in, 1013
in visual system, 1075
OddQ (test for odd numbers)
and nested patterns, 931
and rule 132, 638
Odds and Evens game, 1105
ODEs, 922
see also Ordinary differential equations
Odlyzko, Andrew M. (USA, 1949- )
and additive CAs, 951
as coauthor of paper, 881
in Preface, xiii
and zeros of zeta function, 918
Odometer
and history of computing, 1107
Odor perception, 1105
and experience of dogs, 827
Offset lists
in general cellular automata, 927
OH (hydroxyl) frequency, 1189
Oil and water
separation of, 980
Oil fires
patterns in, 377
visible from space, 1187
Olaus Magnus (Sweden/Italy, 1490-1568)
and snowflakes, 992
Olbers' paradox, 1021
Old English
logic operations in, 1173
Olfactory perception, 1105
and experience of dogs, 827
Olive shell
growth of, 415
Omega (halting probability), 1067
omega (first transfinite ordinal), 1162
One-sided additivity
and cryptography, 1088
repetition from, 954
One-time pad (in cryptography), 1086
One-to-one mapping (injective), 960
Ones
expressing numbers with, 916
number of (DigitCount), 902
Onsager, Lars (USA, 1903-1976)
and 2D Ising model, 982
Onto cellular automata, 280, 959
Ontology
implications for, 1197
and notions of space, 1028
Opcodes
in practical computers, 1108
in register machines, 896
Open sets
and axioms of topology, 1155
Open systems
and thermodynamics, 455
Operating systems
and concept of halting, 1137
and history of computing, 1108
in practical computers, 1108
Operation counts in computations, 1143
Operator representations
for integers, 916
Operator systems, 801
automated proofs in, 1158
evolution rules for, 898
frameworks for proofs in, 1177
vs. multiway systems, 1169
Operators
as generalizing numbers, 1168
notation for, 1182
possible Boolean, 806
precedence of, 1104
precedence of in math, 1150
in quantum theory, 1056
Optic nerve, 1075
Optical amplifier, 310
Optical character recognition (OCR)
and history of CAs, 877
Optical computing
CA implemented with, 869
and quantum computers, 1148
Optical fibers
as technology component, 1195
Optical illusions, 1076
Optical SETI, 1189
Optics
and history of math in science, 859
path integral in, 1061
Optimal algorithms, 1141
Optimal evaluation chains, 1095
Optimality
and defining purpose, 829
and models of markets, 1015
Optimization
combinatorial, 985
and complexity in biology, 398
of designs in engineering, 1193
intuition about in programs, 872
and Occam's razor, 1025
in plant leaf arrangements, 408
Optimized circuit blocks, 1193
Optimizers
and proofs about programs, 1168
search strategies in, 1193
Options
market prices of, 1015
Or
axioms in terms of, 1151
and Boolean formulas, 1095
calculus of expressions, 1170
emulated by CAs, 662, 1112
encoded as integer equation, 1160
in multivalued logic, 1175
and P completeness, 1149
and satisfiability, 1146
table for, 806
theorems involving, 817
words in languages for, 1173
Oracles (in computation theory), 1126
and arithmetic hierarchy, 1139
based on infinite tables, 720
and intermediate degrees, 1131
and non-standard arithmetic, 1169
and second-order logic, 1167
Orbits
in Bohr atom, 1056
of comets and Gaussians, 977
and history of computing, 1107
randomness in, 313
as simple shapes, 1187
in three-body problem, 972
Order
emergence from randomness, 223
Order diagrams of posets
and causal networks, 1040
Order of updates
in sequential CAs, 1034
in sequential substitution systems, 894
in string rewriting, 497
in symbolic systems, 898
see also Causal invariance
Order parameters
in phase transitions, 981
Ordered fields
axioms for, 1153
Orderless (commutative)
and associative CAs, 956
Boolean functions, 1173
and generalized additivity, 952
and speedups in evolution, 1095
Orders of infinity, 1127, 1162
Ordinal numbers
and encoding of proofs, 1163
as generalizing numbers, 1168
and notions of infinity, 1162
Ordinary differential equations (ODEs), 922
for chemical processes, 1013
Oresme, Nicole (France, ~1320-1382)
and time as a dimension, 1031
Organic molecules
 production of, 1179
Organization
see Self-organization
Organizational structures
and history of complexity, 862
and Occam's razor, 1025
Organogenesis in plants, 409
Organs
and biological evolution, 389, 1002
separate rules for different, 383
Origami (paperfolding)
NP completeness in, 1145
rules in, 875
Origin of Species, 1001
Ornament
examples of, 43
grammatical rules in, 1181
and notion of purpose, 830
rules in, 872
and theory of form, 967
Orreries, 1184
Orthogonal bases, 1072
and image compression, 573
and radio signals, 1188
Oscillations
in chemical reactions, 1013
of density in rule 73, 954
in fluid flow, 998
in math functions, 917, 1134
origins of, 354-356
in PDEs, 988
Oscillators
in Game of Life, 964
nonlinear, 971
in quantum history, 1056
Oseen, C. William (Sweden, 1879-1944)
and fluid flow past spheres, 998
Oster, George F. (USA, 1940- )
and patterns on shells, 1012
in Preface, xiii
Other minds
problem of recognizing, 1197
Otter (theorem-proving system), 1158
Outer
and branching patterns, 1005
and enumerating expressions, 897
and metrics on surfaces, 1048
and shape tensors, 980
Outer totalistic rules
in cellular automata, 928
Outlying data, 1083
Overlaps
in networks, 510
in strings, 503, 1033
Overshooting
in gradient descent, 985
Ozsváth-Schücking rotating vacuum, 1053
P = NP problem, 765
and SETI, 1190
and systems in nature, 770
undecidability of, 1146
P (polynomial time), 1142
p-adic numbers
as generalizing numbers, 1168
P-code for GPS, 1086
P completeness, 1149
Packard, Norman H. (USA, 1954- )
and CA classes, 948
as coauthor of paper, 882
in Preface, xiii
Packings
of bits in CA implementation, 866
of deformable objects, 988
discrete, 987
history of circle, 985
and shapes of cells, 1007
of spheres, 349
PadLeft
and initial conditions, 866
Painlevé, Paul (France, 1863-1933)
and Painlevé functions, 1092
Painlevé functions
and 2D Ising model, 982
and nonlinear ODEs, 1092
and random matrices, 977
Paintings
and concept of intelligence, 838
Pair annihilation
and nested patterns, 358
nesting from, 989
Pair correlations
and isotropy measures, 980
Pair production
in vacuum fluctuations, 1062
Pairing functions (sigma), 1127
Pairwise sorting algorithms, 1142
Palatine Chapel, 873
Paleolithic art, 43, 873
Palermo, Sicily, 873
Paley, Raymond E. A. C. (England/USA, 1907-1933)
and Walsh transforms, 1073
Paley, William (England, 1743-1805)
and natural theology, 861
Paley family
of Hadamard matrices, 1073
Paley order
for Walsh functions, 1073
Palindrome systems, 125-127
Palindromes
in period-doubling sequences, 892
Palm trees
growth of, 1004, 1004'
phyllotaxis in, 409
Pandas
patterns on, 426, 1013
Pangolins
patterns in scales of, 1007
Panini (India, ~500 BC)
and grammars, 875
Pantheism, 1196
and physics as intelligence, 1192
Paper
crumpling of, 996
fluttering of, 971
Paperfolding
and dragon curve, 932
rules in, 875
sequences from, 892
Parabolic equations, 925, 940
Parabolic reflectors
characteristic shapes of, 1183
Paraboloids
geodesics on, 531
plant stem tips as, 1007
Paradoxes
and Gödel's Theorem, 1159
and history of math, 1149
in set theory, 1154
and undecidability proofs, 1137
Paraffins, 1194
Parallel bit operations, 866
Parallel computation
in cellular automata, 1109
and creation of this book, 854
difficulty of understanding, 1177
and history of CAs, 876
and implementing CAs, 868
and machine intelligence, 1100
of mathematical functions, 1134
and memory lookup, 622
and my work on CAs, 46
and NC, 1142
and network evolution, 1035
and P completeness, 1149
randomized methods in, 1192
of repetition periods, 1147
vs. sequential, 765
in sorting networks, 1142
and work on CA fluids, 999
Parallel postulate
in Euclidean geometry, 1154
Parallel transport (in curved spaces), 1049
on networks, 1051
Parallel universes
and branching in time, 1035
Parallel updating
in CA programs, 866
perceived by observer, 487
Parameter estimation, 1083, 1083'
Parameter space sets
for activator-inhibitor systems, 428
for animal shapes, 421
for CA patterns, 956
for CA rules, 948
for continuous CAs, 158, 243, 922
for iterated maps, 921
 and Mandelbrot set, 934
for shell growth, 415
for shell shapes, 1008
for trees, 405-407, 1006
and universal objects, 1127
Parametric differentiation
as framework for integrals, 1177
Parametric surfaces
in shell models, 1008
Paramodulation
as step in proof, 1156
Parasitism
and biological evolution, 1002
Parastichies (phyllotaxis spirals), 1007
Parentheses
language of balanced, 939, 1103
pattern from balanced, 1091
pattern of balanced, 989
and single combinators, 1123
Paris, Jeffrey B. (England, 1944- )
and unprovable statements, 1163
Paris-Harrington theorem
unprovability of, 1163
Parity function (Xor)
DNF for, 1096
from rule 132, 638
Parity sequence, 83, 890
see also Thue-Morse sequence
Parity violation, 1019
difficult to get from gravity, 1054
Parrots
communication with, 1180
Parsley
shape of cow, 385
Partial differential equations (PDEs), 161-164
for 3D tearing-free growth, 1010
compression of time in, 732
computation with, 732
conservation laws in, 1023
derived from CAs, 1024
Einstein equations as, 1053
emulating cellular automata, 1129
existence of solutions to, 940
for fluid flow, 996
and fracture processes, 995
higher-dimensional, 923
higher-order, 940
and history of CAs, 877
isotropy in, 980
and noisy cellular automata, 976
nonlinear studied by Turing, 1012
origin of, 923
and quantum field theories, 1061
in quantum theory, 1056
for reaction-diffusion, 1012
repetitive behavior in, 988
and self-reproduction models, 876
for solidification fronts, 993
for surfaces from curvature, 1009
and universality, 1129
Partial fractions
as framework for integrals, 1177
Partial functions
general recursive as, 907
in Turing machines, 1143
Partial quotients
in continued fractions, 914
Partially additive rules
repetitive behavior in, 954
spacetime entropies for, 960
Partially ordered sets (posets), 1040
as example in lattice theory, 1153
Particle accelerators
and discovery of particles, 1044
time dilation in, 524
Particle counting
and history of CAs, 877
Particle detectors
Monte Carlo studies of, 1192
Particle physics
my work in, 17, 864
relativistic invariance in, 1043
time reversal violation in, 1019
Particle production
in vacuum field theory, 1062
Particle showers
as examples of nesting, 988
multiway system models for, 938
stochastic models for, 968
Particles
thermodynamic behavior with, 443
see also Defects
see also Elementary particles
see also Localized structures
Partition
and 1D constraints, 940
basic example of, 853
and counting blocks, 1022
and implementation of CAs, 867
and recursive multiplication algorithm, 1142
Partition function
and phase transitions, 981
PartitionsP (number of partitions)
and number of commutative groups, 1172
Parton model
as mechanical model, 1026
Pascal, Blaise (France, 1623-1662)
and arbitrary number bases, 902
and his calculator, 1107
and Pascal's triangle, 870
Pascal's triangle
and associative CAs, 956
for continuous moduli, 922
and encodings of arithmetic, 1164
history of, 870
and nested patterns, 610, 870
as precursor to my work, 878
and prosody, 875
Passerines (songbirds)
songs of, 1180
Passwords
as random seeds, 970
Patch entropies, 960
Patches of texture, 578
Patching
of programs, 872
Patent
related to rule 30, 973
Paterson, Michael S. (England, 1942- )
and 2D Turing machines, 880, 930
Paterson worms
as precursors to my work, 880
Path independence
see Confluence
Path integrals
history of, 1057
in quantum field theory, 1061
for quantum gravity, 1054
and random networks, 1039
and statistical mechanics, 1061
Path metric spaces
networks as, 1030
Paths
representing substitution systems, 892
Paths in multiway systems
convergence of, 1036
independence on, 507
and non-determinism, 765
Paths in symbolic systems
dependence on, 898
Pattern-avoiding sequences, 944
as extraterrestrial signals, 1190
vs. Ramsey theory, 1068
Pattern formation
in biology, 422-428
history of, 947
and history of complexity, 862
in physics, 369-382
from randomness, 223
see also Cellular automata, etc.
Pattern matching
and game strategies, 1105
see also Matching
Pattern recognition, 549
Patterns (in Mathematica)
with __ as NP-complete, 1143
basic examples of, 854
and human thinking, 1103
and implementing CAs, 867
and network evolution, 1037
and proof strategies, 1156
Patterns (visual)
perception of, 577
Patterns of pigmentation, 422-429
PCE
see Principle of Computational Equivalence
PCP (Post Correspondence Problem), 757, 1139 Perceptrons, 1076, 1099, 1102
PCs (personal computers) Percolation
and history of computing, 1108 and Boolean networks, 937
my use of, 854 as model of drainage, 1001
PDEs, 161-164 as phase transition, 983
see also Partial differential equations and structure of class 4, 948
PDF Percussion instruments, 1079
and production of this book, 852 Perfect cuboid
PDP-1 computer as unsolved problem, 1166
and history of CAs, 877 Perfect fifth (musical chord)
and munching squares, 871 curve of, 146
PDP-7 computer perception of, 1079
and history of CAs, 877 Perfect numbers, 911
Peacock and iterated aliquot sums, 911
pigmentation pattern of, 426 in ordering of math constructs, 1177
Peacock, George (England, 1791-1858) unsolved problem about, 1166
and generalization in math, 1168 and zeros of sequence, 135
Peaks Perfect shuffles, 974
in spectra, 586 Perfumes
Peano, Giuseppe (Italy, 1858-1932) odors in, 1105
and axioms for arithmetic, 1152 Period 3 in iterated maps, 955
and foundations of math, 1149 Period-doubling sequence
and math notation, 1182 in iterated maps, 921
and space-filling curves, 893 spectrum of, 1081
Peano arithmetic from substitution sequence, 892
axioms for, 773, 1152 Periodic behavior
emulating with groups, 1159 origins of, 354-356
encoding proofs by ordinals, 1163 see also Repetitive behavior
and Fermat's Last Theorem, 1166 Periodic points
and finite axiomatizability, 1176 enumeration of, 958
and Gödel's Theorem, 1159 enumeration of in CAs, 954
and Goodstein sequences, 1163 in shift rules, 963
non-standard models for, 1169 Periodic structures
and proofs of universality, 1127 see Localized structures
undecidability of consistency of, 1168 Periods
see also Arithmetic see Repetition periods
Pebbles Periods (number type), 916
coming to surface of sand, 986 Periostracum, 1011
and origin of word "calculus", 925 Peristalsis
prehistoric computing with, 1107 as repetitive process, 1011
Peephole set (parameter space set for trees), 407, 935, 1006 Periwinkle shell
Pegboards growth of, 415
randomness in, 312, 968 perl (computer language), 894
Peirce, Charles S. (USA, 1839-1914) Permanence
and axioms for logic, 1151 Principle of, 1168
and Nand, 1173 Permanents
and theories of communication, 1181 and NP completeness, 1145
Pell equation, 944 Permutation test, 1085
and equation for Power, 1161 Permutations
properties of, 1165 and group theory, 1153
and quadratic Diophantine equations, 1164 and reversible block CAs, 1023
Pendulum and reversible mobile automata, 1018
attractor for, 275 in sestina rhymes, 875
Penny Matching game, 1105 Perpetual motion machines
Penrose, Lionel S. (England, 1898-1972) in quantum field theory, 1062
and mechanical self-reproduction, 1179 in thermodynamics, 447
Penrose, Roger (England, 1931- ) Perrin sequence (generalized Fibonacci sequence), 891
and discreteness of space, 1027 Perron numbers, 958
and Penrose tiles, 932, 943 Persian (Islamic) art, 874
and polyomino tilings, 943 Persian gardens
in Preface, xiii and nested patterns, 874
and spin networks, 1055 Persian religions
Penrose tilings, 932 and free will, 1135
cellular automata on, 930, 1028 Persistent structures
diffraction patterns of, 1082 in class 4 systems, 281-296
see also Quasicrystals see also Localized structures
Pentagons Personal computers (PCs)
in deformable packings, 988 and history of computing, 1108
and Fibonacci numbers, 891 my use of, 854
and GoldenRatio, 891 Perturbation series
as inducing curvature, 532 computational difficulty in, 1146
lattices from, 930 and computational irreducibility, 1133
see also Five-fold symmetry in quantum electrodynamics, 1056, 1060
Pentodes Perturbations
and Nand operation, 1173 continual in CAs, 947
Perception, 547-635 and effect on turbulence, 996
atomic-scale, 1195 in initial conditions, 250
auditory, 585-588 and randomness generation, 323
in biological evolution, 1105 sensitivity of complexity to, 1002
and branching in time, 505 Peru
and extraterrestrial intelligence, 836 mazes in, 873
and familiarity of features, 1105 Petals (in flowers)
higher forms of, 632-635 arrangement of, 409
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 722 growth of, 412
and recognizing meaning, 826 Petersen network
relations to NP completeness, 771 examples of drawing, 476
of time in universe, 487 Petri nets
traditional idealization of, 736 and causal invariance, 1035
 and causal networks, 1033 and defining life, 1178
Petroleum, 1194 and effectiveness of math, 860
PGP cryptographic system, 1086 and free will, 1135
Phase factors and measuring complexity, 1069
and gauge invariance, 1045 note for, 1043
Phase-locked loops, 1188 and quantum measurement, 1058
Phase space and SETI, 1180
of cellular automata, 278 and study of complexity, 862
for finite-size systems, 961 and studying hearing, 1080
Phase transitions, 981, 983 Physics, 369-382, 433-545
in cellular automata, 339 avoidance of complexity in, 862
in continuous CAs, 948 and Church's Thesis, 1126
discreteness from, 337 compared to math, 821
and inflationary universe, 1055 conserved quantities in, 1022
in Ising model, 982 continuous systems in, 729
melting in alkanes as, 1194 fundamental, 433-545
from molecular dynamics, 999 and laws of human behavior, 1135
and nesting, 989 learning compared to science in this book, 856
in one dimension, 983 vs. mathematics, 1026
in percolation, 983 mechanistic explanations in, 860
in probabilistic CAs, 591, 976 methods applied to biology, 1003
and randomness tests, 1085 my early work in, 18
and scale invariance, 955 notions of purpose in, 1185
undecidability of, 1138 as origin of PDEs, 923
and uniformity, 354 and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 720
Phases quantum, 537, 1056-1065
and localized structures, 990 reversibility of laws of, 435, 1019
of matter as analogy for cellular automaton classes, 235 satisfying constraints in, 349
separation of in 2D CA, 336 success of math in, 859
Phelan, Robert J. (USA, 1933- ) summary of relations to, 8, 863
and minimum area packings, 988 textbooks and Second Law, 1020
Pheromones ultimate theory of
alkanes as, 1194 see Ultimate theory of physics
and animal communication, 1180 Physiology
phi and free will, 1135
see GoldenRatio see also Biology
Philippines Pi
as source of shells, 1011 approximations to, 912
Philosopher's stone block frequencies in digits, 594
and alchemy, 861 Buffon's needle and, 1192
as universal object, 1127 computation of nth digits in, 912
Philosophy continued fraction for, 143, 914
discussion of math in, 860 difficulty of evaluating, 1134
and human thinking, 1099 digit sequence of, 136
and idea of math in science, 859 as early example of complexity, 48
implications for, 1196 frequencies of digits in, 912
of language, 1181 generating as purpose, 1185
and pragmatic theory of law, 1136 and history of randomness, 967
and quantum mechanics, 1058, 1135 and random networks, 963
structure of proofs in, 1151 rational approximations to, 1134
summary of relations to, 10, 863 from rational integral, 916
and theories of communication, 1181 as rule 60 initial condition, 1091
and universe as intelligent, 1195 and SETI, 836, 1190
and visual perception, 1076 Pi_2 questions, 1126
writing style in, 849 Pi_n sets, 1139
Philosophy of science Piaget, Jean (Switzerland, 1896-1980)
issues of modelling in, 991 and animism in children, 1195
and methodology of this book, 1197 Piano
Phoenician art, 43, 873 CA cells as keys on, 869
Phonemes frequencies on, 1079
in sound compression, 1080 Pictures
Photoconductivity as alternative to notation, 853
as element in technology, 1195 deductions from, 577
Photoelectric effect printing of in this book, 852
in quantum theory, 1056 Pie charts
Photographs of classes of behavior, 948
and concept of intelligence, 838 Piecewise linear maps, 921
Photons Piecewise linear spaces (cell complexes), 1050
and Bell's inequalities, 1064 Piezoelectricity
history of, 1056 as element in technology, 1195
randomness from, 970 Pigmentation patterns (of organisms), 422-429
as source of decoherence, 1063 communication through, 1181
as type of particles, 1043 and complexity in biology, 384
and vacuum fluctuations, 1062 randomness in, 970
zero mass of, 1046 in similar organisms, 389
Photorealistic graphics Pilot waves (hidden variables), 1058
textures in, 1077 Pinball
Photoshop (software) and randomness from initial conditions, 312
and image processing, 1077 Pinecones
Phrases phyllotaxis in, 409
in human languages, 1103 Pingala (India, ~200 BC)
Phyla of organisms, 1003 and Fibonacci numbers, 890
Phyllotaxis, 408-412, 1006 Pingala's method
purpose invented for, 387 for computing powers, 1093
Physical constants Pink (1/f) noise, 969
numerology for, 1025 see also 1/f noise
Physicists Pioneer 10 spacecraft, 1189
and Church's Thesis, 1126 Pions (in particle physics), 1057
Pipelining Player pianos
in CA implementation, 868 and history of universality, 1110
Pippenger, Nicholas J. (USA/Canada, 1947- ) as programmable machines, 1107
and NC computations, 1149 Plot3D
Pisot numbers, 903, 1081 metric for surface in, 1048
Pitch Plouffe, Simon (Canada, 1956- )
in auditory perception, 585 and computation of pi, 912
Pitting (hoppering) in crystals, 993 in Preface, xiii
Pitts, Walter H. (USA, 1923-1969) Pluperfect numbers, 911
and neural networks, 880, 1099 Plus (+)
and universality, 1110 combinator for, 1122
Pixels and NC computations, 1149
in bitmaps, 1108 primitive recursive definition of, 907
displays made from, 46 see also Addition
and printing of this book, 852 PN (pseudonoise) sequences, 1084
PKZIP (compression program), 1069 see also Shift registers
Planar Feynman diagrams Podolsky, Boris (USA, 1896-1966)
and QCD, 1040 and EPR experiment, 1058
and quantum gravity, 1054 Poetry
and random networks, 1039 and Fibonacci numbers, 891
Planar networks, 195, 1038 rules in, 875
Planarity Poincaré, J. Henri (France, 1854-1912)
vs. dimension for networks, 1038 and 3-body problem, 972
generalizations of, 1045 and cell complexes, 1050
and network evolution, 515 and chaos theory, 971
particles and in networks, 526 and iterated maps, 918
Planck, Max K. E. L. (Germany, 1858-1947) and notion of complexity, 1068
and quantum theory, 1056 and Poincaré recurrence, 1022
Planck length Poincaré disk (negatively curved space), 1049
and discrete space, 1027 Poincaré recurrence
in early universe, 1056 in cellular automata, 267
Planck's constant, 1061 and thermodynamics, 1022
Plane geometry Point defects, 1045
axioms for, 774 Point location
Plane waves and Voronoi diagrams, 987
in QCD, 1061 Pointer-based encoding, 565
superpositions of, 984 implementation of, 1071
Planes and memory, 1100
in linear congruential patterns, 974 Pointers
Planetary nebulas, 1187 and hashing, 622, 1100
Planets in implementation of CAs, 866
as approximate spheres, 1187 Poisson's equation
extrasolar, 1179 and Einstein equations, 1052
formation of, 455 Poker test, 1085
new and gravity theory, 1047 Polar plots
orbits and role of God, 861 and shapes of leaves, 1006
rules for motion of, 860 Polarization
as systems modelled, 366 and Bell's inequalities, 1064
in three-body problem, 973 as spin direction, 1046
Plankton Poles (in complex plane)
forms of, 1011 undecidability of, 1177
Planning Polish notation
and defining intelligence, 1178 for expressions, 896
Plant breeding in logic, 1173
as randomized algorithm, 1193 Political boundaries
Plant geography as visible from space, 1187
and branching types, 1004 Political history
Plants and human languages, 1103
classification of, 1004 Politzer, H. David (USA, 1949- )
diversity of pollen in, 1011 and particle masses, 1047
growth compared to animals, 420 in Preface, xiv
growth of, 400-413 Pollard, John M. (England, 1941- )
and history of substitution systems, 893 and integer factoring, 1090
hormones in, 404 Pollard rho method, 1090
hybrids of, 1193 Pollen
as models for extraterrestrials, 1190 and Brownian motion, 302
as origin of ornament, 872 and circle packings, 985
shapes of and math, 859 forms of, 385, 1011
symmetries of, 1007 Polling
Plaque as application of randomness, 1192
on Pioneer 10 spacecraft, 1189 Pólya, George (Hungary/Switzerland/USA, 1887-1985)
PLAs (Programmable Logic Arrays), 1095, 1097 and zeta function zeros, 918
Plasma dynamics Polyadic groups, 1171
and electric breakdown, 995 Polycrystalline materials, 993
and natural radio emissions, 1187 PolyGamma (polygamma functions)
and pulsar signals, 1188 from sums, 917
Plato (Greece, 427-347 BC) Polygenes, 1003
and microcosm, 1196 Polygons
and mimesis, 1178 and constructible reals, 1129
and the nature of space, 1028 produced by 2D CAs, 929
and primes, 909, 910 regular allowing tilings, 943
and purpose in nature, 1185 in Voronoi diagrams, 987
Platonic solids Polyhedra
proof of in Euclid's Elements, 1176 as Plato's model for space, 1028
Platonism as shapes of dice, 971
as foundation of math, 1176 as shapes of pollen grains, 1011
Play in Voronoi diagrams, 987
in audio representation of cellular automata, 869 PolyLog (polylogarithms)
 and computing nth digits, 912 and math in science, 859
and Feynman diagrams, 1060, 1133 and theories of communication, 1181
as special functions, 1092 Post, Emil L. (USA, 1897-1954)
POLYLOGTIME and axiom systems in logic, 1170
and P completeness, 1149 and models of computation, 879
Polymers and models of math, 1150
hydrocarbon, 1194 and multivalued logic, 1175
as self-avoiding walks, 978 and multiway systems, 938
smell of, 1105 and origins of universality, 1110
Polynomial algebra and Post Correspondence Problem, 1139
axioms for, 1153 and tag systems, 879, 894
Polynomial equations and truth tables, 1170
and algebraic numbers, 916 and undecidability, 1136
and EllipticTheta, 1092 and undecidability of word problem, 1141
lack of universality in, 731 and underivability of logic axioms, 1170
solutions to, 912 and universality, 1125
see also Quartic equations Post Correspondence Problem (PCP), 757, 1139
see also Quintic equations density of difficult instances of, 1147
Polynomial factoring Post tag systems
see Factor see Tag systems
Polynomial growth Postmodernism, 1196
in substitution systems, 890 Post's problem
Polynomial space (PSPACE), 1142 and intermediate degrees, 1130
Polynomial time (P) computations, 762, 1142 PostScript (page description language)
and cryptography, 1086 and computer communication, 1182
and defining randomness, 1068 and production of this book, 852
PolynomialMod Power
and additive CAs, 951, 1094 see Powers
and rule 90, 870 Power cellular automata, 1093
and shift registers, 975 Power-free sequences (repetition-free sequences), 944
PolynomialReduce Power laws
for Boolean minimization, 1096 for crushed rock, 995
PolynomialRemainder and fractal dimensions, 933
and lists with flat spectra, 1081 in spectra, 969
Polynomials for turbulent fluid flow, 997
and additive CAs, 610, 951 Zipf's law as example of, 1014
canonical forms of, 1037 Power lines
and continued fractions, 914 radio emissions from, 1188
and difference tables, 1091 Power of axiom systems
digit sequences from, 914 and ordinal numbers, 1163
as generalizing numbers, 1168 Power spectra
generating primes with, 909 of natural processes, 969
iterated, 1098 properties of, 1080
iteration to find roots of, 1101 see also Spectra
machines for computing, 1107 Power towers
as models, 1083 and Ackermann function, 906
and nested patterns, 610 and symbolic systems, 897, 897'
sets of values taken on by, 1161 Power trees, 615
and shift registers, 975 PowerMod
universal, 1161 and randomized primality testing, 1192
Polyominoes, 943 and RSA cryptography, 1090
Polytopes Powers
in color space, 1074 combinator for, 1122
and trivalent networks, 1029 of complex numbers, 1094
Pomeau, Yves (France, 1942- ) computation of, 615, 1093
and cellular automaton fluids, 999 computational reducibility in, 749
in Preface, xiii digit sequences of, 119, 614, 749
Pompeii encoded as integer equation, 1161
maze patterns at, 873 fractional parts of, 121, 903
Pond snail shell and linear congruential generators, 318
growth of, 415 with nearby values, 1166
Ponzano, Giorgio E. (Italy, 1939- ) in ordering of math constructs, 1177
and spin networks, 1055 and primitive recursion, 907
Popcorn see also Arrow function (nested power)
segregation of sizes in, 986 Powers of 2
Popper, Karl R. (Austria/New Zealand/England, 1902-1994) cellular automaton for, 614, 749
and free will, 1135 Powers of 3
Popping cellular automaton for, 661
in natural radio emissions, 1187 digits in, 119, 903
Population count (DigitCount), 902 and linear congruential generators, 318
Population studies Powers of 3/2
and history of complexity, 861 in continuous CAs, 157
and history of statistics, 1082 digits in, 903
Pores in sphere packings, 986 Powersets
Posets (partially ordered sets), 1040 and cardinality of reals, 1127
as example in lattice theory, 1153 in finite set theory, 1171
Position Practical computers
and aggregation models, 978 and concept of halting, 1137
basic example of, 853 and discrete models, 369
and nested patterns, 931 emulated by CAs, 661
Positional information history of, 1107
in embryo development, 1010 intuition from, 716
Positional notation and universality, 644
for numbers, 116, 1182 workings of, 1108
Positivism Pragmatic theory of law, 1136
and character of math, 1176 Pragmatics
and Frege, 1149 and theories of communication, 1181
and logic as a foundation, 860 Pre-Socratics
 aphorism from, 1196
Precedence
in context-free languages, 1103
in math notation, 1182
of operators in logic, 1173
of operators in WFFs, 1150
Precession
in perihelion of Mercury, 1047
Precipitation
and extraterrestrial rocks, 1179
Predators
avoiding by randomness, 1192
extraterrestrial, 1190
operating not by prediction, 1105
Predestination
and free will, 1135
Predicate logic, 1151
automated proofs in, 1158
axioms based on, 1159
axioms for, 773
as basis for Lincos language, 1189
and CA axioms, 794
combinators and, 1121
as foundation for math, 1149
higher-order, 1167
and proofs about programs, 1168
universality in, 784, 1159
Predicates
in well-formed formulas, 1150
Predictability
in biological evolution, 397
and computational irreducibility, 737
and engineering, 829
and free will, 751
of melting points, 1194
and non-universality, 695
as preventing complexity, 40
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 6
as requirement for science, 1196
of robots in science fiction, 629
and thermodynamics, 447
of weather, 1177
Prediction
of data, 549
evolving methods for, 1105
and game strategies, 1105
Prefetching
of data in CA implementation, 868
Prefixed number representation, 1070
Prefixes
and pointer-based encoding, 1071
Pregeometry, 1027
Prehistoric structures
identifying purposes of, 1184
Premium bonds (lottery)
randomness in, 969
Prepend (prepend element)
theorems about, 1168
Presburger, Mojzesz (Poland, 1904 - ~1943)
and axioms for arithmetic, 1152
Presburger arithmetic, 1152
algorithms for, 1143
Price fluctuations in markets, 429
Prigogine, Ilya (Belgium/USA, 1917-[2003])
in Preface, xiii
and reaction-diffusion, 1013
Primal sketch, 1076
Primary colors, 577, 1075
Primates
auditory perception in, 1079
Prime (prime numbers)
see Primes
Prime implicants
in Boolean formulas, 1095
PrimePi (prime count), 133, 909
and encoding of lists, 1120
and Zeta, 918
PrimeQ (primality test), 909
encoded as integer equation, 1160
and integer factoring, 1090
randomized methods for, 1192
and shift register periods, 975
Primes
and arithmetic systems, 1115
CA for producing, 640, 1109
and complexity history, 48
distribution of, 133, 909
and doubling system periods, 258
and encoding lists, 1120
and extraterrestrials, 837, 1190
of the form x^2+1, 1162
from fraction system, 1115
and hashing, 1100
history of, 908
largest known, 909
leading digits in, 914
and linear congruence periods, 974
Lucas-Lehmer test for, 911
and multiplicative digits, 902
in ordering of math constructs, 1177
and periods of limited size systems, 256
as precursors to my work, 878
and primitive recursion, 907, 908
and quadratic congruential generators, 975
and register machines, 1114
as rule 60 initial condition, 1091
sequence of, 132-135, 909
simplest CA for producing, 1186
tables of, 910
trapezoidal, 911
as values of polynomials, 1162
and Zeta, 148, 918
Primitive cells
and CA lattices, 929
Primitive operations
in logic, 807, 1096
and natural phenomena, 18
and universality, 642
Primitive polynomials
and shift register periods, 975
Primitive recursive functions, 907
and Church's Thesis, 1125
undecidability in, 1136
and universality, 1121
Princeton (Institute for Advanced Study), xiii
Principal curvatures, 1049
Principia (of Newton), 859
Principia Mathematica (of Whitehead and Russell)
and foundations of math, 1149
and Gödel's Theorem, 1158
logic axioms in, 1151
and orders of logic, 1167
as origin of tag systems, 894
Principle of Computational Equivalence, 715-846
antecedents to, 1125
and computational complexity theory, 766
and computational irreducibility, 738
and concept of microcosm, 1196
and continuity, 729
and epistemology, 1196
and future of computers, 841
and future of technology, 1196
and Gödel's Theorem, 782
historical perspectives on, 844-846
and human uniqueness, 844
implications for ontology, 1197
implications for philosophy, 1196
implications for technology, 840
initial conditions violating, 1129
introduction to, 5
and mathematicians, 1125
and mathematics, 772
and modelling, 728
and natural selection, 1002
and operator systems, 815
and origin of complexity, 736
outline of, 716-719
and philosophy of science, 1197
and postmodernism, 1196
process of understanding, 856
and quantum measurement, 1064
and thermodynamics, 444
and ubiquity of intelligence, 822
and universe as intelligent, 1191
validity of, 726-735
Principle of Entropy Increase
character of as principle, 1126
see also Second Law of Thermodynamics
Principle of Equivalence (for gravity), 530
Principle of Least Action, 1185
Principle of Least Effort
and Zipf's law, 1014
Principle of Natural Selection
character of as principle, 1126
see also Natural Selection
Principle of Permanence, 1168
Principle of Relativity see also Cellular automata, etc.
character of as principle, 1126 see also Computation
see also Relativity theory Projection method
Printing for Penrose tilings, 932
color gamut in, 1074 Prolog (computer language), 1158
and halftoning, 1077 Pronunciation
rosettes in 4-color, 1078 lookup based on, 623
of this book, 852 Proof theory
Prions, 988 and number theory, 1166
Prisoner's Dilemma, 1104 Proofs, 775
Probabilistic cellular automata, 325, 591, 976 as application of rules, 875
classification of, 948 of axiom system correctness, 1170
and continuous CAs, 922 and computer experiments, 899
Probabilistic estimates and definition of math, 860
in cellular automata, 953 encoded by ordinals, 1163
in multiway systems, 937 general frameworks for, 1177
Probabilistic models, 588 of halting for TMs, 1145
aggregation systems as, 332 importance of relative to theorems, 1177
and external randomness, 299 inference rules in, 1151
Probabilistic CAs, 299 lengths of, 1143
of written languages, 1181 lengths of in logic, 1175
Probabilistic substitution systems, 1084 of NP completeness, 1145
Probabilities of P!=NP, 1146
in block encoding, 1071 role of in current math, 1156
and entropies, 959 searching for, 1157
as intermediate truth values, 1175 of shortest axiom for logic, 811
origin of, 1083 structures of, 1155
in quantum computers, 1147 of undecidability, 1137
in quantum theory, 541, 1058 of undecidability of PCP, 1140
Probability distributions and universal language of Leibniz, 1109
and fractal dimensions, 934 of universality, 664-673, 722, 1127
for random walk, 977 of universality by computer, 1115
Probability theory of universality of Life, 1117
and defining randomness, 1067 of universality of rule 110, 678-689, 1116
foundations of, 967 Propagation
Problem-solving of class 4 structures, 281
and defining intelligence, 1178 of effects in CAs, 252, 950
Procedural computer languages, 627 of effects in PDEs, 923
Procedures Propellers
see Programs characteristic shapes of, 1183
Process charts (flowcharts) Proper time (in relativity theory), 1042, 1051
and causal networks, 1032 Proportion
Processors theory of in art, 872
in practical computers, 1108 Propositional logic, 1151
Product axioms for, 773, 803
and spectra, 1081 see also Logic
see also Multiplication Prosody (study of verse)
Production systems and Fibonacci numbers, 891
and computer languages, 1104 Protein folding
and formal languages, 939 and biological evolution, 1003
see also Multiway systems and NP completeness, 1146
see also Sequential substitution systems and optimization, 988
ProductLog randomness in, 1184
and concatenation sequences, 913 Proteins
Program counter as biological artifacts, 1184
in register machines, 98 made from genes, 1002
Program machines (register machines), 97-102, 896 and nanotechnology, 1193
Programmability shapes of, 1003
and history of math, 1177 statistics of sequences in, 1184
of machines, 1107 symmetries in shapes of, 1007
and universality, 642 Protestantism
Programmable logic arrays (PLAs), 1095, 1097 and free will, 1135
Programmed cell death, 419 Protists
Programmed trading systems, 431 pattern in, 385
Programming see also Radiolarians
and proofs of universality, 698 Protocols
and study of programs in the notes, 854 for computers, 1182
Programming languages Protons
see Languages (computer) decay of, 1025
Programming paradigms size of, 472, 1044
in Mathematica, 853 Protoplasm, 1178
Programs Protozoa
behavior of simple, 23-39 as fairly optimal organisms, 398
and biological systems, 383 Prouhet, Eugène (France, 1817-1867)
compared to constraints, 342 and Thue-Morse sequence, 893
compared to nature, 297 Prouhet-Thue-Morse sequence
continuous, 1129 see Thue-Morse sequence
discreteness in, 976 Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw (Poland/Canada, 1952- )
as foundation for science, 3 and branching in plants, 1005
history of concepts related to, 860 Pseudocode
and human thinking, 628 avoidance by use of Mathematica, 853
making models based on, 368, 992 PseudoInverse
in notes to this book, 853, 854 and matrix memories, 1101
in practical computers, 1108 Pseudonoise (PN) sequences, 1084
proving theorems about, 1168 and CDMA signals, 1188
random, 23, 101 see also Shift registers
as reproducing the universe, 465 Pseudorandom generators, 317
see also Algorithms historical use of, 968
 and history of complexity, 49 Pythagorean theorem
as precursors to my work, 879 sending signals based on, 1189
randomness tests on, 1085 Pythagorean triples
see also Intrinsic randomness generation and Moire patterns, 1078
see also Random number generators as satisfying constraints, 945
Pseudospectral methods for PDEs, 924 Pythagoreans
PSPACE (polynomial space) computations, 1142 and aliquot sums, 910
PSPACE completeness and irrationality of Sqrt[2], 912
of automaton minimization, 957 and music, 1080
and periods of CAs, 1147 and numerology, 1025
Psychiatry and primes, 908
and history of complexity, 862 Python
Psychoactive drugs pigmentation pattern of, 426
and spider webs, 1184 Q
Psychology see Robinson arithmetic
and defining intelligence, 1178 q-hypergeometric functions
history of, 1099, 1135 in hard hexagon problem, 1133
mentions of undecidability in, 1136 q-numbers
systems to emulate, 629 as generalizing numbers, 1168
and visual perception, 1076 QCD (quantum chromodynamics), 1057, 1061
Psychophysics, 1076 and computational irreducibility, 1133
experimental difficulties in, 1077 and experience of models in, 991
Ptolemy (Egypt, ~100 - ~170 AD) as simple physical model, 1025
and math in science, 859 QED
and models based on rules, 860 see Quantum electrodynamics
Public-key cryptography, 1086 QSPR (quantitative structure-property relations), 1195
and quadratic congruential generators, 975 Quadratic congruential generators, 975
Publication counts Quadratic Diophantine equations, 944
for axiom systems, 1153 NP completeness of, 1146
for cellular automata, 878 Quadratic equations
Publication dates as exactly soluble, 1133
conventions for, 851 Quadratic forms
Publicon and Diophantine equations, 1164
and authoring this book, 852 Quadratic functions
Puffer train (in Game of Life), 965 in Turing machines, 1144
Pulsar (in Game of Life), 964 Quadratic irrationals
Pulsar puffer (in Game of Life), 965 and constructible reals, 1129
Pulsars and continued fraction map, 955
and general relativity, 1048 and Penrose tilings, 932
and history of SETI, 1189 and spectra, 1081
on Pioneer 10 plaque, 1189 see also Sqrt (square root)
radio emissions from, 1188 Quadratic maps, 921
thought to be intelligent, 835 and history of chaos, 971
Pulse code modulation (PCM), 1188 Quadratic primes conjecture
Pumping lemmas (for formal languages), 944 as unsolved problem, 1166
Punched cards Quadratic programming
and history of computing, 1107 and circle packings, 986
and history of universality, 1110 Quadratic residue sequences, 1090
Pure functions in acoustic diffusers, 1183
and lambda calculus, 1121 and flat spectra, 1081
see also Function NP completeness in, 1145
Pure gravity, 1053 Quadratures
Pure mathematics as exact solutions, 1133
foundations of, 1150 Quadrics
Pure states (in quantum theory), 1062 fit to curved surfaces, 1049
Purpose Quadtrees, 568, 1101
in archeology, 1184 Quality factor
in biological evolution, 387 in image compression, 573
compared to mechanism, 831 Quantifier elimination
and defining randomness, 1068 and commutative groups, 1160
definition of, 829 and real algebra, 1154
for extraterrestrials in science fiction, 1191 Quantifiers
and free will, 1136 higher-order, 1167
of natural systems, 1185 in predicate logic, 1151
Occam's razor for, 1025 in well-formed formulas, 1150
in physics, 1185, 1187 Quantitative traits, 1003
possible, 1185 Quantization
of science, 861 and discreteness of networks, 528
technology as achieving, 843 of volume in spin networks, 1055
of whale songs, 1180 Quantized vortices
Putnam, Hilary W. (USA, 1926- ) in neutron stars, 1188
and Diophantine equations, 1161 Quantum chaos, 1056
Puzzles and decoherence, 1064
based on rules, 875 Quantum chromodynamics
and constraints, 210 see QCD
and intelligence, 822, 1178 Quantum computers, 1147
patterns in, 1104 and NP completeness of factoring, 1090
training animals to solve, 826 and quantum history, 1058
use of base 2 in, 902 vs. Turing machines, 771
Pylos tablet Quantum cosmology, 1026, 1063
maze pattern on, 873 Quantum cryptography, 1058
Pyramids Quantum-dot cellular automata, 1193
rules for building from stone, 874 Quantum electrodynamics (QED)
Sierpinski, 172 as analogy for quantum gravity, 1054
Pythagoras (Italy, ~560 - ~480 BC) effective coupling in, 1062
and math in science, 859, 860 Feynman diagrams in, 1060
and perfect numbers, 911 history of, 1056
and rules in music, 875 Monte Carlo methods in, 1192
 and point electrons, 1044
Quantum field theory, 1061
and computational irreducibility, 1133
difficulty of computations in, 1146
and discrete space, 1027
and energy conditions, 1053
and gravity, 1054
and knot theory, 1046
measurement in, 1065
and origins of mass, 1046
particles in, 540
planar diagrams in, 1040
and quantum computers, 1148
and quantum measurement, 1064
and random networks, 1038
simple effective theories in, 1026
and space as background, 1028
and ultimate theory of physics, 1025
and uniform spectra, 988
vacuum fluctuations in, 1062
Quantum fluctuations
and noise, 969
Quantum gravity, 1054
and discrete space, 1027
and Hawking radiation, 1062
history of, 1025
path integrals in, 1057
as source of decoherence, 1063
and space vs. contents, 1028
and spin networks, 1055
undecidability in models of, 1138
Quantum groups
and spin networks, 1055
Quantum information theory, 1058
Quantum measurement, 542, 1062
vs. computational irreducibility, 1135
and multiway systems, 1036
Quantum mechanics, 537-545
and atomism, 876
Brillouin zones in, 988
and character of programs, 538
and Church's Thesis, 1126
discretization of, 1059
and existence of formulas, 1132
and free will, 752, 1135
and gauge invariance, 1045
history of, 1056
and history of randomness, 967
and history of statistics, 1082
and mechanistic explanations, 860
and new types of perception, 1106
and NP completeness, 771
and origins of Second Law, 1020
and PDEs, 923
on Pioneer 10 plaque, 1190
and randomness, 303, 539, 970
search for defining features of, 1059
in ultimate theory of physics, 469
and use of abstract models, 1026
and wave-particle duality, 1044
Quantum numbers
and network tangles, 527
Quantum potential, 1065
Quarantine of astronauts, 1180
Quark confinement
and computational irreducibility, 1133
Quarks
confinement of, 1061
as example of model, 992
masses of, 1046
and particle history, 1025
and QCD, 1057
as types of particle, 1043
Quartic equations
and computational reducibility, 1132
as exactly soluble, 1133
size of solutions to, 945
Quartz
hopper crystals in, 993
Quasars
and SETI, 1189
Quasi-Monte Carlo methods
and digit reversal, 905
as randomness application, 1192
and statistical tests, 1085
Quasicrystals, 994
diffraction patterns in, 1082
spectra in, 1080
Quasigroups, 945, 1171
Quasiperfect numbers, 911
Quasiperiodicity
in combinations of sines, 146
and turbulence, 998
Quaternions
and abstraction in math, 792
cellular automata based on, 886
as generalizing numbers, 1168
as non-commutative rings, 1153
Qubits (in quantum systems), 1147
Queen Anne's Lace, 1006
Quicksort algorithm, 1142, 1142'
Quincunx board
randomness in, 312
Quine-McCluskey procedure, 1095
Quintic equations, 945
as exactly soluble, 1133
numbers defined by, 916
solving as impossibility, 1137
unsolvability of, 1132
Quotient
basic example of, 854
and computational reducibility, 747
encoded as integer equation, 1160
Qur'an
calligraphy from, 874
Rabbit (Fibonacci) sequences, 891
Racah coefficients
see 6j symbols
Radar
random pulses for, 970, 1192
as source of radio signals, 1188
Radiation
of structures from rule 37R, 456
and thermodynamics, 1021
in vacuum field theory, 1062
Radicals
continued fractions for, 144
digit sequences for, 139
and linkages, 1129
nested, 915
and periodic points of iterated maps, 955
solving equations in, 945
see also Quadratic irrationals
see also Root
see also Sqrt
Radio astronomy
noise in, 1187
and SETI, 835, 1180, 1188
Radio noise, 302
and SETI, 836
Radio signals
extraterrestrial, 835, 1180
of human origin, 1188
of natural origin, 1187
and shift registers, 1086
Radioactive decay
and quantum field theory, 1057
randomness in, 970
relativity theory applied to, 1043
Radiolarians
and circle packings, 985
forms of, 385, 1011
skeletons as animal artifacts, 1184
Radix of numbers
see Bases (number)
Radó, Tibor (Hungary/USA, 1895-1965)
and Busy Beaver Problem, 889
Railroads
as speculative stocks, 1015
as visible from space, 1187
RAM (random-access memory)
emulated by CA, 663, 1112
Ramanujan, Srinivasa A. (India/England, 1887-1920)
and almost integers, 915
and divisor sequences, 910, 911
and experimental math, 899
Ramsey theory, 1068
unprovability related to, 1163
RAND Corporation
and random number table, 968
Random
as intrinsic randomness generator, 317
Random-access memory (RAM)
emulated by CA, 663, 1112
Random-dot stereograms, 1076
Random groups, 938
Random initial conditions, 223-296
for CA doing computations, 1109
as origin of randomness, 304-314
in reversible CAs, 438
in systems other than CAs, 949
Random mappings, 937, 963
Random matrices, 977
Random models
see Probabilistic models
Random networks, 480, 963, 1038
Random number generators, 317, 974
and history of complexity, 49
and iterated maps, 919
as precursors to my work, 879
see also Randomness generators
Random packings, 986
Random phase approximation
in path integrals, 1061
Random programs
and complexity in biology, 388
crashing of, 1183
on practical computers, 101
typical behavior of, 23
Random proteins, 1184
Random rules
typical behavior of, 23, 723
Random sequences
spectra of, 587
weighted, 976
Random trees, 1084
Random walks
and 3n+1 problem, 904
and continuous behavior, 327
and diffusion-limited aggregation, 979, 994
from digits of pi, 136, 912
and dimensions of networks, 1030
with exponential waiting, 969
and fracture patterns, 995
isotropy of, 980
in iterative improvements, 985
in mobile automata, 75
and nesting, 990
and path integrals, 1057
of prices in markets, 1014
and randomness tests, 1085
in rule 30 pattern, 871
self-avoiding, 978
spectrum of, 1082
Randomization
on inspirational book cover, 17, 864
in mechanical systems, 968
in semiconductor devices, 970
Randomized algorithms, 1085, 1142
Randomness
algorithmic, 1067
applications of, 1192
in astronomy, 313
in biological pigmentation patterns, 1013
in biology, 970
in boiling, 994
cells in animals generating, 1011
in class 3 systems, 261
in combinator evolution, 713
compared to complexity, 557
in computer systems, 970
continual injection of, 947
in crumpling of paper, 996
in cyclic tag systems, 96
and data compression, 572
definition of, 316, 552-556
deterministic behavior from, 979
dictionary definition of, 1068
in digit of square roots, 139
in digits of pi, 138
in digits of powers, 119
in distribution of primes, 134
in early universe, 1021
from the environment, 301-304
evolution from, 223-296
as explained by chaos theory, 971
of facts in math, 820
in financial markets, 429, 1014
in fluid flow, 376
in forms of crystals, 373
in fracture, 374
and free will, 752
generated by Mathematica, 973
in heartbeats, 1002
history of defining, 1067
human generation of, 1104
increasing popularity of, 1192
from initial conditions, 304-314
intrinsic generation of, 315-326
and irreversibility in physics, 442
mechanical sources of, 968
mechanisms for, 299-326
in mobile automata, 74
in multiway systems, 205
in network systems, 202, 936
and NP completeness in rule 30, 770
in ocean surfaces, 1001
in operation of brain, 1135
in optical system, 310
and origin of continuity, 327
paper of mine on, 882
and percolation theory, 983
in physiological processes, 1011
in primitive recursive functions, 908
in protein sequences, 1184
in quantum chaos, 1056
and quantum measurement, 1063
in quantum systems, 539, 970, 1064
randomized algorithms as tests for, 1085
in recursive sequences, 130
in register machines, 100
repeatable intrinsic, 323
in rolling dice, 305
in rule 30, 27
in sequential substitution systems, 92
in solar system, 973
in statistics, 593
in substitution systems, 88
in tag systems, 94
tests of, 1067, 1084
in three-body problem, 314
in TM running times, 762
in tossing coins, 305
in turbulent fluid flow, 379
in Turing machines, 79
in Turing machines in 2D, 184
ultimate definition of, 1068
in universe that branches, 506
and visual perception, 583
Randomness generators
cellular automaton, 975
cryptographic, 975
failures of, 969
generalized Fibonacci, 975
linear congruential, 974
quadratic congruential, 975
shift register, 974
see also Random number generators
RANDU (random number generator), 974
Range
basic example of, 853
Rankine, William J. M. (Scotland, 1820-1872)
and vortices in ether, 1044
Raspberries
phyllotaxis in, 409
Raster
in CA graphics, 865
Raster displays
lines on digital, 916
RasterGraphics
and CA graphics, 868
Rate equations, 984
Rational agents
and game theory, 1104
and notion of purpose, 1185
Rational choice theory
and responsibility, 1136
Rational design
in chemistry, 1194
Rational expectations
difficulty of testing for, 1015
in economics, 429
Rational functions
of complex variables, 933
as generating functions, 1091
integrals of, 916
and periodic points, 959
and regular languages, 958
Rational maps, 918
and Apollonian packings, 986
Rational numbers
approximation by, 915
 digit sequences of, 138, 912, 1084
number of, 1127
pattern based on, 950
and periodic iterated maps, 955
and randomness from initial conditions, 307
and spectra, 1081
Rationalism
and math in science, 860
Rationality
bounded of players, 1104
Raup, David M. (USA, 1933- )
and shapes of shells, 1008
Ray, John (England, 1627-1705)
and natural theology, 861
Rayleigh number, 1000
Rayleigh speed, 995
Rayleigh-Taylor instabilities
and repetitive behavior, 988
Rays (fish)
patterns in teeth of, 1007
r.e. (recursively enumerable) sets, 1138
r.e. degrees (arithmetic hierarchy), 1139
Reachable states, 275, 957
see also Attractors
Reaction-diffusion processes, 1012
and animal growth, 419
and animal pigmentation, 427, 1004, 1013
and cellular automata, 427
and complexity research, 862
and history of CAs, 878
modes in, 1013
and pattern formation, 947
and plant growth, 409
and shell patterns, 1012
Reaction rate equations, 984
Reactions (chemical)
repeatable randomness in, 976
and undecidability, 1194
Reading distance
and texture recognition, 1076
Real algebra
axioms for, 773, 1153
as not universal, 1160
Real analysis
axioms for, 1155
Real numbers
and computability, 1128
constructible, 1129
countable models of, 1172
number of, 1127
and randomness from initial conditions, 308
Turing computable, 1128
RealDigits (digits of real number)
implementation of, 901
and weighted random sequences, 976
Reasoning
automated
see Automated theorem proving
automated mathematical, 1157
predicate logic as model for, 1152
see also Intelligence
see also Thinking
Rebooting
random seed after, 970
Receptors
in auditory system, 1079
in color vision, 1075
other types of, 1105
in visual system, 577, 1075
Reciprocals
digit sequences of, 730
and Egyptian fractions, 915
Recognition
of artifacts, 828, 1183
of CA patterns, 621
of extraterrestrial intelligence, 825
of formal languages, 939
of objects, 1076
of randomness, 317
see also Perception
Recombination
and randomness in biology, 970
Record (phonograph)
for extraterrestrials, 1190
Recreational computing
Game of Life in, 949
and history of CAs, 877
and history of complexity, 50
and universality of Life, 693
Recreational logic
and combinators, 898
Recreational mathematics
complexity in, 49
and number theory, 910
randomness in, 1192
Rectangular numbers, 909
Recurrence relations, 128-131
for Fibonacci numbers, 891
and iterated maps, 906
linear, 906
numbers from, 916
and square roots, 913
and time series, 1083
Recurrent
see Repetitive
Recurring decimals, 138, 912
Recursion
in backtracking algorithm, 1089
as basis for algorithms, 1141
compared to nesting, 990
and history of CAs, 877
induction as basis for, 1152
in substitution system rules, 1033
see also Fractals
see also Nesting
Recursion relations, 128
Recursive axiomatizability, 1176
Recursive functions
and Church's Thesis, 1125
emulating tag systems, 1121
emulating Turing machines, 1121
general, 907
as idealization of math, 1150
not primitive recursive, 908
primitive, 907
and proof of Gödel's Theorem, 1158
and recursive sets, 1138
undecidability in, 1136
universality of, 1121
Recursive sequences, 128-131
history of, 907
inverse of, 906
sounds from, 1080
see also Nested sequences
see also Substitution systems
Recursive sets, 1138
Recursive subdivision
and data compression, 568
implementation of, 1072
and lossy compression, 572
and substitution systems, 187
Recursively enumerable (r.e.) sets, 1138
Red shift
and brightness of night sky, 1021
Reduced arithmetic
see Robinson arithmetic
Reducibility
see Computational reducibility
Reductio ad absurdum
as scheme for proofs, 1177
Reduction
see Emulation
Reduction of colors
in cellular automata, 655
in Turing machines, 669, 1113
Reduction of wave packets, 1063
Reduction ordering
in completion algorithms, 1037
Reductionism
as theme of existing science, 3
Redundancy
and cryptanalysis, 600, 1086
in data, 1069, 1181
in error-correcting codes, 1101
in extraterrestrial signals, 836
in languages, 1181
and role of analysis, 549
Redundancy laws (in logic), 817
Reed-Muller codes, 1073
References
in this book, 850
Reflexes
vs. free will, 752
Reformation (religious)
and free will, 1135
Refractive indices, 1041
Regge, Tullio E. (Italy, 1931- ) and nesting, 989
and discrete spacetime, 1054 and particle masses, 1046
and spin networks, 1055 and phase transitions, 983
Regge calculus and simple effective laws, 1026
and discrete space, 1027 Rényi, Alfréd (Hungary, 1921-1970)
variational principle for, 1052 and generalized entropies, 959
Register machines, 97-102 Rényi dimensions, 934
for computing Sqrt, 1114 Repeatability
continuous versions of, 1128 in computer experiments, 898
emulated by arithmetic systems, 673, 1114 in intrinsic randomness generation, 323, 976, 976'
emulated by CAs, 661, 1112 of turbulent flow, 382
emulating TMs, 671, 1114 Repeated squaring
encoded with Diophantine equations, 1161 applied to general rules, 1094
halting of, 896, 1137 and computing powers, 615, 1093
halting problem for, 1131 for powers of 2, 749
history of, 896 RepeatedNull (...)
implementation of, 896 in regular expressions, 957
and intermediate degrees, 1131 Repeats
and Life universality, 1117 and cryptanalysis, 599
with many registers, 1114 finding maximal, 1071
random initial conditions for, 949 Repetition periods
small universal, 1121 in block cellular automata, 1023
and undecidability of tiling, 1139 of digits in rationals, 912
Registers, shift of finite-size CAs, 260
see Shift registers for linear congruential generators, 974
Regular expressions, 957 longest in cellular automata, 1088
matching of with repeats, 1143 maximal in CAs, 951
Regular language complexity (finite automaton size), 958 for mobile automata, 887
Regular languages and PSPACE completeness, 1142, 1147
analogs for networks, 1040 of shift registers, 975
decidability of, 1137 of stripes in rule 30, 871
and finite automata, 957 in systems with symmetries, 950
production rules for, 939 see also Periodic points
pumping lemma for, 944 Repetitive behavior
and relations to CAs, 1138 in animals, 1011
rule 132 as recognizer for, 1109 as basis for algorithms, 1141
see also Finite automata in bird songs, 827
Regularities in cellular automata, 57, 954
in biology, 384 in cellular automata in 2D, 954
compared to causes, 352 in combinator evolution, 1123
and computational reducibility, 746 and computational reducibility, 739
inevitable and Ramsey theory, 1068 in continuous systems, 988
and lack of universality, 735 in digit sequences, 138
and meaning, 826, 1183 in DNA, 970
and perception, 549 as exception to Second Law, 453
and practical empirical math, 1090 as familiar feature, 1106
in solar system, 313, 973 in finite-size systems, 255, 267
study of as purpose of science, 861 formula for, 607
Regularity and history of math, 735
axiom of in set theory, 1154 in human radio signals, 835
Reidemeister moves (for knots), 1046 and lack of universality, 734
Reif, Frederick (USA, 1927- ) and local constraints, 213
and inspirational book cover, 864 and mechanical engineering, 829
Reissner-Nordström solution, 1133 in mobile automata, 72
Relations in numbers, 988
in groups, 1141 origins of, 354-356
in semigroups, 938 in ornamental art, 872
Relatively prime numbers in PDEs, 988
pattern of, 613 and Poincaré recurrence, 1022
Relativism, 1131 and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 722
Relativity recognizing visually, 582
linguistic, 1181 in rule 30, 268, 700
Relativity theory, 516-524 in rule 250, 25
and Bell's inequalities, 1065 in sorting networks, 1142
and CPT invariance, 1019 structures with
history of, 1041 see Localized structures
as introducing spacetime, 481 in three-body problem, 972
mechanism leading to, 522 in Turing machines, 79
and models of electron, 1044 in whale songs, 1180
and origin of uncertainty principle, 1058 Repetitive initial conditions, 266, 954
posets in, 1041 and CA cryptography, 1087
and space vs. contents, 1028 perturbations in, 701
standard treatment of, 1042 Repetitive sequences
and time and computation, 1130 block frequencies in, 1084
Reliability analysis, 977 as initial conditions, 266
Religion shortest programs for, 1186
and conflict with Darwinian evolution, 1001 ReplaceAll (/.)
and origins in animism, 1195 basic examples of, 854
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 845 in implementing CAs, 867
see also Christianity, etc. and network evolution, 1038
see also God and symbolic systems, 896
see also Theology ReplaceList
Renormalization, 1057 and multiway systems, 937
and discrete space, 1027 and multiway tag systems, 1141
and electron self-energy, 1044 and traversing networks, 957
lack of in quantum gravity, 1054 Replacements
Renormalization group, 955 for networks, 509
and levels in ultimate theory, 471 order of, 894
 see also Order of updates
for strings
see Sequential substitution systems
ReplacePart
basic example of, 853
and initial conditions, 865
ReplaceRepeated (//.)
and symbolic systems, 898
and undecidability, 1138
Representation
and communication, 631
and definition of meaning, 827
Representation of numbers, 142
for data compression, 560
with Egyptian fractions, 915
as nested radicals, 915
as operator trees, 916
see also Bases (number)
see also Continued fractions
see also Digit sequences
Representations
of Boolean algebra, 1171
of operator systems, 805
Representing
see Emulation
Reproduction
see Self-reproduction
Reproduction curves
and iterated maps, 918
Reptiles
color vision in, 1075
Reptiles (nested tilings), 932
Resistors
1/f noise in, 969
and on-chip randomness, 970
Resolution
of printed pictures in book, 852
Resolution theorem proving, 1157
Resonant scattering
and 3-body problem, 973
Responsibility
and free will, 1135, 1136
Responsiveness
as definition of life, 823
Rest (rest of list)
basic example of, 853
Resultant
and CAD in real algebra, 1154
Retail store utilization
and Voronoi diagrams, 987
Retina (of eye)
pattern of cells in, 1007
structure of, 1075
and visual perception, 577
Retinoic acid
in embryo development, 1009
Return maps
and history of iterated maps, 918
and recognizing chaos, 972
Reversal
of digit sequences, 905
Reversal-addition systems, 125-127, 905
Reverse engineering, 1184
Reverse evolution
backtracking in CA, 1089
Reverse mathematics, 1167
Reverse Polish notation, 896
Reversibility, 435-441
of CAs at an angle, 1017
in causal networks, 495
of cellular automata
see Reversible cellular automata
of computation, 1018
in evolution of networks, 1040
in mappings, 960
in mobile automata, 1018
in multiway systems, 1018
and phase transitions, 983
and quantum computers, 1147
and quantum measurement, 542
in systems based on numbers, 1018
testing cellular automata for, 1017
and thermodynamic irreversibility, 442
undecidability of, 1138
see also Irreversibility
Reversible 3n+1 problem, 905
Reversible cellular automata, 436-441
block, 460
classification of, 1018
and dynamical systems theory, 961
emulated by ordinary CAs, 1018
history of, 1018
implementing, 1017
inverse rules for, 1017
and irreversible behavior, 452
from multiplication, 1093
number of, 1017
testing for, 1017, 1017'
testing for 2D, 1017
and texture generation, 1078
three-color, 436
Reversible logic, 1097
and quantum computers, 1147
Reviews of Modern Physics
my CA paper in, 880
Rewrite systems
and history of universality, 1110
for networks, 198, 508
sequential substitution systems as, 88, 894
see also Multiway systems
see also Sequential substitution systems
Reynolds, Osborne (Ireland/England, 1842-1912)
and Reynolds numbers, 996
Reynolds numbers, 376, 380, 996
Rhombic dodecahedron, 929, 987
Rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron, 930
Rhymes
rules for in poetry, 875
in whale songs, 1180
Rhythm
rules for, 875
Ribbets
as sound of Cantor set, 586
Ribosomes, 1193
Ricci scalar curvature, 533
and constraints on tissue growth, 1010
and discretization of space, 1051
in expansion of metric, 1050
and volumes of spheres, 1050
Ricci tensor, 534
and Einstein equations, 1052
implementation of, 1049
for spacetime, 534
Rice, Henry G. (USA, 1920- )
and Rice's theorem, 1137
Richardson, Lewis F. (England/Scotland, 1881-1953)
and fluid turbulence, 997
Richat structure
circular shape of, 1187
Ricker, William E. (Canada, 1908-2001)
and iterated map for fish populations, 918
Riemann, G. F. Bernhard (Germany, 1826-1866)
and discrete space, 1027
and distribution of primes, 918
and nested curves, 934
and Riemann tensor, 1049
Riemann Hypothesis
and curve of zeta function, 148
and density of primes, 909
as Diophantine equation, 1161
Riemann mapping theorem
and growth shapes, 1010
Riemann tensor, 1049
difficulties with in networks, 1051
as form of curvature, 536
implementation of, 1049
Riemann zeta function, 148, 918
see also Zeta
Riemannian spaces, 1048
RiemannSiegelZ, 918
curve of, 148
Riemann-Siegel formula, 1134
Riesz, Frigyes (Hungary, 1880-1956)
and Riesz products, 1081
Riesz products, 1081
Rigid bodies
and analogy to quantum mechanics, 1059
Rigid rods
networks made from, 1031
Ring theory, 1153
axioms for, 773
and generalizing numbers, 1168
universality of, 784, 1159
Ringoids, 1171
Riots
instabilities in, 1014
Ripples and linkages, 1129
on ocean surfaces, 1001 and origin of group theory, 1153
as repetitive behavior, 988 Root finding
Risch structure theorem, 1177 attractor basins in, 1101
Rise time and iterated maps, 918
of sounds, 1079 see also Newton's method
Risk Root vectors
in financial systems, 1015 and sphere packings, 987
Risk functions Roots
in parameter estimation, 1083 linguistic, 1100
Rivers Rope
and landscape structure, 1001 nesting in, 874, 1183
as showing nesting, 359, 988 Rose window
RNA of Lincoln cathedral, 873
and definition of life, 1178 Rosen, Nathan (USA/Israel, 1909-1995)
and origin of life, 1179 and EPR experiment, 1058
RNGs Rosenblatt, Frank (USA, 1928-1971)
see Random number generators and perceptrons, 1099
Road traffic Rosenblueth, Arturo (Mexico, 1900-1970)
1/f noise in, 969 and reaction-diffusion, 1013
flow instabilities in, 1014 Rosetta stone, 1185
Roads Rosette patterns, 873
straight visible from space, 1187 in four-color printing, 1078
Robbins, Herbert E. (USA, 1915-2001) RoShamBo game, 1105
and axioms for logic, 1151 RotateLeft
Robbins axioms (for logic), 773, 1151, 1174 basic example of, 853
in terms of Nand, 808 in CA evolution, 865
Robinson, Abraham (England/Israel/USA, 1918-1974) Rotating vacuum solution to Einstein equations, 1053
and non-standard analysis, 1172 Rotation
Robinson, J. Alan (USA, 1930- ) absolute definition of, 1047
and resolution theorem proving, 1157 particle production in, 1062
Robinson, Julia B. (USA, 1919-1985) Rotation group
and axioms for arithmetic, 1152 and spin, 1046
and Diophantine equations, 1161 and spin networks, 1055
and encodings of arithmetic, 1163 Rotational symmetry
in Preface, xiii in cellular automaton rules, 928
and undecidability of field theory, 1160 see also Isotropy
Robinson, Raphael M. (USA, 1911-1995) see also Symmetry
and axioms for arithmetic, 1152 Roth, Klaus F. (England, 1925- )
and non-periodic tilings, 943 and rational approximations, 915
in Preface, xiii Rotor machines
Robinson arithmetic for cryptography, 1085
axioms for, 773 Roughness
incompleteness in, 800 in aggregation systems, 978
universality in, 1152 of crystal surfaces, 993
unprovable statements in, 1169 effect on splashes of, 1000
Robotics effects of microscopic, 996
and history of complexity, 862 in fracture surfaces, 994
linkages in, 1129 in random walk boundaries, 977
and mobile turtles, 930 and randomness from initial conditions, 305
Robots of surfaces, 1077
in fiction vs. humans, 629 of surfaces and repeatable randomness, 976
free will for, 1135 Roulette
Robust statistics, 1083 randomness in, 306, 968, 969
Robustness Roundoff errors
in biology from randomness, 1002 and chaos experiments, 919
from randomness, 1192 and continuous CAs, 921
of software and complexity, 1069 in molecular dynamics, 864
Rock, Paper, Scissors game, 1105 see also Numerical analysis
Rock carvings Routing in networks, 1192
recognition of art in, 874 RSA cryptography, 1086, 1090
Rocks Rucker, Rudy v. B. (USA, 1946- )
as computationally equivalent to humans, 1196 and 2D Turing machines, 930
crushing of, 988, 995 in Preface, xiii
patterns of in landscapes, 1001 Rugs
shaped by wind, 1183 and 2D cellular automata, 929
Rogozhin, Yurii (Moldova, 1949- ) Rule
and Turing machines, 1119 basic examples of, 854
Rolling of objects, as generating randomness, 305 Rule 0
Roman architecture block emulation of, 702
and nesting, 874 as having simple behavior, 57
Roman art, 43, 873 with random initial conditions, 224
Roman law Rule 1
and free will, 1135 as first rule with period 2, 1186
Roman military drill, 875 Rule 2
Roman number system, 1182 as having simple behavior, 57
Roman numerals, 902 Rule 3
Roman religions half-speed growth in, 57
and animism, 1195 Rule 4
Romberg integration, 1134 attractor for, 275
Rome (Italy) as first rule with period 1, 1186
mosaics in, 872 as having simple behavior, 57
Root (polynomial root) as not universal, 694
and continued fractions, 914 with random initial conditions, 225
and entropies of CAs, 958 as statistical test, 597
and fractal dimensions for additive rules, 956 Rule 7
and generalized special functions, 1092 conserved quantities in, 1022
and hard hexagon model, 959 as having simple behavior, 57
Rule 12
conserved quantities in, 1022
Rule 14
as not universal, 695
Rule 15
block emulation of, 702
as reversible system, 436
Rule 18
nested domains in, 360
repetitive behavior in, 954
spacetime entropy for, 960
temporal sequences in, 960
Rule 22
algebraic form for, 947
attractor network sizes in, 958
block emulations in, 702
density in, 947, 951
evolution of density in, 265
and Game of Life, 965
initial conditions giving randomness in, 951
Lyapunov exponent in, 949
nested pattern from, 58
nesting and randomness in, 263
probabilistic estimates in, 953
with random initial conditions, 227
sensitive dependence in, 251
sources of randomness compared in, 262
spacetime entropy for, 960
Rule 30
adjacent columns in, 1087
algebraic form for, 869
as algorithm from search, 1193
as analogy for quantum measurement, 1063
asymmetry of, 29
attractors in, 280
averaging of pattern from, 353
backtracking tree for, 1089
block frequencies in center column of, 594
blocks in pattern from, 569, 725, 871, 1127
Boolean form for, 616, 869
center column of, 871
compression of pattern from, 562
and computational irreducibility, 745
conserved quantities in, 1022
cryptography with, 603, 1087
density in, 947, 953
diagonal stripes in, 871
directional reversibility in, 1017
directional sampling in, 1087
effect of perturbations in, 325
efficient implementation of center column, 871
emulated by mobile automaton, 664
emulated by substitution system, 666
emulated by symbolic system, 668
emulated by tag system, 667
emulated by Turing machine, 665
emulated by universal CA, 647
emulated by WireWorld, 1117
emulating logical functions, 704
emulating rule for rule 90, 703
encoded as integer equation, 1160
on endpapers of book, 851
as example of art hard to recognize, 874
examples from CellularAutomaton, 868
and extraterrestrial signals, 836
finite-size behavior of, 259, 963, 1088
as generator of hash codes, 1100
history of, 112, 880, 882
initial condition sequence for, 324
intrinsic randomness generation in, 315
inversion of, 1087, 1147
localized structures in, 700
Lyapunov exponent in, 949
mapping for, 870
mixing of initial conditions in, 976
as not showing purpose, 830
and NP completeness, 770, 1090
numbers of cells in picture of, 874
one-sided additivity of, 604
and P completeness, 1149
pattern forced by constraints, 221
patterns on repetitive backgrounds, 700
periods in limited regions, 260, 951
as practical randomness generator, 975
predecessors in, 1087, 1147
probabilistic density estimates in, 953
probabilistic version of, 976
PSPACE completeness of periods in, 1147
purpose of, 1185
and Random, 317
with random initial conditions, 227
and randomness tests, 1085
reactions of scientists to, 872
repetition of columns in, 1087
repetitive behavior in, 267, 954
sensitive dependence in, 251
with shift-register boundary conditions, 1088
sideways evolution of, 604
simple behavior in, 266
from single cell, 27, 59
sizes of BDDs for, 1097
slow growth in, 1118
sources of randomness in, 261
spectrum of, 1082
square root of, 956
state transition graph for, 963
as surjective CA, 959
technological applications of, 843
temporal sequences in, 960
tiling based on, 943
tiling generating pattern of, 221
triangles in pattern of, 871
universality of, 734
Rule 32
entropy in, 958
Rule 37R
as candidate for universality, 692
localized structures in, 440
period of cycles in, 1022
properties of, 1018
radiation from, 456
repetition period for, 457
as violating Second Law, 453
Rule 41
block emulations in, 702
localized structures in, 1118
spectrum of, 1082
Rule 45
with alternating steps reversed, 885
block emulations in, 702
cryptography with, 1087
finite-size behavior of, 963, 1088
in limited regions, 260, 951
localized structures in, 701
Lyapunov exponent in, 949, 1088
nesting in, 701
periods in limited regions, 260
properties of pattern, 885
as randomness generator, 976
repetitive behavior in, 954
from single cell, 59
state transition graph for, 963
as surjective CA, 959
temporal sequences in, 960
Rule 48
block emulation of, 702
Rule 50
block emulation of, 702
generating repetitive pattern, 57
repetitive behavior in, 954
repetitive domains in, 356
Rule 51
block emulation of, 702
as complement rule, 883
as not universal, 694
as reversible system, 435
Rule 54
block emulations in, 702, 1118
as candidate for universality, 696
enumeration of initial conditions for, 697
excluded blocks in, 958
localized structures in, 696
from random initial conditions, 696
repetitive domains in, 356
spacetime entropy for, 960
spectrum of, 1082
Rule 56
conserved quantities in, 1022
Rule 57
as first rule with period 3, 1186
as statistical test, 597
Rule 60
algebraic analysis of, 951
and computational reducibility, 744
and cryptography, 600
as difference table generator, 1091
 emulated by TMs, 1119
finite-size behavior of, 963
firing squad problem and, 1035
formula for pattern from, 608
generating function for, 1091
from iterated bitwise operations, 906
with math functions as initial conditions, 1091
methods for generating pattern from, 931
with nested initial conditions, 1091
nested pattern from, 58
pattern forced by constraints, 220
pattern generated by substitution system, 187
periods in limited regions, 951
reachable states in, 963
related to TM 596440, 1120
sequential analog of, 1034
and shift registers, 974
and similarity of rules to rule 110, 872
sounds from, 1080
state transition graph for, 963
as statistical test, 597
temporal sequences in, 960
tiling generating pattern of, 220
see also Additive cellular automata
see also Rule 90
see also Sierpinski pattern
Rule 62
enumerating multiples of 3, 641
as not universal, 695
repetitive domains in, 356
Rule 67R
irregular growth in, 1018
pattern produced by, 438
Rule 73
with alternating steps reversed, 885
as candidate for universality, 699
conserved quantities in, 1022
density oscillations in, 954
information transmission in, 699
localized structures in, 700
properties of pattern, 885
from random initial conditions, 699
from single cell, 59
unbounded growth in, 700, 1118
walls in, 699
Rule 85
as reversible system, 436
Rule 86
sizes of BDDs for, 1097
Rule 90
as additive rule, 952
algebraic analysis of, 951
attractors in, 280
backtracking tree for, 1089
block emulation of, 702
blocking transformations in, 270
Boolean form for, 869
Boolean function for, 616
compression of pattern from, 562
conserved quantities in, 1022
in Cosmati mosaics, 873
density in, 953
directional reversibility in, 1017
effect of perturbations in, 325
emulated by mobile automaton, 664
emulated by rule 45, 701
emulated by rule 126, 269
emulated by substitution system, 666
emulated by symbolic system, 668
emulated by tag system, 667
emulated by Turing machine, 665
emulated by universal CA, 646
emulated by WireWorld, 1117
emulation of by itself, 270
evolution of density in, 265
finite automaton for pattern in, 609
finite-size behavior of, 259, 963
formula for pattern in, 610
fractal dimension of pattern, 870
fractal pattern in, 25, 270
generating function for, 1091
history of in my work, 880
and linear feedback shift registers, 877
mapping for, 870
nested initial conditions for, 956
nested pattern in, 25, 270
network in pattern of, 197
as not universal, 695
as origin of nested patterns, 358
origin of self-similarity in, 270
periods in limited regions, 260
probabilistic density estimates in, 953
probabilistic version of, 976
random initial conditions for, 265
repetitive behavior in, 954
rule for emulated by rule 30, 703
sequential analog of, 1034
sizes of BDDs for, 1097
sources of randomness in, 264
spacetime entropy for, 960
state transition graph for, 963
striped patterns in, 870
substitution system for pattern in, 609
as surjective CA, 959
technological applications of, 843
temporal sequences in, 960
two-dimensional analog of, 1092
vs. Ulam systems, 929
see also Additive cellular automata
see also Rule 60
see also Sierpinski pattern
Rule 90R
nesting in, 1018
pattern produced by, 438
and reversible behavior, 452
and spacetime symmetry, 485
Rule 94
block emulations in, 702
compression of pattern from, 562
and difficulty in deducing rules from behavior, 467
as generating even numbers, 641
nesting and randomness in, 951
Rule 102
and rule 110, 872
Rule 103
half-speed growth in, 57
as rule with simple behavior, 57
Rule 105
Boolean formula for iterations of, 1096
nested pattern in, 58
Rule 107
Nand expression for, 1097
Rule 108
attractors in, 278, 958
as not universal, 694
with random initial conditions, 225
Rule 109
generating repetitive pattern, 57
Rule 110
algebraic form for, 869
annihilation of structures in, 359
approximate nesting in, 359
attractors in, 279, 958
axiom system for, 1168
background in, 291, 964
block emulations in, 702
Boolean form for, 869
character of universality proof of, 1156
collisions of structures in, 294
and computational irreducibility, 746
conserved quantities in, 964, 1022
constructions in, 681
in cover image, 851
density with random initial conditions, 947
domains in, 356
emulated by combinators, 713
emulated by integer equation, 785, 1161
emulated by TM, 707, 1119
emulated by WireWorld, 1117
and extraterrestrials, 839
finite-size behavior of, 963
in limited regions, 260, 1088
mapping for, 870
my first work on, 881
and P completeness, 1149
periods in limited regions, 260
persistent structures in, 292, 964
phases of background in, 990
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 718
from random initial conditions, 229, 290, 677
reactions of scientists to, 872
regular expression for, 957
repetitive behavior in, 954
as showing purpose, 830
and similarity of rules to rule 60, 872
from single cell, 32-39
 sizes of BDDs for, 1097
spectrum of, 1082
state transition graph for, 963
and technology, 841
typical behavior of, 676
universality of, 675-691
and word problem for groups, 1141
Rule 121
Nand expression for, 1097
Rule 122R
different initial conditions in, 451
as example of thermodynamic behavior, 442
Rule 123
as rule with simple behavior, 57
Rule 124
as variant of rule 110, 693
Rule 126
algebraic form for, 947
attractors in, 279, 958
blocks in evolution of, 278
density evolution in, 953
density with random initial conditions, 947
emulating rule 90, 269
entropy of, 958
excluded blocks in, 958
Lyapunov exponent in, 949
with random initial conditions, 226
regular expression for, 957
repetitive behavior in, 267
sensitive dependence in, 251
spectrum of, 1082
Rule 127
as rule with simple behavior, 57
Rule 128
attractors in, 277, 958
block emulation of, 702
as rule with simple behavior, 57
Rule 129
enumerating powers of 2, 641
nested pattern in, 58
Rule 132
attractors in, 278, 958
computing parity with, 638
finite-size behavior of, 962
and regular languages, 1109
state transition graph for, 962
Rule 136
block emulation of, 702
Rule 137
as variant of rule 110, 693
Rule 144
computations done by, 1109
Rule 146
block emulation of, 702
invariant states in, 348
Rule 148
block emulation of, 702
Rule 150
as additive rule, 952
blocking transformations in, 271
conserved quantities in, 1023
density with random initial conditions, 947
finite automaton for pattern in, 609
formula for iterations of, 1096
formula for pattern in, 610
generating function for, 1091
local conservation laws in, 1023
nested pattern in, 58, 271
as not universal, 695
as origin of nested patterns, 358
origin of nesting in, 271
properties of pattern from, 885
with random initial conditions, 227
represented by Nands, 1096
as rule for code 976 interface, 980
spacetime entropy for, 960
substitution system for pattern in, 609
as surjective CA, 959
two-dimensional analog of, 1092
see also Additive cellular automata
Rule 150R
fractal dimension of, 1018
generating function for, 1018
nested pattern in, 439
and spacetime symmetry, 485
Rule 152
computations done by, 1109
Rule 154R
pattern produced by, 439
properties of, 1018
Rule 160
attractors in, 278, 958
with random initial conditions, 224
Rule 170
block emulation of, 702
conservation of density in, 458
finite-size behavior of, 963
local conservation laws in, 1023
mapping for, 870
as reversible system, 436
as shift rule, 883
state transition graph for, 963
see also Shift map
Rule 172
conserved quantities in, 1022
Rule 173R
nesting in, 1018
pattern produced by, 438
Rule 176
block emulation of, 702
Rule 182
algebraic form for, 947
density with random initial conditions, 947
with random initial conditions, 227
Rule 184
attractors in, 278, 958
and block emulations, 702
blocking transformations in, 271
computation done by, 1109
conservation of density in, 458
and context-free languages, 1109
local conservation laws in, 1023
nested initial conditions for, 272
nested patterns in, 272, 359
and nesting in phase transitions, 989
as not universal, 695
phase transition in, 338
and sandpile models, 990
as statistical test, 597
Rule 188
and computational reducibility, 744
Rule 190
enumerating multiples of 4, 641
Rule 192
block emulation of, 702
Rule 193
as variant of rule 110, 693
Rule 204
block emulation of, 702
conservation of density in, 458
as identity rule, 883
as reversible system, 436
Rule 214R
randomness in, 439
symmetry between past and future in, 437
Rule 218
different behavior in, 952
with random initial conditions, 225
Rule 225
as analog of fluid turbulence, 382
nested pattern in, 58
nesting and randomness in, 951
properties of pattern from, 885
Rule 232
with random initial conditions, 225
spectrum of, 1082
Rule 236
density evolution in, 953
Rule 238
block emulation of, 702
Rule 240
block emulation of, 702
as reversible system, 436
as shift rule, 883
Rule 250
algebraic form for, 869
backtracking tree for, 1089
Boolean form for, 869
mapping for, 870
as not universal, 694
Or additivity of, 952
as producing checkerboard, 25
with random initial conditions, 224
Rule 254
algebraic form for, 869
backtracking tree for, 1089
 as basic example of CA, 24 Sahara desert
Boolean form for, 616, 869 Richat structure in, 1187
emulated by universal CA, 645 Salamander
finite-size behavior of, 962 pigmentation pattern on, 426
as having a purpose, 831 Salem, James (USA, 1962- )
invariant states in, 348 as coauthor of paper, 882
as irreversible system, 435 in Preface, xiii
mapping for, 870 Salt
Nand expression for, 1097 hopper crystals in, 993
with random initial conditions, 224 Salt Lake
sizes of BDDs for, 1097 features seen from space, 1187
state transition graph for, 962 Sand
Rule 255 apparent continuity of, 327
attractor for, 275 and Chladni figures, 984
as rule with simple behavior, 57 fluid phenomena in, 1001
Rule equivalences, 883 patterns from wind in, 1183
Rule numbers settling in, 986
for general cellular automata, 927 Sand dunes
for operator systems, 1170 maze-like patterns in, 1013
for Turing machines, 888 repetitive patterns of, 1187
Ruler-and-compass constructions, 1129, 1137 and waves on sand, 1001
Rules Sander, Leonard M. (USA, 1941- )
and axioms, 1150 and diffusion-limited aggregation, 994
for cellular automata, 24 in Preface, xiii
elementary Sandpile model, 989
see Elementary cellular automata Sanskrit
growth totalistic, 928 rules in grammar for, 875
history of concept of, 874 Santa Fe Institute, 862, 882
in Mathematica, 627, 854, 1103 Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
parameter space of, 948 and communication, 1181
totalistic, 60 and math in science, 860
see also Programs Sarkovskii's theorem, 955
Rules of inference Satisfiability
and structure of proofs, 1155 with 2 and 3 variables, 1146
Run-length encoding, 560 density of difficult instances of, 1147
in faxes, 1070 emulating Turing machines, 1146
implementation of, 1070 NP completeness of, 767
iterated, 905 and proof lengths in logic, 1175
as number representation, 914 and quantum computers, 1148
two-dimensional, 1072 Satisfying constraints, 210-221
Run length test, 1085 problem of, 342-351
Run lengths see also Constraints
patterns from, 1091 Saturn
and Ramsey theory, 1068 and extraterrestrial life, 1179
and statistical analysis, 595 Saussure, Ferdinand de (Switzerland, 1857-1913)
Run tests and concept of language, 1181
for linear congruential generators, 974 Saws
Running times characteristic shapes of, 1183
of FactorInteger, 1090 Sawtooth functions
of Turing machines, 761 and Thue-Morse sequence, 1081
see also Computational complexity theory Scalar curvature, 533
Runoff see also Ricci scalar curvature
and landscape structure, 1001 Scales (in music), 917
Runs up test, 1085 Scales (mathematical)
Russell, Bertrand A. W. (England, 1872-1970) in continuum limit of networks, 1030
and axioms for logic, 1151 and fractal dimensions, 933
and character of math, 1176 see also Limits
and foundations of math, 1149 Scales (of animals)
and paradoxes in set theory, 1154 coloration of, 1012
and Principia Mathematica, 894 phyllotaxis-like patterns in, 1007
and theory of types, 898 Scaling
Russell, John Scott (Scotland, 1808-1882) in additive cellular automata, 270
and solitons, 899 and dimension, 933
Russell's paradox of eddy sizes in turbulence, 997
in set theory, 1154 and origins of nesting, 357, 989
Russian peasant method and renormalization group, 955
for computing powers, 1093 of visual perception, 1076
Russian work on cellular automata, 877 see also Nesting
Rutherford, Ernest (New Zealand/Canada, 1871-1937) Scanning probe microscopy
and atomic nuclei, 1044 and crystal surfaces, 993
Rytin, Maxim (Russia, 1975- ) for nanotechnology, 1193
and concatenation sequences, 913 Scapula (shoulder blade)
s for fortune-telling, 968
sound of letter, 1079 Scents
S-boxes odors in, 1105
in DES, 960, 1086 Schemas (axiom), 1156
S combinator, 711, 1121 and finite axiomatizability, 1176
S expressions Schemas for algorithms, 990
number of, 989 Schickard, Wilhelm (Germany, 1592-1635)
S matrices and origin of computers, 1107
and discrete quantum mechanics, 1060 Schild ladder, 1051
in particle physics, 1057 Scholasticism
S_3 (group) and argument by design, 861
CA based on, 887, 956 and history of logic, 1099
as first non-commutative group, 1172 Scholes, Myron S. (USA, 1941- )
Saccadic eye movements, 1192 and options pricing, 1015
Sagan, Carl E. (USA, 1934-1996) Schönfinkel, Moses I. (Germany/Russia, 1889 - ~1942)
and Pioneer 10 plaque, 1189 and combinators, 879, 1121
 and origins of universality, 1110 history of, 1019
and single combinators, 1123 limitations of, 451
and symbolic systems, 898 and microscopic instability, 1020
Schoute, Johannes C. (Netherlands, 1877-1942) and my work on CAs, 880
and phyllotaxis, 1007 and open systems, 455
Schreger lines and quantum measurement, 1063
in mammoth dentin, 873 and radiation, 1021
Schröder, F. W. K. Ernst (Germany, 1841-1902) and self-organization, 947
and axioms of logic, 1151 textbook treatments of, 1020
Schrödinger, Erwin R. J. A. (Austria/Switzerland/Germany/Ireland, Second-order logic, 1167
1887-1961) and arithmetic axioms, 1152
and quantum mechanics, 1056 Second-order phase transitions, 981
Schrödinger equation Secrecy systems
discretization of, 1060 see Cryptography
as example of PDE, 161 Security envelopes
and gauge invariance, 1045 randomness in, 1192
lack of chaos in, 1063 Security systems
and nested potentials, 1081 cryptographic, 598
and path integrals, 1057 and recognizing artifacts, 1183
Schroeder diffusers SeedRandom, 973
quadratic residue diffusers, 1183 Seeds
Schwarzschild, Karl (Germany, 1873-1916) for crystals, 369
and Einstein equations, 1053 for random generators, 970
Schwarzschild solution, 1130, 1133 Segmentation in animals, 417
Science Segregation diagram (for I Ching), 893
education, 855 Séguier, Jean-Armand de (France, 1862-1937)
limits to, 6, 748, 1135, 1196 and semigroups, 1153
math as foundation of, 859 Seiberg-Witten model
Science Citation Index as exactly soluble, 1133
papers on CAs in, 878 Sejnowski, Terrence J. (USA, 1947- )
Science fiction and neural networks, 1100
and artificial intelligence, 1099 in Preface, xiii
and extraterrestrials, 1180, 1190 Sekerka, Robert F. (USA, 1937- )
and extraterrestrials in 2001, 1183 and dendritic growth, 993
and free will for computers, 1135 Select (select elements)
and messages in DNA, 1184 basic example of, 853
and parallel universes, 1035 Selection
robots in, 629 see Natural selection
and universe as computer, 1026 Selective availability (timing encryption in GPS), 1086
Scientific American Self-adjoint approximations
article of mine in, 881, 882 and second-order CAs, 1018
and CA universality proofs, 1115 Self-assembly, 1011, 1193
and history of CAs, 877 Self-avoiding walks, 978
Scientific computing Self-delimiting digit sequences, 560
fundamental issues in, 1133 Self-energy
history of, 1107 and corrections to mass, 1046
summary of relations to, 16 of electron, 1044
Scientific experiments in QED, 1057
repeatability of, 326 Self-gravitating systems, 1021
Scientific literature and my work on CAs, 880
models in the, 368 and Voronoi diagrams, 987
Scientific pantheism, 1196 Self-limiting growth
Scoping of variables, 1150, 1152 in plants, 1006
Scores (musical), 1080 Self-organization, 223
Screw dislocations, 993 and attractors, 275
Screw shell, 1008 and definition of life, 824
Screws and gravitational systems, 1021
characteristic shapes of, 1183 history of, 947
Scribbles and history of complexity, 862
as source of randomness, 970 and persistent structures, 282
Scroll patterns, 872 and reaction-diffusion, 1013
Sea urchin and rule 37R, 455
form of, 385 and Second Law, 1021
Search-and-replace systems, 88 summary of relations to, 16
see also Sequential substitution systems Self-organized criticality, 989
Search trees (backtracking), 1089 confusion about, 969
Searching Self-reference
for axioms of logic, 1174 and Gödel's Theorem, 1159
for cryptographic keys, 603 and proofs of undecidability, 1137
Darwinian evolution as, 386 see also Recursion
for doubling CAs, 1185 Self-reproduction
to find examples for this book, 111, 393 and cellular automata, 961
for non-periodic tilings, 220 and definition of life, 824, 1178
for optimal cellular automata, 834 history of, 1179
for proofs, 1157 and history of CA universality, 1117
to satisfy constraints, 343, 941 and history of CAs, 876
in technology development, 842, 1193 Self-similarity
for ultimate theory of physics, 466 and 1/f noise, 969
Sec (secant) in cellular automata, 58
curve of, 145 and dimension, 933
Sech of Gaussian distribution, 977
in solution of KdV equation, 1133 in growth of shells, 414, 1008
in solution of Toda lattice, 1133 history of, 934
Second Law of Thermodynamics, 441-457 in networks, 509
avoided by rule 37R, 453 origin of in additive CAs, 270, 955
character of as principle, 1126 origins of, 357-360
and cosmology, 1021 with random initial conditions, 273
and definition of life, 1178 in rule 90, 25, 870
 in substitution systems, 83 generalized to 2D, 192
see also Fractals and genetic programs, 1002
see also Nesting history of, 894
Semantics implementation of, 893
and semiotics, 1181 vs. multiway systems, 204, 894
Semi-Thue systems vs. operator evolution systems, 1170
see Multiway systems random initial conditions in, 949
Semiconductor devices vs. sequential CAs, 1034
1/f noise in, 969 Serial test, 1085
randomness in, 303, 970 Series
Semiconductors and Sierpinski pattern, 931
as components in technology, 1195 Series expansions
crystal growth of industrial, 993 and continuous functions, 1127
and history of computing, 1108 in QED, 1060
Semigroups of special functions, 1134
axiom for, 773 and three-body problem, 972
CAs based on, 886, 956 Sestina
constraints defining, 945 and rules for poetry, 875
enumeration of, 805 Set entropy, 959
history of, 1153 Set theory, 1154
and invertible multiway systems, 1018 additional axioms for, 1167
Krohn-Rhodes decomposition of, 1069 axioms for, 774
and multiway systems, 938, 1172 and consistency of arithmetic, 1168
and nesting in associative cellular automata, 956 and continuum hypothesis, 1127
number of, 945 emulating arithmetic, 1160
undecidability of equivalence of, 1138 and Fermat's Last Theorem, 1166
undecidability of word problem for, 1136 finite, 1171
universality of, 1159 and finite axiomatizability, 1176
word problem for, 1141 as foundation for math, 1149
see also Commutative semigroups and Goodstein sequences, 1163
Semilattices, 1171 and history of universality, 1110
Semiotics, 1181 needed for word problems, 1160
Sensitive dependence and proofs of universality, 1127
on angles in plant phyllotaxis, 412 and proving P!=NP, 1146
on branching parameters, 405 selection of axioms for, 800
in cellular automata, 250-254 and transfinite numbers, 1162
and computational irreducibility, 1133 SETI (search for extraterrestrial intelligence), 822
in fluid flow, 381 and higher perception, 635
and free will, 1135 history of, 1188
and history of chaos theory, 971 messages to send in, 1189
vs. intrinsic randomness, 261, 322 practical arguments in, 1191
in iterated maps, 153 Sets
in Lorenz equations, 998 operators on, 1171
in ODEs, 922 recursive, 1138
as origin of randomness, 309-314 and undecidability, 1138
in quantum mechanics, 1063 Settling
of snowflakes on seeds, 992 of granular materials, 986
and weather prediction, 1178 Sex
see also Chaos theory and biological evolution, 386, 985, 1002
Sensorimotor cortex, 1099 random determination for offspring, 1192
Sensory input Sextic (degree 6) equations, 945
and perception, 1105 Sferics (natural radio signals), 1187
and thinking, 1098 Shadowing property of chaotic systems, 920
Sentences (in human languages), 1103 Shafarevich-Tate group, 1164
Sentential calculus Shaking
see also Logic of granular materials, 986
see also Propositional calculus as source of randomness, 968, 969
Septa Shallit, Jeffrey O. (USA/Canada, 1957- )
in chambered shells, 1008 and continued fractions, 914
Septic (degree 7) equations, 1132 Shannon, Claude E. (USA, 1916-2001)
Sequence equations, 944, 1141 and analog computers, 1129
Sequence homomorphisms (substitution systems), 893 and Boolean algebra, 1097
Sequences and coding theory, 1069
analysis of and cryptography, 1086
see Analysis and information theory, 1071, 1181
encoded as integers, 1120 and statistical mechanics, 1020
integers as fundamental, 1152 and Turing machines, 1119
practical methods for studying, 1091 Shannon-Fano codes, 1069
recursive, 128-131 Shannon information
see also Digit sequences for cellular automata, 959
see also Lists and evolution of languages, 1181
Sequencing of events in universe, 497 and thermodynamics, 1020
Sequency order see also Measure entropy
for Walsh functions, 573, 1073 see also Redundancy
Sequential automata Shape space
see Mobile automata of antibodies, 1184
Sequential cellular automata, 1034 Shapes
and convolutional codes, 1119 from aggregation systems, 979
and texture generation, 1078 of animals, 421
Sequential machines in complex maps, 933
history of, 958 and human experience, 1177
see also Finite automata of leaves, 401-407, 1005
Sequential network systems, 936 limiting in cellular automata, 929
Sequential substitution systems, 88-92 parametrization of, 980
and causal networks, 499 possible from growth, 1010
computational reducibility in, 1134 smooth from 2D CAs, 980
emulated by CAs, 660, 1111 variation in 2D CAs, 179
emulating CAs, 667, 1113 Shared subexpressions
 in equation solutions, 945
in multilevel logic, 1096
and networks, 1040
and speedups, 1094
Sharks
patterns in teeth of, 1007
Sharpening
and image processing, 1077
Shattering of solids, 995
Shaw, Robert S. (USA, 1946- )
and chaos theory, 971
in Preface, xiii
Sheep
fortune-telling from, 968
Sheffer, Henry M. (USA, 1883-1964)
and axioms for logic, 1151, 1175
and Nand, 1173
Sheffer axioms
and Laws of Form, 1173
for logic, 773, 808
Sheffer stroke
as name for Nand, 1173
Shell patterns, 423
biology of, 1011
and cellular automata, 389
purpose invented for, 387
Shells
as animal artifacts, 1184
biology of, 1008
collecting, 1011
history of studying, 1008
internal, 1008
natural selection of shapes, 417
shapes of, 414-417
Shepherdson, John C. (England, 1926- )
and register machines, 896
Shift-commuting block maps
as cellular automata, 961
and history of CAs, 878
see also Cellular automata
Shift instructions
and CA boundary conditions, 951
and CA implementation, 866
Shift map, 149
and computer experiments, 919
exact iterates of, 919
history of, 961
and origin of randomness, 308
see also Doubling map
see also Rule 170
Shift registers
applications of, 1086
block frequencies in, 594
and CDMA signals, 1188
and cryptography, 1085
and extraterrestrial messages, 1190
flat spectra from, 1081
and history of CAs, 877
vs. linear congruences, 975
linear feedback, 1086
nonlinear feedback, 1088
as precursors to my work, 879
as random generators, 968, 974
searching for long period, 1193
sequences from, 1084
Shift rules
in cellular automata, 883
state transition graphs for, 963
Ships
fracture as issue for, 995
Shipwrecks
recognizing, 1183
Shocks
in CA fluids, 1000
in continuous fluids, 997
in numerical solutions of PDEs, 924
as origin of discreteness, 984
picture of in fluids, 377
as singularities in PDEs, 923
Shor, Peter W. (USA, 1959- )
in Preface, xiii
and quantum computing, 1148
Short descriptions
of general data, 553
Shortcuts
and computational reducibility, 738
and math proofs, 779
and NP completeness, 1148
Shortest descriptions
and algorithmic information, 1067
in block encoding, 1071
for integers, 916
Shortest paths
and distance on networks, 478
geodesics as, 1048
and polynomial time, 1146
see also Geodesics
Shortest programs
and algorithmic information, 1067
for particular sequences, 1186
undecidability of, 1138
see also Smallest programs
Shot noise, 968
in premium bond lottery, 969
Shotgun method
as application of randomness, 1192
Shub, Michael I. (USA, 1943- )
and quadratic pseudorandom generators, 1090
Shuffle-exchange process, 905
Shuffling (of cards), 968, 974
Sierpinski, Waclaw (Poland, 1882-1969)
and nested curves, 934
Sierpinski carpet, 933
Sierpinski pattern
and 2D substitution system, 187
in Cosmati mosaics, 873
formula for, 608
history of, 934
methods for generating, 931
network based on, 197
in network evolution, 509
and recursive multiplication algorithm, 1142
and rule 90, 25, 870
see also Rule 60
see also Rule 90
Sierpinski pyramid, 172
Sieve of Eratosthenes, 132, 909
cellular automaton for, 640
Sigma_n sets, 1139
Signal processing
for SETI, 1189
and Walsh transforms, 1073
Signals
artificial radio, 1188
from pulsars, 1188
recognizing intelligent, 835
Signature
of spacetime metrics, 1051
Significance (statistical), 594
Signs in languages, 1181
Silicon crystal
fracture of, 374
Silverman, Brian (Canada, 1957- )
in Preface, xiii
and WireWorld CA, 1117
Similarities
between natural systems, 298
in memory, 625
Simon, Herbert A. (USA, 1916-2001)
and automated proofs, 1157
Simple behavior
origins of, 351-361
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 719
Simple groups
classification of finite, 945
Simple programs
crucial experiment on, 23-50
modelling with, 363-369
and searching for technology, 842
world of, 51-113
Simplex
and trivalent networks, 1029
Simplicial complexes, 1050
and approximating space, 1051
and quantum gravity, 1054
Simplicity
of human artifacts, 828
in scientific models, 1025
in ultimate theory of physics, 470, 1026
see also Simple behavior
Simplification
Boolean, 1095
of iterated map formulas, 1098
Simplify
and proofs, 1158
and real algebra, 1154
 see also FullSimplify spiral waves in, 1013
Simulated annealing, 985, 985' Slopes
as application of randomness, 1192 digital representation of, 916
for design optimization, 1193 Slot (#)
Simulation games and projection function, 907
and history of CAs, 877 Slow dynamics
Simulations in 2D cellular automaton, 336
computational complexity of, 1148 Slow ship (in Game of Life), 964
and computational irreducibility, 742 Smale, Stephen (USA, 1930- )
as computationally expensive, 872 and chaos theory, 971
of financial markets, 1015 in Preface, xiii
and history of complexity, 862 Small changes in initial conditions
randomness in, 968, 1192 see Sensitive dependence
of rule 90 by rule 126, 269 Small programs
of ultimate theory of physics, 466 and computational complexity theory, 758
see also Emulation crucial experiment on, 23-50
see also Models world of, 51-113
Simultaneity Small universal Turing machines, 707, 1119
in relativity theory, 523 Smallest programs
and spacelike slices, 1041 and algorithmic complexity theory, 1143
in the universe, 486 and recognition of purpose, 832
Sin (sine) for single CA steps, 884
as basis for radio signals, 1188 see also Shortest programs
and computational reducibility, 747 Smell
and constructible reals, 1129 and experience of dogs, 827
curve of, 145 sense of, 1105
curves with curvature from, 418 Smith, Alvy Ray, III (USA, 1943- )
difficulty of evaluating, 1134 and branching in plants, 1005
emulating Mod, 1129 and L systems, 893
in form for iterated map, 921 in Preface, xiii
and formulas for repetition, 607 and universal CAs, 1115
and Fourier analysis, 1072 Smith, Cyril S. (USA, 1903-1992)
and Fourier series, 917 and cellular structures, 1039
and logistic map formulas, 1098 Smoke patterns, 377
and musical notes, 1080 Smoothing
and orthogonal bases, 1072 and image processing, 1077
and uniform distribution mod 1, 904 Smoothness
and universal equations, 1129 origin of, 327
and Weierstrass functions, 918 see also Continuity
Sinai, Yakov G. (Russia/USA 1935- ) SMP (forerunner of Mathematica)
and ergodicity of billiards, 1022 evaluation of recursive functions in, 906
Sine-Gordon equation, 163 in my personal timeline, 864
Single-cell recording, 1075 my use of, 854
Singularities and origins of this book, 18
in Navier-Stokes equations, 997 semantic patterns in, 1156
in PDEs, 164, 923 and tiering of function arguments, 896
in spacetime and computation speeds, 1130 Smullyan, Raymond M. (USA, 1919- )
Singularity theorems (in general relativity), 1048, 1053 and combinators, 898
Sinh Snail shell
in solving 2D Ising model, 982, 1133 growth of, 415
SinIntegral Snakes
curve of, 145 pigmentation patterns on, 426
SIS (program for logic minimization), 1096 SNOBOL (computer language), 894
Sitnikov, Kirill A. (Russia, 1926- ) Snow
and 3-body problem, 973 character of, 993
Six-vertex model Snowflake pattern
as exactly soluble, 1133 and 2D cellular automaton, 171
SixJSymbol (6j symbol) and 2D substitution system, 188
and spin networks, 1055 Snowflakes, 370
SK machines that are the same, 992
and combinators, 898 history of studies of, 992
Skeletons issues in modelling, 364, 366
forms of animal, 420 as motivating question, 17
of radiolarians, 1011 SO(3)
Skepticism and spin networks, 1055
and teleology, 1185 SO(8) lattice
Sketches isotropy of, 980
and visual perception, 1076 SO(d)
Skewes number and spin, 1046
and numbers of primes, 910 Soap bubbles
Skewing transformations, 933 packings of, 988
Skin Soap films
pattern of cells in, 1007 vs. Einstein equations, 1052
see also Pigmentation patterns fluid flow in, 999
Skolem, A. Thoralf (Norway, 1887-1963) in packings, 988
and non-standard arithmetic, 1169 shapes of, 1009
and set theory, 1154 turbulence in, 377
Skulls Soap foams
process of growth of, 1010 evolution of, 1039
related by transformations, 1010 Soccer ball
Skunk as defining curved space, 532
pigmentation pattern of, 426 as spherical network, 1049
Slash-dot (/.) Social animals
basic examples of, 854 and communication, 1180
Sleep, 1100 Social sciences
Sliding-block codes and complex systems, 862
as cellular automata, 961 and defining complexity, 1068
Slime molds and game theory, 1104
 Gaussian distribution in, 977 for cellular automata, 869
historical foundations for, 1135 Sound waves
and history of statistics, 1082 in fluids, 1000
mechanistic explanations in, 1185 Soundex system, 1100
quantitative laws in, 1014 Sounds
summary of relations to, 9, 863 properties of, 1079
Socrates (Greece, ~470-399 BC) Space
and purpose in nature, 1185 continuity of in geometry, 1154
Sofic systems, 958 curved, 531
Softshell defining dimension of, 1030
pigmentation pattern on, 426 and defining motion, 521
Software history of discrete, 1027
defining complexity of, 1069 locality in, 518
design of as motivation, 18 and matter, 474, 1028
for experiments in this book, 856 and motion of particles, 529
vs. genetic programs, 383, 1003 with negative curvature, 1049
and history of computing, 1108 as a network, 475-480, 530-537
intuition from, 872 as stable background, 517
in practical computers, 1108 in ultimate theory of physics, 468, 472-486, 516-524
used in producing book, 852 see also Geometry
Soil samples Space (outer)
tests for life in martian, 1179 features of Earth from, 835, 1187
Solar Space complexity, 1142
see Sun Space-filling curves
Solar system and the continuum, 1127
randomness in, 973 and defining dimension, 1030
see also Planets and image compression, 1072
Solid mechanics parametrization of, 935
as model for animal growth, 1010 and paths of caterpillars, 1011
Solid-state physics and storage of strings, 1101
and quantum theory, 1056 and substitution systems, 893
Solids Space groups, 929
atomic-scale features on, 1193 Space networks, 475-480
breaking of, 374-375 evolution of, 508-515
extraterrestrials based on, 1180, 1190 Spacecraft
growth of crystals of, 369 complex trajectories for, 1183
history preserved in, 1184, 1195 as first contact with extraterrestrials, 1190
and memory, 823 and general relativity, 1048
modelled with springs, 374 landings on Moon of, 1180
and repeatable randomness, 976 plaques on, 1190
surfaces of and crystal growth, 993 self-reproducing, 876
Solitons supposed sightings of alien, 1180
and computational irreducibility, 1132 Spacefiller (in Game of Life), 965
and conservation laws in PDEs, 1023 Spacelike hypersurfaces, 1041
and elementary particles, 1044 and initial value general relativity, 1053
and experimental math, 899 Spacelike slices, 1041
and Fermi-Pasta-Ulam experiment, 1020 in causal networks, 516
optical for SETI, 1189 Spaceship gun (in Game of Life), 965
and sine-Gordon equation, 163 Spaceships (in Game of Life), 964
slowing of randomization by, 970 and emulating Nand, 1117
as topological defects, 1045 Spacetime
Solomonoff, Ray J. (USA, 1926- ) curvature in, 534
and algorithmic randomness, 1068 see also Gravity
Solutions see also Space
exact, 1133 Spacetime code, 1027
Sonar data, 1183 Spacetime entropies, 960
Songs and repetitive behavior, 954
of birds, 826, 1180 and rule 30 encryption, 1087
of whales, 826, 1180 Spacings
Sonic booms, 984 of random matrix eigenvalues, 977
Sonification of zeros in sine functions, 917
and auditory perception, 1080 of zeros in zeta function, 918
of cellular automata, 869 Spain
Sophistication of computations ornamental art in, 873, 874
see Principle of Computational Equivalence Spanning trees
Sort and drainage patterns, 1001
algorithms for, 1142 Sparks
lower bound on, 1143 as source of randomness, 302, 969
and multiway system, 1036 Sparse computation
networks for, 1142 in Game of Life, 949
NP completeness in verifying algorithms for, 1145 Spatial entropy, 958
randomized algorithms for, 1192 Spearman, Charles E. (England, 1863-1945)
and sequential substitution system, 894 and defining intelligence, 1178
and simple model of space, 518 Special functions (of mathematical physics), 1092
in states of multiway systems, 937 and computational reducibility, 1132
and substitution system, 502 curves from, 145
Souls difficulty of evaluating, 1134
as defining features of life, 1178 Special-purpose devices
Sound for cellular automata, 868
in 2D, 923 and shift registers, 974
and animal communication, 1180 Special relativity
emitted in fracture processes, 995 see Relativity theory
Sound compression, 1080 Species (biological), 1003
lossy, 572 Spectra
Sound effects of cellular automata, 1082
and auditory perception, 1079 and defining randomness, 1068
Sound perception, 585-588 in natural systems, 969
Sound representation of nested 2D patterns, 1082
 of nested mechanical systems, 1081
of noise, 968
of number theory functions, 911
properties of, 1080
of random walks, 977
and recognizing chaos, 972
of substitution systems, 586, 1080
of Weierstrass functions, 918
Spectra (atomic)
and quantum history, 1056
Spectral test
for linear congruential generators, 974
Spectrum (radio)
uses of, 1188
Speculative markets, 430, 1015
Speech
compression of, 1080
generation of in brains, 826
and hidden Markov models, 1084
recognition of, 1100
as recognizable radio signal, 1188
sounds of, 585, 1079
Speed of light, 1041
and causal networks, 520
expansion of universe at, 1056
and information transmission, 518
invariance of, 523
and quantum effects, 543
and speed of gravity, 1047
Speed of sound, 997
Speed-up theorems, 1134
Speedups
and computational irreducibility, 743
in multiway systems, 1176
in Turing machines, 764
Spell-checking systems, 1100
Spelling
and soundex system, 623
Spencer Brown, George (England/USA, 1923- )
and axioms for logic, 1175
and Laws of Form, 1173
Sperm, 970
Sphere packing, 986
and codes, 1101
and cores of proteins, 1003
difficulty of, 349
and isotropy of lattices, 980
and lattices, 930
and pollen grains, 1011
and radiolarians, 1011
random, 986
Spheres
configurations of charges on, 1146
d-dimensional, 1091
and defining scalar curvature, 534
lattice points inside, 910
vs. Lorentzian spaces, 1051
networks approximating, 480
volumes of, 1050
Spherical networks, 1049
SphericalHarmonicY
and isotropy measures, 980
Spider webs
as animal artifacts, 1184
patterns in, 1011
Spike trains (for neurons), 1075
repeatability of, 976
Spin (in quantum theory), 1046
and Bell's inequalities, 1064
of elementary particles, 1043
in quantum computers, 1147
Spin-flip transitions, 1187
Spin foams, 1055
Spin glasses
and Boolean networks, 937
and computational irreducibility, 1132
ground states of, 944
NP completeness in, 1146
Spin networks, 1055
and discrete space, 1027
and loop quantum gravity, 1054
Spin-statistics connection, 1046
Spin systems
vs. cellular automaton fluids, 999
and computational irreducibility, 1133
and discrete quantum mechanics, 1060
as systems based on constraints, 944
undecidability in, 1138
see also Ising model
see also Lattice gases
Spines on shells, 1008
Spinning
as source of randomness, 970
Spinning top
as exactly soluble, 1133
Spinodal decomposition, 980
Spinors, 1046
as basic quantum feature, 1059
as formulation of general relativity, 1048
Spinoza's God, 1196
Spiral galaxies, 1021
Spiral waves
in reaction-diffusion CAs, 1013
Spirals
in animal horns, 413
in constraint searches, 941
and general study of form, 967
in hopper crystals, 993
vs. nesting, 357
in plant phyllotaxis, 408
in shells, 1008
as space-filling curves, 935
and substitution systems, 192
Spirits
and animism, 845, 1195
Spirograph-like patterns
in astronomy, 1187
Splashes, 377
as art, 839
as fluid phenomena, 1000
repetitive patterns in, 988
Splicing
in DNA sequences, 1184
Splines, 1084
Split (split list)
basic example of, 853
and cyclic tag systems, 895
and iterative run-length encoding, 905
and minimal finite automata, 957
and nested patterns, 931
and run-length encoding, 1070
in sparse Life, 949
and Turing machine 1507, 1144
Spontaneous generation (of life), 1179
Spontaneous magnetization
in Ising model, 981
Spontaneous organization, 223
Spontaneous symmetry breaking
and particle masses, 1047
in phase transitions, 983
Sporadic groups, 945
Spores
as origin of life, 1179
Spots
origin of on animals, 428
Spread spectrum communications, 1086, 1188
Springs
characteristic shapes of, 1183
nested arrangements of, 1081
Sqrt (square root)
and computational reducibility, 747
computing, 141, 913
and constructible reals, 1129
continued fractions for, 144
cryptanalysis of, 1089
digit sequences under, 731
digits of, 139
and generating function for rule 150R, 1018
as growth rate for mobile automaton, 72
as growth rate for rule 225, 885
as growth rate for TM, 888
and Julia sets, 933
machine for computing, 1107
nested, 915
and random walks, 977
randomness in digits of, 967
register machine for, 1114
and standard deviation of Gaussian, 977
see also Quadratic irrationals
see also Sqrt[n] for specific n
Squags (Steiner quasigroups), 1171
enumeration of, 805
Squalls
as origins of randomness, 301
Square-free sequences, 944
and cyclic tag systems, 895
Square lattices
cellular automata on, 170
isotropy on, 980
random walks on, 329
TMs on, 184
Square roots
of cellular automata, 956
Squares
numbers as sums of, 135, 910
Squaring
cellular automaton for, 639, 1109
digit sequences under, 731
and quadratic congruential generators, 975
repeated for powers, 615, 1093
sequences, 1090
Turing machines for, 1144
see also Quadratic residue sequences
Squaring the circle, 1137
Squashy objects
packing of, 988
Squid
visual system of, 1075
Staatliche Museum, Berlin, 873
Stability
in financial systems, 430
of matter, 1059
from randomness, 266
topological, 1045
Stable state
from random initial conditions, 224
Stacks
and context-free languages, 939
Stadium
and quantum chaos, 1056
in whimsical description, 850
Staffelbach, Othmar J. (Switzerland, 1952- )
and cryptanalysis of rule 30, 1087
Staircases
in block emulations, 1118
characteristic shapes of, 1183
Standard deviation
of Gaussian distribution, 976
Standard mathematical functions, 1091
computational reducibility of, 744
and continuous computation, 731, 1128
curves from, 145
and digit cryptography, 1089
and exact solutions, 1133
vs. normal numbers, 912
patterns from, 747, 870
and rational integrals, 916
and three-body problem, 972
see also Mathematical functions
Standard Model (of particle physics), 1025
elementary particles in, 1043
and gauge theories, 1045
origins of mass in, 1047
StandardForm
issues in designing, 1182
for programs in notes, 854
Star forts
nested architecture of, 874
Star Trek
extraterrestrials in, 1191
Starfish
shape of, 385
symmetries in, 1007
Stars
as approximate spheres, 1187
formation of, 455, 1021
in general relativity, 1053
as parts of giant artifacts, 834
with planets, 1179
suitable for extraterrestrials, 1191
in three-body problem, 973
total light from in night sky, 1021
State space
of cellular automata, 275, 869, 959
State transition graphs
for cellular automata, 961
for Markov processes, 1084
for shift registers, 1089
States
of cellular automata, 865
in quantum theory, 1056
States of matter
as analogy for CA classes, 235
Stationary phase approximation
in path integrals, 1061
Statistical estimates
in cellular automata, 953
Statistical fluctuations
and shot noise, 968
Statistical independence
and Central Limit Theorem, 976
Statistical mechanics
book about as early inspiration, 17, 864
and complexity in science, 861
and defining randomness, 1067
emergence of simple laws in, 1025
and existence of formulas, 1132
and financial markets, 1015
foundations of and randomness, 967
Gaussian distributions in, 977
history of, 1020
and history of statistics, 1082
models for fracture from, 995
Monte Carlo methods in, 1192
origins of irreversibility in, 441
and path integrals, 1061
and pattern formation, 947
phase transitions in, 981
summary of relations to, 16
use of in studying CAs, 961
Statistics, 588-596
complexity of models in, 1068
and cryptanalysis, 1085
of data in 2D, 591
and defining randomness, 1067
history of, 1082
of human behavior, 1014
and isocorrelation textures, 1078
and neural networks, 1100
of proteins, 1184
of rule 30 center column, 871
as tests for fraud, 1184
and texture discrimination, 1077
as way to avoid complexity, 861
as way to avoid randomness, 967
of written languages, 1181
Steam engines
linkages in, 1129
and thermodynamics, 1019
Steel
fracture in, 994
Stein, Paul R. (USA, 1924-1990)
and iterated maps, 918
Steiner quasigroups (squags), 1171
Steiner triple systems, 1171
Stems of plants, 400
vs. antlers, 1008
Stereograms
random dot, 1076
Stevens, Peter S. (USA, 1936- )
and patterns in nature, 967
StieltjesGamma
difficulty of evaluating, 1134
Stigmergy (local rules for animals), 1184
and aggregation systems, 1011
Still Lifes (persistent structures in Life), 964
Stimulated emission, 1195
Stimulus-response
as definition of life, 823
and human thinking, 1099
undecidability in, 1138
Weber's law in, 1014
StirlingS1 (Stirling numbers)
pattern generated by, 870
StirlingS2 (Stirling numbers)
pattern generated by, 870
Stirring
as source of randomness, 969
Stochastic analysis, 587, 1081
Stochastic differential equations
and cybernetics, 862
Stochastic models, 968
and external randomness, 299
see also Probabilistic models
Stock market prices, 429, 1014
Stokes, George G. (England, 1819-1903)
and fluid flow past a sphere, 998
Stokes lines
for mathematical functions, 917
Stone, Paper, Scissors game, 1105
Stone Age
art, 839, 874
 stone circles, 1184 Structural stability
stone tools, 1183 and history of chaos, 971
Stoneham, Richard G. (USA, 1920-1996) Structuralism
and normal numbers, 912 and theories of communication, 1181
Stonehenge, 829, 1184 Structurally-stable defects, 1045
Stopping problems Structure-property relationships for chemicals, 1194
see Halting problems Structure theorems
Stored-program computers, 1108 and integrals, 1177
and history of universality, 1110 Structure transformations
Storms in symbolic systems, 102
as origins of randomness, 301 Structures
Strange attractors in class 4 systems, 281-296
for differential equations, 961 form of in architecture, 967
vs. thermodynamics, 1020 theory of in math, 1150
see also Chaos theory see also Localized structures
see also Class 3 behavior Student t-distribution
Strategies found by Monte Carlo methods, 1192
for combinatorial optimization, 985 Stunted trees
in game theory, 1104 as additive cellular automata, 878
for theorem proving, 1158 Sturgis, Howard E. (USA, 1936-1990)
Strawberries and register machines, 896
phyllotaxis in, 409 Sturmian sequences, 1081
Stream ciphers, 598 and block frequencies, 1084
and randomness generators, 975 and Fibonacci substitution system, 890
Streamlined objects in fluid flow, 998 SU(2)
Streams and spin, 1046
and landscape structure, 1001 and spinors, 1059
Streetlamps SU(2) x U(1) model, 1025
visible from space, 1187 SU(3)
Stress-energy tensor as gauge group in QCD, 1057
in Einstein equations, 1052 SU(n)
Stress patterns and 1/n expansion, 1040
around cracks, 995 and discrete quantum theory, 1060
Stretching Subclasses
and randomness, 306 within class 4 CAs, 948
String concatenation systems (correspondence systems), 757, 1139 Subdivision
String equations, 944, 1141 and data compression, 568
String figures Subdivision systems (substitution systems), 82
as constructed by rules, 875 2D, 187
String matching, 1101 Subformula property
String rewriting systems, 88, 894 and arrangement of proofs, 1155
and Church's Thesis, 1125 Subgraph matching
and history of universality, 1110 and network evolution, 1038
as idealization of math, 1150 NP completeness of, 1145
see also Multiway systems Subjective contours in visual perception, 578
see also Sequential substitution systems Sublimation
String theory (in physics) as phase transition, 981
and models of particles, 1044 Subordinate clauses, 1104
and nature of space, 1028 Suborganisms
not related to strings of elements, 1033 and biological evolution, 1002
particle types in, 1047 Subsequences
and quantum gravity, 1054 frequencies of, 1084
and quantum history, 1058 repeating, 1072
as ultimate theory of physics, 1025 Subset relation
StringJoin as generating posets, 1041
and correspondence systems, 1139 Subshifts of finite type (finite complement languages), 941
StringLength 2D generalizations of, 959
and correspondence systems, 1140 and excluded blocks in CAs, 958
StringPosition and repetitive states in CAs, 954
and generalized substitution systems, 1033 Substitution
StringReplace and structure of proofs, 775, 1155
and multiway systems, 937 see also ReplaceAll
vs. sequential substitution systems, 894 Substitution ciphers, 1085
and substitution systems, 889 Substitution systems, 82-87
StringReplacePart 2D, 187-192
and generalized substitution systems, 1033 and animal growth, 420
and multiway systems, 937 and attractor structures, 959
Strings as basic origin of nesting, 357
of balanced parentheses, 989 and billiard trajectories, 971
matching of in memory, 621 and CA encodings, 1119
in multiway systems, 937 and causal networks, 497
non-overlapping, 503, 1033 and computational reducibility, 1134
overlaps in, 503 and continued fractions, 914
undecidability of problems about, 1138 d-dimensional, 932, 1091
Strings (physical) and data compression, 568
in musical instruments, 1079 and digit sequences, 891
Stripes in embryo development, 1009
origin of on animals, 429 emulated by CAs, 659, 1111
and transition in rule 184, 338 emulated by TMs, 765
Striping (bitslicing) emulating CAs, 666
and implementing CAs, 866 with equal block frequencies, 594
Stroke (Sheffer) and evaluation chains, 1095
as notation for Nand, 1173 finite automata for patterns from, 1091
Strong coupling formulas for patterns from, 608
and path integrals, 1061 and genealogical trees, 1002
Strong interactions (in particle physics), 1025, 1057 as generators of digit sequences, 913
Strouhal number, 998 geometrical, 189-192
Structural landforms, 1001 see also Geometrical substitution systems
 that get to any string, 1035 Supernovas, 1188
history of, 893 Superposition
implementation of, 889 in cellular automata, 952
implementation of generalized, 1033 and nested patterns, 955
initial conditions from, 272 and PDEs, 923
in iterated run-length encoding, 905 and quantum computers, 1148
and lines on rasters, 916 in quantum theory, 541, 1058
as model of crushing, 986, 996 of waves, 988
in music, 875, 1080 Supersonic flow, 377
neighbor-dependent, 85-87 in CA fluids, 1000
neighbor-dependent 2D, 192, 935 past cylinders, 999
neighbor-independent, 82-85 and Navier-Stokes equations, 997
neighbor-independent 2D, 187 sonic booms from, 984
network, 508-515 see also Shocks
for non-periodic tiling, 942 Superstitions
order of replacements in, 501 and animism, 1195
and paths, 892 Superstrings
and pattern-avoiding sequences, 944 see String theory
and plant branching, 400, 1005 Supersymmetry
probabilistic, 1084 as basis for models, 1025
random, 969 particles in models with, 1043, 1047
random initial conditions in, 949 and quantum gravity, 1054
randomness in, 88 and vacuum fluctuations, 1062
relation to cyclic tag systems, 895 Supervised learning, 1102
relation to iterated maps, 921 Surface tension
relation to multiplication, 903 and crystal growth, 993
relation to tag systems, 93 and packing, 988
for rule 90 pattern, 609 in radiolarians, 1011
for rule 150 pattern, 609 and soap foams, 1039
sequential, 88-92 Surfaces
see also Sequential substitution systems of crystals, 993
and shapes of leaves, 401 curvature of, 1049
and sine curves, 147, 917 discretization of, 1050
space of possible, 406 geodesics on, 531, 1049
spectra of, 586, 1080 metrics for, 1048
and systems based on constraints, 942 and repeatable randomness, 976
and texture generation, 1077 roughness of, 996
and visual perception, 583 see also Solids
and Walsh functions, 1073 Surjectivity
see also Multiway systems in cellular automata, 280, 959
SubsuperscriptBox undecidability of, 1138
and nested patterns, 932 Surreal numbers
Successor function as generalizing numbers, 1168
in arithmetic axioms, 1152 and runs of digits, 914
Succulents Suture lines
phyllotaxis in, 409 in skulls, 1010
Sugars Swell on oceans
and definition of life, 825 as repetitive behavior, 988
Sum Swindale, Nicholas V. (England/Canada, 1951- )
numbers generated from, 917 and pigmentation patterns, 1012
Sum (totalistic) rules, 60 Switch engine (in Game of Life), 965
Sumerians Switching circuits
art of, 43, 873 and Boolean functions, 1097
and constellations, 1187 and causal networks, 1033
Summaries of data, 548 Sycamore leaves, 401, 1006
Sun Syllogisms, 875, 1151
bending of light by, 1048 and quantifiers, 1152
circular shape of, 861, 875 Symbiosis
radiation from and weather, 1177 and biological evolution, 1002
radio signals from, 1187 Symbolic algebra
as source of radio noise, 1187 and computational reducibility, 1132
Sun Microsystems, xiii, 854, 881 see also Algebra
Sundial shell Symbolic computation
growth of, 415 and proof in operator systems, 801
Sundman, Karl F. (Finland, 1873-1949) see also Computer algebra
and three-body problem, 972 Symbolic descriptions
Sunspots and discreteness in programs, 976
1/f spectrum of, 969 Symbolic dynamics
radio noise from, 1187 and arithmetic coding, 1071
Superconductors and cellular automata, 960
phase transition in, 981 and history of CAs, 878
phyllotaxis-like patterns in, 1007 and history of iterated maps, 919
Supercooling and origin of substitution systems, 893
and crystallization, 992 Symbolic expressions
Superelliptic Diophantine equations, 1164 and computer communication, 1182
Superexponential growth in Mathematica, 1103
and real algebra, 1154 to represent integers, 1121
in TM running times, 763 structure of, 896
Superfluidity Symbolic formulas
in neutron stars, 1188 for cellular automata, 869
phase transition in, 981 and computability, 1128
Supergravity theories and history of universality, 1109
and space vs. contents, 1028 for iterated maps, 1098
Superimposing grids at different angles, 1078 see also Exact solutions
Supernatural being Symbolic integration, 1177
as creator of complexity, 3, 861 Symbolic logic
and free will, 752 see Logic
see also God Symbolic notation, 1182
Symbolic programming
in Mathematica, 853
Symbolic representation
of infinity, 788
Symbolic systems, 102
based on networks, 898
combinators as, 711
confluence in, 1036, 1113
emulating CAs, 668, 1113
history of, 898
implementation of, 896
and operator systems, 1172
test for universality of, 1123
tree representation of, 897
and valuation functions, 916
Symmetric cellular automata
in 1D, 886
in 2D, 928
Symmetric differences
and second-order CAs, 1018
Symmetric graphs, 1032
Symmetric matrices
in neural networks, 1102
Symmetry
in aggregation systems, 979
in alkane molecules, 1194
between space and time, 485
in biological organisms, 1007
and CA discrete space, 1027
and constraints on network rules, 509
of crystals, 993
of exact solutions, 1133
in fossil organisms, 1179
and general study of form, 967
and isotropy on lattices, 980
and maximum periods, 950
in ornamental art, 872
of particles in physics, 528
and phase transitions, 981, 983
in plants, 1007
in quasicrystals, 994
of random biological patterns, 1013
in snowflakes, 992
and sphere packings, 987
and state transition graphs, 962
of tilings, 943
Synapses, 1075
and memory, 1102
randomness in, 970
Synchronic linguistics, 1181
Synchronization
in practical computing, 1035
in the universe, 486
Synchrotron radiation, 1187
Synergetics
and history of complexity, 862
and reaction-diffusion, 1013
Synoptic weather maps, 1178
Syntax
CA as checker of, 1109
for computer communication, 1182
and context-free languages, 1103
of formal languages, 939
of math, 1150
and semiotics, 1181
Synthesis (chemical), 1194
Synthesizers (audio)
waveforms in, 1079
Syracuse problem (3n+1 problem), 904
Syrinxes of songbirds, 1180
System identification, 550, 1083
Systems theory
definitions of complexity in, 1069
and history of complexity, 862
summary of relations to, 15
Systolic arrays
and history of CAs, 877
Szmielew, Wanda M. (Poland/USA, 1918-1976)
and commutative groups, 1160
Szudzik, Matthew P. (USA, 1973- )
and axioms for logic, 1151
in Preface, xii
T violation (time reversal violation), 1019
T1 and T2 processes in networks, 1038
Table
basic examples of, 853
Tables
for Boolean formulas, 1095
leading digits in, 914
of primes, 910
of random numbers, 968
see also Multiplication tables
Tabulating machines, 1107
Tachyons, 1041
spin of, 1046
Taffy
as chaos theory example, 306
fracture in, 994
Tag systems, 93-94
cyclic, 95
see also Cyclic tag systems
density in, 894
emulated by correspondence systems, 1140
emulated by recursive functions, 1121
emulated by universal TM, 706, 1119
emulating CAs, 667, 1113
emulating TMs, 670, 1114
implementation of, 894
multiway, 1141
one-element-dependence, 1114
as precursors to my work, 879
random initial conditions in, 949
and TM 596440, 1120
undecidability in, 1136
uniform, 82
see also Substitution systems
universality in simple, 1120
universality of one-element dependence, 1120
Tail recursion
and recursive functions, 907
Tails (of data), 1083
Taj Mahal
nesting in gardens of, 874
Take (take elements)
basic example of, 853
Tally sticks
and application of randomness, 968
Tan
curve of, 145
Tang, Chao (USA, 1958- )
and self-organized criticality, 989
Tangencies
in circle packings, 986
in ornamental art, 873
Tanh
in neural network models, 1102
and solving Ising model, 982
Taoism, 1196
Tape
of Turing machine, 78
Tapir
pigmentation pattern of, 426
Taps in shift registers, 975
Tarski, Alfred (Poland/USA, 1902-1983)
and axioms for geometry, 1154
and axioms for groups, 1153
and axioms for predicate logic, 1152
and real algebra, 1154
and undecidability of group theory, 1159
Taste
sense of, 1105
Tate-Shafarevich group, 1164
Tau lepton
mass of, 1046
as type of particle, 1043
Tautologies
based on Nand, 781, 1157
Tautology
laws of, 817
Tea leaves, 968
Tearing of materials, 995
Technical analysis
of financial markets, 1015
Technology
components used in, 1195
dating of jargon about, 849
discussions of in this book, 1192
future of, 832
history of vs. fossil record, 398
and human condition, 846
implications for, 840-843
new purposes for, 843
and Occam's razor, 1025
optimization in advanced, 829
search-based development of, 1193
as stimulus for basic science, 42
 summary of relations to, 11, 863 Tertiary structure (of proteins), 1003, 1184
TECO (text editor), 894 Terza rima
Tectonic activity, 1001 and rules for poetry, 875
Teeth Tesla, Nikola (USA, 1856-1943)
folding in formation of, 417 and SETI, 1188, 1189
patterns in ray and shark, 1007 Tessellation automata
Teichmüller spaces (parameter spaces), 1006 see Cellular automata
Telegraphy Tessellations
and data compression, 1069 defined by constraints, 213
and SETI, 1189 of fixed blocks, 582
Teleology, 1185 Tests of models, 364
and argument by design, 861 Tests of randomness, 1084
and biological evolution, 387 for digit sequences, 912
Telepathy for rule 30, 871
as feature of extraterrestrials, 1190 Tetrad formulation of general relativity, 1048
Telephone Tetradecahedron, 930, 987, 988
bandwidth of, 1079 Tetrahedral group (A_4)
development of, 1080 with trivalent Cayley graph, 1032
and sound compression, 1072 Tetrahedron
Telephone information services, 1100 as cluster shape in sphere packings, 986
Telephone networks network as net of, 476
Monte Carlo studies of, 1192 network transformed to cube, 1038
Teleportation, 1058 as rigid 3D structure, 1031
Telescopes in spin networks, 1055
as analogy, 42 as tip of plant stem, 1004
and SETI, 835 Tetrakaidecahedron
Television see Tetradecahedron
bandwidth of, 1079 Tetration
data compression for, 1072 and Ackermann function, 906
as source of radio signals, 1188 and halting in symbolic systems, 897
Telos (final cause), 1185 and symbolic systems, 897
Temperament (in music), 917, 1079 Text
Temperature compression of, 1084
of black holes, 1062 in databases, 621
as characterizing equilibrium, 450 in practical computers, 1108
in crystal growth, 993 redundancy of, 1086
differences in convection, 1000 Text-based interfaces, 1102
in Ising model, 982 Text editors, 88, 894
repeatable randomness in, 976 Textbooks
and weather, 1177 and computational irreducibility, 1133
Templates of computer science and Church's Thesis, 1126
for 2D constraints, 941 math in, 773
in aggregation systems, 978 Textile cone shell
and hash codes in neural networks, 624 pattern on, 423
in tilings, 213 Textile making
in visual perception, 579 rules in, 874
Temporal logics Textons
and causal invariance, 1035 and texture perception, 1076
Temporal sequences Texture perception, 577
in cellular automata, 960 history of, 1076
TensorRank Textures
and tensors in differential geometry, 1049 in biology, 387
Tensors generating, 841, 1078
characterizing symmetry of pattern, 980 of physical surfaces, 1077
in differential geometry, 1049 Texturing
duals of, 1050 use of randomness in, 1192
Einstein equations and, 1052 Thallus
manipulation of, 1048 shape of, 385
norms of, 1050 Theism, 1195
Tent map, 150 Theology
exact iterates of, 919 and complexity, 3, 861
and history of chaos theory, 971 and form of extraterrestrials, 1191
Tent olive shell and free will, 1135
pattern on, 423 and issues of modelling, 991
Tent patterns on shells, 423 and teleology, 1185
Tentacles and ultimate theory of physics, 1025
of octopus, 385 and uniqueness of life on Earth, 1180
and spines on shells, 1008 and universe as intelligent, 1195
Term rewrite systems see also God
see Multiway systems see also Religion
Termination Theophrastus (Greece, ~371 - ~287 BC)
of function computations, 1163 and shapes of leaves, 1005
in multiway systems, 1036 Theorems, 779
problems automated proving of, 1157
see Halting problems see also Automated theorem proving
in symbolic systems, 897 character of different types, 820
Termite structures vs. computer experiments, 899
and aggregation systems, 1011 and definition of math, 860
as animal artifacts, 1184 distributions of in fields of math, 1175
Ternary general characterizations of, 1176
binary-coded, 1070 interesting ones in logic, 816
Ternary cellular automata, 60 involving Nand, 818, 1175
Ternary logic, 814 in operator systems, 801
Ternary operators, 1171 pattern of in logic, 812
Terraces in crystals (hoppering), 993 pattern of in simple axiom systems, 812
Territories of shortest axioms for logic, 811
defending and bird songs, 1180 Theoretical biology
and Voronoi diagrams, 987 and complexity, 861
 history of, 1003 and pointer-based encoding, 1071
undecidability in, 1138 and testing invariances, 1022
Theoretical science and testing reversibility, 1017
and computational reducibility, 749 Thue, Axel (Norway, 1863-1922)
traditional methods of, 737 and circle packings, 985
Theory of being (ontology) and Diophantine equations, 1164
implications for, 1197 and multiway systems, 938
Theory of biology and repetition-free sequences, 944
possibilities for a, 397 and substitution systems, 879, 893
Theory of computation, 753 and word problem for semigroups, 1141
Theory of everything, 1025 Thue equations, 1164
Theory of knowledge (epistemology) Thue-Morse sequence, 890
implications for, 1196 atomic layers in, 1082
Theory of structures as cube-free sequence, 944
in mathematics, 1150 and cyclic tag systems, 895
Theory of universe generating function for, 1092
see Ultimate theory of physics and period-doubling sequence, 892
Thermal diffusion represented by special functions, 1092
and randomization times, 970 rule 60 applied to, 1091
Thermal equilibrium simplest CA generating, 1186
in early universe, 1055 spectrum of, 586, 1081
and Ising model, 982 statistics of blocks in, 594
see also Equilibrium from substitution system, 83
Thermal noise, 968 and Walsh functions, 1073
in microprocessors, 970 Thunderstorms
Thermal perception, 1105 1/f noise in, 969
Thermodynamic formalism (for dynamical systems), 959 Thwaites conjecture (3n+1 problem), 904
Thermodynamic limit Tic-tac-toe
for diffusion equation, 1024 network for, 939
and phase transitions, 983 Tidal forces
Thermodynamics and Einstein equations, 1052
analogies to computation, 726 Tides
vs. biological evolution, 1003 machine for predicting, 1107
of computation, 1020 TIFF format
and crystal growth, 993 compression in, 1070
and defining life, 824, 1178 Tiger
history of, 1019 pigmentation pattern of, 426
and history of complexity, 862 Tilings, 211-221
Second Law of, 441-457 from 2 x 2 squares, 1078
see also Second Law of Thermodynamics and aggregation systems, 979
vs. strange attractors, 1020 approximate solutions of, 345
summary of relations to, 16 and cellular automata, 943, 1139
Theta functions as cellular automaton lattices, 930
see EllipticTheta density of difficult cases of, 1147
Thinking diffraction patterns of, 1082
attributed to universe, 1195 enumeration of, 959
communication and, 1181 of fixed blocks, 582
emulation by computers of, 733 history of, 943
and foundations of math, 1176 in hyperbolic space, 1050
and Gödel's Theorem, 1159 as invariant states of 2D CAs, 349
in higher math, 1177 and Ising models, 1138
history of studying, 1099 and melting points, 1194
human, 620-631 NP completeness in, 984, 1145
influence of language on, 1181 Penrose, 932
logic as representation of, 860 see also Penrose tilings
machines, 628 and reversibility of 2D CAs, 1017
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 733 Truchet, 875
and ultimate theory of universe, 465 undecidability in, 1138, 1139
Thinking Machines Corporation, xiii, 881 see also Domino problems
Thirteenth problem (of Hilbert), 1128 Time
Thom, René F. (France, 1923-[2002]) alignment of in universe, 1021
in Preface, xiii branching in, 504
and structure in animals, 1009 compression in PDEs, 732
and theoretical biology, 1004 computation between moments of, 1033
Thompson, D'Arcy W. (Scotland, 1860-1948) and definition of motion, 521
and forms in nature, 967 discreteness in, 1032
and growth processes, 1010 graphical representation of, 1031
and leaf shapes, 1006 in gravity and computation, 1130
and theoretical biology, 1004 in Hopi language, 1181
Thomson, William network for in multiway systems, 209
see Kelvin and randomness in causal networks, 494
Threads between particles, 544 in relation to space, 481-486
Three-body problem, 972 and single active cell, 487
and computational irreducibility, 1132 in ultimate theory of physics, 486-508, 516-524
and history of chaos, 971 Time-and-motion studies
and history of complexity, 862, 1068 and causal networks, 1033
as precursor to my work, 879 Time complexity (in computational complexity theory), 1142
randomness in, 314 Time dilation (relativistic), 524
and undecidability, 1138 Time Machine (science fiction book), 1031
Three-dimensional Time reversal
cellular automata, 182-183 in particle physics, 1019
networks, 195, 1030 and thermodynamics, 443, 1020
wave equation, 923 Time series analysis, 587, 1081, 1083
Three squares problem, 910 Time standards
Through as source of radio signals, 1188
and recursive functions, 907 Time travel, 1043
Throw and character of time, 1031
and context-free parsing, 1103 and energy conditions, 1053
TimeConstraint
and avoiding undecidability, 1138
Timeline
of close approaches, 878
of my scientific activities, 864
of publications of mine, 881
of writing this book, 850
Times
combinator for, 1122
and NC computations, 1149
in ordering of math constructs, 1177
primitive recursive definition of, 907
Tippett, Leonard H. C. (England, 1902-1985)
and random number tables, 968
Tire treads
characteristic shapes of, 1183
Tit-for-tat strategy
in game theory, 1104
Titan
and extraterrestrial life, 1179
TMs
see Turing machines
Toda lattice
as exactly soluble, 1133
Toes (animal)
formation of, 419
ToExpression
and parsing, 1103
Toffoli, Tommaso (Italy/USA, 1943- )
and 2D CA simulators, 928
and 2D cellular automata, 880
in Preface, xiii
Tokens
in formal languages, 1103
Tones
in music, 1079
Tongue
human, 1105
Tool use
and defining intelligence, 1178
Toom, Andrei (Russia/USA, 1942- )
and transitions in CAs, 981, 981'
Top (spinning)
as exactly soluble, 1133
Topochronology, 1027
Topography
and identifying artifacts, 1184
origins of, 1001
and weather, 1177
Topological defects, 1045
and localized structures, 990
Topological dimension, 1030
Topological entropy, 958, 959
computing, 1084
history of, 961
Topological equivalence
and reversible CAs, 961
Topological field theories
and defining dimension, 1031
and quantum computers, 1148
and spin networks, 1055
Topological indices
and chemical properties, 1195
Topological processes (T1 and T2)
in planar networks, 1038
Topological spacetime entropy, 960
Topological structure
and visual memory, 624
Topology
axioms for, 774, 1155
and biological form, 1004
and cellular automata, 930
and discrete space, 1050
and general relativity, 1052
of networks, 1045
and networks from continuous systems, 1031
of Schwarzschild solution, 1053
and texture perception, 1076
Topos theory
as idealization of math, 1150
Toppling
in sandpile model, 989
Torsion
in general relativity, 1052
in unified field theory, 1028
Tortoiseshell cats
patterns on, 1014
Tossing (of coins, etc.)
as source of randomness, 305, 968, 970
ToString
and bracket sequences, 897
Total functions
primitive recursive as, 907
in Turing machines, 1143
Total recursive functions
see Primitive recursive functions
Totalistic cellular automata, 60
2D, 170
and CellularAutomaton, 867
implementation of, 886
as not reversible, 1017
number of, 886
and pigmentation patterns, 1012
with random initial conditions, 233
universality in, 693, 1117
and visual feature extraction, 1077
Totient
see EulerPhi
Tournaments
of game programs, 1104
Towers of Hanoi puzzle, 893
Towns
see Cities
Toys
complex motion in, 1183
random motion in, 968
Tracery
in Gothic windows, 873
Tracks
made by turning vehicles, 418
Trading
effects of details of, 1015
with extraterrestrials, 1191
processes of, 430
Traffic flow
1/f noise in, 969
instabilities in road, 1014
Training
of animals, 825
and responses to events, 827
Trains of thought
and free will, 752
Transcendental equations
numbers defined by, 916
undecidability in, 1138
universality in, 731
Transcendental numbers, 912
constructed from digits, 914
continued fractions of, 144
digit sequences of, 136, 142
and Egyptian fractions, 915
as precursors to my work, 878
see also pi, e, etc.
Transfer matrices, 983
Transfinite hierarchy of formalisms, 1159
Transfinite induction, 1160
and Goodstein sequences, 1163
in set theory, 1154
Transfinite numbers, 1162
and abstraction in math, 792, 860, 1149
as generalizing numbers, 1168
Transformation rules
and axioms, 1150
examples of in Mathematica, 854
in Mathematica, 627, 1103
in symbolic systems, 102
Transients
in class 4 systems, 282
in code 20 cellular automaton, 964
in Game of Life, 965
in halting register machines, 896
and irreversibility in rule 37R, 454
for mobile automata, 887
in state transition graphs, 961
in three-body problem, 973
and undecidability, 754
Transistors
and Nand, 1173
Transitions
in class 4 systems, 948
in continuous CAs, 244, 948
see also Phase transitions
Transitivity
and confluence property, 1036
Translations
between languages, 1086
 between math systems, 816 machine for computing, 1107
of functions in logic, 807 nested functions from, 918
see also Emulation and origin of set theory, 1154
Transmutation and spectra of nested sequences, 1081
in alchemy, 861 Trigonometric sum formulas
Transponders of Ramanujan, 911
and radio signals, 1188 Trillion (as 1,000,000,000,000), 849
Transpose Trillions of rules
and Ricci from Riemann tensor, 1049 in finding doubling CAs, 832
Transposition sort, 1142 Trilobites
Trapezoidal primes, 911 as examples of evolution, 1003
Travelling salesman problem, 985, 1145 regularities in, 385
Tree Trinomial coefficients, 1091
backtracking, 1089 and rule 150 pattern, 611
Tree-like patterns Tripling cellular automata, 1186
in 2D cellular automata, 171 Trisection of angles, 1137
in 2D substitution systems, 188 Tritone (musical interval), 146, 917
in crystals, 371 Trivalent networks
in rule 184, 359 see Networks
see also Nesting Troy
Tree networks maze as logo for, 873
as having infinite dimension, 480 Truchet, Sébastien (Jean) (France, 1657-1729)
Trees and patterns from rules, 875
for address decoding on chips, 1183 True
alkane molecules as, 1194 defined with Or and Not, 817
as alternative to hashing, 1100 Nand statements equivalent to, 781
in animal branching structures, 1008 True but unprovable statements, 1167
and attractor structure, 959 TrueQ
balanced binary, 897, 898 and truth values, 1158
binary Truncated icosahedron
see Binary trees and spherical networks, 1049
as combinator expressions, 1123 Truncated octahedron
for computation of powers, 615 and 3D lattices, 930
depth of in expressions, 897 Trusses
and digit sequences, 891 characteristic shapes of, 1183
dynamic, 936 Truth
evolving in symbolic systems, 897 and computational irreducibility, 1196
expressions as, 897 and essential incompleteness, 1159
in Huffman coding, 1071 and incompleteness, 1167
in landscape structures, 1001 in math reached only by experiment, 899
Mathematica expressions as, 989 and theories of communication, 1181
Nand, 1096, 1157 and undecidability, 1136, 1139
networks forming, 196 Truth tables, 1170
as origins of nesting, 357 vs. axioms, 802
parse, 1103 in multiway systems, 1173
random, 1084 and satisfiability, 768
in recursive evaluation, 907 Truth values
for representing integers, 916 intermediate, 1175
space of possible, 405 and lack thereof, 1158
in state transition graphs, 961 Tubes
and structure of proofs, 1155 formation of inside animals, 417
and substitution systems, 84 in musical instruments, 1079
in transition graphs for additive rules, 963 Tulip bulbs
and understanding expressions, 1177 and speculative markets, 1015
Trees (botanical) Tumbling of microorganisms, 970
and Descartes on complexity, 861 Tumor growth, 1011
forms of, 401 aggregation system for, 978
growth of, 1004 Tuning
Trend-based weather prediction, 1178 musical, 917
Triangle inequality Tunnelling
and definition of distance, 1030 as basic quantum effect, 1059
Triangles Turaev-Viro invariants, 1055
in discrete space, 1051 Turbulence, 376
Lagrange points forming, 972 as analogy for quantum field theory, 1059, 1061
in ornamental art, 873 in atmosphere, 1001
produced by cellular automaton evolution, 24, 225, 947 in convection, 1000
produced in rule 30, 28 in flow of sand, 1001
Triangular lattice vs. fracture roughness, 994
cellular automata on, 930 in gravitational fields, 1053
percolation theory on, 983 and history of complexity, 862
random walks on, 329 and history of randomness, 968
Triangular waveform, 917 in interstellar medium, 1188
Triangulation as motivating question, 17
in GPS, 1086 numerical computation of, 924, 997
and quantum gravity, 1054 in QCD field configurations, 1061
of space, 533, 1050 and snowflake differences, 992
Tributaries sound of, 1079
building up rivers from, 359, 1001 as source of apparent intelligence, 837
TrigFactor traditional models of, 997
and sine curves, 917 in two dimensions, 999
Triggerfish Turing, Alan M. (England, 1912-1954)
pigmentation pattern of, 426 and animal pigmentation, 1012
Trigonometric equations and artificial intelligence, 1099
universality in, 731, 1129 and computable numbers, 1128, 1137
Trigonometric functions computer programs of, 1013
and shapes of leaves, 1006 and continuous computation, 1128
and undecidability, 1138 and defining computability, 1125
Trigonometric series and diagonal arguments, 1128
 and history of computers, 1107 time dilation in, 524
and oracles, 1126 Twin primes, 909
and origins of universality, 1110 unsolved problem of, 1166
and reaction-diffusion, 1012 Twinning
and theoretical biology, 879, 1004 in crystal growth, 993
and Turing machines, 879, 889 Twins
and undecidability, 1136 biometrics of, 1014
and undecidability of word problem, 1141 Twistor formulation of general relativity, 1048
and universal TM, 1119 Twitching in muscles
Turing completeness and free will, 1136
see Universality (computational) Two-body problem, 313, 972
Turing degrees (arithmetic hierarchy), 1139 and computational reducibility, 737
Turing machines, 78-81 as exactly soluble, 1133
2D, 184-186 in general relativity, 1053
attitude of Gödel towards, 1159 Two-cell neighborhood cellular automata, 885
attractors in, 961 Two-dimensional
axiom systems for, 1167 cellular automata, 170-181
and Church's Thesis, 1125 constraints, 211
compared to circuits, 1148 data compression, 568
and computable reals, 1128 mobile automata, 931
computing increment, 758 networks, 195
emulated by CAs, 658, 1111 random walks, 329
emulated by combinators, 1122 substitution systems, 187-192
emulated by Life, 1117 systems in general, 169-221
emulated by recursive functions, 1121 template numbering, 941
emulated by register machines, 671, 1114 Turing machines, 184-186
emulated by satisfiability, 1146 wave equation, 923
emulated by tag systems, 670, 1114 Two's complement number representation, 902, 942
emulating CAs, 665, 765, 1113 Tycho (crater)
emulating more colors, 669, 1113, 1119 circular shape of, 1187
emulating multiway systems, 765 Tylor, Edward B. (England, 1832-1917)
emulating rule 60, 1119 and animism, 1195
emulating rule 110, 707, 1119 Type theory
emulating substitution systems, 765 and category theory, 1154
enumeration of, 1120 Types
evolution of as P computation, 1142 of functions and data, 898
functions computed by small, 1143, 1144 U(1) (group)
and growth rates of functions, 1163 and additive systems, 953
growth rates of running times, 1145 U-numbers (Ulam sequences), 908
halting of one-way, 759 UFOs, 1180, 1183
halting probabilities for, 1143 Ukraine
halting problem for, 1137 art from, 873
history of, 889 Ulam, Stanislaw M. (Poland/USA, 1909-1984)
history of 2D, 930 and CAs, 876, 877, 879
and history of CAs, 876 and generalized CAs, 928
history of universal, 1119 and iterated maps, 918
and history of universality, 1110 in Preface, xiii
as idealization of math, 1150 and Ulam sequences, 908
implementation of, 888 Ulam sequences, 908
implementation of 2D, 930 Ulam's problem (3n+1 problem), 904
implementation of non-deterministic, 1146 Ultimate theory of physics, 465-545
initial conditions for, 710 and amount of information, 1133
localized structures in, 888 elementary particles in, 525-530
longest halting times for, 1144 and extraterrestrial trade, 1191
non-deterministic, 766, 939 general features of, 465-471
number of, 888 gravity in, 530-537
one-way, 759 history of, 1024
and oracles, 1126 mass in, 528
and P completeness, 1149 numerology and, 1025
paths in 3D from 2D, 931 quantum phenomena in, 537-545
as precursors to my work, 879 searching for, 466
quantum analogs of, 1147 space in, 472-486, 516-524
random initial conditions in, 949 and theology, 1025
and recursive sets, 1138 time in, 486-508, 516-524
with rule 60-like behavior, 1120 undecidability of consequences of, 1027
running times of, 761, 1143 uniqueness of, 470
and second-order logic, 1167 and universe as computer, 1026
simplest with complex behavior, 708-709, 1120 verifiability of, 469
small for elementary rules, 1113 Ultrafilters
state-color tradeoffs in, 888, 1120 and non-standard arithmetic, 1169
symmetries of, 1120 Ultraspherical functions
and time in universe, 486 and rule 150 pattern, 612
undecidability in, 1136 Unary operations
and universal CAs, 1115 and generalized additivity, 952
universality in simple, 706-711 Unary representation of numbers, 560, 1070
and word problem in groups, 1141 and CA fluids, 1000
Turing test (in AI), 1099, 1178 historical use of, 1182
Turmites (2D Turing machines), 930 in lambda calculus, 1121
Turning machines (2D Turing machines), 930 and NP completeness, 1145
Turns Unbiased estimators
and substitution system paths, 892 for entropy, 959, 1084
Turtles Unbounded growth
pigmentation patterns of, 426 in class 4 systems, 289
Turtles (artificial) in Game of Life, 965
and 2D Turing machines, 930 in rule 110, 293
and 3D paths, 931 Uncertainty principle, 1058
Tweeks (natural radio), 1187 as basic quantum effect, 1059
Twin paradox character of as principle, 1126
 and vacuum fluctuations, 1062
and virtual particles, 1046
Unconscious thinking, 1136
Undecidability, 753-757
in algebra, 1138
of algorithmic randomness, 1067
of applicability of Baker's method, 1164
of axiom system correctness, 1170
in biology, 1138
in cellular automata, 1138
in chemical synthesis, 1194
in classification of CAs, 948
in combinatorics, 1138
compared to math impossibility, 1137
of completion algorithms, 1037
in computer science, 1138
of confinement in QCD, 1062
of consequences of ultimate theory, 1027
of context-free language equivalence, 1103
degrees of, 1139
density of, 1137
Diophantine equation with, 786
of entropy values, 958
of equivalence in operator systems, 802
of equivalence of manifolds, 1051
of forcing of operators, 1172
in game theory, 1105
of halting problem, 1128
history of, 1136
vs. independence, 1159
in lambda calculus, 1136
in Mathematica, 1138
in mathematical logic, 1138
mentioned in psychology, 1136
in multiway systems, 779, 1136
in nature, 1138
as not relevant to nature, 1132
vs. NP completeness, 769
in number theory, 1138
in operator systems, 815
of phase transitions, 1138
in physics, 1138
of P=NP problem, 1146
and proofs, 779
in quadratic Diophantine equations, 1164
and quantum measurement, 1064
in recursive functions, 1136
and sets, 1138
of structure equivalence in networks, 1045
of surjectivity for 2D CAs, 960
in symbolic integration, 1177
in tag systems, 1136
and three-body problem, 1138
in tiling problems, 942, 1139
of undecidability, 1138
of universality, 1127
without universality, 734
in word problems, 1141
Undefined function values
in Turing machines, 1143
Unfailing completion algorithms, 1037
and automated proofs, 1158
Unified field theory (of Einstein), 1025, 1028
Unified models (in particle physics), 1043
Uniform distribution
and iterated maps, 919
and linear congruential generators, 320
mod 1, 903
of multiplicative sequences, 903
and plant phyllotaxis, 1007
of powers, 903
of sequences, 904
of unbounded quantities, 1070
Uniform sampling
as application of randomness, 1192
Uniform spectra, 1081
origins of, 988
Uniform tag systems, 893
see also Substitution systems
Uniformity
in hashing, 622
origins of, 353
in rule 254 cellular automaton, 24
visual approximations to, 1078
Union
basic example of, 853
and encoding integers as sets, 1160
and finite set theory, 1171
in multiway systems, 937
theorems about, 1168
Uniqueness
of humans, 1195
in Navier-Stokes, 997
of patterns from CAs, 956
of solutions to equations, 940
of solutions to PDEs, 923
of ultimate theory of physics, 470
Unitarity (in quantum mechanics), 1059
Unitary matrices
and quantum computers, 1147
Univalve shells, 1008
Universal algebra, 1171
of Whitehead, 1150
Universal cellular automata, 644-656, 1110
history of, 1115
and rule 110, 675-691
Universal circuits, 1148
Universal computation
see Universality
Universal constructor, 1193
Universal Diophantine equations, 786, 789, 1160
history of, 1161
and polynomial values, 1162
Universal languages
for extraterrestrial communication, 1189
and human thinking, 1099
and Leibniz, 1109, 1149
and logical positivism, 1181
and theories of communication, 1181
Universal objects, 724, 1127
Universal primitives
for logic, 1173
for multivalued logic, 1175
for quantum computers, 1148
for reversible logic, 1098
Universal register machines, 1121
Universal spaces
see Cellular automata
Universal system
in nanotechnology, 1193
Universal Turing machines
and cellular automata, 1115
Minsky's, 1119
and running times, 764
simple, 706
Universality (apparent)
history of, 967
of mathematics, 860
in models, 992
of natural systems, 298, 718
in nature and elsewhere, 4
Universality (computational), 5, 642-644
and algorithmic information, 1067
of arithmetic systems, 673
automated proving of, 1127
in axiom systems, 784
of cellular automata, 644
of cellular automata in 2D, 693
and class 4 behavior, 691
in classes of systems, 1123
in combinators, 711
and complexity, 643
and computational irreducibility, 742
in computer languages, 642
criteria for, 1126
in cyclic tag systems, 669
density of, 1126
difficulty of proving, 698, 722
in Diophantine equations, 1164
and financial markets, 1015
of general recursive functions, 907
of group theory, 1159
history of, 1109
implications of, 674
and intermediate degrees, 734
lack of with nesting, 734
lack of with repetition, 734
and language translation, 643
in Mathematica, 1110
of mobile automata, 664
and natural science, 643
as not relevant to nature, 1132
vs. NP completeness, 766
in operator systems, 815
and oracles, 1126
and P completeness, 1149
 of Peano axioms, 1152 Utah
of predicate logic, 1159 and features seen from space, 1187
and Principle of Computational Equivalence, 717 V1 visual cortex, 1075
proofs of, 722 Vacuum Einstein equations, 536, 1053
of pure predicate logic, 1152 Vacuum fluctuations, 540, 1062
of recursive functions, 1121 and Bell's inequalities, 1065
of register machines, 672 as source of decoherence, 1063
removed by adding axioms, 1159 Vacuum polarization, 1062
and reversibility, 1019 Vacuum tubes
of rule 30, 734 1/f noise in, 969
of sequential substitution systems, 667 and Nand, 1173
of substitution systems, 666 randomness in, 303, 971
of symbolic systems, 668 Valuation functions
in tag systems, 667, 1120 for trees, 916
in three-body problem, 972 Valuation tables (truth tables)
threshold of, 675 in operator systems, 801, 1170
threshold of in CAs, 694 Value sets of polynomials, 1161
in totalistic cellular automata, 693 van der Corput, Johannes G. (Netherlands, 1890-1975)
in Turing machines, 665, 706-711 and digit reversal sequences, 905
ubiquity of, 690, 718 van der Pol, Balthazar (Netherlands, 1889-1959)
and undecidability, 1137 and history of chaos, 971
undecidability of, 1127 van der Pol equation, 922, 971
Universality (critical phenomena) van der Poorten, Alfred J. (Australia, 1942- )
in iterated maps, 921 and nested digit sequences, 913
and phase transitions, 983 van der Waerden's Theorem
Universality theorem in Ramsey theory, 1068
for zeta function, 918 Vants (2D Turing machines), 930
Universals Variables
in computer languages, 1182 in mathematical logic, 1150
and decoding dead languages, 1185 notation for, 1182
in human languages, 1103, 1181 in programs in notes, 854
Universe and pure functions, 1121
as an artifact, 1191 scoping of, 1152
basic cosmology of, 1055 Variance
and Church's Thesis, 1126 and Central Limit Theorem, 976
initial conditions for, 1026 Variational derivatives
mind as microcosm of, 1196 in path integrals, 1061
vacuum solutions for, 1053 Variational principles
wave function for, 1063 as constraints, 940
see also Cosmology for gravity, 1052
Universe, theory of and notion of purpose, 1185
see Ultimate theory of physics Vauban star forts
Unix operating system nested architecture of, 874
and my early work, 864 VAX 11/780 computer
random seeds in, 970 my use of, 854, 864
and regular expressions, 958 VC (Vapnik-Chervonenkis) dimension, 1102
Unpredictability Vector fields
and free will, 752 topological defects in, 1045
history of, 1132 Vector potential
in randomness from environment, 301 and gauge invariance, 1045
see also Predictability Vector quantities
Unprovability conservation of, 1024
see Undecidability Vectors
Unprovable statements as generalizing numbers, 1168
about symbolic systems, 897 Vedic poetry
in math, 1163 and Fibonacci numbers, 891
Unreliable components Vegetation bands
and phase transitions, 981 maze-like patterns in, 1013
Unrestricted grammars, 939 Veins
Unsolvability in leaves, 404
Diophantine equation showing, 786 and transportation in cities, 1014
in math, 1137 Venn, John (England, 1834-1923)
of quintic equations, 1132 and randomness in digits of pi, 879, 912
of three-body problem, 972 Venn diagrams, 1171
see also Undecidability Ventifacts (wind-sculpted forms), 1001, 1183
Unsolved problems Venus
in number theory, 789, 1162, 1166 and extraterrestrial life, 1179
paper of mine on, 882 Verbal communication, 1181
in science of this book, 856 Verbal processing in brains, 1181
Unsupervised learning, 1102 Verbs
Unwinding in human languages, 1103
of primitive recursion, 907 in math notation, 1182
Upside-down visual images, 626 Verhulst equation
Ur-theory, 1027 and iterated maps, 918
Urban planning Verifiability
see Cities of models, 366
Urey, Harold C. (USA, 1893-1981) of ultimate theory of physics, 469
and origin of life, 1179 Verification
URMs (universal register machines), 1121 and theorems about programs, 1168
Uruk, Mesopotamia, 873 Verilog
U.S. government and logic operations, 1173
and artificial intelligence, 1099 Vertex coloring (maximum clique)
and cryptography, 975, 1085 and discrete packing, 987
User interfaces VHDL
and concept of halting, 1137 and logic operations, 1173
graphical vs. language, 631 Vibrations
history of, 1102 in auditory perception, 585
in musical instruments, 1079
 nested of physical systems, 1081 and computers, 1108
Video and history of complexity, 862
radio signals associated with, 1188 and iterated maps, 919
Videogames and random generators, 975
use of randomness in, 1192 and self-reproduction, 1179
Vietnam war and set theory, 1154
draft lottery in, 969 and thermodynamics of computation, 1020
Vigenère, Blaise de (France, 1523-1596) and universal CAs, 1117
and ciphers, 1085 and use of universality, 1110
Vigenère cipher, 599, 1085, 1086 von Neumann-Bernays-Gödel set theory, 1155
Viking spacecraft, 1179 von Neumann neighborhood (in 2D cellular automata), 170, 928
Villi (biology) von Neumann's Law
formation of, 418 for random networks, 1039
Vinogradov, Ivan M. (Russia, 1891-1983) Voronin, Sergei M. (Russia, 1946- )
and Goldbach's Conjecture, 911 and zeta function universality, 918
Viroids, 1179 Voronoi diagrams, 987
Virtual particles discrete, 987
as basic quantum effect, 1059 and nearest-neighbor memories, 1101
in Feynman diagrams, 1060 and polycrystalline materials, 993
and masses of particles, 1046 and random networks, 1038
and persistent structures, 540 in sphere packing, 986
surrounding any particle, 1044 Voronoi region
and vacuum fluctuations, 1062 and CA lattices, 929
Viruses Vortex atoms
as fairly optimal organisms, 398 in the ether, 1044
genetic programs of, 1002 Vortex streets, 377, 998
self-assembly in, 1193 Vortices
shapes of, 385 of Descartes, 1027
Viruses (computer), 1179, 1182 in flow of sand, 1001
Viscosity in fluid flow, 376
in 2D fluids, 999 and general study of form, 967
effects of in fluids, 381, 996 interactions between, 382, 998
and higher-order Lorenz equations, 998 as localized structures, 990
in models of turbulence, 997 as topological defects, 1045
in quantum field theory, 1061 Vorticity-based models, 999
Visible lattice points, 613, 1093 Vorticity patterns in fluids, 997
Visual acuity, 1076 Vowels
Visual cortex, 580, 1075 sound of, 1079
Visual illusions, 1076 and soundex system, 1100
Visual memory, 623 Voyager spacecraft, 1190
Visual perception, 577-584 W particle, 1046
assessing models with, 365 Waddington, Conrad H. (England/Scotland, 1905-1975)
and color in this book, 851 and patterns on shells, 1012
in computer experiments, 111 Wagner's theorem, 1045
difficulty of analyzing radio signals with, 1189 Wainwright, Thomas E. (USA, 1927- )
eye movements in, 1192 and molecular dynamics, 879, 999
history of studies on, 1076 Wajsberg, Mordechaj (Poland, 1902 - ~1940)
implementation in brain, 1075 and axioms for logic, 1151
and ocular dominance stripes, 1013 Wakes in fluid flow, 376, 984, 998
and Stone Age paintings, 839 Waldmeister (automated theorem prover), 1158, 1174
and styles of art, 872 lengths of proofs from, 1175
and zebra as camouflaged, 1012 Walker, Crayton C. (USA, 1932- )
Visual presentation and Boolean networks, 936
and inadequacy of language, 631 Walking
Visual thinking fluid flow when, 996
in mathematics, 1177 as repetitive process, 1011
Vitamin A Walks, random
in embryo development, 1009 see Random walks
VLF radio receiver, 1187 Wallpaper
VLSI and 2D cellular automata, 929
Boolean formulas and, 1097 Walras, M. E. Léon (France, 1834-1910)
testing and randomized algorithms, 1085 and math economics, 1015
Vocal tracts Walsh, Joseph L. (USA, 1895-1973)
and bird songs, 826 and Walsh transforms, 1073
and sound compression, 1080 Walsh transforms, 573, 1072
Vocoders, 1080 fast, 1073
Voices Wang, Hao (China/USA, 1921-1995)
random variations in, 1192 and lag systems, 894
Void and tag systems, 1120
and Epicurean notion of space, 1028 and undecidability in tiling, 1139
Volatility "Want of a nail..."
of prices in markets, 1015 and chaos theory, 971
Volcanos Waring, Edward (England, 1736-1798)
circular shapes of, 1187 and Waring's Problem, 910
as landscape elements, 1001 Waring's Problem, 910
Voltage as unsolved problem, 1166
and gauge invariance, 1045 Warp drive
Volumes determining possibility of, 1027
and metrics, 1050 and extraterrestrial contact, 1190
of spheres in curved space, 1050 Wasp nests
Volute shells as animal artifacts, 1184
patterns on, 423 form of, 385
von Kármán, Theodore (Hungary/Germany/USA, 1881-1963) Watchmaker
and vortex streets, 998 and argument by design, 861
von Koch, N. F. Helge (Sweden, 1870-1924) Water
and nested curves, 934 boiling of as discrete transition, 337
von Neumann, John (Hungary/USA, 1903-1957) and definition of life, 825
and CAs, 876, 879, 928 and extraterrestrial life, 1179
 flow patterns of, 376 and data compression, 1069
and landscape structure, 1001 Well-formed formulas
stream breaking into drops, 984 in predicate logic, 1150
viscosity of, 996 and truth values, 1158
Water hole (SETI frequency band), 1189 Wells, Herbert G. (England, 1866-1946)
Watersheds and time travel, 1031
in memory landscape, 1101 Westminster Abbey
and Voronoi diagrams, 987 decoration in, 873
Wave equation, 163 Weyl, Hermann K. H. (Germany/Switzerland/USA, 1885-1955)
higher-dimensional, 923 and gauge invariance, 1045
as hyperbolic equation, 940 and gauge theories of space, 1028
origin of, 923 Weyl tensor, 1049
transformation of time in, 732 WFFs (well-formed formulas)
Wave packet in predicate logic, 1150
collapse of the, 1063 and truth values, 1158
Wave-particle duality, 1056 Whale songs, 826, 1180
as basic quantum effect, 1058 Wheeler, John A. (USA, 1911- )
and discrete space, 1027 and discreteness of space, 1027
and elementary particles, 1044 and geons, 1054
Wave theory of light, 1041 Wheels
Waveforms characteristic shapes of, 1183
curves of, 146 Wheels of fortune, 306
in FM synthesis, 1079 While (loop)
for sound, 585 and decimation systems, 909
Wavelength distribution and pointer-based encoding, 1071
in color vision, 1074 and Pollard rho factoring, 1090
Wavelets, 1074 and rule 110 proof, 1116
and substitution systems, 893 see also NestWhile
and texture generation, 1077 Whimsical descriptions, 850
Waves Whisk ferns, 1004
in fracture processes, 995 Whistlers (radio signals), 1187
on ocean surfaces, 304, 1001 in early SETI, 1188
in quantum field theories, 1061 White noise
in quantum theory, 1056 origins of, 969, 988
and repetitive behavior, 355 Whitehead, Alfred N. (England/USA, 1861-1947)
superpositions of, 984 and axioms for logic, 1151
as yielding discreteness, 984 and foundations of math, 1149
Wax impressions, 1178 and math in science, 859
Weaire, Denis L. (Ireland, 1942- ) and Principia Mathematica, 894
and minimum area packings, 988 and universal algebra, 1150
in Preface, xiii Whitney embedding theorem, 1045
Weak interactions (in particle physics), 1025, 1057 Whorf, Benjamin L. (USA, 1897-1941)
Wear and language and thinking, 1181
in stone tools, 1184 Whorls
Weather, 1177 number of in shells, 1008
and bifurcations, 972 Wick rotation (in quantum field theory), 1043, 1061
and forms of snowflakes, 992 Wiener, Harry (USA, 1924-1998)
as having a mind of its own, 822 and alkane boiling points, 1195
maps, 1178 Wiener, Norbert (USA, 1894-1964)
prediction and computational irreducibility, 1132 and history of complexity, 862
satellite images from, 1187 and reaction-diffusion, 1013
Weaving Wiesenfeld, Kurt A. (USA, 1958- )
as origin of ornament, 872 and self-organized criticality, 989
patterns for from CAs, 872 Wigner-Seitz cells
programming of patterns for, 1107 and CA lattices, 929
rules in, 874 and Voronoi diagrams, 987
Web Wigner's semicircle law, 977
and amateur science, 1180 Wiles, Andrew J. (England/USA, 1953- )
randomness in transactions on, 1192 and Fermat's Last Theorem, 1166
Weber's law, 1014 Will
Webs (spider) origins of free, 750
as animal artifacts, 1184 and purpose, 1136
patterns in, 1011 see also Free will
Website Willow leaves, 1006
list of questions on, 856 Wilson loops (in QCD), 1062
and programs in the notes, 854 Wind
for this book, iv, 849 and desert landscapes, 1001
Weibull distribution, 977 and ocean surfaces, 1001
Weierstrass, Karl T. W. (Germany, 1815-1897) patterns produced by, 1183
and nested curves, 918, 934 recognizing motion from, 1183
Weierstrass functions, 918 turbulence and gusting in, 1001
and 1/f noise, 969 Wind chimes, 827
WeierstrassP (Weierstrass function) Wind-tree models (dynamic lattice gases), 999
in solution of spinning top, 1133 Winding number, 1045
Weighted cellular automata Windows (operating system)
implementation of, 1012 and creation of this book, 854
Weighted random sequences, 976 Winfree, Arthur T. (USA, 1942-[2002])
Weights and reaction-diffusion, 1013
in additive cellular automata, 952 Winner-takes-all cellular automata, 339
of connections to nerve cells, 1075 Wire chambers (particle detectors), 969
of forms in image compression, 574 Wire rope
in neural networks, 1102 and nested patterns, 874
Weights of humans WireWorld cellular automaton, 1117
distribution of, 977, 1003 Wisdom, Jack L. (USA, 1953- )
Weinberg-Salam model, 1025 and chaos in solar system, 973
Weizsäcker, Carl F. v. (Germany, 1912- ) in Preface, xiii
and discreteness of space, 1027 Witten, Thomas A., Jr. (USA, 1944- )
Welch, Terry A. (USA, 1939-1988) and diffusion-limited aggregation, 994
Wittgenstein, Ludwig J. J. (Austria/England, 1889-1951) correlation of two sides of, 1014
and philosophy of language, 1181 pigmentation patterns of, 426
and truth tables, 1170 stripes as camouflage for, 1012
Wolfram Research, Inc. stripes on as discrete, 337
and creation of this book, xii Zeckendorff representation, 892, 1070
and history of this book, 20 Zener diodes
and my personal timeline, 864 as source of randomness, 970
as producers of Mathematica, 853 Zeno's paradox
Wolpert, Lewis (England, 1929- ) and discrete space, 1027
and embryology, 1010 Zermelo, Ernst F. F. (Germany, 1871-1953)
in Preface, xiii and set theory, 1154
Word chains (evaluation chains), 1095 Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory, 1154
Word equations (sequence equations), 944, 1141 Zero equivalence
Word frequencies undecidability of, 1138
and Zipf's law, 1014 Zero-point fluctuations, 1062
Word problems, 1141 and model of electron, 1044
and manifold equivalence, 1051 and notion of ether, 1042
for semigroups and undecidability, 1136 and uniform spectra, 988
undecidability in, 1138 Zeros
and use of set theory, 1160 of sine functions, 917
Word-processing software, 1108 of zeta function, 918
Words Zeta (Riemann zeta function), 148, 909
cube-free (and Thue-Morse sequence), 890 and density of relative primes, 1093
hashing of, 1100 difficulty of evaluating, 1134
number of in languages, 1103 and distribution of primes, 909
Works of God and Feynman diagrams, 1060
natural forms as, 872 from rational integrals, 916
World models as special function, 1092
and systems theory, 862 Zeta functions
World War II for periodic points, 959
cryptography after, 1085 ZF (Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory), 1154
Worm ZFC (standard set theory), 1154
Paterson's, 930 Zhabotinsky, Anatol M. (Russia/USA, 1938- )
self-reproducing computer, 1179 and oscillatory chemical reactions, 1013
Worm shell Ziggurats
growth of, 415 rules for building, 874
Worship Zipf, George K. (USA, 1902-1950)
and animism, 1195 and Zipf's law, 1014
Worthington, Arthur M. (England, 1852-1916), 1000 Zipf's law, 1014
Wozniakowski (digit reversal) sequences, 905 Zippers
Wraparound system, 255 characteristic shapes of, 1183
Wren, Christopher (England, 1632-1723) Ziv, Jacob (Israel, 1931- )
and shapes of shells, 1008 and data compression, 1069
Wrinkling, 996 Zuse, Konrad (Germany, 1910-1995)
Writing and universe as CA, 1026
development of, 1184 Zygmund series, 918
Writing style
of this book, 849
Wulff shapes
in CA growth, 929
and CA lattices, 929
X chromosomes
and randomness in females, 1014
X-ray crystallography, 993
X-ray diffraction patterns, 1082
Xerographic printing, 1195
XML
and computer communication, 1182
Xor
axioms for, 803
calculus of expressions, 1170
confluence of, 1037
DNF representation of, 1096
emulated by rule 30, 703
lower bounds on in DNF, 1143
size of formula for, 1096
table for, 806
words in languages for, 1173
Xor rules
see also Additive cellular automata
see also Rule 90
yacc (compiler generator), 1104
Yang-Mills theories, 1045, 1057
instanton solutions to, 1133
Yemen
nested drainage pattern in, 1187
Yin and yang
and substitution systems, 893
Young, David A. (USA, 1942- )
and pigmentation patterns, 1012
Young, Thomas (England, 1773-1829)
and color vision, 1075
Z particle
mass of, 1046
and number of neutrinos, 1047
Z transforms
and spectra of substitution systems, 1081
Zebras