High Quality
Open the downloaded document, and select print from the file menu (PDF reader required).
UNIT TWO: CELL BIOLOGY(Text from Modern Biology, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston)1
Chapter Eight (Cell Reproduction)Chapter Eight (Cell Reproduction)Chapter Eight (Cell Reproduction)Chapter Eight (Cell Reproduction)
SECTION ONE:SECTION ONE:SECTION ONE:SECTION ONE: CHROMOSOMESCHROMOSOMESCHROMOSOMESCHROMOSOMESCHROMOSOME STRUCTUREDuring cell division, the DNA in a eukaryotic cell’s nucleus is coiled intochromosomeschromosomeschromosomeschromosomes, rod-shaped structures made of DNA and proteins. There are manylevels of DNA coiling required to form a chromosome.Each chromosome is a single DNA molecule associated with proteins. The DNAin eukaryotic cells wraps around proteins called histoneshistoneshistoneshistones, which help maintain theshape of the chromosome and help in the tight packing of DNA.A chromosome consists of two identical halves, and eachhalf is called a chromatidchromatidchromatidchromatid. They form as the DNA makes a copy of itself before cell division. When the cell divides, each of the twonew cells will receive one chromatid. The chromatids are attachedat a point called the centromerecentromerecentromerecentromere. The centromere holds the twochromatids together until they separate during cell division. The“p” arm of a chromosome is the short arm, and comes from theFrench “petit”, meaning small. “Q” was chosen for the long armsimply because it followed “p” in the alphabet.
As a cell prepares todivide, its DNA coilsaround histones andtwists into chromosomes.
UNIT TWO: CELL BIOLOGY(Text from Modern Biology, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston)2Between cell divisions, DNA is not so tightly coiled. Regions of DNA uncoil sothey can be read and the information can be used to direct cell activity. The lesstightly coiled DNA-protein complex is called chromatinchromatinchromatinchromatin.In most prokaryotes, the DNA consists of only one chromosome, a circular DNAmolecule, attached to the inside of the cell membrane.CHROMOSOME NUMBERSEach species have a characteristic number of chromosomes found in each cell.Some species have the same number of chromosomes. Humans have 46chromosomes in each cell.Sex Chromosomes and AutosomesHuman and animal chromosomes are categorized as either sex chromosomesor autosomes. Sex chromosomesSex chromosomesSex chromosomesSex chromosomes determine the sex of an organism, and may alsocarry genes for other characteristics. In humans, sex chromosomes are either X or Y.Females have two X chromosomes, and males have an X and Y chromosome. All of theother chromosomes in an organism are classed as autosomesautosomesautosomesautosomes.Every cell of an organism produced by sexual reproduction has two copies of each autosome, one from each parent. The two copies of each autosome are calledhomologous chromosomeshomologous chromosomeshomologous chromosomeshomologous chromosomes, or
homologues
. They are the same size and shape andcarry different genes for the same trait. For example, if one chromosome in a pair of homologues contains a gene for eye color, so will the other one. However, the genesare not necessarily identical. One gene may code for blue eyes and the other forbrown eyes.A karyotypekaryotypekaryotypekaryotype is a photomicrograph of the chromosomes in a normal dividing cell found in a human. 46 human chromosomes exist as 22 homologous pairs of autosomesand two sex chromosomes (XY for males and XX for females).Diploid and Haploid CellsCells with two sets of chromosomes are diploiddiploiddiploiddiploid, and have two autosomes foreach homologous pair. Diploid cells also have two sex chromosomes in animals, and inmany other organisms that have sex chromosomes. Diploid is commonly abbreviatedas 2
n
. In humans, the 2
n
number of chromosomes is 46 – 22 pairs of homologousautosomes and 2 sex chromosomes.Sperm and egg cells are haploidhaploidhaploidhaploid cells, which contain only one set of chromosomes. Haploid cells (1
n
) have only one autosome of each homologous pair andonly one sex chromosome; ergo, the haploid cells of humans have 23 chromosomes.When a sperm cell (1
n
) and an egg cell (1
n
) combine to create the first cell of a neworganism, the new cell will be diploid (2
n
). If the reproductive cells were diploid, thenew cell would have too many chromosomes.
UNIT TWO: CELL BIOLOGY(Text from Modern Biology, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston)3SECTION TWO: CELL DIVISIONSECTION TWO: CELL DIVISIONSECTION TWO: CELL DIVISIONSECTION TWO: CELL DIVISIONCELL DIVISION IN PROKARYOTESProkaryotes have cell walls but lack nuclei andmembrane-bound organelles. A prokaryote’s DNA is a circularchromosome attached to the inner surface of the plasmamembrane, and is not coiled around proteins to formchromosomes. For most prokaryotes, cell division takes placethrough the process of binary fission.Binary fissionBinary fissionBinary fissionBinary fission is the division of a prokaryotic cell into twooffspring cells. The DNA is replicated, resulting in two identicalchromosomes attached to the inside of the prokaryote’s innercell membrane. A new cell membrane begins to developbetween the two DNA copies. The cell grows until it reachesapproximately twice its original size. As new material is added,the growing cell membrane pushes inward and a new cell wall forms around the new membrane. Eventually, the dividingprokaryote is split into two independent daughter cells, witheach containing one of the identical chromosomes thatresulted from copying the original cell’s chromosome.
SECTION 1 REVIEWSECTION 1 REVIEWSECTION 1 REVIEWSECTION 1 REVIEW1.1.1.1. Name the proteins that DNA wraps around to form a chromosome in eukaryotic cells.2.2.2.2. How do the structure and location of a prokaryotic chromosome differ from that of aeukaryotic chromosome?3.3.3.3. Does chromosome number indicate whether an organism is a plant or an animal? Explain.4.4.4.4. Contrast sex chromosomes with autosomes.5.5.5.5. Using Table 8-1, list the haploid and diploid number of chromosomes for each organism.CRITICAL THINKING6666.... Is there a correlation between the number of chromosomes and the complexity of anorganism? Give support for your answer.7 77 7.... What would be the consequence for future generations of cells if sperm and egg cells werenormally diploid?8888.... What is the sex of the person whose chromosomes are shown in Figure 8-3 above? Explain your answer.
Add a Comment
deleted_fbuser_1312751382left a comment
Julie777left a comment
specgoalie717left a comment
Julie777left a comment
anisradcliffeleft a comment