Jennifer Yoo

March 2009
Religion & Folklore

Through the Eyes of the Fox: Japan’s Connections with Korea through Inari Worship
and the Plausible Influence on Shinto Religion

As the sunlight fades and dusk creeps in, an air of eerie tranquility settles on

the shrine complex. Passing underneath thousands of vermillion torii gates, some

so close together that it seems like a tunnel leading to another world. And

everywhere one looks the expectation for a slender, lithe vulpine creature with a

luxurious tail to suddenly appear and lope through the trees. Such is the

atmosphere at Fushimi Inari Taisha, the head shrine of Inari, one of Shinto’s most

diverse and popular kami. One of the most unique aspects of Inari worship that is

often overlooked is its strong connections to the Korean peninsula, which are most

distinctly seen in its origins and the central symbol of Inari, the fox. Given how

prominent Inari worship is, how the Korean impact on it may have influenced Shinto

beliefs in general is also worth examining briefly.

Although Inari worship is known to have existed as early as 711 A.D., the

official date the Fushimi Inari Shrine at Inari Mountain was founded, evidence

suggests that the formal worship of Inari had started centuries before that date; and

by people who were not Japanese. The most widely accepted Shinto account is that

Fushimi Inari Shrine was founded by an affluent ancestor of the Hata Clan named

Irogu, who one day decided to use mochi, rice cakes, for archery practice. But

when his arrow pierced one of the cakes, it transformed into a white bird and flew

away to a mountain peak. He followed the bird up the mountain, and beheld a

marvelous sight; where the bird had landed, rice was growing in abundance.

Realizing he had abused a gift of divine importance, the rice, Irogu erected a shrine

on the site where the white bird had alighted to assuage the offended kami and
protect his wealth. He named the shrine Inari. Since then, it is said that the Hata

clan have never handled rice with disrespect, and have as a result enjoyed good

fortune. (Smyers 15)

Although the traditional belief is that the Hata clan can trace its ancestry

back to the first Chinese Emperor, recent research indicates that the Hata actually

came from Korea, which is further supported by the Nihon Shoki, or the “Chronicles

of Japan,” although the specific Korean kingdom of origin differs in each source.

The Hata were a very powerful clan; they were the major cultural and industrial

contributors of their era, having engaged in business such as sericulture since

ancient times. It is even said that the Hata were the ones who introduced the art of

silk raising and weaving to Japan. Many members of the clan served as financial

advisors to the court and the clan overall was very wealthy. (Teshima)

With the arrival of the Hata clan during the late fifth century, we see the first

signs of Inari worship. In fact, the actual word “Inari” appears in texts for the first

time in association with the Hata. Given how influential the Hata were, one can

conclude that – at least initially – Inari had strong ties to Korea. It is even possible

that “Inari” is a word of Korean origin, as the etymology of the word is still under

speculation. Soon after appearing in Japan, the clan became known as the priests

who conducted formal worship of Inari. At this point, the kami Inari was probably

little more than an agricultural – perhaps even just a rice-protecting – divinity, but

even here the seeds of the characteristics that make Inari so phenomenally popular

today can be identified, for within a few centuries descendants of the Hata clan

were attributing other purposes, such as the protection of their business and

wealth, to Inari as well. And with each era, more and more functions would be

added to Inari’s repertoire. (Smyers 16)

 It has been established that Inari worship was initiated by a powerful Korean

clan, and there is an unquestionable connection between the two countries in

regards to Inari. The place this can be seen most clearly is in its symbols,

specifically, the fox. The aspect that has the strongest association with Inari is

undoubtedly the fox, or kitsune. By the eleventh century, for reasons still not

entirely clear, Inari was inextricably associated with the fox. So much so that many

people mistake the kitsune for the actual kami (Smyers 77, 81). The kitsune is

supposed to be just Inari's messenger and servant. They do, however, possess

quite a bit of power and influence which may explain why some Japanese equate

the kitsune with Inari. In Japan, the kitsune is a legendary creature with

supernatural powers for doing both good and evil. It is able to transform into

human shape, usually that of a beautiful woman, and to hear and see all secrets of

humankind. They are creatures that grow in power as they age; after a century,

they grow a tail. The most powerful kitsune are those who reach the one thousand

years, and acquire nine tails. Once it does so, its fur changes color to silver, white,

or gold, and gains the power of infinite vision. Inari is said to have descended to

Japan from heaven riding on the back of a female white fox. (Smyers 129)

As Inari’s attendant, it serves not only as a messenger, but also as a

protector, for it is considered a powerful ally in fending off evil kimon influences.

Kimon, which translates literally as “demon gate,” generally means the ominous or

taboo direction, and is often translated as the "demon gate to the northeast," or the

"northeast place where demons gather and enter." The fox is able to ward off evil

kimon, and therefore fox statues are often placed in northeast locations of

structures and religious complexes to stand guard over demonic influence. Two

stone fox statues typically guard the entrance to Inari Shrines, one to the left and
one to the right of the gate. This is seen repeatedly throughout Fushimi Inari

Shrine. Aside from defending against kimon, kitsune are also believed to help

protect the rice crops and help people in general. (Smyers 21)

The kitsune are sometimes, however, portrayed as tricksters and occasionally

even wicked animals. Kitsune are renowned for their tricks. In many Japanese folk

tales, the kitsune appears in various forms to seduce and trick unworthy men

through the use of shape-shifting, illusions, and other magic (Nozaki 25-26). It also

has been known to reward and protect deserving people in gratitude for a kindness

done unto them. Conversely, kitsune are by no means harmless creatures and are

known to strike out against humans in retribution for some offense from time to

time. They do, however, appear to be fair in their revenge, for the punishment

always seems to be appropriate for the affront.

In comparison to the kitsune culture that evolved in Japan, Korean fox lore is

relatively straightforward. The kitsune is remarkably sophisticated, probably due to

its resonance with the indigenous Shinto religion. In Korea, like in Japan, a fox that

lives a thousand years is said to turn into a kumiho, which literally means “nine-

tailed fox.” Unlike in Japan, the Korean fox is almost always depicted as evil,

whereas the kitsune can be either benevolent or malevolent (Johnson 45). Another

example is gender; the kitsune can be either male or female. This is the same with

the kami Inari, which has perhaps the most multifarious collection of manifestations

associated to its name in all of Shinto mythology. In Korea, however, the kumiho is

almost exclusively female. The kumiho is generally a seductive creature that

disguises herself as an alluring woman to entice unwary scholars and travelers with

the lure of its sexuality and the illusion of its beauty and riches. Kumiho drain the

men of their vital energies and leave them exhausted, or even dead. In some
Korean folk stories, the kumiho physically devours its victims (Encyclopedia

Mythica).

A large distinction between the kitsune and the kumiho is that the kitsune

possesses functions that transcend folk tradition. In Japan, the kitsune can be seen

as both a good and bad omen. It has to be respected to prevent offending it for fear

of retribution, but one can still appeal to it for aid. Such qualities are not apparent

in the kumiho. It is strictly a creature to be wary of and avoid crossing paths with at

all cost.

The kumiho was not always considered a completely malignant creature

though. Many of the ancient texts mention a benevolent kumiho assisting humans.

In fact, there are more accounts of wicked humans tricking kind, but naïve kumiho.

It is unclear at which point in time Koreans began viewing the kumiho as a purely

evil creature. As the mythology of the Kumiho evolved, it was later believed that a

Kumiho had to consume human hearts in order to survive. In later literatures they

are often depicted as flesh-hungry half-fox, half-human things that wandered the

cemeteries at night, digging human hearts out from graves. A speculation is that

Japan’s attempted incursion of Korea, in the form of colonization campaigns that

were occurring as before the sixth century, may have had an effect on how it

viewed its parallel vixens. Following this train of thought, the folk tales depicting

the innocent kumiho in juxtaposition with the stories where it is a predator can be

possibly interpreted as a rebellion of sorts under certain Japanese encroachments.

Kitsune are believed to have been first introduced to Japan from China and

Korea. The common opinion is that Japanese were so taken by the idea of the

kitsune – or kumiho or huli jing (Chinese fox spirit) –that they adapted it to the

Japanese culture, and thus transformed the kitsune dramatically so that it is unique
to the foxes of China and Korea (Johnson 35, 42). But this is not entirely proven, as

disagreeing scholars have put forward some textual, artistic, and archaeological

support for the argument that the kitsune are indigenously Japanese, dating

perhaps as far back as the fifth century. This however is around the time when the

Hata clan first arrived in Japan, so it is still plausible that the concept of the kitsune

was brought over from mainland Asia. And if one were to objectively compare all

three version of the fox spirit in Japan, Korea and China, there would be some

glaring similarities, such as the presence of the nine-tailed fox, magical powers, and

the tendency to utilize the form of a beautiful young woman. In fact, evidence

exists to suggest that the origin of the fox lore for all three countries was the Indian

rakshasa.

Rakshasas are generally villainous demons in Hindu and Buddhist mythology.

They have the power to change their shape at will, appearing as animals, monsters,

or, in the case of the female demons, as beautiful women. They are also notorious

for possessing human beings, devouring humans (in both a mortal and a spiritual

sense) and so on. Not all rakshasas are equally evil however (Richman 173). Some

are more akin to yakshas, or nature spirits, which are usually benevolent and are

caretakers of the natural treasures of the earth. Yakshas are also often guardians

of the Buddha. Right away similarities can be seen between the rakshasas and East

Asian foxes. From the shape-shifting powers, especially the disguising oneself as a

beautiful woman, to the ability to possess of humans and the reputation for

consuming them. Lastly, the fact that both can be considered auspicious or

ominous. Even the Korean kumiho, although it is currently viewed as a solely

negative presence, once shared all of the same characteristics, including the

capacity to be benevolent.
 Inari is a very popular deity with shrines and temples located throughout

Japan. Given how prominent Inari worship is, it is not difficult to suppose that Korea

might have had some effect on Shinto beliefs as well. According to a survey done in

1985 by the National Association of Shinto Shrines, 32,000 shrines, more than one-

third of Shinto shrines in Japan, are dedicated to Inari (Smyers 229). However, this

number only includes the shrines with full-time resident priests. If the small

unattended shrines by the roadside or in the field, the shrines kept in the home or

workplace, and the Buddhist temples were included, the number would increase

dramatically.

When compared side by side, there are some particularly striking similarities

between Korean folk religion and Japanese Shinto. The use of the sacred rope to

mark off sacred or pure space, for example, is apparent in both countries; in Korean

it is referred to as a keum-chul, and in Japanese it is called a shimenawa. Not only

are they both alike in form, but also in function and meaning. The custom of

practicing ceremonial purifications as a sign of worship is found in Korea, as is the

reverence of sacred trees at mountain passes by fastening cloth or paper cuttings,

which are reminiscent of Japanese Shinto traditions performed during festivals and

other rituals. As to the divinities worshipped, in Korea the woman shaman is called

a mansin, which means “a person who administers to many gods”; Korean faith

supports the worship of multiple divinities, similar to Japanese worship and its

myriads of kami. Even the kinds of divinities that both countries revere bear

resemblances. Both have their share of “nature gods,” such as mountains, rivers,

trees and animals. And they also have as “human” deities in the form of ancestral

spirits, and so on. On a more materialistic level, the brewing of sacred wine as well

as the offering of rice in the form of unshelled rice, cooked rice, and rice cakes are
common to Korea and Japan. Evidence such as this has led some researchers to the

conclusion that much of Japanese and Korean folkways as well as “native” religion

belong to the same culture. Which culture specifically, however, is where opinions

diverge. (Akiba 16-17)

Some researchers believe that it was the Japanese who influenced Korean

customs; others believe it is the reverse that is true. And still more believe that

both countries’ cultures originated from a different location entirely. This is partially

due to new theories about the Japanese people’s origins. Currently, it is presumed

that the ancestors of the Japanese were primarily immigrants, who came from the

northern, western, and southern parts of Asia, and that the main structure of

Japanese culture and society is a composite of several of those regions. Over the

course of time, it is believed these early island inhabitants imported various arts

and techniques from mainland Asia, such as metalworking and wet-field agriculture.

Given how isolated Japan is currently and has been historically, it seems

unlikely that Japan was the impetus for Korea’s folk traditions. What is more, Japan

has a distinct precedent of absorbing cultures outside of itself. Conversely, given

how much effect China has had on Korea, it is equally as implausible to propose

that Korea alone influenced Japanese Shinto religion. It is evident that no single

country’s culture cannot grow completely on its own; waves are constantly being

created with each new development, and the reactions to those new concepts,

practices, and so on in turn will beget more innovation. Although Korea may have

had an impact on Shinto religion in certain areas, such as in the development of

Inari worship, the Japanese are a unique people in the sense that they consistently

take in what foreign countries offer them, and yet they have never completely lost

their identity. The key to their success is that with every piece of imported culture
they assimilate, they apply their own “flair” to it and transform it to fit inside the

“Japanese” cultural framework they already possess.

Images (Taken By Author of Paper: Jennifer Yoo, 2008):

Entrance to Fushimi Inari Shrine Fox Statue with Jewel in its

Mouth
 The Torii Gates of Fushimi Inari

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