a A Decade of Research in Support of Adlerian Psychological Theory C. Edward Watkins, Jr. Counseling Center, Carson-Newman College The past decade has seen a resurgence of in- terest in Adlerian psychology. Adler's enormous contributions to the fields of psychology and edu- cation have been increasingly recognized by theo- reticians and practitioners alike (Allen, 1971). Ad- mittedly, as theoretical and practical interests grow, so must the body of research which supports and extends one’s theoretical and practical understand- ing. The decade of the seventies saw more re- search studies being done to test the usefulness of Adlerian constructs and concepts than had been done in many preceding years. New instruments were developed to measure an individual's social interest (Crandall, 1975; Greever, 1973), and Manaster and Perryman (1974) and others (Altman, Note 1; Quinn, Note 2) created means through which early recollections could be analyzed. These instruments had a significant impact on the prog- ress of Adlerian psychology in the seventies and will no doubt contribute to a more expanded un- derstanding in future years. The need for continued research and refine- ment of instrumentation is of paramount impor- tance. As Rotter and Hochreich (1975) point out, Adlerian theory is often criticized on the grounds of being nebulous and unsupported by research studies. This criticism has also been re-emphasized by Thorne (1975). Nevertheless, in recent years, there does appear to have been a concerted effort by many Adlerians to test their theoretical under- pinnings. The purpose of this paper is to describe some of the more useful and relevant articles Journal of Individual Psychology, Volume 38, Number 1, March 1982 (©1962 by the University of Texas Press 0277-7010/82/010090-10/801.25C. Edward Watkins, Jr. 91 which have been published between 1970 and 1980. Articles have been taken primarily from previous issues of The Journal of Individual Psychol- ogy. Three articles, however, were drawn from other sources. Adlerians appear to have relied traditionally upon two methods when evaluating the tenets and concepts of Adlerian psychology: (a) case study analysis, and (b) empirical research studies which employ sta- tistical and experimental design procedures. In this review of articles, the focus will be upon the latter research studies. A survey of case analyses remains to be done and, hopefully, it will be, in the not-too-distant fu- ture. The following review will describe literature which deals with three central components of Adlerian theory: (a) early recollections, (b) life style, and (c) social interest. Research Dealing with Early Recollections Ekstein (1976) performed an interesting study in which he at- tempted to analyze the early recollections (ERs) of a single subject to de- termine if there were any significant differences between pre- and post- counseling ERs. He described the study participant, Jane, as a 19-year-old female freshman at a women’s college. Her presenting com- plaint revolved around the difficulty she and her roommate were having in getting along. The precounseling ERs were gathered in the second counseling ses- sion. During this meeting, a life-style analysis was done, and eight ERs and one dream were collected. At the conclusion of Jane’s therapy, which lasted nine months, five postcounseling ERs were recorded. Once all ERs had been gathered, they were given to several judges trained in Adlerian psychology. The judges were asked to rate the ERs by using the Early Recollections Rating Scale (ERRS), developed by Altman (Note 1) and modified shortly thereafter by Quinn (Note 2). Ekstein’s major finding was that “early recollections do appear to change significantly as a result of long-term counseling or therapy’” (1976, p. 222). He also felt that the results provided support for the thesis that ERs can be used.to determine client change following coun- seling. Furthermore, the use of the ERRS in evaluating content themes of ERs appears to be justified by the high interrater reliabilities which were obtained. Rogers (1977) examined the relationships between ERs and college achievement, with college achievement being defined as a student's grade point average (GPA). His sample was composed of 97 students who were enrolled in three introductory psychology classes. The stu-92__Decade of Research dents’ ages ranged from 17 to 54, and the mean age was 21.5 years. Within the sample, there were 75 freshmen, 6 sophomores, 7 juniors, and 7 seniors. The students were asked to provide five written ERs each, but the average number of ERs collected was 3.88 per student. After the ERs had been gathered, they were scored independently by two individ- uals who used the early recollections scoring system devised by Manas- ter and Perryman (1974). From the data, Rogers attempted to develop a prediction equation for GPA. He indicated, however, that the equation which did result was not a significant development, and pointed to the difficulty which can be encountered when one tries to use a single instrument to predict aca- demic performance. Other findings were: (a) a fairly high positive correlation between the Active-Passive variable of the Manaster-Perryman instrument and GPA, indicating a ‘strong relationship between high achievement and a tendency to act rather than be acted upon’” (Rogers 1977, p. 237); (b) a strong relationship between GPA and the Internal Control variable, which further points to a connectedness between one’s feeling of being responsible for one’s destiny and high academic achievement; (c) a ten- dency for high achievers to produce more ERs than did low achievers; and (d) more themes of personal or environmental mastery in the ERs of high achievers than of low achievers. In a study of interest to career counselors and vocational psycholo- gists, Attarian (1978) explored the usefulness of ERs in predicting an indi- vidual’s vocational choice. The sample employed in his study consisted of 31 randomly selected undergraduate students in their senior year at the University of Arizona. The subjects were voluntary participants who were individually interviewed, administered Holland's (1979) Self-Di- rected Search (SDS), and asked to provide five ERs. Three judges, trained in Adlerian psychology, were asked to place each subject into one of six specified college majors on the basis of the subject's ERs. Attarian (1978) advanced and tested the following hypotheses: 1. Judges trained in Adlerian psychology can individually determine ed- ucational preferences of subjects solely on the basis of early recollec- tions. 2. A consensus of two out of three judges can determine educational preferences of subjects by the use of early recollections. 3. There will be agreement among judges in the interpretation of early recollections for purposes of determining educational preferences. 4. The Self-Directed Search, an educational and vocational planning guide, can be used to determine educational preferences (pp. 57-58). At the conclusion of the project, Hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported; however, Hypotheses 3 and 4 were not. Attarian thought his workC. Edward Watkins, Jr. 93 lended support to Adler's idea that individuals select their own memo- ries. He also concluded that “ERs yield significant information in predict- ing educational preference” (1978, p. 60) and, therefore, could be quite useful in educational and vocational guidance. Research Dealing with Life Style Perhaps one of the most provocative investigations of life style the- ory is the study conducted by Thorne and Pishkin (1975). In this project, the authors administered a 200-item questionnaire, the Life Style Analysis, to seven sample groups. The questionnaire had been devel- oped earlier by the senior author. The purpose of the study was to ex- amine the usefulness of the instrument in identifying Adlerian life styles and specific clinical groups. Seven groups were employed in the study. These were numbered and characterized as follows: Group 1 was composed of 193 felons in- carcerated at the Central Prison in Raleigh, North Carolina; Group 2 consisted of 74 felons incarcerated at the Colorado State Penitentiary in Canon City, Colorado; Group 3 contained 89 patients committed to the Willmar, Minnesota, State Hospital for treatment of alcoholism; Group 4 was comprised of 155 students at the Nathaniel Branden Institute in New York City; in Group 5, there were 336 unwed mothers living at the Florence Crittenden Home in Chicago; Group 6 was composed of 159 college students attending the University of Alberta; and in Group 7, there were 390 chronic undifferentiated schizophrenics from Central State Hospital in Norman, Oklahoma. The factor analysis of the test data yielded five factors. These were: {a) Factor |, an aggressive-domineering life style, (b) Factor 11, a conform- ing life style, (c) Factor III, defensive withdrawal, (d) Factor IV, amoral sociopathy, and (e) Factor V, a resistive-defiant life style. The authors in- dicate that Factors |, Hl, and V “have high face and construct validity as life style factors” (1975, p. 248). They further point out that Factors III and IV relate to immature and unsocialized behavior. Thorne and Pishkin conclude that the results “‘are most consistent with Adlerian self-psychology and style of life theory” (p. 248). Also, the item analyses provided information which the authors thought to be consistent with the expected characteristics of the various groups. Cline, Riordan, and Kern (1978), in an attempt to test the reliability of life style interpretations (also, refer to Magner-Harris, Riordan, Kern, & Curlette, 1979), examined the levels of interrater agreement on a sub- ject’s vocational choice and life-style type. The typology developed by Mosak (1971) was employed in the study; however, the Superior type, which Mosak had included in his original grouping, was excluded in this94 Decade of Research project. The assessment instruments employed were Holland's (1979) Self-Directed Search (SDS) and the Life Style Questionnaire Inventory (LSQI), the latter developed by Kern (Note 3) and used to determine in- terjudge agreement on life style interpretations. The sample consisted of 60 male graduate students enrolled at two large urban universities. All subjects were volunteers who had been ran- domly selected from a larger subject pool. Also, each participant (a) was employed in an occupation compatible with one of Holland’s six occu- pational types, (b) was enrolled in a degree program compatible with his current occupation, (c) had a plan to complete graduate work, (d) had one year of satisfactory work experience, and (e) had no intention of changing occupations. Each subject was asked to complete the LSQI and the SDS. The data were then analyzed independently by three trained Adlerian judges who were asked to choose the subjects’ occupa- tions from a list of six choices and, also, to select a life style type (Mo- sak’s typology) which would be representative of the individual. From the data, the authors concluded that the Adlerian judges did not idiosyncratically interpret the material with which they were pre- sented and that typologies can therefore be of use in identifying life styles. The study also confirmed tht life style analysis can be useful in vo- cational counseling and that this method was as generally effective as the SDS in predicting an individual’s occupation. Lastly, the hypothesis that occupational choice is an expression of a person's life style was also supported, In an interesting and related study, West and Bubenzer (1978) at- tempted to discover factors which lead to variation in life style data. Their sample consisted of 400 subjects (200 male and 200 female), all of whom were enrolled in undergraduate coursework at Idaho State Uni- versity. The Self-Administering Life Style Inventory (SALSI), an instrument developed by the authors for their investigation, was administered to all participants. The SALSI was later factor analyzed and seven factors were found to have contributed to the significant variation in life style data. These were as follows: (a) Factor |, family atmosphere as presented by the par- ents (accounted for 6.1% of SALS! variance), (b) Factor II, excitement seeking (5.24%), (c) Factor III, involvement (3.95%), (d) Factor IV, con- formity in school (3.03%), (e) Factor V, family atmosphere as presented by the mother (3.03%), (f) Factor VI, gender (2.04%), and (g) Factor VII, family atmosphere as presented by the father (1.83%). From the study, the authors concluded that the construct validity of Adlerian life style theory was supported and extended. They further indicated that Factor | confirms the emphasis Adlerians place on the importance of the parental relationship; Factor II provides an index of the degree of excitement orC. Edward Watkins, Jr. 95 routineness an individual desires; Factor II! points to the degree of in- volvement a person has with others; Factor IV relates to conformity in school; Factor V indicates the importance of the mother in a child’s life style development; Factor VI relates to sex role identification; and Factor VII provides an indication of the significant influence the father has on the child’s personality development. Research Dealing with Social Interest A study which has relevance for counselors and counseling psy- chologists, as well as other individuals involved in the helping profes- sions, was conducted by Zarski, Sweeney, and Barcikowski (1977). The authors examined the relationship between counselor social interest and three dimensions of counseling effectiveness—client satisfaction, self-ac- ceptance, and sociability. Eight counselors employed by a university counseling center participated in the study. Each counselor possessed a doctoral degree and had from four to eleven years of counseling experi- ence. Ninety-nine undergraduate volunteers also took part. At the time of the investigation, all of the volunteers were receiving some type of ed- ucational, vocational, or psychological assistance from the counselors participating in the project. The instruments employed in the study were the (a) Early Recollec- tions Questionnaire (ERQ) (Altman, Note 1), (b) Early Recollections Rat- ing Scale of Social Interest Characteristics (ERRS) (Altman, Note 1), (c) a modified California Psychological Inventory (CPI) (Gough, 1957), and (d) the Counseling Evaluation Inventory (CE!) developed by Linden, Stone, and Shertzer (1965). Each counselor was asked to complete an ERQ. The questionnaires were then given to three experienced Adlerian raters who were asked to assess the ERQs by using Altman’s ERRS. The clients par- ticipating in the study were asked to complete the modified CPI and CEI. From an analysis of the data, the authors were able to conclude that “the counselor's level of social interest was positively correlated with the client’s satisfaction with counseling, and more importantly, with attitudinal measurements of the client’s self-acceptance and sociability” (1977, p. 3). It was further reasoned that individuals (e.g., counselors) with high levels of social interest would foster the development of social interest in others. Lastly, the authors thought that their study contributed to the experimental support of Adler's concept of social interest. In a study designed to test the validity of social interest instruments, Bubenzer, Zarski, and Walter (1979) examined whether Altman’s (Note 1) Early Recollections Questionnaire (ERQ), Crandall’s (1975) Social In- terest Scale (SIS), and Greever’s (1973) Social Interest Index (SI!) measure what they purport to measure.96 Decade of Research Two samples were employed in the study. In the first group, 47 graduate students in a master's level counseling course were adminis- tered the ERQ, SIS, SII, the California Psychological Inventory (CPI) (Gough, 1957), and the Personality Factor Test (16PF) (Cattell, Eker, & Tatswoka, 1970). The second group, composed of 60 undergraduate stu- dents enrolled in police science and correctional courses, was adminis- tered the ERQ, SIS, SHI, and the Revised Social Responsibility Scale. Sub- jects from the first group were predominantly white, were between 22 and 35 years of age, and were from middle-class families with small town backgrounds; those in the second were residents of small, rural towns located in the Midwest, were between the ages of 20 and 35, and were employed as correctional or law enforcement officers. The results of the test data revealed that the three social interest in- struments—the ERQ, SIS, and Sli—did not yield similar information. For example, the ERQ and SIS data did not significantly correlate with per- sonality characteristics thought to experimentally or theoretically relate to Adler's concept of social interest. Bubenzer et al. concluded that the “unexpected findings raise serious questions concerning what is mea- sured by the SIS and ERQ” (1979, p. 211). The findings did, however, appear to verify the reliability and validity of the SII as a measurement tool. High scoring on this test was found to correlate significantly with the personality characteristics of stability, responsibility, sincerity, matu- rity, persistence, self-reliance, enterprise, versatility, seriousness, consci- entiousness, and altruism. In closing, the authors indicated that although the results seemed to support the use of the SII as a social interest mea- sure, more conclusive research would need to be done on the validity of the ERQ and SIS before these instruments could be considered indices of social interest. Crandall and Reimanis (1976), in a study utilizing the Social Interest Scale developed by the senior author, examined the relationships be- tween social interest and time orientation, childhood memories, and ad- justment and crime. Three investigations, each exploring different hy- potheses, were synthesized into one article. In the first study, it was hypothesized that (a) the Social Interest Scale (SIS) (Crandall, 1975) would positively correlate with individual happiness and satisfaction, and (b) food aversions would be negatively correlated to SIS responses. The second study, similar in some aspects to the first, hypothesized that there would be (a) a negative relationship between high social interest and emphasis on the past, and (b) a positive correlation between high social interest and an emphasis on the present or future. Study fl hypoth- esized that (a) individuals obtaining low SIS scores would report more un- pleasant early memories than would people who obtained high SIS scores, and (b) criminals would score ower than noncriminals on the SIS.C. Edward Watkins, Jr. 97 The sample employed in Study | consisted of 30 male and 30 fe- male volunteers. All subjects were enrolled in an introductory psychol- ogy course and were receiving course credit for participation. Subjects in this group were administered the SIS, Cottle’s (1967) Circle Test, and Wallen’s (1945) procedure for measuring food aversions. Group II was composed of 27 men and 26 women who were en- rolled in an undergraduate psychology course. The subjects were admin- istered the SIS and Shostrom’s (1972) Personal Orientation Inventory. Scores previously obtained by the students on the Eysenck Personality Inventory (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1968) were also used in the data analysis. In Group III, there were 55 males and 57 females enrolled in an in- troductory psychology class. Each of the participants received course credit for involvement in the study. This group was administered the SIS and the Childhood Experience Questionnaire. The SIS was also given to 30 males incarcerated at the state correctional facility. In the first investigation, the authors found the SIS scores to be pos- itively correlated with current individual happiness and negatively correl- ated to food aversions. The second study was thought to be consistent with the first, and both studies in conjunction seemed to justify the fol- lowing conclusions: ‘“(a) social interest was positively related to a basi- cally healthy and constructive orientation to one’s past, present, and fu- ture; (b) people who showed high social interest placed more emphasis upon and were more confident of the future than people with low social interest; and (c) lack of social interest was related to negative feelings about one’s personal past’” (Crandall & Reimanis, 1976, p. 210). In the third study, subjects scoring low on social interest reported more un- pleasant early memories than those scoring high on social interest. The vast majority of the unpleasant childhood memories involved parental neglect and lack of affection. Results of the third study also showed that criminals’ scores on the SIS were negatively correlated with social interest. Interestingly enough, each of the hypotheses confirmed in the study by Crandall and Reimanis appears to be consistent with and sup- portive of Adlerian theory, and in particular Adler’s concept of social in- terest. Conclusion A selected summary of the past decade’s research support for Adle- rian psychology yields some interesting and stimulating information. Al- though there is a need for further investigation of Adlerian hypotheses and constructs (Allen, 1971), many Adlerians appear to be making a concerted effort to test and provide support or nonsupport for their the- oretical underpinnings.98 Decade of Research This article has been an attempt at providing the interested Adle- rian researcher and practitioner with a brief overview of the past dec- ade’s studies that have tested Adlerian theory, particularly those pertain- ing to early recollections, life style, and social interest. Many new instruments have been developed within the past several years which have proven to be very valuable in advancing Adlerian research efforts. Hopefully, the future holds much promise for further refinement of in- strumentation and continued research endeavors. Reference Notes 1. Altman, K. E. The relationship between social interest dimensions of early recollections and selected counselor variables. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of South Carolina, 1973. 2. Quinn, J. Predicting recidivism and type of crime from the early recol- lections of prison inmates. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Uni- versity of South Carolina, 1973. 3. Kern, R. M. Life Style Inventory Questionnaire. Georgia State Univer- sity, 1976. (mimeo) References Allen, T. W. The individual psychology of Alfred Adler: An item of his- tory and promise of a revolution. The Counseling Psychologist, 1971, 3, 3-24. Attarian, P. J. Early recollections: Predictors of vocational choice. Journal of Individual Psychology, 1978, 34, 56-62. Bubenzer, D. L., Zarski, J. J., & Walter, D. A. Measuring social interest: A validation study. Journal of Individual Psychology, 1979, 35, 202- 213. Cattell, R. B., Eker, H. W., & Tatswoka, M. M. Handbook for the 16PF. Urbana-Champaign, Ill.: Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, 1970. Cline, J. M., Riordan, R. J., & Kern, R. M. An investigation of the inter- judge agreement on a subject’s vocational choice and life style type. In L. Baruth & D. Ekstein (Eds.), Life style: Theory, practice, and research. Dubuque, la.: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1978. Cottle, T. J. The Circles Test: An investigation of perceptions of temporal relatedness and dominance. Journal of Projective Techniques and Personality Assessment, 1967, 31, 58-71. Crandall, J. E. A scale for social interest. Journal of Individual Psychology, 1975, 30, 187-195.C. Edward Watkins, Jr. 99 Crandall, J. E., & Reimanis, G. Social interest and time orientation, child- hood memories, adjustment and crime. Journal of Individual Psy- chology, 1976, 32, 203-211. Ekstein, D. G. Early recollection changes after counseling: A case study. Journal of Individual Psychology, 1976, 32, 212-223. Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. C. Eysenck Personality Inventory Manual. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service, 1968. Gough, H. G. Manual for the CPI. Palo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1957. Greever, K. B., Tseng, M. S., & Friedland, 8. U. Development of the So- cial Interest Index. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1973, 41, 454-458. Holland, J. H. The Self-Directed Search. Palo Alto, Ca.: Consulting Psy- chologists Press, 1979. Linden, J. D., Stone, S. C., & Shertzer, B. Development and evaluation of an inventory for rating counseling. Personne! and Guidance Jour- nal, 1965, 44, 267-276. Magner-Harris, J., Riordan, R. J., Kern, R. M., & Curlette, W. L. Reliabil- ity of life style interpretations. Journal of Individual Psychology, 1979, 35, 196-201. Manaster, G. J., & Perryman, T. B. Early recollections and occupational choice. Journal of Individual Psychology, 1974, 30, 232-237. Mosak, H. H. Lifestyle. In A. G. Nikelly (Ed.), Techniques for behavior change. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1971. Rogers, G. W., Jr. Early recollections and college achievement. Journal of Individual Psychology, 1977, 33, 233-239. Rotter, J. B., & Hochreich, D. ). Personality. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Fores- man, & Co., 1975. Shostrom, E. L. Edits manual for the Personal Orientation Inventory. San Diego: Educational & Industrial Testing Service, 1972. Thorne, F. C. The life style analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1975, 31, 236-240. Thorne, F. C., & Pishkin, V. A factorial study of needs in relation to life styles. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1975, 31, 240-248. Wallen, R. Food aversions of normal and neurotic males. Journal of Ab- normal and Social Psychology, 1945, 40, 77-82. West, J. D., & Bubenzer, D. L. A factor analytic consideration of life style data. Journal of Individual Psychology, 1978, 34, 48-55. Zarski, J. J., Sweeney, T. J., & Barcikowski, R. S. Counseling effectiveness as a function of counselor social interest. Journal of Counseling Psy- chology, 1977, 24, 1-5.Copyright of Individual Psychology: The Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research & Practice is the property of University of Texas Press and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.