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    The author traces developments in computer art worldwide from 1965, when the first computer art exhibitions were held by scientists. The end of The First Decade of Computer Art was marked by economic, technological and programming advances thai allowed artists more direct access to computers. Computer art represents a historical breakthrough in computer applications; for the first time computers became involved in an activity that had been the exclusive domain of humans.

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    The author traces developments in computer art worldwide from 1965, when the first computer art exhibitions were held by scientists. The end of The First Decade of Computer Art was marked by economic, technological and programming advances thai allowed artists more direct access to computers. Computer art represents a historical breakthrough in computer applications; for the first time computers became involved in an activity that had been the exclusive domain of humans.

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    179 views10 pages

    The First Decade of Computer Art

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    ventolinmono
    The author traces developments in computer art worldwide from 1965, when the first computer art exhibitions were held by scientists. The end of The First Decade of Computer Art was marked by economic, technological and programming advances thai allowed artists more direct access to computers. Computer art represents a historical breakthrough in computer applications; for the first time computers became involved in an activity that had been the exclusive domain of humans.

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    ring te Damp river tose o» York Usa Visual Intelligence: The First Decade of Computer Art (1965-1975) Frank Dietrich in computer at worlwide from 1965, when the fist computer through succeeding periods in which artists collaborated with Scesuts tocreatecomputc programs for artstic purposes. The end ofthe rst decade of computer art was TEI by cconome, technological and programming advances that allowed artists more direct access to ‘Computers, igh quality images and virtually unlimited color choices art exibtions were held by scientists, 1, INTRODUCTION scientists were motivated mainly by tactileinput device. Harmon and Tesearch related to visual phenomena: Knowlton devised automatic digitizing ne year 1984 has been synonymous wth . “ \isualization of acoustics and the found- methods for images, work related 10 a the fundamental Orwellian pessimism of 4 future mired in technological aliena- tion. Yet one year later, in 1985, we are tions of binocular vision. Researchersat__ project on sampling and plotting of voice Bell contributed a wealth of information data under the direction of Manfred ste ecetteal aunty sCanart — tospor he grovthof computer graphic. Schroeder. Ken Knowlton contributed a erage computer Numerous computet animations were several graphic languages for animation. tao cent dats pee haional, — Pradoced- mostly for educational pur- Throughout this aie Iwill daca be an. These Ancet e e erimaty_ Poses but afew artisicenperiments Were researchconductedat Bell Lab infurtet Eso conducted. Julesz and Noll worked detail (1-8) fon the display of stereoscopic images. The German center of activity was Noll developed the mathematics for N- established atthe Technische Universitat dimensional projections aswell asa +D Stuttgart under the influence of philo- relationship with technological develop- tment in general and the capabilities of imaging machines in particular I EARLY WORK AND THE FIRST COMPUTER ART SHOWS, Computer art represents a historical breakthrough in computer applications. For the first time computers became iavolved in an activity that had been the cxclusive domain of humans: the act of creation. The number of Ph.D.’ involved ‘emphasized the heavily academic nature ofthe art form. The first computer art exhibitions, hich ran almost concurrently in 1965 in the US and Germany, were held not by ast tall, but by scientists: Bla Julesz and A. Michael Noll at the Howard Wise Gallery, New York; and Georg Nees and Frieder Nake at Galerie Niedlich, Stutt- att, Germany Noll and Julesz conducted thei visual th at Bell Laboratories in New Jersey. The Murray Hill lab became one Of the hotbeds for the development of computer graphies. Also working there were Manfred Schroeder, Ken Knowlton, Leon Harmon, Frank Sinden and E.E. Zajac, who all belonged to the first eneration of “computer artist’. These ») S>D>> KKK ) » LIy I NIIM ’»”” NI-Y Saas yy ») tA. Michael Noll, Bridget Riley's Painting “Currents” 196, An early attempt a shu {Sar Digrch rnc compe ans Som extn paning with comput. Much ofp a wae epetve pater Uh wl as SER 277 soeth Coes, Palate, CA 94506, — sxgreend vry cept seaermial ome Thee ereterat So ‘generated a parallel sinasoids itt tnear increasing period and drawn an amicrofiim plotter. A. Michael Nollalso approximated Pet onygh © WASIEEE.Reprmet wn ermisicn, Menta paling Compontion wh net eae nd crete © eth vein t mere shen 1 10 subjects, and of bol Te eee eee i Peeancn, pseudorandom numbers, Xerographicreproduct No. pp 338, July 198 the computer generated LEONARDO, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 159-69, 1986 159 Fig 2. Kenneth C, Knowlton and Leon Harmon, Studies in Perception J, 1966, Knowlton and Harmon made this picture at Bll Laboratorisin Murray Hi, [New Jersey It isan early example of image processing and prabably the fs ‘compute mude’.It was eabited in the show "The Machine” atthe Mince ‘Madern Art in New York ln 1968. Scanning » photograph they converted the analog voltages into Binary numbers, which were stored on magnetic tan [Nouther program assigned typographic symbols to these mombers according to halftone denis, This the archlspe of artistic Lops, he mde represented by a mkrocosmos of electron symbols printed by 8 mcratilm potter sopher Max Bense. Bense's main reas of Only in a second phase did artists. “Some More Beginnings.” a show research covered the history of science become involved and participate with organized by Experiments in Art and and the mathematics of aesthetics. He scientists in three large-scale shows: Technology at the Brooklyn Museum coined the terms ‘artificial art’ and “Cybernetic Serendipity,” organized in New York (1968), and “Software ‘generative aesthetics’ in his main work, London for the Institute of Contem- curated by Jack Burnham at the Jewish Aesthetica (6), porary Art by Jasia Reichard (1968), Museum in New York (1970), The ‘Advances in both computer music and poetry (or text processing) formed the ‘context and also offered initial guidelines for computer art. Computer-generated texts were produced in Stutgart beginning in 1960. An entice branch of text analysis relied heavily on computer-processed statistics dealing with vocabulary, length and type of sentences, et. [7] Electronic music studios predated ‘computer art studios, leading a number of visual artists 0 seek information about computers from university music de partments. Dutch artist Peter Siruyeken, for instance, took a course in electronic ‘music offered by the composer GM. Koenig at one of the few European centers, the Instituut voor Sonologie at the Rijks Universiteit at Utrecht [8] Lejaren A. Hiller programmed the “Iliac Suite” in 1957 on the ILLIAC computer at the University of Illinois, Champaign, and composed the well-known “Computer Cantata” with Robert A. Baker in 1963 [9]. Some musicians who were using computers as a compositional tool also created graphicsin anattempt 10 foster synergism between the arts (lannas Xenakis, Herbert Brin, ete.)[10-19). The flmmker John Whitey. othe Ot Fi,» chu A, Car and Jame Sal, Sie re Man 167. pe nop of peabrcone State Computers and Automation magazine's annual computer art competition in 1967. Initially the a" animations accordingto harmonies of the drew a human face and coded a handful of selected coordinates from the in drawing, This dae" sea paca rad myrtle perl fep peters eer peren epe Dita Mermony (20) aeeceee ees a ewe all see eco 160 Dietrich. Visual Intellieence | logs of Je of the roaches inologie= se show ppublit compute puter king the eptive | THE T AN ‘When fomputer merge. A) jyoup bel orm bet approxima isnot boun industrial: America 8 Initially sdvantage accelerat thinking” the synere refers tot tool for artist by = creative p Ww its user that othe 61 ‘Becaus: indeserip cenuld ll simple in Their in capabiit its abit: omnipot with isc pointed physical then, qu the reali times fas asensep Ry own Many vist, 1 ing for volunta Well-det 1 foc Percept of con Recher. Maem ‘Menem Sette tema show 1 An and Museum, Software” the Jewish 970). The aualogs of these shows tll represent some of the best overviews of emerging Sproaches 10 computers and Spologes for arte purposes (21-24) fpcse shows presented the frst resus Jo publi questioned the relationship computers and art, They arated any more artnet the growing field of Simpater art but did not succeed in Siting the art world in general more eeptve tothe new at form ul. THE TECHNOLOGICAL ARTIST AND THE COMPUTER ‘When we look at the handful of early computer art aficionados, certain patterns merge. All scientists and artists in this jyoup belong to the same generation, born between the two World Wars, approximately 1925-1940. Their heritage isnot bound by national borders; rather it is international, representing the highly industrialized countries of Europe, North America and Japan, Initially, artists saw a very utilitarian advantage in using the computer as an accelerator for “high-speed visual thinking’ [25]. Robert Mallary calls this the synergistic use of the computer in the context of man-machine interactions. He ‘efersto the computer's “application asa tool for enhancing the on-the-spot treative power and productivity of the anist by accelerating and telescoping the creative process and by making available tots user a multitude of design options that otherwise might not occur to him 6, Because these artists were not interested indescriptive or elaborated painting. they ‘ould allow themselves to relate to the simple imagery generated by computers. Their interest was fueled by other to art students, and Duane Palyk8 holds degrees in both fine arts and mathematics They needed rowing bre Early felimco were Br fang sp their yocabul GI, G2 pa. SPART incorpo! pen att and trar A farhe control tines for ing bot key fran of inter languas vas GF al, a1 light-pe gaphic in mach requirec ALGOL In tl languag PARTI language ‘machin the lan the Stax the lan organiz umber teperto comp, more t BEFI was Bieri bytes contro Aire today" imagen images Provide ates Kaow stanteed ations of © Style early 2 top stcated Robert + Seu. 8” He could ke pure able the th very inning uted with ical, needed ined, and 19605 reed of capa- anfred IZajee teaches Palyka ts and LANGUAGES, arly attempts at graphics languages allinto one oftwo categories. Either they sere graphics subroutines implemented js one of the common programming [anguages and callable from the were written in machine language and set up their own syntax and command set or socabulary. The first graphics extensions, G1, G2 and G3 by Georg Ness, f stance, were written in ALGOL 60 and tained only commands for pen control and random number generators 38]. More elaborate was Mezei’s SPARTA, a system of Fortran calls orporating graphics prim polygon, ete.) differen A further development led to ARTA, a eractive language based on light-pen control. ARTA also provided subrou 125 for k low. ig both the interactive drawing of two key frames and the description of thetype lation with a function [39]. A juage extension similar to Fortran was GRAF, written by Jack Citreon er at IBM: GRAF also offered optional light-pen input [40]. Even though the sraphics extensions made programm iachine code superfluous, they 3 ed programming in Fortran 1. 66 In the second group of aphics nguages we find Frieder Nake’s COM PART ER $6 as well as Ken Knowiton’s languages, BEFLIX and EXPLOR. The ames of these programming environ- ments are indicative of ether function-or achine-dependent_ implementation ie language. COMPART ER 6, for stance, refers to a particular computer, the Standard Elektric ER 56, for which the language has been written, ER 56 miained three subpackages, a space jeanizer, a set of different random number generators, and se ite of graphic elements. Nakeus COMPART ER 56 extensively to create re than 100 drawings [30] BEFLIX (a corruption of Bell Flicks) designed to produce animated movies on a Stromberg-Carlson 4020 trofilm recorder, Points within a 252 184 coordinate system could be mntrolled, each having one of eight erent shades of gray. In contrast with day's frame buffers, which hold the age memory in theit bit map, BEFLI = resided in the computer's main -mory. As an animation language it Provided instructions for several motion Knowlton had initially hoped that artists wid leare the Languag. ram ine depen cause each i OWN Movies, but he came to realize uage was restricted in scope. The at they usually J to create s were useful for ther inventors goals something the language could not but lacked s sibility and ease facilitate. and they ed away from € to accommodate the creative ideas Programming. Therefore he accommo: many different artists, BEFLIX, Jated the artists by. for example. writing wever. was installed in several art special extensions to BEFLIX for Stan departments and provided the helping Vanderbeek, or creating a completely hand many programmers had given when ew language. EXPLOR (images from collaborating individually with artists Xplicit Patterns, Local Operations and. At Ohio State University Charles Csuri Randomness), for Lillian Schwarz [41] ted, over many seats, the develop- ne of the graphics languages men: of several graphics languages, all tioned received widespread use. partly designed for ease of use, interactive because their implementation was mach- _conttol, and animation capabilities. One Fig. 7. Herbert W. Frank, Portrait Abert Elnsein, 1973. A photographof Eascin was scanned and ixitied optically. The data was stoed on tickertape and displayed on a CRT wing programs dcveloped for applications in medical agnosis. Herbert Franke generated the colors ik resdomy tumbers ands smoothing contour ins Tis serie ofp absractand Dietrich, Viswal Intelligence 163 incarnation, GRASS, or GRAphics Symbiosis System, was designed by Tom DeFanti, first for a reabtime vector display and later as ZGRASS for a Z80- based animation language for artists This language has been widely used by programming artists, which indicates that it possesses sufficient generality to support different imaging strat well as suitable command and execution structures to adapt to artistic ereation 44,45) VI. THE FIRST GRAPHICS SYSTEMS Let's turn the clock back again to the 1960s when the microcomputer bad 1 even been conceived. Thecomputersused initially large mainframes, soon followed by minicomputers. Such ‘equipment cost anywhere from $100,000, to several million dollars. All the machines required air conditioning and therefore were located in separate com puter rooms, which served as fairly uninhabitable ‘studios’. Programs and data had to be prepared with the keypunchs then the punch cards were fed imo the computer, which ran in batch mode. In general, the systems were interactive and could produce only st images. Pen plotters, line printers produced most ofthe visual output, The first animations were created by plotting all stil frames of the movie sequentially on a stack of paper or microfilm, Motion could only be viewed afler these stills had been transferred to 16-m Only a few artists had the opportunity film and projec use even more expensive vector displays introduced in the late 1960s by companies such as IBM or newly founded graphics as Evans & Suther- snd, Vector General, and Adage, wh displays cost between $50,000 and $100,000, These displays featured very high addressabilty, up to 4000 by 4000 points, and could update coordinates fast ‘enough to support realtime animation of dels in -D [46]. One of the porating manufacturers suc first compute these interactive displays took place 3 he College of the Arts at Ohio Sta University in 1970 (47 A more popular choice was the age display tubes offered by Tektronix, starting around $10,000. But even if only asingle line wa to be changed, the picture had to be erased completely and redrawn With the exception of the microfilm plotter, all output devices were line ¢ vector oriented and thus characterized Fig. 8. Edvard Zajc, Prostor, 1968-69, One ofa series of drawings fom the Prostor program. Zee teas concerned with establishing a design system that could generate a malttde of variation. Each {ime the program rum it defines rectangle and subdivies i according to harmonic proportions. The figure formation inside this composition takes place by selecting suecesiel a ine from thi se erica, horizontals diagonal and sinusoidal. The parameters for length and amplitude comply with tatmonic ration. The lines connect mith cach other according 10 predetermined rules [37 the majority of early computer art gorithms wit a {rofilm ploterissomethingof hybrid device [49] between a vector CRT and a raster im ‘Output was often taken directly from device [48]. The CRT beam se machine and exhibited. Moreover seteen sequentially, turning on signatures were some sdby under computer control. A camer achine as part of the drawing progra mounted on the CRT makes a time Later, artists used these exposure during each scan. Thus the sketches for manually produced paint resulting image looks like aph or copy for photo, tak shaded areas by overstriking with different characters or using the capacity of the eve {0 integrate these separate microimages é rmacroimage or supersign. The Germ: artist Klaus Basset attained extraordin arily subile shading effects by using a Simple typewriter. His work cleat lates to computer art, even if he did not He programmed himsel work by hand. Color was. ly in this later phase ofp n limited range could be Harold Cohen realized the available graphic proach was 1 wing to the © ed a plotter king “turtle — awing vehicle ¢ drawings late pu CRT Fie. tein fimens his eo The F Book orth Me DOeEF Pane Seay CK Fiz 9. Manfred Mobr,P 159 4, 1973. The ilsion ofa thre-dimensional cube is evoked by profectinga set of 12 straight ics onto the two-dimensional Leas ete diesoves ihe tveedinensonality By taking away edge lines) af the cube consecutively and observes the appearance of new, two 25 | domnidut icons, Tw aditon e introduces rotations and other transormalons ofthe cube to fester vsual ambiguity and inti Te dynam of ht sings aa aerssca invention ar explored systematically. and each resal is drawn as part of a cluster of images ete st of eed ‘combinatiom. sition rated uced fuction = P es we e's mem: ved bY v ce the paint histcated 3-D modeling > input provide quick ation c omplex images, but the 1. Hi jobot z r : fe feomputeraristshad {) mathematics—it sulting ited in mixing maa | | VIL. THE CONCEPTS. The pioneers of computer art were driven by the newness ofthe technology, the untouched areas wide open for inventive investigation. Because of the lack of viable commercial applications at that time, they enjoyed the rare freedom to define their own goals, guided only by personal motivation and intuition, This small group of believers had a vision, which has not yet been fulfilled. These artists felt challenged to come up with sophisticated artistic. and intellectual concepts to offset the crude computer araphies machines of the mid-1960s with ther lack of color, speed and interactivity It might be fruitful to resolve with today's technology the paradox Manfred Mohr found in his work, a paradox particularly applicable to the early days of computer art: "The paradox of my generative work is that formwise it is minimalist and contentwise itis maximalist” (52) VIII, COMBINATORICS The computer was thought of by Ne as a “Universal Picture Generator ‘capable of creating every possible picture ‘out of a combination of available picture elements and colors [30]. Obviously, a systematic application of the mathematics of combinatorics would lead to an inconceivable number of pictures, both good and bad, and would require an infinite production time in human terms, ‘even if exactly computable. This raised the issue of presclecting a few elements that could be explored exhaustively and presented in a series or cluster of subimages as one piece. Manfred Mohr, for instance, centered his work on the ‘cube and concisely devised successive ‘transformations that modified an ordinary ‘cube. The complex set of possible \ransformations was then plotted, and the transformations were displayed simultaneously a a single image. A series (of catalogs of his work from 1973 to present exquisitely documents the con- sistent progression of his visual logic [52]. IX. ORDER, CHAOS, AND RANDOMNESS Other artists chose to investigate the full range between order and chaos, ‘employing random number generators In this way they could create many different images from one program, introducing change with the random selection of certain parameters to define, for instance, location, type or size of a graphic element (8, 29]. Random num- bers served to break the predictability of Fig 10, Colette and Charles Ranget, Lndines, 1970, This couple as been collaborating ‘computer at for almost two decades. in paralel Colette hs continued to draw her at by hand. The Investigation of similarities and differences between ‘hand work and compater plots is he foundation ‘of thelr eretive concepts, and findings are fed back into new programs and more sophisticated ban ravings. Ths methodological approach sight coupled with the subject mater of all thelr wor: landscapes. Colette reports “The cements ofboth the computer work and my hand work ae ofts repetitive lke leaves, trees, grass andotber landscape elements are Theres sameness andsilariy. ‘et everything s changing” (59), thecomputer They simulated inutonin arbitrary point of inal impact. The avery limited fashion and helped changes of color —dstibution were Gnereome’ the severe resins. of preseted in numerical cos, which the human iteration ith the computer, artist anslated into actual colo pi Random numbers could be constrained ings b) hand seth nited mumerie range and then TCtonships thee rls weredenved_% MATHEMATIC FUNCTIONS from ananalyisof radtional painings, Numeric evaluations of function thepropam could simulatea numberof could be plowed directs. Grape of Simla designs, according to Nol [S3] dierent functions could be merged and Nake [30]. Or the artist could set up their points could be connected. These new rules for generating entire families of methods relate directly to experiments new aesthetic configurations, using ran- with analog computing machines by Ben ddom numbers to decide where and howto _F. Laposky and Herbert W. Franke inthe place graphic elements. 1950s. They constructed their own. Peter Struycken recovered therigorous imaging systems based on an arranse- tradition of the art movement deStijland ment of voltage-controlled. oscillators. consciously disregarded even abstract The voltages deflected the beam of forms by focusing exclusively on pure oscilloscopes to produce ¢lectronic line ‘orm is an drawings. Laposky called his imases fasiet conceptual representation and accordingly ‘oscillons’. They were photo- repetition than color. Form can almost graphic time exposures of the CRT always be associated with a form that is display [54]. already known, How easy itis toconnect _Entire number fields were drawn with abstract forms to reality: this is just ikea digital computers, which features. ‘loud, thatikeasnake,theselikeflowers, control superior to that of analog Form is then regarded as something in systems. For instance, artist/scientsis itself, where recognition is as important would display modular relationships oF as secing as such” [8]. Todiscourageeven particular properties such as primeness ot the faintest notion of content, he reduced Various stages of a matrix multiplication the image in “Plons” (Dutch for Splash) approaching its limiting boundaries. The to simple squares forming a coordinate use of mathematics does not necessaril’ system, The computer calculated propa- imply a highly geometrical result, Some gation ofcolorenergyemanatingfroman scientists tried to model irregular ps! color. In his own words: “ \ { \ ( terns eer inph the toda phen XL pum! sent This appli efor com) Jam form ‘ene thro: digit “Sin Tt Tech com face grad emit, tech Boar Mar. thelr The Satin hand otter tary, The the aint sof 4, ot hese nents Ben athe inge- a of line sages cRT with ralog The atily ome pate tems. Knowlton, for example, simulated crystal growth, and Manfred R. Schroe- der visualized equations describing noise in phone lines. Both experiments relateto the mathematics of fractals so prevalent today for the modeling of natural henomena [55] XI. REPRESENTATIONAL IMAGES Whereas the last type of image visualizes the mathematical behavior of humbers, the numbers could also repre sent the coordinates of a hand di This data had to be meticulously entered into the computer via punch cards: then ‘various processing methods could be pplied to the image data, Leslie Mezei deformed the image progressively into complete noise (56). Charles Cs James Shaffer applied Fourier forms to. subset of the data samy generated complex sine fi Ihrough those fixed points, The originally igiized drawing, combined with several Man” ‘The Japanese Computer Graphics Technique Group experimented with the metamorphosis of one image into a completely different one. Thus a realistic face could be completely distorted or gradually transformed into a entity such as a square. The interpolation techniques they were using for the sation of a simple image became the cornerstone of animation. This anima tion technique, called Key-frame anima- tion, was pioneered at the National Film Board of Canada by Burtnyk and Marcelli Wein [37] Peter Foldes used imerpolation techniques successfully as Fig. 12. Sona Landy Sheridan, Sclentin’s Hand at 3M, 1976. This cational masterpiece impliiy pays homage tothe major utensil of image of the hand has eon ransfered onto the topline of a sack of punch card by an electrostatic peat 3M1'S VOC photocopier. Sherkdan was rying {ovatom the children ofthe scientists at 3M's central research las in St Paul, Miamesta, how the computer stores information om cards an the image onthe cards can be manipulated without even This hand can be stretched millions of ways by merely shi rch card. Tl process aning' (2, 43, Fig. 11 Klans Basset, Kubus, 1974 The typeriter grapes are composed of only ive signs: ‘os :H and" By onerstiking these ype symbols in various combinations, Basset achieved haitones trom bright to dark. He used these tones to shade cubic objec which he calclated and meticulously ped by hand. Recently. Basset started (ous a computer witha line printer aan output ‘device: He clam thatthe typewritten pieces are more presse. sent sizes and densities are tist could elate the Bray a set of arbitrary dots of diff employed. The values of an image the major stylistic method in his movie Hunger ‘Optical scanners automated the task of entering visual data int and jin effect revealed ential visual symbols and print out the Thus images were he computer converted im machine vision. These im: stored ‘ude by Knowlton and in the computer in the form of different Harmon, which on closer inspection is numbers to encode different gray values, Seen to consist of numerous electrical and lat id be printed symbols, or aneye whose close-up reveals, with pl jing concept letters forming the sentence "One picture similar to that used for halftones, where __is worth a thousand words" (Schroeder). Fig. 13, Dume Palka, Painting Self-Portrait, 1978. (Photo: Mike Milochck). ‘The artist painted a seltportrait on a computer at the University of Utah Compute Science Department in 1995. Inthe picture, machine. Palka ls usng a simple paint program called Crayon, writen in For rrthe cards by Sim Blinn. The program rantunder the DOS operaingsystem ona DEC 11/48 using the ist Evan & Satberland frame bale. Dietrich, Visual Intelligence 167 ‘The end of thefirstdecadeof computer art coincided with important changes due ‘mainly to three technological advances 1. The invention of the micro- processor changed the sire, price, and accessibility of computers dramatically. The computer could become a truly personal tool 2 Interactive systems became common in the ereative process. ‘Traditional paradigms of artistic creation such as painting and

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