Microsoft Word - FullNotesC

St.
Mary‛s School of Management Studies

Jeppiaar Educational Trust
C programming
· It is a middle level language i.e. it supports high level as well as lowlevel
programming.
· Developed by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Lab, 1972.
Advantages of C Language
1) Robust language
· It has rich set of built in functions and operators can be used to write any complex
program.
· The language is well suited for writing system software and business packages,
because it combines the capabilities of an assembly language.
2) Efficient and fast
· Due to its variety of data types and powerful operators.
· Limited no of keywords (only 32 keywords)
3) Portable
· It means that a C program written for one type of the computer can be run on
another type of the computer with little or no modification.
4) Expandability
· Existing program or function may be included into another program is called
expandability.
5) Modularity
· It Supports modular programming.
The property of dividing a big problem into sub problems is called as modularity.
Where the sub problems are called as modules or functions or sub problems.
· Advantages of modularity
a) Workload can be divided and shared by more than programmers.
b) Errors can be identified and corrected easily.
Structure of C program
A C program has the following format:
Documentation section
Link section
Definition section
Global declaration section
Main () function section
{
Local declaration part
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
…. Executable statements / procedural statements
….
Statement m;
________________________________________________________________________
Programming in C Page: 1
St. Mary‛s School of Management Studies
}
subprogram section
function header 1( )
{
variable declaration;
statement 1;
statement 2;
…
…
statement n;
}
function Header 2()
{
..
..
…..
}
function Header n()
{
…
…
…
}
Documentation section
· Set of comment lines can be given to specify the name of the program, the author
and the other details which the programmer would like to use later.
· There are two formats to enter the comments about the problem
(i)Start with // if the comment is of one line
(ii)Start with /* and end with */ if the comment is of multiple lines
Link section
· It is used to link functions from the system library or from another C program.
The format is #define the Header file name / C program name
Enclosed in double quotes
Data Definition section
· The symbolic constants are to be declared in this section. Some of the values of
the variables are constant throughout the program. This type of constant is called
as the Symbolic constant.
________________________________________________________________________
Global declaration section
· The variables which are used in more than one functions are called global
variables. They should be declared in this section before all the functions.
main() function section
· Is a subroutine / function that consists one or more statements designed to
perform a specific task
· Each functions consists of two parts. They are
(a) Declaration part It declares all the local variables used in the function.
(b) Executable part : It is for defining the executable / procedural statements.
· The two parts appear between the opening and the closing braces.
· All the procedural statements and declaration statements parts end with
semicolon.
· Every C program must have a main() function section from which the program
starts it execution.
Subprogram section
· Contains all the userdefined functions that are called in the main function.
· All sections, except the main function section may not be present when they are
not required.
Constants
· The fixed values that do not change during the execution of a program are called
as the constants. There are two types of constants. They are
(i) Numeric constants
(ii) Non – Numeric constants
(i) Numeric constant
· It is a collection of numeric digits with the special characters + , and . There are
two types of numeric constants. They are
a) Integer constant
· It refers to a sequence of digits, doesn’t have any decimal point. Example: 15,
+25, 32 are the Integer constants.
b) Float constant
· It refers to a sequence digits with a decimal point. Example: 7.52, +16.543, 23.14
are the float constants.
Note: A float constant can be expressed in the following form also.
7.52 can be expressed as .752e 1 or .752E 1 or .752E +1 or .752e +1
________________________________________________________________________
(iii) Non Numeric constants
It is a collection of one or more numeric characters. They are
a) Single character constant
· Contains a single character enclosed within a pair of single quote marks.
Example: ‘X’, ‘e’, ‘5’, ‘*’
b) String constant
· Sequence of characters enclosed within double quotes. The character may be
letters, numbers and special characters. For example: “Hello1”, “ St.mary's school
of management studies”, “?….!”, “5+3”
Note : A float constant can be expressed in exponent form. The exponent form has the
following format:
Mantissa Part e exponent Part
The value 3.4500 can be expressed as 0.345 e 1 , 345.0e2, etc.
Variable : It is a quantity whose value can be changed during the execution of the
program.
· It is a data name used to store data value.
· A variable may take different values at different situations during execution.
· A variable name can be chosen by the programmer in meaningful way, i.e. it
reflects the function or nature of the program. For example: amount, height,
salary.
The Rules for forming the variables are:
· Must begin with an alphabet
· Length of 36 characters.
· Uppercase and lowercase are significant. The variable Total is different from the
variable total.
· Should not be a keyword. The keywords are the words reserved for doing some
operations such as printf, scanf, etc.
· White space not allowed.
According to the availability their values , the variables are divided into two types. They
are
Global variable
· If a variable is used in all the functions then the variable is called global variable
Local variable
· If a variable is used within a function only , the variable is the local variable. The
variable should be declared inside the function.
________________________________________________________________________
Character set
A set of characters, which are used to write the program
· Alphabet(a..z, A..Z)
· Numeric digits(09)
· Special characters(+,,*,% etc.,)
Symbolic constants
If the value of a variable is not altered through out the program, the constant is the
symbolic constant. Sometimes it called as a constant identifier. For example, the value of
pi is always 22/7 where the value remains constant for the variable pi.
General format for defining a symbolic constant
#define symbolic_name value_of_constant
Rules for defining the symbolic constants are
(i) There is no space between # and define
(ii) There is a space between define and symbolic_name and also between
symbolic_name and value_of_constant
(iii) A program may have more than one symbolic constant
(iv) Only one symbolic constant can be defined using a single #define
(v) It should not end with semicolon
(vi) For differentiating symbolic name and the variable the symbolic_name may be given
in upper case.
(vii) The value of the symbolic_name cannot be altered within the program.
Example:
# define PI 3.14127
# define COLLEGE “St.Mary’s”
Input output functions
In C Language , there are no input and output statements. To do inputting and outputting ,
some functions are used. The functions are called as the Input / Output functions ( I/O
functions).
The function which is used to give the value of variable through keyboard is called input
function. The function which is used to display or print the value on the screen is called
output function.
Note : In C language we use two built in functions, one is used for reading and another
is used for displaying the result on the screen. They are scanf() and printf() functions.
They are stored in the header file named stdio.h.
General format for scanf( ) function
scanf(“control string”, &variable1, &variable2,……)
________________________________________________________________________
The control sting specifies the field format in which the data is to be entered.
%d –integer
%f – float
%c char
%s – string
% ld – long integer
%u – Unsigned Integer
Example:
scanf(“%d”,&x) – reading an integer value, the value will be stored in x
scanf(“%d%f”,&x,&a) reading a integer and a float value In the above scanf ( )
function , we don’t use any format. This type of Input is called as the Unformatted Input
function.
Formatted input
We can specify the field width when we are reading the value. The field
speciation for reading the number is %wd
Where w – is the field width of the number to be read .
Example
scanf(“%2d %5d”,&num1,&num2)
data line is 50 31425
the value 50 is assigned to num1 and 31425 is assigned to 31425. suppose the input data
is as follows
31425 50 , then the variable num1 will be assigned 31 and num2 will be assigned to 425
and the 50 is unread.
An input field may be skipped by specifying * in the place of field width.
Example the statement scanf(“%d %*d %d),&a,&b); will assign the data 123 456 789
as follows: 123 is assigned to a , 456 skipped because of * and 789 to b
Output Function : To print the value on the screen or to store the value on the file, the
output functions are used. printf() is the function which is use to display the output on the
screen.
The General format of the printf() function is
printf(“control string”,variable1,variable2,…..)
Example
printf(“%d”,x) – printing the integer value x.
printf(“%d%f”, x,a) printing a integer and float value using a single printf function.
________________________________________________________________________
Formatted output :; Like formatted input , there is a formatted output also to have the
output in a format manner.
In this control string consists of three types of items.
· Characters that will be printed on the screen as they appear
· Format specification that define the output format for display of each item
· Escape sequence characters such as
\n – new line
\b – back space
\f – form feed
\r – carriage return
\t horizontal tab
\v – vertical tab
The format speciation is as follows
%w.p type specifier
w is an integer number that specifies the total no of columns for the output value and p is
the another integer number that specifies the number digits to the right of the decimal
point.
Examples
printf(“\n”);
printf(“a = %f\n b = %f”,a,b);
printf(“”sum = %d “,1234);
printf(“%6d”,9876)
printf(“%6d”,9876)
printf(“%06”,9876);
printf(“%7.2f”,y);
printf(“%7.2f”,y);
printf(“%10.2e”,y);
printf(“%11.4e”,y);
Data types
Data type specifies the type of data which is going to be assigned for a variable.
There are four types of data type
· Primary data type – Available in most of the computer languages.
· Userdefined data types – Data type created by the user
· Derived data types (arrays and structures) – Data type to be used for grouping
more than one data.
· Pointer Data type Data type to declare a pointer variable
· Empty data set (void) – Data type which has nothing.
________________________________________________________________________
Primary data type
The data type which is available in most of the languages is called as the primary data
type. It is also called as the standard data type.
1) Integer data type
· Signed int – 16 bits, both +ve and –ve values, range –32768 to 32767
· Unsigned int –16 bits, only positive values, range 0 to 655535
· Signed short int – 8 bits , both +ve and –ve values, range –128 to 127
· Unsigned short int – 8 bits, only positive values, range 0 to 255
· Signed long int – 32 bits, both +ve and –ve values, range – 214748364 to
2147483647
· Unsigned long int – 32 bits, only positive values, range 0 to 4294966295
2) Floating data type
· Float
· Double
· Long double
3) Char data type
· signed char
· unsigned char
User defined data type
A data type which is created by the user is called as the user defined data type.
There are two types of user defines data types. They are
1) typedef
It is used to give a name to the available data type. The general format is
typedef datatype name;
typedef int x;
Now we can declare the integer variables a and b like the following
x a,b; // which is equivalent to int a,b;
2) Enumerated data type
Which can be used to declare variables that can have one of the values enclosed
within the braces(known as enumeration constants). The general format is
enum identifier {value1,value2,…..valuen};
enum identifier v1,v2,….vn;
The enumerated variables v1,v2,..vn can only have one of the values
value1,value2..valuen. the assignments of the following types are valid.
v1=value3
v5=value1
Example
________________________________________________________________________
enum day {Monday, Tuesday,Wednesday……..Sunday};
enum day week_st,week_end;
week_st=Monday;
week_end=Friday;
Note:
The compiler automatically assigns integer digits beginning with 0 to all the
enumeration constants. That is value1 is assigned to 0 value2 is assigned to 1 and so on.
The automatic assignments can be overridden by assigning values explicitly to the
enumeration constants.
enum day {Monday=1,Tuesday,…..Sunday};
The remaining constants are assigned values that increase successively by 1.
Declaration of Variables:
A variable is a name given to the constant which is used in the program. All the variables
used in the program should be declared in the declaration part. The declaration specifies
what type of data is going to be held by the variable. The general format for declaring the
variable is
Datatype v1, v2, v3, ...... vn;
Where
v1 , v2 ,.... vn are the varaibels
datatype specifies which type of data can be assigned to the variables v1,
v2, .... vn.
More than variables with the same datatype can be declared using a single statement.
Example :
int x , y , z; [ the variables x , y and z are the integer variables and the values assigned for
the variables must be integer constants ]
float a , b; [ the variables x , y and z are the float variables and the values assigned for
the variables must be float constants ]
char c [ the variables c is the character variables and the values assigned for the
variables must be character constant ]
Note : The declaration variables should be done immediately after the opening brace of
the program .
Assignment Statement :
It is a statement which is used for assigning a constant value , a value of another variable
or an expression to a variable.
________________________________________________________________________
The general format for the assignment statement is
Variable = value / variable / Expression;
(i) If R.H.S has a value , the value is assigned for the variable lies on the L.H.S.
(ii) If R.H.S has a variable, the value of the variable on the R.H.S is assigned to
the variable on the L.H.S
(iii) If R.H.S has an expression, the value of the expression is found first. Then the
value of the expression is assigned to the variable on the L.H.S
After the a value is assigned to a variable, that value is assigned automatically whenever
the variable is used.
Expression :
It is a collection of variables and constants with the operators. There are three types of
expressions. They are
(i) Arithmetic expression : An arithmetic expression is an expression in which
the variables and constants are combined with the arithmetic operators. The
arithmetic operators are
* Multiplication
/ Division
+ Addition
Subtraction
% Modulo divisor
Examples for arithmetic expression
a. a + b % 35
b. z – 25 + 45
(ii) Relational expression : A relational expression is an expression in which the
variables and constants are combined with the relational operators. The
resultant value of a relational expression is either true or false. The relational
operators are
< Lesser than
> Greater than
< = Less than or equal to
> = Greater than or equal to
= = Equal to
! = Not Equal to
________________________________________________________________________
Examples for relational expression :
(a) a >= b [ true if the value of a is greater than or equal to the

value of b. otherwise it is false ]
(b) b = = c [ true if the value of b is equal to the value of c,
otherwise the value is false]
(c) a < ( b + c ) [ true if the value of a is lesser than the value of b + c
, otherwise the value of the expression is false]
(iii) Logical expression : A Logical expression is an expression in which the
variables and constants are combined with the Logical operators. The logical
operators are
&& AND
| | OR
! NOT
Actually the operators are used to combine more than one relational expressions
the format
Relational expression 1 logical operator relational expression 2
{ }

Logical Expression
The result of the relational expression is also either true or false.
The relational expression is evaluated as
(a) If more than one relational expressions are combined with the && operators , the
logical expression is true only if all the relational expressions are true.
(b) If more than one relational expressions are combined with the | | operators , the
logical expression is true only if any one of the relational expressions is true.
(c) ! is the negated operator. If the relational expression followed by this operator is false,
the logical expression is true.
Examples for arithmetic expression :
a. ( (a > b ) && ( a > c ) )
b. ( ( Mark1 > 50 ) | | ( Mark2 > 50 ) )
Evaluation of an expression
________________________________________________________________________
If an arithmetic expression is given, there are some rules to be followed to evaluate the
value of it. These rules are called as the priority rules. They are also called as the
hierarchy rules. According to these rules, the expression is evaluated as follows;
Rule 1 : If an expression contains parentheses , the expression within the parentheses
will be performed first. Within the parentheses , the priority is to be followed.
Rule 2 : If it has more than parentheses , the inner parenthesis is performed first.
Rule 3: If more than one symbols of same priority , it will be executed from left to
right.
Example for evaluating an expression
Let X = 2 , Y =5 then the value of the expression
((( Y 1 ) / X ) * ( X + Y ) ) is calculated as:
First evaluation is done on the innermost parenthesis
( Y 1) = ( 5 1 ) = 4 = T1
Second evaluation in done on next outer parenthesis
( T 1 / X ) = ( 4 / 2 ) = 2 = T2
Third evaluation is made on the next set parenthesis
( X + Y ) = ( 2 + 5 ) = 7 = T3
Last evaluation is for finding the value of whole expression
( T2 * T3 ) = ( 2 * 7 ) = 14
The evaluations are made according to the priority rule.
Type conversion
The process of converting the data from one type to another type is called type
conversion. There are two types of type conversion. They are
(i) Implicit type conversion
(ii) Explicit type conversion.
1) Implicit type conversion
The conversion which is automatically done by the compiler is called automatic type
conversion. Since this type conversion is done automatically, the data type conversion is
called as the automatic type conversion.
Example: If a statement is used as c=a/b; Where a is a float and b is an integer. Then
the expression is the mixed data type expression. When a mixed data type expression is
found in the expression, the compiler converts the result of the expression into the data
type of the operands which takes more number of bytes. Hence ‘ b’ is of integer data type
, the value is automatically converted into float though ‘b’ is integer.
________________________________________________________________________
2) Explicit type conversion
Instead of automatic type conversion , the user can change type of the data in an
expression. It is called as the explicit data type conversion. It is also called as the type
casting.
For type casting the general format is
(datatype) operand;
where the operand may be either a variable or a constant.
Example
Assume that the 10 and 3 are the values of two integers a and b respectively. After the
statement
c=a/b;
is evaluated , the value of c is 3.0 only even though c is float
Instead , if the type casting is made as the following statement
c=(float)a/b;
the value of c is 3.3333.
Note:
Type conversion is not changing the type of variable. Instead it changes the datatype for
the value of the variable.
OPERATORS:
An operator is a symbol used for doing an operation. The operators are used for
mathematical or logical manipulations. There are six types of C Operators. They are
(i) Arithmetic Operators
(ii) Relational Operators
(iii) Logical Operators
(iv) Assignment Operators
(v) Increment and Decrement operators
(vi) Conditional Operators
Arithmetic Operators: These operators used for forming arithmetic expression (
mathematical expression ).
Relational Operators: These operators are used for defining the relational expression.
________________________________________________________________________
Logical Operators : These operators are used for combining more than one conditions.
Assignment Operators: These are the ‘short hand ‘ assignment operators. The general
format of this operator is
Variable operator = expression;
Where the operator is the binary arithmetic operator.
The above assignment statement is equivalent to variable = variable operator expression;
For example:
The statement x = x * 100;
Can be written as x * = 100 ; by using the assignment operator.
By using these operators , the variable on the L.H.S need not be repeated again.
Increment and Decrement Operators:. These operators are used for incrementing and
decrementing the value of variable. There are two formats for writing the Increment
operators. They are
1. Post increment operator which has the form Variable + +;
2. Pre increment operator which has the form + + Variable ;
Both are same till they are not assigned to variables.
Example:
Let x = 1;
Then after executing the statement x ++ ; The value of x is 2. Instead of the post
increment operator , if we use the pre increment operator ++ x, the value is also 2.
Otherwise if they are assigned to another variable, the post increment operator assigns the
initial value first and then it is incremented where as the pre increment operator assigns
the value after the variable is incremented.
Example:
x = 1; x = 1;
y = x ++; y = + + x;
________________________________________________________________________
Code 1 Code 2
For the code 1 , the value of y is 1 and for the code 2 the value of y is 2. In
both the cases , the value of x is 2.
Like the increment operators , there are two formats for writing the Decrement operators.
They are
1. Post Decrement operator which has the form Variable ;

2. Pre Decrement operator which has the form Variable ;
Both are same till they are not assigned to variables.
Example:
Let x = 1;
Then after executing the statement x ; The value of x is 0. Instead of the post
decrement operator , if we use the pre decrement operator x, the value is also 0.
Otherwise if they are assigned to another variable, the post decrement operator assigns
the initial value first and then it is decremented where as the pre decrement operator
assigns the value after the variable is decremented.
Example:
x = 1; x = 1;
y = x ; y = x ;
Code 1 Code 2
For the code 1 , the value of y is 1 and for the code 2 the value of y is 0. In
both the cases , the value of x is 0.
Conditional Operators : These operators are used for the conditions. These operators
are also called as the ? : operator. The general format of the operator is
Variable = Condition ? a.e 1 : a.e 2;
Where
Condition is either a relational Expression or Logical Expression
a.e 1 and a.e 2 are arithmetic expressions.
________________________________________________________________________
If the condition is true , the value of the arithmetic expression 1 is assigned to the
variable on the L.H.S. Otherwise , the value of the arithmetic expression 2 is assigned to
variable.
Example:
big = (x > y ) x : y;
for the above statement if the values of x and y are 10 and 12 , then big = 12 because the
condition is false, so the value of the expression 2 ( that is the value of y ) is assigned to
big. If the values of x and y are 100 and 10 , then big = 100 because the condition is true,
so the value of the expression 1 ( that is the value of x ) is assigned to big.
Special Operators : There are special operators are available in C. They are
(a) sizeof( ) operator : This operator is used to find the size of the variable or the size of
the data type. The general format is
sizeof ( variable / data type );
The operator returns the size of the variable or the data type in terms of bytes.
Example:
n = sizeof(int); // n = 2 since int takes 2 bytes
m = sizeof( x ); // m = 2 if x is an integer variable , or m =4 if x is a float etc.,
Comma operator : It is an operator which is used to combine more than one statements
into a single statement. The statements
x = 10;
y = 20;
z = x + y;
can be written in a single statement by using the comma operator as
z = ( x + y , x = 10 , y = 20 );
Bit wise operators: Some operators can be used to do the bit wise operations. A bit is a
binary digit whose value either 0 or 1.
The Bit wise operators are
& Bit wise AND
| Bit wise OR
! – Complement
>> Shift right
<< Shift Left
Exclusive OR
________________________________________________________________________
Structures in a C program
A C program is a collection of different C statements in which each statement ends with
semicolon. According to the flow of execution of the statements , it has three types of
structures.
1.Sequential Structure : It is a structure in which the statements are executed
sequentially one after another. That means , the flow of execution goes to statement i + 1
after the ith statement is executed. The statements are normally executed in the order in
which they appear in the program
2.Selective structure : It is a structure in which the statements are not executed
sequentially.. It means that the flow of execution goes to statement k (which is not equal
to i + 1) after the ith statement is executed. The statements are not executed in the order
in which they appear in the program.
3.Repetitive structures : Some statements within a program are executed more than
once. That means , the of execution for the statements i to m are done more than one
time. The statements are normally executed as long as a condition is true. It exits only if
the condition becomes false.
1.Selective Structure
These structures are used for doing the decision making operations such as
a) which is greater whether A or B?
b) who has got more marks of the persons P1, P2 ,... , Pn?
c) What action is to be done if failure occurs?
These structures are also called as the decision making structure. The statement which
selects what action is to be done among the actions is called as the control statement.
Statement chooses the action to be performed
Action 1 ( Collection of one or more statements)
Action 2 ( Collection of one or more statements)
........
.......
Action n ( Collection one or more statements )
From the actions , one of the action is to be done according to a statement. That statement
is the control statement.
________________________________________________________________________
Example:
If ( sex is male )
Action type 1 is to performed
Else
Action type 2 is performed.
In the above example, either action type 1 or action type 2 is selected according to the
value of sex. So this type of the statement is the control statement. In this case , if the sex
is male, the flow is not altered. But in the case of sex is female, the flow is altered. After
the control statement is executed, the flow goes to the first statement in the action type2.
There are two types of control statements. They are
a) Conditional control statements : The flow is altered according to a condition. where
the condition is a statement whose value will be either TRUE or FALSE. It is also called
as the Selective Structure. The Relational and Logical expressions are the conditions.
The conditional control statements are
1. If structure
2. Switch ... case structure
b) Un Conditional control statements : The flow is altered without any condition.
The un conditional control statements are
goto
a. Selective Structure with If statement:
Classification of if structures.
The If statement has the following types.
1. Common If
2. If . . else
3. Nested If
4. Multi alternative
The Common IF has the following format
If ( condition ) block ;
________________________________________________________________________
Where the condition may be a relational or logical expression and the block may be have
a single statement or more than one statements opens with { and closes with }.
In the format ,
Case 1 : The block is selected for the execution only if the condition is true. After
executing the statement / statements within the block, the flow comes to the next
statement of the block.
Case 2 : The block is not selected for the execution if the condition becomes false.
Without executing the statement / statements within the block, the flow comes to the
next statement of the block.
Example:
If ( marks < =50 ) printf(“\n Performance not Good , Prepare Well for the next exam”);
The flow of execution is represented in the flow chart as
Checks the TRUE
condition
FALSE Executing the Block
Statement X
The IF.. else has the following format
If ( condition ) block 1;
else block 2;
Where the condition may be a relational or logical expression and blocks may have a
single or more than one statements opens with { and closes with }.
In the format ,
________________________________________________________________________
Case 1 : The block is selected for the execution only if the condition is true. After
executing the statement / statements within the block, the flow comes to the next
statement of the block.
Case 2 : The block2 is selected for the execution if the condition becomes false.After
executing the statement / statements within the block 2 , the flow comes to the next
statement of the block2.
Example:
if ( marks < =50 ) printf(“\n Performance not Good , Prepare Well for the next exam”);
else printf(“\n Performance Good , Keep it UP”);
The flow of execution is represented in the flow chart as
Checks TRUE
condition
FALSE
Executing the Block 1
Executing Block 2
Statement X
The Nested If is an if structure in which more than one if structures are overlapped. That
is , if an if lies within another if , the if structure is called as the nested if.
The general format of nested if is
If ( condition 1 )
{
if (condition 2 ) block 1
else block 2
}
________________________________________________________________________
else
{
if (condition 3 ) block 3
else block 4
}
In the above format, the condition 1 is checked first.
If it is true, then condition 2 is checked
if it is also true, block1 is executed.
if it (condition 2) is false , block2 is executed.
If it ( the condition 1) is false
then condition 3 is checked
if it is also true, block3 is executed.
If it (condition 3) is false , block4 is executed.
FALSE checks TRUE

condition 1
FALSE TRUE
FALSE checks TRUE checks
condition 3 condition 2
Execute block4 Execute block3 Execute block2 Execute block1
Statement X
________________________________________________________________________
Example if ( cust_cat==’A’)
if ( salary < 2500 ) bonus = 1000;else bonus= 750;
else if (salary<5000)bonus=1500; else bonus=0;
In the example, bonus=1000 if customer category is A and getting salary less than 2500.
Or bonus=750 if customer category is A and getting salary greater than or equal to 2500.
Or bonus=1000 if customer category is not A and getting salary less than 5000no bonus
is given if customer category is not A and getting salary greater than or equal to 2500.
The Multi alternative if structure has the following format
if ( condition 1 ) block1;
else if (condition 2) block2;
else if (condition 3) block 3;
.................
.................
else block n;
statement – X;
In the above format, block 1 is executed only if the condition 1 is true. After the
execution , the flow goes to the statement – X.
If the condition 1 is false, it checks whether the condition 2 is true. If it is true , block 2
is executed. After the execution , the flow goes to the statement – X and so on.
If no condition is true , block n is executed.
Checks FALSE
condition 1
TRUE
checks FALSE
Block 1 condition 2
TRUE
TRUE checks TRUE
Block 2 condition 3
Block 3
Block n
________________________________________________________________________
Note : The multi alternative if structure is also called as the else if ladder.
2. Selective Structure with switch ... Case structure
This structure is used for doing multi way decisions such as else if ladder. It is an
alternate structure for else if ladder.
The general format for the switch .. case structure is
switch ( e )
{
case op 1: block 1;
case op 2 : block 2;
case op 3: block 3;
...........
............
...........
default:
block n;
}
Statement – x;
In the above format , e may be an expression or may be character or integer variable.
The options op1 , op2 , ...... are the constant values for e.
Each block except block n has a break statement.
The block 1 is executed if the value of e is equal to op1. After the block is executed , the
flow moves to the statement – x by means of the break statement in the block.
The block 2 is executed if the value of e is equal to op2. After the block is executed , the
flow moves to the statement – x by means of break statement in the block.
________________________________________________________________________
The block n is executed if the value of e does not match with any optional values op1,
op2, ..... . op n1 . After the block is executed , the flow moves to the statement – x
automatically.
Example for switch .. case
switch (cust_cat )
{
case ‘A’: discount = price * 10.0 / 100;
break;
case ‘B’: discount = price * 7.5 / 100;
break;
case ‘C’: discount = 100;
break;
default: printf(“\n Invalid customer Category”);
discount=0
}
b) Un conditional control statement using go to
The flow is altered without checking any condition. The general format of go to is
go to label name;
where label name is a label given for the statement for which the flow is sent. The rules
for defining the variables are to be used for labeling the statement. The label for a
statement should be given in the format
Label name : statement – X;
Example : main()
{
int a,b , c = 1000;
a = 100;
b = 20;
go to lab;
c = 1000;
printf(“\n Dummy”);
lab: print(“\n C value is %d”,c);
}
The output for the above program is C value is 1000.
( The statements c = 1000; and printf(“\n Dummy”); are not executed because as soon
as the flow reaches to go to statement , the flow will be transferred to the
printf(“\n C value is %d”,c); which has the label (lab).
________________________________________________________________________
Repetitive Structure : It is a structure in which a block is to be executed more than once.
This structure is also called as the Looping structure or Iterative structure . The block
may be a single statement or a collection of more than one statements begins with { and
ends with }.
There are four types of repetitive structures. They are
(i) While Loop (ii) Do .. while Loop (iii) For Loop (iv) Looping with go to statement
(i) The While Loop : In this structure the block specified for the while loop is executed
only if the condition is false. The general format of the while Loop is
while ( condition ) block;
where the condition may be a relational or logical expression.
When the while loop is executed , it first checks the condition.
Case (i) : if the condition is true, the block is executed. After the block is executed , the
control returns to the condition again and checks whether the condition is true now. If so,
the block is executed again. The process is repeated as long as the condition is true.
Case (ii): if the condition is false, the control is transferred to the next statement of while
loop.
The minimum number of iteration ( ie.,, when the condition is false ) of executing the
block for while loop is 0.
The flow chart for the while loop is
FALSE Checks TRUE

condition
Executing the Block
Statement X
Where Statement x is the statement which lies after the while loop.
________________________________________________________________________
Examples:
1. i=1;
while ( i <= 10 )
{
printf(“%d\n”,i);
i = i + 2;
}
printf(“\n OK..”);
the output of the above segment is
1
3
5
7
9
OK..
2. i=11;
while ( i <= 10 )
{
i = i + 2;
}
the output of the above segment is
OK..
In the second example, the block is not executed because the condition is false
and the control does not enter into the block.
(ii)The Do .. While loop: When this loop is executed , the condition is checked after the
block is executed once. The general format of the do .. while Loop is
do
{
block;
}while ( condition ) ;
where the condition may be a relational or logical expression.
When the do .. while loop is executed , it executes the block once and then the condition
is checked.
________________________________________________________________________
Case (i) : if the condition is true, the block is executed again. After the block is executed
, it again checks the condition whether it is true. The process is repeated as long as the
condition is true.
Case (ii): if the condition is false, the control is transferred to the next statement of while
loop.
The minimum number of iteration ( ie., though the condition is false ) of executing the
block for while loop is 1.
Execute the Block
Condition TRUE
FALSE
Statement X
Where Statement x is the statement which lies after the do .. while loop.
Examples:
1. i=1;
do
{
i = i + 2;
} while ( i <= 10 );
The output of the above segment is
1
3
________________________________________________________________________
5
7
9
OK..
i=11;
do {
i = i + 2;
} while ( i <= 10 );
11
OK..
In the second example, the block is not executed because the condition is false and the
control does not enter into the block.
(iii)The for loop: When this loop is executed , the condition is checked for each
iteration. The for loop has the following format
for ( initialization part ; conditional part ; incremental / decremental part)
block;
When the FOR loop is executed , the following steps are done.
Step 1: Initialization part is performed first
Step 2: The condition is verified.
Step 3: If the condition is True ,
(a) Block is executed
(b) The incremental or decremental part is done
(c) Again , the control goes to step (2)
If the condition is False ,
The control goes to the statement which lies after the For loop
without executing the block.
Examples:
1. for ( i =1 ; i<=8 ; i++)printf(“%d\n”,i);
1
2
3
________________________________________________________________________
4
5
6
7
8
OK..
2. for ( i =10 ; i<=8 ; i++)printf(“%d\n”,i);
OK..
Note :
1. All the parts are optional. So the following for loops are valid
(a) i = 1;
for ( ; i < = 10 ; i = i + 3)printf(“%d\n”,i);
printf(“OK..”);
The output will be
1
4
7
10
OK..
(b) i = 1;
for ( ; ; i = i + 3)
{
if ( i > 10 ) go to xyz;
}
xyz: printf(“OK..”);
The output will be
1
4
7
10
OK..
(c) i = 1;
for ( ; ; )
{
i = i + 3;
if ( i > 10 ) go to xyz;
}
xyz: printf(“OK..”);
The output will be
________________________________________________________________________
1
4
7
10
OK..
Note : A for loop within another for loop is called as the Nested for loop.
for ( i =1 ; i <= 5; i++)
for ( j = 10; j<=50 ; j = j + 10)
printf(“%d\n”,i*j);
10
20
30
40
50
20
40
60
80
..
..
..
50
100
150
200
250
(iii) Looping with Go to : Repetitive structure can be formed by using the go to
statement as
i=1;
xyz: printf(“%d\n”,i);
i = i + 3;
if ( i <= 10 ) go to xyz;
The output of the above statement
1
4
7
10
________________________________________________________________________
FUNCTIONS
If a large or complex problem is given to be solved, it is difficult to maintain , test and
debug the code of the program. If this program is divided into different parts, then they
can be tested , debugged and maintained separately and these operations are very easy.
Each part may be independently processed and are combined into a single unit to get the
solution for the complex problem. The divided parts are called as the Modules. They are
also called as the subroutines and functions. The functions in C can be easily defined and
used. When the functions are used, we have the following advantages:
1. It supports the topdown programming approach. That is after defining the overall
logic of the program in the calling function, we can define the called functions.
2. The code is reduced.
3. Errors or faults cane be identified easily.
4. A function in another program can be called to our current program. This property
is called as the Expandability.
5. Time and space are saved.
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
The functions of C are divided into two categories. They are
a) BuiltinFunctions : The procedures of the functions are defined previously. The
user need not write the procedure for them. They are written by the manufacturer of
compiler. Each builtinfunction is stored in a filed called as the HEADER FILE.If a
builtinfunction is to be called, the corresponding header file is to be linked into the
current program in the linkage section.
.
b) User Defined Functions : The procedures for these functions are not defined already.
The user has to create his / her own function. Since the functions is developed by the user
, the function is called as the User Defined functions It is created at the time of writing
the program. The main() function is one of the user defined function because the
statements within the main() function are to be written by the user.
a) BUILTIN FUNCTIONS :
The functions which are not written by the user are called as the Builtinfunctions. The
functions are available. These functions are called as the predefined functions. Some of
the builtin functions in C are
i) Mathematical Functions : For doing some mathematical calculations in real time
problem, we can use these functions such as sqrt , sinx , log etc,. The mathematical
functions are stored in math.h library. If any of these function is to be called , the header
file is to be included as
#include <math.h>
________________________________________________________________________
When the program which uses the mathematical functions is compiled, the header file ,
math.h is included automatically.
Function Purpose
sqrt(x) To find the Square Root of X
sin(x) To find the sine pf X
cos(x) To find cosine of X
tan(x) To find the value tan of x
exp(x) To calculate exponent of X
log(x) To calculate Log of X
fabs(x) To have the Absolute value of X
y
pow (x,y) To find the x
floor(x) To round down x to its nearest integer.
ceil(x) To round up x to its nearest integer.
acos(x) 1
To find the value of cos (X)
asin(x) 1
To find the value of sin (X)
1
atan(x)
To find the value of tan (X)
ii) String Functions : These functions are used for processing the strings. A string is an
array of characters. These functions are stored in a header file, string.h. if any function is
to be called , the header file is to be included as
#include <string.h>
The string functions are
________________________________________________________________________
(i) strlen () – It is a function to find the length of the string.The general format is
strlen(st) where st is the string whose length is to be found
Example : Assume that st=”BALA”,then strlen(st) is returning 4.
(ii) strcpy() – It is a function to copy the content of one string to another. The general
format is
strpy(st1 , .st2)
where st1 is the destination string and st2 is the source string.
Example : Assume that st2=”BALA”,then strcpy(st1,st2) is copying the string “BALA”
to st1.
(iii) strcat() – It is a function to concatenate one string to another. The general format is
strcat (st1,st2)
where st1 is the destination string and st2 is the source string. When the
function is used , the content of st2 is concatenated to content of st1 and the new string is
stored in st1.
Example : Assume than st1=”BALA” and st2=”RAMAN” . If we use strcat(st1,st2) , st1
= “BALARAMAN”.
(iv) strcmp() – It is a function to compare two strings. Its general format is
strcmp(st1,st2)
where st1 and st2 are the strings to be compared. The function returns
0 if both the strings are equal
+ ve if st1 is greater than st2
ve if st1 is lesser than st2.
Example : Assume than st1=”BALA” and st2=”RAMAN” .The function
strcmp(st1,st2) returns –ve value.
(iv) strrev() – It is a function to reverse a string. Its general format is
strrev(st1)
where st1 is a string to be reversed. The function returns
Example : Assume than st1=”BALA” .After the function strrev(st1); the value of st1
is “ALAB”.
________________________________________________________________________
(iv) strcat() – It is a function to concatenatee two strings. Its general format is
strcat(st1,st2)
where st1 and st2 are the strings to be concatenated and the resulatant
string is store in st1.
Example : Assume than st1=”BALA” and st2=”RAMAN” .After the function
strcat(st1,st2); is called , st1 = “BALARAMAN”.
USER DEFINED FUNCTIONS
A function which is written by the user is called as the Userdefined function.The function
main() is also an user defined function because the statements within it are written by the
user. When a function is designed and packed , it is treated as a ‘black box’. The function
takes a data from another function and returns a value.To give the data to a function , a
call is made to call the function.
Then the function which sends the data to the function is called as the Calling Function
and the function which is called by the calling function is called as the Called Function.
Function 1 Function 2
………….. ……………..
……..
…………… ……………..
………….. a Sending the data …………….
Finding some value
Calling is made ……………..
Returning a value ……………………
Function 1 is the Calling Function and
Function 2 is the Called Function
The general format of a Userdefined Function is
Function name (argument list)
Declaration part 1
{
Declaration part 2
Statement 1
Statement 2
________________________________________________________________________

Statement n
return(exp)
}
where argument list consists of a variable or a collection of more than one variables
separated by commas
Declaration part 1 is for declaring argument(s)
Declaration Part 2 is for declaring the local variable(s) used in the function.
exp is an arithmetic expression.
Statement 1, Statement 2 ,….. Statement n are C Executable statements.
All parts are not essential. A function can be written without any argument.A function
returns the value by means of return statement.
The rules for developing the userdefined functions are
1) The rules followed for forming variables are used for forming a function
name.
2) The arguments must be enclosed within the parantheses.
3) A function is returning only integer value by default.
4) If a function returns a value which is other than integer, must de declared
in the calling function explicitly. This method is called as the Functional
prototyping.
5) The type specifier is to be given for the userdefined function if it returns a
noninteger value.
6) If a function does not return any value , the type specifier must be void.
7) The ‘plain ’ return can be given for the function if it does not return any
value.
8) A function is called by using the function name in the statement.
9) If a function is returning a value , the function is called by using the
following format
________________________________________________________________________
Variable = function name (arguments list ) where the datatype for the variable
and and the return datatype must be same.
10) If a function is returning a value , the function is called by using the
following format function name (arguments list )
11) A function should be used on the right hand side of the assignment
statement.
12) Sometimes a function may not return a value. If so, the function doesn’t
have return statement.
13) A function returns only one value at a time.
14) Local variables which are used within the function are not valid outside
the function.
15) A program may contain more than userdefined functions.
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
According the arguments and the returning value , functions are divided into three
categories.
1) A function with no arguments and no return value
2) A function with no arguments and return a value
3) A function with an argument or arguments and returning no value
4) A function with arguments and returning a value.
1. FUNCTION WITH NO ARGUMENTS AND RETURN NO VALUE

If a function does not have any arguments , it is getting any value from the calling
function. Also if it does not return any value , the called function is receiving any vale
from the function when it is called. That is , there is no data transfer between the calling
function and the called function.
f1(x) f2( )
No input
………………
………………
Calling the
function f2( ) Returning from the
function
No output
No data is
Example : transferred
main( ) between the
functions
________________________________________________________________________
{
callwecome( );
}
void callwelcome( )
{
printf(“\n WELCOME”);
}
main( ) is the calling function and callwelcome ( ) is the called function. Between the
functions , no data is transferred.
2. FUNCTION WITH NO ARGUMENTS AND RETURN A VALUE

A function which does not get value from the calling function can return a value.
f1(x) f2( )
No input
………………
………………
Calling the
function
A value
No data is
Example : transferred
main( ) between the
{ functions
int v;
v=calltemp( );
printf(“\n The returned value form the calltemp( ) function is %d”,v);
}
calltemp( )
{
return(1000);
}
3.FUNCTION WITH AN ARGUMENTS OR ARGUMENTS AND RETURN

NO VALUE
If a function has an argument or arguments , it is getting one or more values from the
from the calling function. Also if it does not return any value , the calling function is not
receiving any value from the called function. That is , data is transferred from calling
________________________________________________________________________
function and the called function but no data is transferred from the called function to the
calling function.
f1(x) sending f2(x)
………………
………………
Calling the
function
No output
No data is
transferred
Example : between
main() the
functions
{
int x,y,z;
scanf(%d%d”,&x,&y);
add(x,y);
}
add(int a,int b)
{
int c;
c=a+b;
printf(“%d”,c);
}
where add() is the called function which has the arguments a,b and main() is the calling
function.
Types of Arguments :
The arguments are also called as the parameters.There are two types of parameters.
They are
i) Actual Parameters: The arguments or parameters used in the calling function to call
the called function are called as the Actual parameters. In the above example, x,y are the
actual parameters.
ii) Formal parameters: The arguments or parameters used in the called function are
called as the Formal parameters. In the above example, a,b are the formal parameters.
________________________________________________________________________
4. FUNCTION WITH AN ARGUMENTS OR ARGUMENTS AND RETURN

A VALUE
A function can return only value at a time.If a function has an argument or arguments , it
is getting one or more values from the from the calling function. Also if it returns any
value , the called function is receiving a value from the calling function when it is called.
Data is transferred from calling function and the called function and viceversa.
f1(x) sending f2(x)

data
………………
………………
Calling the
function fn2() Returning from the
function
Receiving
data
Example 1:
Example for a function returning an integer value:
main()
{
int x,y,z;
scanf(“%d%d”,&x,&y);
z=add(x,y);
printf(“\n Resultant value is %d”,z);
}
add(int a,int b)
{
int c;
c=a+b;
return( c );
}
Function prototyping :
If the called function returns an non integer value or not returning any value, has to be
declared in the calling function. Only function header can be declared. It is called as the
function prototyping.
________________________________________________________________________
Example 2:
Example for a function returning a noninteger value:
main()
{
float x,y,z;
float div ( float , float );
scanf(“%f%f”,&x,&y);
z=div(x,y);
printf(“\n Resultant value is %f”,z);
}
float div(float a, float b)
{
float c;
c=a / b;
return( c );
}
In the above example , a type specifier is given for the called function div ( ) . Also the
function header is declared in the calling function.
Note 1 : A function can call any function. Again the called function may call another
function. The functions are called as the Nesting of functions.
Example :
main()
{
int a,b,res;
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
res=difference(a,b); // calling the function difference //
printf(“\n Difference is %d”,res);
}
difference(int x,int y)
{
int dif;
big=biggest(x,y); // calling the function biggest //
if (big==x) dif=xy; // called function for main() but it is the
else dif=yx; // calling function for biggest
return(dif);
________________________________________________________________________
}
biggest(int x,int y)
{ // called function for difference
if (x>y) return(x);
else return(y);
}
Note 2: Nesting of function calls also possible in C as
c = div( div(a,b),c) // which is equivalent to a / b / c.
Note 3: A function calls itself is called as the Recursion as
fact ( int n)
{
int factorial;
if (n<=1)
{
factorial=1;
return(factorial);
}
else factorial=n*fact(n1);
}
FUNCTION HAVING AN ARRAY AS ONE OF ITS ARGUMENT
The values of an array can be passed to a function. If an array is to be passed to a called
function , the following format should be used
Return datatype function name ( data type array name, data type size of the array )
{
Local Variable declaration;
Statement 1;
Statement 2;

Statement n;
}
Example :
biggest( a , n )
int a[ ],size;
________________________________________________________________________
int big;
big=a[ 0 ];
for ( i = 1 ; i < n ; i ++) if ( big < a [ i ] ) big = a[ i ];
return(big);
}
biggest() is the userdefined function which is returning integer data by default.
‘a’ is the array which has ‘n’ elements.
FUNCTION HAVING A STRUCTURE AS ONE OF ITS ARGUMENT
The members of a structure can be passed to a function. If a structure is to be passed to a
called function , we can use any one of the following method.
Method 1 : Individual member of the structure is passed as an actual argument of the
function call. The actual arguments are treated independently. This method is not suitable
if a structure is very large structure.
Method 2: Entire structure is passed to the called function. Since the structure declared
as the argument of the function, it is local to the function only. The members are valid
for the function only. Hence if any modification done on any member of the structure , it
is not reflected in the original structure.
Method 3 : Pointers can be used for passing the structure to a user defined function.
When the pointers are used , the address of the structure is copied to the function. Hence
if any modification done on any member of the structure , it is reflected in the original
structure.
Return datatype function name ( structured variable )
Structured Datatype for the structured variable;
{
Local Variable declaration;
Statement 1;
Statement 2;

Statement n;
}
Example :
#include <stdio.h>
struct st
{
char name[20];
int no;
int marks;
};
main( )
{
struct st x ,y;
int res;
________________________________________________________________________
printf(“\n Enter the First Record”);
scanf(“%s%d%d”,x.name,&x.no,&x.marks);
printf(“\n Enter the Second Record”);
scanf(“%s%d%d”,y.name,&y.no,&y.marks);
res = compare ( x , y );
if (res == 1) printf(“\n First student has got the Highest Marks”);
else printf(“\n Second student has got the Highest Marks”);
}
compare ( struct st st1 , struct st st2)
{
if (st1.marks > st2. marks ) return ( 1 );
else return ( 0 );
}
In the above example , x and y are the structures sent from the main ( ) function as the
actual parameter to the formal parameters st1 and st2 of the function compare ( ).
SCOPE OF VARIABLES OR STORAGE CLASS
The scope of the variable specifies the part / parts in which the variable is alive.
Depending on the place of the variable declared , the variables are classified
into two broad categories as Global and Local variables. In some languages like
BASIC, all the variables are global and the vales are retained throughout the program.
But in C language , the availability of value of the variable depends on the ‘storage ‘
class of variable. In C , there are four types of storage classes. They are
1. Local or Automatic variables
2. Global or External variables
3. Static Variables
4. Register Variables.
1. Automatic variable: An Automatic variable is a local variable which is declared inside
the function. The memory cell is created at the time of declaration statement
is executed and is destroyed when the flow comes out of the function. These variables are
also called as the internal variables. A variable which is declared inside the function without
using any storage class is assumed as the local variable because the default storage class is
automatic.
A variable can be declared automatic explicitly by using the keyword “auto” as
main ( )
{
auto int x;
…
…..
}
________________________________________________________________________
2. External variable: External variable is a global variable which is declared
outside the function. The memory cell is created at the time of declaration statement
is executed and is not destroyed when the flow comes out of the function to go to some other
function. .The global variables can be accessed by any function in the same program. A
global variable can be declared externally in the global variable declaration section.
int x = 100;
main ( )
{
…..
x = 200;
f1 ( );
f2 ( ); …
…..
}
f1 ( )
{
x = x + 1;
….
…..
}
f2 ( )
{
x = x + 100;
….
…..
}
The variable x is declared above all the functions. It can be accessed by all the
functions as main( ) , f1 ( ) and f2 ( ). The final value of x is 301.
3. Static Variables : These variables are alive throughout the program. A variable can be
declared as static by using the keyword “ static ”as
staic int x ;
A static variable can be initialized only once at the time of declaration . The initialization part
is executed only once and retain the value remainder of the program.
Example Program
main ( )
{
void f1 ( );
f1 ( );
f1 ( );
f1 ( );
}
void f1 ( )
________________________________________________________________________
{
static int x = 0;
x = x + 1;
printf(“\n The Value of X is %d “,x );
}
The above program produces the following output
The Value of X is 1
The Value of X is 2
The Value of X is 3.
4.Register Variables : If we want to store the variable in a register instead of memory , the
variable can be declared as the register variables by using the keyword “register ” as
register int x;
If the variables are stored in the registers , they can be accessed faster than a memory access.
So the frequently accessed variables can be declared as the register variables.
Example Program:
main ( )
{
register x , y z;
scanf(“%d%d”,&x,&y);
z=x+y;
printf(“\n The Output is %d”,z);
}
In the above program , all the variables are stored in the registers instead of memory.
STRUCTURES
An array is a collection of more than one homogenous elements. The dataitems /
elements of the same type and same length are the homogenous elements. Instead, if we
want to represent the heterogeneous elements under a single name , we can not use an
array. We have to create a structure. A structure is a collection of elements of different
datatypes with different lengths.
To use the structure within a program , we have to create the special datatype,called as
structured datatype. The general format for defining the structured datatype is
________________________________________________________________________
struct datatype
{
declaring member1;
declaring member2;

declaring members;
};
where the members are called as the structure elements. The members may belong to a
different datatypes. The structured datatype must be terminated by semicolon. Since the
declaration is considered as a single element , the member should be declared
individually. When the datatype is declared, it is treated as the userdefined datatype
because it is created by the user. The declaration is creating a format to represent the
different members. The format is called as the template. The template is in the form
struct datatype
member 1 respective of the member 1
Length respective of datatype of member 1
member 2 Length respective of datatype of
member 2
member 3 Length respective of datatype of member 3
Length respective of datatype of member 4
member 4
After the datatype is created by the user , a structure variable should be used for
accessing the member of a structue within a program. To declare a structured variable ,
we have to use the following format in the declaration part.
struct structured datatype variable;
where the variable is the structured variable (record).
The structured variable consists of more than one heterogeneous members.To access the
individual member of a structure , the following format should be used.
Structured variable.member name
The operator ‘.’ is called as the dot operator or member operator or period operator.
________________________________________________________________________
Example :
If we want to use the employee records containing the heterogeneous informations such
as employee name , employee number , employee salary, we have to do the following
steps.
Step 1 : Creating the structured datatype.
struct emp
{
char ename[20];
int empno;
float salary;
};
where ename,empno and salary are the hetrogenous members and emp is the structured
datatype.
Step 2 : Declare the structured variable is declared in the declaration part.
struct emp employee;
where employee is the structured variable(record variable).
Step 3: To access the members ename,eno and salary , we can use the formats as
employee.ename,employee.eno and employee.salary.
When the structured variable employee is declared , the template is created as
employee
ename respective of the member 1
20 characters length
eno integer
salary float
If the values “RAMA” , 100 and 25000 are to be given for the members ename eno and
salary, we use the following statements
strcpy(employee.name,”RAMA”):
________________________________________________________________________
employee.eno=100;
employee.salary=25000;
Or to ask the value of salary, we use the statement scanf(“%f”,&employee.salary);
STRUCTURE INITIALIZATION :
Like the other variables , a structured variable can be initialized at the time of declaration
of the structured variable using the key word ‘static’.. The general format for structure
initialization is
static structured datatype structured variable = { val1,val2,……,valn};
where val1,Val2 ,….,Valn are the values of the members , member 1, member 2 ,
…member n respectively. The values are separated by commas.
To initialize the structured variable employee with the values “BALA”,101,25000.00,
we use the following syntax
static struct emp employee = { “BALA”,101,25000.00};
value of the value of value of
member,ename member eno member salary
Note : The structured variable can be declared at the time of creating the structured
datatype. In the above example, the structured variable is declared as
struct emp {
char ename[20];
int empno;
float salary;
}employee;
COMPARISON OF STRUCTURE VARIABLES
If rec1 and rec2 are the structure variables having the same datatype, then the following
operations are valid:
Operation Meaning
________________________________________________________________________
Assignment operation:
rec1=rec2; Assigning rec2 to rec1. That is , the member
values of rec2 are copied to the member values
of rec1.
Relational Operation
r1==r2 returns true if both are equal.That is the
values of all the members of r1 and r2
are matching. Otherwise, the condition returns
false.
r1!=r2 returns true if both are un equal.That is the
values of any of the members of r1 and r2
are not matching.Otherwise,the condition returns
false. It is opposite of the previous operation.
ARRAY OF STRUCTURES : If a structured variable is created , we can access only
one structure / record at a particular time. If we want to process more than one records, an
array of structures is to be created. The array is consisting of structures (records) as the
elements of it. The general format creating array of structure is
struct datatype structured variabe [ subscript ];
The structures within the array are to be processed in such a way that processing an
element in an array. If a structure is to be accessed , the position is to be given as the
subscript.
Example: Assume that a company has 100 employees. To prepare the payroll for the
employees , we can use an array of structures instead of using 100 structure variables as
struct emp employee[100]; // declaration
It creates an array where each element is a structure as
________________________________________________________________________
Employee[0] employee[1] ………………………. Employee [ 99 ]
Where each employee structure consists of empname , empno and salary.
To read the heterogeneous members , we write the code as
for (i=0;i<100;i++)scanf(“%s%d%f”,employee[i].name,
&employee[i].eno,&employee[i].salary);
Initialization can be done for the array of structure as
static struct emp employee[ ] =
{“Rama”,100,4500.00,“Bala”,101,6525.00,”Kannan”,102,10000.00};
USING ARRAY WITHIN A STUCTURE
An array may be made as the member(s) of a structure. To access the member array , we
have to use the following format
Structured variable.member[n]
To access the nth element of the array in the structure where array is one of
the member in the structure.
Example:
To prepare the marklists for 50 students , we use the following code
struct st
{
char name[20];
int rollno;
float mark[3];
}student[50];
Where student is an array consists of 50 records. Each record is consisting of the
members name
rollno
mark[0]
mark[1]
mark[2]
They are internally stored as follows
Name rollno mark[0] mark[1] mark[2] mark[3
Name rollno mark[0] mark[1] mark[2] Name rollno mark[0] mark[1] mark[2]
________________________________________________________________________
Student [ 0 ] student [ 1 ]
Name rollno mark[0] mark[1] mark[2] mark[3
Name rollno mark[0] mark[1] mark[2]
Student [ 2 ] ….
…..
…..
Name rollno mark[0] mark[1] mark[2]
Student [ 49 ]
To access the 3 rd mark of the 2nd student, we use the structured variable as
student[1].mark[2].
STRUCTURES WITHIN STRUCTURES
Nesting of structures is also possible in C. That is , a structure may lie within another
structure as
struct stud
{
char ename[20];
struct db
{
int day;
char mon[15];
int year;
}dob;
int rollno;
}student;
To access the member of the inner structure , we use the following format
struct variable1.structured variable 2 . member
Where structured variable1 specifies the outer structure and structured variable is
specifying the inner structure. Member is the member of inner structure.
In the above example , student is the outer structure and dob is the inner structure. The
structure dob is one of the member in it. If we want to access the day of a student , we
have to use the statement student.dob.day
________________________________________________________________________
Outer structure Inner structure member in the inner structure.
Note : To find the size of a structure , we use the unary operator sizeof as
Sizeof(struct structured datatype) or sizeof(structure variable). Actually the size of the
structured variable is the summation of the sizes of the members of the strcture.
UNIONS
The concept of Union is borrowed from structures and the formats are also same. The
distinction between them is in terms of storage. In structures , each member is stored in
its own location but in Union , all the members are sharing the same location. Though
Union consists of more than one members , only one member can be used at a particular
time. The size of the cell allocated for an Union variable depends upon the size of any
member within Union occupying more no: of bytes. The syntax is the same as structures
but we use the keyword union instead of struct.
Example: the employee record is declared and processed as follows
union emp {
char name[20];
int eno;
float salary;
}employee;
where employee is the union variable which consists of the member name,no and salary.
The compiler allocates only one cell for the union variable as
20 Bytes Length
Employee (only one location)
Location / Cell for name,no and salary
20 bytes cell can be shared by all the members because the member name is occupying
the highest no: of bytes. At a particular time we can handle only one member.
To access the members of an union , we have to use the same format of structures.
The Unions and Structures are differentiated as follows:
Union Structures
________________________________________________________________________
1. It is a collection of heterogeneous 1. It is also a collection of heterogeneous
members . members.
2. Though , there are more than one 2. More than one location is reserved.
Member , only one location is For each member , a location is
reserved. reserved.
3. At a particular time , we can process 3. At a particular time , we can process
only one member. more than one members.
4. An Union can not be initialized. 4. A structure can be initialized by using
static
________________________________________________________________________
FILE MANAGEMENT IN C LANUAGE
The input and output functions are used for
(a) getting the values from the keyboard or from the storage device such as disk.
(b) displaying values on the screen or writing the values on the storage device
such as disk.
The scanf( ) and printf( ) functions are used for doing the input and output using the
console ( keyboard and Screen). These methods can be used when the data is small and
to be kept in the RAM memory. All the information the RAM memory are not
permanent. They are lost as soon as the power fails or if the user migrates to some other
programs. Sometimes , we have to use large volume of data and the data are to be saved
for the later use. In these situations , the files are used. A file program is a program
which is used to store the data in the secondary storage device like a disk instead of the
RAM memory because the secondary storage device is the device for storing the
permanent data. To perform file operations , there are many built – in functions
available.
FILE BASICS :
There are basics when we use the file s to keep the information in the disk. They are
(i) File name : To save the information in the secondary storage device , they must be
stored under a file name. The file name is a collection of characters. The characters may
be alphabets and numeric digits with no special characters except period ( decimal
point). The period can be given for the specifying the extension. The extension is useful
for categorizing the files.
(ii) File pointer: It is a pointer which points to the address of the data in the file.
Initially, the file pointer value is NULL since there is no data in the file. When the data is
written in the file , the file pointer moves to the lastly accessed data.
(iii)
(iii) Access methods : The file accessing method specifies whether the file data is to be
accessed sequentially or randomly.
FILE OPERATIONS
To write the File program we use the following steps.
(i) Declaring the file pointer :
To use the file in a program , the file pointer has to be set by using the following format
FILE *file pointer;
________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Opening a file :
If we want to perform an operation on a file , the file must be opened. To open a file ,the
library function fopen ( ) functions is to be used.
The general format of the fopen ( ) is
file pointer = fopen ( file name enclosed , mode enclosed );
in double quotes in double quotes
where the mode may be
r – Read Mode. The file is opened for reading the data from the file .
w – Write Mode. The file is opened for writing the data into the file.
a – Append Mode. The file is opened for appending the data into the file.
Cases :
(a) When file is opened in the write mode , the file is opened for writing and deletes
the already existing data if present.
(b) When file is opened in the append mode , the file is opened for writing without
deleting the already existing data if present.
(c) When file is opened in the read mode , the file is opened for reading if the file is
present. If the file is not available in the storage device , it produces the error.
(iii) Input functions for files :
For reading the data from the existing data , the output function is used. The input
functions are getc ( ) , getw ( ) and fscanf ( ) for inputting the character and mixed data
files respectively.
a. Character file Input :
A character file is a file which has the collection of only characters. It is also called as
the Text file. To read a single character from the file , the getc ( ) function is to be used
as
c = getc ( fp ); // the character read form the file is assigned to c
where fp is the file pointer. The above function gets a single character from the text file
and is assigned to c.
b. Integer file Input :
An integer file is a file which has the collection of only integers. To read a single
integer from the file , the getw ( ) function is to be used as
n = getw ( fp ); // the integer read from the file is assigned to n
________________________________________________________________________
where fp is the file pointer. The above function gets a single integer from the integer file
and is assigned to n.
c. Mixed data file Input :
A mixed data file is a file which is a collection of mixed data like character and float ,
and integer and structures. To read the mixed data from a file , the fscanf ( ) function is
to be used as
fscanf ( file pointer , format specifications , & variables );
enclosed in double quotes separated by commas.
The above function gets a single set of mixed data from the file.
Note :
1. There is no & symbol for the string variable in the fscanf ( ) funcion.
2. To do Input file operations , the file must be opened in the “read “ mode.
(iv) Output functions for files :
For writing the data into a file, the output function is used.The output functions for
character, integer and mixed data files are putc ( ) , putw ( ) and fprintf ( ) respectively.
Character file Output :
To write a single character into a file , the putc ( ) function is to be used as
putc ( c , fp );
where fp is the file pointer. The above function write a single character c into the text
file.
Integer file Output :
To write an integer into a file, the putw ( ) function is to be used as
putw ( n , fp );
where fp is the file pointer. The above function write the single integer n into the integer
file.
Mixed data file Output :
To write the mixed data into a file, the fprintf ( ) function is to be used as
fprintf ( file pointer , format specifications , variables );
enclosed in double quotes separated by commas.
The above function writes a single set of mixed data into the file.
Note :
1. There is no & symbol for any variable in the fprintf ( ) funcion.
________________________________________________________________________
2. To do Output file operations , the file must be opened in either the “read ”
mode or the “ append ” .
(v) Closing a opened file : After the operation ( read / write / modify ) is performed
on a file, the file must be closed. The function fclose ( ) is used to close the file. The
fclose ( ) has the following format :
fclose ( file pointer );
Note:
To close more than one files say ‘n’ at a particular time , a singlefunction call
fcloseall( ) can be used instead of using fclose ( ) ‘n’ times. The function does not have
argument.
The format is
fcloseall ( );
Some More Built – in – functions available for doing file operations :
Some more library functions are available for accessing the files. They are
(i) rewind ( ) function : It is a function which is used to move the file pointer to the
beginning of the file. The general form of the rewind ( ) function is
rewind ( file pointer );
(ii) ftell ( ) function : It returns the current position of file poinre in terms of bytes.
The general format of the ftell ( ) function is
n = ftell ( file pointer );
The above function specifies that n bytes have been read already.
The following statements
rewind ( f1 );
m = ftell ( f1 );
printf(“The file pointer is at %d”, m);
produce the output as
The file pointer is at 0.
The file pointer moves to the beginning of the file automatically whenever a file is
opened for reading / writing.
________________________________________________________________________
(iii) fseek ( ) function : This function is used for accessing a file randomly. It is used
to move the file pointer to the desired position randomly without passing thru
intermediate positions. The general format of the fseek ( ) function is
fseek ( file pointer , offset , position );
where offset specifies number of positions to be moved from the current location
position may be
0 if the move from the beginning of the file
1 if the file pointer is to be moved from the current position
2. if the file pointer is to be moved from the end of the file.
The offset is positive if the file pointer is to moved forward and is negative otherwise.
Examples:
fseek ( f1 , 4 , 0 ); This function moves the file pointer to the
5 th byte in the file from beginning of the file
( Forward Move )
fseek ( f1 , 4 , 2 ); This function moves backward the file
pointer to the 5 th byte in the file from the
end of the file ( Backward Move )
fseek ( f1 , 10 ,10 ); This function moves the file pointer
backwards by 10 bytes from the current
position of file pointer.
Note : When an input function is used to read from the file where the file is opened in
the read mode, the functions fetches only one data or a single set of data from the file. So
to read all the data or set of data from the file, we can use any of the following while
loops:
(i) While ( file pointer ! = NULL)
(ii) While ( file pointer ! = EOF)
and (iii) While ( ! foef( file pointer ) )
Program 1 : Assume that there is a Text file called “Sample” in the disk having two
paragraphs. Write a Program to copy the first paragraph in a file “sample1” and second
paragraphs in a file called “sample2”
/* Program for storing paragraphs nos */
# include < stdio. H >
________________________________________________________________________
void main ( )
{
FILE *f1 , * f2 , *f3;
int n , i , p;
f1 = fopen (“Sample”, “r”);
f2 = fopen (“Sample1”, “w”);
f3 = fopen (“Sample2”, “w”);
while ( ( c = getc ( f1 ) )! = ‘\ n’) putc ( c , f2 );
while (! feof ( f1 ) )
{
c = getc ( f1 ) ;
putc ( c , f3 );
}
fcloseall( );
}
Program 2 :Assume that there is an integer file called “Sample” in the disk. Write a
Program to copy the prime and not prime in two files called as PRIME and NPRIME.
/* Program for storing prime and Non – prime nos */
# include < stdio. H >
void main ( )
{
FILE *f1 , * f2 , *f3;
int n , i , p;
f2 = fopen (“PRIME”, “w”);
f3 = fopen (“NPRIME”, “w”);
while ( ! feof ( f1 ) )
{
n = getw ( f1 );
p = 1;
for ( i = 2 ; i<= n – 1 ; i + +)
if ( n % i == 0) p=0;
if ( p = = 1) putw( n , f2);
else putw( n , f3);
}
fcloseall( );
}
________________________________________________________________________
Program 3 :Assume that there is an integer file called “Text” in the disk. Write a
Program to take the ‘n’ the character from the file randomly.
# include < stdio. h >
void main ( )
{
FILE *f1;
char str[50];
int n , i;
/* Creating the file */
printf(“\n Enter the string of characters”);
gets(str);
f1 = fopen (“Sample”, “w”);
for ( i = 0 ; i< strlen(st) 1 ; i + +) putc ( st[ i ] , f1);
fclose(f1);
printf(“\n What is the position of Character “);
sanf(“%d”,&n);
fseek(f1, n – 1 , 0 );
printf(“\n The Character is %c”,putc(f1));
fclose(f1);
}
ERROR HANDLING DURING FILE I/O :
When the user is doing operations on a file , he / she may face some errors. The errors
during file I/O are called as the exception during file I/O. These errors are handled with
some built in – function. The users have the error during the following events:
1. Trying to Open a file with a file name which is not present in the storage device.
2. Attempting to do Write / Append operation on a file which is write protected. On a
write protected file , only read operation can be done . Writing the new data into the file
is not valid.
3. Trying to read after the end of the file is reached. A file ends with end of file. After the
end of the file , there is no data in the file.
4. Attempting to perform an operation on a file when a file is opened in some other mode
like , trying to read if the file is opened in Write / Append mode or trying to write /
append if the file is opened in read mode
5. Trying to do an operation without opening the file. Before doing any operation on a
file, the file must be opened before.
________________________________________________________________________
6. Device overflow – Trying to write some more data on a file when the disk on which
the file saved is full ( does not have space ).
The errors are handles by using some built – in – functions as
(i) To check whether a file ends or not , we can use any of the following:
(a) if ( foef( file pointer ) ) – True if file ends
False otherwise
(b) if ( file pointer == NULL ) – True if file ends

False otherwise
(ii) To check whether any error occurs during operations on a file , we can use a
function called as ferror( ). The function has the following format:
ferror( file pointer ) ) – 0 if there is no error
Positive value if error occurs where
the positive value specifies the error
code.
________________________________________________________________________
PREPROCESSORS
As the name suggests , the preprocessors are processed before the compilation is made. In
a C program , the part which is executed before the compilation done is called as the
preprocessor. The preprocessors start with #. They are also called as the directives. There
are different types of directives. The important directives are
1. Macro Substitution directives
2. File inclusion directives
and 3. Compiler Control directives
Macro Substitution Directives:
These directives are used for
(i) assigning a constant to an identifier
(ii) Assigning a symbol to an identifier
(iii) assigning an expression to a identifier
(iv) assigning a name to a function
(v) declaring a function
There are three types of macro substitution directives. They are
(a) Simple Macro directives : The general format of the simple macro directive is
#define identifer constant / symbol / fuction
Examples :
#define ALPHA 1000
#define LT <=
#define INPUT scanf
#define NR ( 45 / 24 )
(b) Argumented Macro directives : The general format of the simple macro directive
is
#define functions name ( variable ) expression
Examples :
#define F ( x ) x * x – x – 4 2

// equivalent to f(x) = x – x 4
#define SQUARE ( x ) x * x
________________________________________________________________________
#define CUBE ( x ) x * x * x
(c) Nested Macro directives : It is used for nesting more than one macros into a single
macro.
The general format of the simple macro directive is
#define functions name ( variable ) expression with already declared
macro
Examples :
#define FOUR ( x ) ( x * CUBE ( x ) )
#define FIVE ( x ) ( SQUARE( x ) * CUBE ( x ) )
2. File Inclusion Directives :
It is used for linking header file or another C file to the current C File to call the library
and user defined function . It has two formats. They are
Format (i) :
# include <filename with extension >
Format (ii) :
# include “filename with extension ”
The format (i) is used for linking the Header file to the current C File. A Header file is a
file which has the collection of library functions. The format (ii) is used for linking
another C file to the current C File where the C file has one or more library functions.
Examples:
#include <string.h>
// to call the string functions
#include <math.h>
// To call the mathematical functions
#include “p2.c”
// To call one or more user defined functions
in p2.c in the current C file.
________________________________________________________________________
3. Compiler Control Directives:
These directives are the special directives used for controlling the flow of execution.
These directives are used for many situations. Some of the situations are
(i) A company has two types of customers as GROUP1 and GROUP2. A
procedure code is different for the customers. That means , Code 1 is to be
used by the GROUP1 and Code 2 is to be used by GROPU2. So a segment
of the program is to be selected according to the Group.
(ii) Assume that a program has two different segments ( S1 and S2) . The
code is to be executed by the system type 1( SYS 1 ) and the other
segment is to be used by another system type 2 (SYS 2).
To choose the segment for both the situations , we use a special directive called as
# ifdef ( GROUP1 / SYS 1 )

Segment 1

# else // ( GROUP2 / SYS 2 )

#endif
And in the macro definition , the corresponding group type or system type is to be given
as
# define GROUP1
# define SYS1
________________________________________________________________________
POINTERS
A Pointer variable is a variable which is used for storing an address of another variable.
When the declaration part of a variable is executed , the compiler allocates a cell to the
variable in the memory. The size of the variable depends upon the data type of the
variable. A memory is a collection of more than one cells and each cell has an address.
To access the variable, we use the name of the variable. When the name is used for
accessing it , the compiler accesses the variable sequentially. It can be accessed randomly
if the address of the variable is known. The address of the variable can be stored in the
pointer variable.
Example :
int x = 10 ; when the statement is executed , the
compiler allocates a cell as
10
X
ADDRESS 50000
The address of the variable can be stored in variable PX
10
X
ADDRESS 50000
5000
PX
ADDRESS 7500
POINTERS TO FUNCTIONS :
Like the variables , the function is also stored in the memory and have an address. The
address of a function can be obtained and can be used for accessing the function. To use
the pointer to call the function, we have to do the following steps:
________________________________________________________________________
1. Declaring a pointer variable to function :
The pointer variable which is to be used for accessing the function is to be
declared first by using the format :
Returned data type ( * pointer variable ) ( function arguments
of the function for datatypes )
which the pointer is used
2. Assigning the address to the pointer variable:
After the pointer is declared , the address of the function can be assigned to the
pointer variable by using the following format:
Pointer variable = function name without any argument;
3. Calling the function:
After the address of the function is assigned to the pointer variable , the following
format is used for to call the function :
Pointer variable ( argument list );
Example 1 :
The following program is the example for using a pointer variable for the function
having no argument:
# include < stdio.h>
void main( )
{
void (*ptr) ( ); // Declaring the pointer
ptr = display; // Assigning the address of the function to ptr
ptr ( ); // Calling the function
}
void display ( )
(
printf( “\n Hello Welcome”);
}
The above program displays the output
Hello Welcome
Example 2:
________________________________________________________________________
The following program is the example for using a pointer variable for the
function an argument:
# include < stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int fact(int), x;
int (*ptr) ( int ); // Declaring the pointer
ptr = fact; // Assigning the address of the function to ptr
printf(“\n For what value the factorial is to found?”);
scanf(“ %d ”, &n);
x = ptr ( n ); // Calling the function
printf(“\n Factorial for %d is %d”, n , x);
}
display ( int m)
(
int i,n, f = 1;
for( i = 1 ; i < = m ; i ++) f = f * i;
return( f );
}
Running the program :
For what value the factorial is to found? 6
The above program displays the output
Factorial for 6 is 720
________________________________________________________________________

Microsoft Word - FullNotesC

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Microsoft Word - FullNotesC

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

St.

Mary‛s School of Management Studies

(a) a >= b [ true if the value of a is greater than or equal to the

1. Post Decrement operator which has the form Variable ;

y = x ; y = x ;

FALSE checks TRUE

Execute block4 Execute block3 Execute block2 Execute block1

FALSE Checks TRUE

1. FUNCTION WITH NO ARGUMENTS AND RETURN NO VALUE

2. FUNCTION WITH NO ARGUMENTS AND RETURN A VALUE

3.FUNCTION WITH AN ARGUMENTS OR ARGUMENTS AND RETURN

f1(x) sending f2(x)

4. FUNCTION WITH AN ARGUMENTS OR ARGUMENTS AND RETURN

f1(x) sending f2(x)

Example for a function returning an integer value:

Example for a function returning a noninteger value:

(b) if ( file pointer == NULL ) – True if file ends

#define F ( x ) x * x – x – 4 2

You might also like

Microsoft Word - FullNotesC

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Microsoft Word - FullNotesC

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

St.

Mary‛s School of Management Studies

(a) a >= b [ true if the value of a is greater than or equal to the

1. Post Decrement operator which has the form Variable ­ ­;

y = x ­ ­ ; y = ­ ­ x ;

FALSE checks TRUE

Execute block4 Execute block3 Execute block2 Execute block1

FALSE Checks TRUE

1. FUNCTION WITH NO ARGUMENTS AND RETURN NO VALUE

2. FUNCTION WITH NO ARGUMENTS AND RETURN A VALUE

3.FUNCTION WITH AN ARGUMENTS OR ARGUMENTS AND RETURN

f1(x) sending f2(x)

4. FUNCTION WITH AN ARGUMENTS OR ARGUMENTS AND RETURN

f1(x) sending f2(x)

Example for a function returning an integer value:

Example for a function returning a non­integer value:

(b) if ( file pointer == NULL ) – True if file ends

#define F ( x ) x * x – x – 4 2

You might also like

1. Post Decrement operator which has the form Variable ;

y = x ; y = x ;

Example for a function returning a noninteger value: