MEMOIR GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA No. 49, 2002, pp.51-64 Kayals of Kerala Coastal Land and Implication to Quaternary Sea Level Changes Sasu Josepu and K.P. THRIVIKRAMAJI Department of Geology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom Campus 695 581 Abstract ‘The coastal land (CL) of Kerala (area= ~5600 km*; elevation < 8.0 m.a.msl.) is one of the three physiographic divisions of the State and is unique in many ways, viz., the high density of population and fragile nature of the shoreline. Geology and evolution of the CL are variable and interesting in that considerable extent of the CL is covered by Quaternary deposits and subordinate expanse of laterite cover on the sedimentary fill of the Kerala basin (Age=Tertiary) followed by exposures of Precambrian crystalline rocks. Further, the fairly long shoreline of Kerala and adjacent CL with its variegated geomorphic setting can be grouped into, a) high coastal land (HCL) or impermeable shoreline and b)low coastal land (LCL) or permeable shoreline. ‘The various geomorphic units of the LCL are beaches, ancient beach ridges, barrier flats, flood plains, river terraces, lagoons etc. The Kayals (no.=34) dotting the CL are of variable size, shape and orientation with respect to the modern shoreline and receive the discharge from the 41 west flowing rivers of Kerala. Some of the Kayals are segments of river channels or estuaries of the rivers. Kayals are grouped into three different categories based on their plan-forms, orientation of the long axis, geological setting, age relationship, and evolutional history. The evolution of Kayals is in fact the history of the evolution of the CL of Kerala. Keywords: Kayals, Sea level changes, Quaternary, Coastal Kerala. INTRODUCTION The coastal land (CL) of Kerala (area= ~5600 km®; elevation < 8.0 m a.m.s.1.) is one of the three physiographic divisions of the state. The others are the midland (elevation = 8.0 to 75.0 m above m.s.l.) and high land (>75.0 m. above m.s.l.). The Kerala CL is unique in many respects, in that it is one of the most densely populated coastal areas of the world, With a shoreline length of52 SABU JOSEPH AND K.P. THRIVIKRAMAJI 560 km., it constitutes approximately 1/10 of the total shoreline of conterminous India. Like the various unique and spectacular features that endow the coastal landscapes of different states of India —e.g., mud flats of Gujarat, rocky cliffs and pocket beaches of Maharashtra, wide beaches of Goa, linear beaches of Karnataka — the coastal plain topography of Kerala with low relief is renowned for the occurrence of several “Kayals” of very special plan forms and unique orientation with respect to the modern shoreline. Beach dunes, ancient beach ridges, barrier flats, coastal alluvial plains, flood plains, river terraces and marshes are the other manifestations of this coastal land. Two important non-living resources of the CL are the black sand mineral deposits of Chavara-Kayamkulam belt and the glass sand deposits of Chertala. Laterite and clays associated with the Warkalli series are other cases in point. The Mud banks - ephemeral suspensions of marine mud in the near coastal waters - appearing soon after the on-set of the SW monsoon not only brings in an enormous fortune of fisheries to the State but also render some degree of protection to otherwise vulnerable sandy beaches from wave erosion. In what follows, the geomorphology, evolution and consequences of sea level changes of the CL are examined. BRIEF GEOLOGY OF COASTAL LAND Sedimentary formations of coastal land, which belong essentially to Neogene and Quaternary periods, unconformably overlie Precambrian rocks. Both marine and non-marine rocks of the Neogene period include the rocks of the Vaikom Formation, Quilon Formation and the overlying Warkalli bed of late Miocene age. Sediments of the Quaternary period unconformably overlie the Neogene sediments. Vast stretches of laterite cappings are a characteristic feature of the coastal plain. The total thickness of the sedimentary sequence exceeds 600 m in the Ambalappuzha-Alappuzha region (Soman, 1997). GEOMORPHIC SETTING OF COASTAL LAND The fairly long shoreline of Kerala and the adjoining coastal plain with its varied geomorphic settings (Ahmad, 1972; Sreenivasan et al. 1980), can be grouped as: (1) high coastal land (HCL) or impermeable shoreline, bordered on the landside by a cliffed shoreline (CSL) with or without a beach and (2) low coastal land (LCL) or permeable shoreline, comprising a strand plain shoreline. The HCL is constituted either by Precambrian crystalline rocks (e.g. as at Kovalam and Ezhimala) and/or residual laterite derived out of these or from sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age (e.g., as at Varkala and Canannore).KAYALS OF KERALA COASTAL LAND 53 Although the cliffed shoreline (CSL) is far stable than the low coastal land (LCL), the landfast beaches appearing in summer are totally wiped off during the monsoon season (Thrivikramaji, 1987; Thrivikramaji et al. 1983). Table 1 gives the distribution of the CSL along the Kerala coast. Table 1. Distribution of cliffed (impermeable) shoreline of Kerala Location Lithology Extent (km) CChapath to Kovalam Tertiary sediments and Precambrian crystallines 10.0 Vettoor to Tangasseri Tertiary sediments and Primary laterite 375 Puthiyappa Primary laterite 2.75 Quilandy Precambrian crystallines and Primary laterite 15 Mahe Precambrian crystallines and Primary laterite 12.75 ‘Canannore Tertiary sediments 12.75 Azhikode Pre-crystallines and Primary laterite 12s Ezhimala > Pre-crystallines 3.75 ‘South of Kasaragod Pre-crystallines_and Primary laterite 3.75 Tor Length of cliffed oe Schematic sections of the categories of coastal land identified are given in Fig.1. Figure 1a is a typical example of an impermeable-cliffed shoreline without beach. Such a category though limited in extent is nonetheless recorded from many parts of the coastal land, as at Kovalam, near Trivandrum. Impermeable cliffed shoreline formed of sedimentary rocks of Tertiary age (Fig.1b) is another common category, as at Varkala. Figure 1c shows low coastal land with ridges and runnels (e.g. at Shertallai, near Alleppey) and Fig. 1d depicts the typical lagoon-barrier system of coastal land (e.g., Ettikulam Kayal in Canannore dist.). A schematic section of the low coastal land is shown in Fig.2. As was pointed out earlier, the impermeable shorelines are very slow in backwearing, and more so in the case of Precambrian crystalline rock formed cliff line. Based on the shelf width variations and the nature of the coastal landforms, Inman and Nordstrom (1971) recognized several categories of coasts. Based on their scheme, the cliffed shoreline of Kerala includes the narrow shelf hilly coast (south of N 9°00’, i.e., southern Kerala and Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu) and wide shelf hilly coast (north of 10°50’, i.e., the Malabar region). The Coastal Plain The coastal plain topography with extremely low relief or no relief is54 SABU JOSEPH AND K.P. THRIVIKRAMAJI B — Beach Ridge; L — Lagoon; R — Runnel; S— Sea Fig.1. Schematic of shoreline types. (a) impermeable shoreline without beach. (b) impermeable- sedimentary rock-cliffed shoreline. (¢) similar to 1b, but for beach ridges and runnels. (@) typical lagoon-barrier system of in the strand plain.KAYALS OF KERALA COASTAL LAND 35 <— SEA —><———_ STRAND PLAIN == LAGOON Holocene Beach/ [®,°,°] Warkalli Beds and Dune a°.e°.0'| Vaikom Beds 7 Quilon Series +L] Crystaltine Basement Fig.2. Schematic section of low coastal land. interrupted only by certain relief elements like the coastal-dunes in Shertallai area (Fig.3) and dune ridges along the east coast of the Kavvai Kayal in north Malabar. Further interruptions to the even topography of the coastal plain are caused by the Ezhimala granophyre massif, the cliffed shorelines along Varkala and Cannanore. Ancient cliff line is also inferred to be present away from the modern shoreline in the backshore. The width of the coastal plain is very much variable and ranges between 5 to 6 km., which attains a maximum width of ~29.0 km along the latitude of Chertala (~N.9° 40’). Another striking feature of the Kerala coastal plain is the occurrence of 34 Kayals of different sizes and modes of origin. Kayals The term “Kayal” (a Malayalam word) portrays large water bodies irrespective of their geographical setting or water quality. In the context of this paper, Kayal is meant to denote waterbodies in the coastal land zone of Kerala and most of which form a link between the sea and many of the west-flowing rivers. Coastal land of Kerala is renowned for the occurrence of several Kayals (total= 34), of varying sizes, plan-forms and orientations with respect to the modern shoreline (Fig.4; Table 2). Kayals play varied roles in the economy of the State. Many of the Kayals have been connected by an intra-coastal canal system to enhance the trade and commerce of this region. Kayals serve as easySABU JOSEPH AND K.P. THRIVIKRAMAIL Rea R Ee Fig.3. Coastal dune-ridges, Alleppy-Chertala sectorKAYALS OF KERALA COASTAL LAND 37 Table 2. List of estuaries and Kayals of Kerala (after Soman, 1997) A: Estuaries 1. Uppala 10. Valapattanam 19. Chettuvai 2. Kumbla 11. Dharmapuram 20. Ponnani 3. Mogral 12. Tellichery 21. Vembanad 4. Chandragiri 13. Mahe . 22. Kayamkulam 5. Kalnad 14. Kottackal 23. Ashtamudi 6. Bekal 15. Elathur 24, Paravur 7. Chittari 16. Kallai 25. Edava 8. Karingote 17. Beypure 26. Kadinamkulam 9. Ezhimala 18. Kadalundi 27. Veli B: Kayals 1. Kawvayi 2. Agalapuzha 3. Enamakkal-Manakkodi 4. Muriad 5. Kodungalloor-Varappuzha 6. Sasthamkotta 7. Vellayani retting ground for cocconut husks and support coir industry. The Kayal basins and hence the Kayals are also of varying ages, and geological settings implying diverse evolutionary processes. A commonality which many of the Kayal’s share, is the prevalence of an estuarine condition as they receive supplies of fresh water from the land and inflow of sea water during major part of the year. These kayals are fed by the 41 west flowing rivers of Kerala. Many of the Kayals are simply segments of river channel in the coastal land, which do show estuarine characteristics. Kayals show very much variation in their size. The largest Kayal in the coastal plain is the Vembanad Kayal spread over an area of 205 km?. The Ashtamudi and Kayamkulam Kayals occurring further south are smaller in their aerial extent. An impressive Kayal occurs in north Malabar north of Ezhimala, viz., the Kavvai Kayal. The other Kayals are smaller in extent. Due to seasonality of rainfall, there is a seasonality in river discharge into the Kayals and hence to the ocean. The lack of considerable discharge outside the SW and NE monsoons, channel mouth bars routinely appear during the summer season. Flow in most of the 41 rivers has been curtailed greatly or considerably by the commissioning of dams and reservoirs and progressively higher off take of water from the streams for supply to farms and communities. Based on the plan-forms, orientation of the long axis, geological setting, age relationships, and evolutionary history the Kayal basins are grouped into three different categories: ‘Type I Kayals ‘These Kayals, typifying the lagoon-barrier complexes, have a very large length to width ratio and a shore parallel or sub-parallel long axis. They are38 SABU JOSEPH AND K.P. THRIVIKRAMAJI 75°10" 76° lo" Trlo Uppala\, =~, Ke ot 20 ° 20 40 km ChandtairKainad ~C! ae lee Bekal a Karnataka Kawayi |_12° as 0 ~——_-Valapattanam a c Agalapuzha > Ft o |_ate —-Purapparamba > is Tirur : ; ‘é—_ Kanjiramukku ¢ Tamil Nadu j ” Chettuvai } ” . ~ ge 2 Vembanad a oO ne > | 3 @ Sasthamkotfa }-9° a 0 , Kadinamiulam Veuorn 7 Trivandrum | 7550" 778 Fig.4. Location map of Kayals of Kerala (after Soman, 1997) characterised by seasonal flow of water and some sediment from Kayal to the sea during the monsoons, and the process reverses with the dwindling of monsoon discharge. Further, these Kayals show a simple rectilinear or complex rectilinear plan-form. Typical examples are the Ettikulam Kayal, the Vembanad Kayal and the Kayamkulam Kayal. ‘Type II Kayals Kayals, of a hybrid origin and a large length to width ratio, are set transverseKAYALS OF KERALA COASTAL LAND 59 to the shoreline and do show a distinct dichotomy between the inlet and “gut” of the Kayal. The inlet is formed by the deposition of beach sediments by littoral currents and is moulded by wave refraction. The role of tides is certainly subsidiary to others as Kerala falls in the micro-tidal environment. Recurved spits or cuspate forelands characterize the inlet, whereas ‘gut’ lies in a subaerially or fluvially modified graben-like depressions. The major portion of the Kayal shoreline is set against a cliff line of moderate relief usually formed by rocks of the Warkalli series. The long axis of these Kayals, is perhaps indicative of their formation by the incision of river channels deeply into sub- strata, to attain base levels during low sea level stands of the past. In plan-form the basin is largely the result of mass wasting of the cliff-line, which tended to modify the primitive rectilinear depressions of neo-tectonic origin. A typical example is the Ashtamudi Kayal. Ashtamudi Kayal is unique in its configuration. It derives its name from the planimetric shape with eight branches radiating from near the central part of the Kayal. It has a length of 16 km.and a width of 15 km and is located just north of Quilon. A few individual islets (for e.g., Munrothuruthu) with very steep sided slopes are observed within the Kayal. ‘Type I Kayals These Kayals, set in the coastal land, are far away from the modern shoreline and are presently devoid of any connection to the sea (hence freshwater type). The source of fresh water is supplied by internal drainage and from underground sources. Such basins are wholly or partly in the Warkalli terrain and in the laterite derived by the weathering of Precambrian crystalline rocks. These Kayal basins are also not a part of the strand plain of Kerala. The plan- forms of the Kayals are heavily influenced by mass wasting processes taking place along the shoreline of moderate relief. During the earlier higher stands of sea level, these Kayals probably had connections with the sea. For e.g., the Sasthamkotta Kayal set in the Kallada river basin in the north east of Quilon and the Vellayani Kayal of the Karamana river basin south of Trivandrum. These are disconnected from the sea and rain is the principal source for water. ‘The Sasthamkotta Kayal basin is set partly (i.e., western shoreline) on the ‘Tertiary sedimentaries and partly (i.e., eastern shoreline) on the laterite derived alluvium of the Precambrian crystalline rocks. The Kayal has the long axis oriented in the NW direction. Based on the spatial, geomorphic and geologic setting (Table 3), the Kayals can further be grouped as Youngest (Type I), Intermediate (Type II) and Oldest (Type II).60 SABU JOSEPH AND K.P. THRIVIKRAMAJI ‘Table 3. Outline of spatial, geomorphic and geologic setting of the Kayals of Kerala coastal land ‘Typeof Spatial setting Geomorphic setting Geologic setting Kayal 1 Coast parallel entirely in strand plain Holocene beach ridge and shoreface sediment " Coast transverse inlet in strand plain, In Tertiary Warkallai gut in graben-like basin sediments, mt Approximately at rolling hills with a relief In Tertiary Warkallai eastern edge of of -20m sediments. coastal land zone Rate of Modification of Kayals Like most of the modern coastal lakes and lagoons, the Kayals are under the threat of accelerated sedimentation and filling up. Reclamation of land also threatens these Kayals. Karichal Kayal, south of Trivandrum and Edava Kayal, northwest of Trivandrum, are instances of accelerated sedimentation. In both the cases, the areal extent was more or less about 2.3 square kilometre. Accelerated erosion due to human activity in the catchments and reclamation by filling and dyking turned the Karichal Kayal into a swamp in_ historical time. Washover deposition from the sea side and reclamation from the land side shoreline of the Edava Kayal rendered its filling up. Other major and larger Kayals are also under similar threats. However, dramatic and visible transformation has not yet been reported. EVOLUTION OF KAYALS AND COASTAL LAND One way of explaining the origin of Kayals is by accounting for the origin of the basins now forming the Kayals, which in fact is dependent on the formation of the strand plain of Kerala and its evolution through time. It therefore calls for an examination of the geologic. history of the coastal land and its subsequent modification to achieve the modern configuration. The Kayal basins have formed in the Phanerozoic rocks of Kerala, the Tertiary sedimentaries. The Tertiaries of the Kerala basin have been studied by several workers (e.g., King, 1882; Paulose and Narayanaswami, 1968; Raha et al. 1983). Briefly, the highlights of the geologic history are the Paleocene regression resulting in the formation of Vaikom beds, the mid-Tertiary transgression leading to the formation of the Quilon series of marine affinity and lastly the regression again which resulted in the sedimentation of Warkalli series of non-marine affinity. This oscillation of the shoreline and consequent succession of the non-marine to marine and followed by theKAYALS OF KERALA COASTAL LAND 61 non-marine deposition was punctuated by mild adjustments in the basin of sedimentation. Evidences for former low strand lines of sea-level are indicated by the presence of submerged terraces at depths from 31-92m. in the west coast. These terraces belong to the Holocene period (i.e., 9000-13,000 yrs., Hashimi et al. 1995). Based on '4C dates of limeshells from different onland parts of Kerala and southern Tamil Nadu, Soman (1997) proposed a prominent neotectonic uplift around 4000 Y.B.P. in the southern coastal segment of Peninsular India. Further, the dating of offshore molluscan shells (off Varkala) suggests that the present day coastline configuration of southern Kerala was attained not earlier than 5470- 6120 Y.B.P (Soman, 1997). A sea level change curve for the west coast of India, based on '*C age data set and proposed by Hashimi et. al. (1995) also cites the “C date of 8080 Y.B.P for the peat sample from Wellington island near Cochin*(Agarwal et al. 1970). Rajendran et al.(1989) proposed, based on “C dates of limeshell from Payyanur, Vechur and Muhamma (Vembanad lake) and peat from Tellichery and Tannisery, a phase of transgression (8000 to 6000 YBP) followed by a phase of regression (3000- 5000 YBP) during Holocene in Kerala. The Quaternary formations unconformably overlie the Tertiaries. i.e., towards the end of Pliocene, and the basin fill might have been uplifted and subjected to erosion. Transgression towards the end of Pleistocene, coinciding with the third interglacial age, formed the Quaternary sediments. Currently two different views exist in the minds of geologists in respect of evolution of the coastal land, viz., one rooted in tectonism (Rao et al. 1985; Thrivikramaji and Ramasarma, 1983) of the region and the other based on fluvial action in support of which evidences are scarce. However, very impressive evidence exists in the field (and to some extent through the 4C dates and inferences there of in literature) in support of the tectonic adjustments and movements that occurred in the Kerala coastal land. For e.g., the coastal Tertiary outcrops in the cliff section between Papanassam, near Varkala, and Vettur in the south for a distance of 8 km., are interrupted by normal faults (block faults), which have caused the formation of valleys at Papanasam, and Chilakkur. These graben-like valleys (of <2 to 2.5 km length and non-parallel walls) have their apices pointing landward. Further, north of Papanasam, the coastal cliff, sharply falls in height to expose beach sand deposits as well as older dunes near Edava. However, these features that repeat along the shoreline in the cliff area point to the swinging of the laterite marker surface in a low amplitude initially and later at a higher amplitude as one approaches the Thangasseri area. The different sectors of the Kerala coastal land had experienced non-62 SABU JOSEPH AND K.P. THRIVIKRAMAJI uniform tectonic activity. Evidences exist in Cannanore and Calicut districts, where shell bearing marine and estuarine beds has been located about 1.50 m above m.s.l. (Rajendran et al. 1989). Occurrence of uplifted segments of coastline in Varkala and Cannanore suggest differential uplift or subsidence. Escarpments seen along the eastern fringes of the Ashtamudi, Sasthamkotta and western side of Vellayani Kayals are suggestive of the role of downfaulting in their origin. The coastal tract between Karamana river mouth and Vamanapuram river mouth is subdued with the exception of the elevated hillocks near Veli, suggesting differential uplift of the coastal tract along major river courses, which generally follow fault/lineament directions of Kerala. The network of promontories, seen mostly in the northern and southern coastal segments might have originated due to sub-latitudinal uplift of the terrain along fault/lineaments, with which river courses coincide. STRUCTURE OF THE COASTAL LAND An understanding of the evolution of CL is perhaps not complete without a knowledge of the structural picture of the coastal land and hence of the architecture of the Kerala Tertiary basin (KTB). Available borehole lithologs are not to the level required to get a clear picture of the stratigraghic definition of sediments. Nevertheless, the coastwise section based on subsurface data, published by Rao (1975) is suggestive of an increase in the thickness of sediment fill at Ambalapuzha. The lateral or spatial variability of the formations have been explained as the result of facies changes (Varadarajan and Nair, 1978). Such variations are indirectly influenced by the faults oriented transverse to the perimeter of the basin edge on land, which had taken advantage of lineaments of similar orientation. Thus, like most of the coastal Tertiary basins, the KTB too is a fault controlled basin. In addition, Rao et al. (1985) reported four sets of lineaments, viz., NW- SE, NNW-SSE, ENE-WSW and WNW-ESE from Kerala, and cited off-setting of straight line coast, acute bends in stream courses and lagoons and minor differences in elevation on either side of the beach ridges as evidences for active neo-tectonism along the NW-SE and NNW-SSE sets. Further, Nair and Subramanyan (1989) proposed that the ENE-WSW lineaments cutting across the Tertiary sedimentary fill and extending into the offshore of Kerala, are a possible extension of the transform fault generated in the Carlsberg Ridge. CONCLUSION Kerala coastal land exhibits a variegated geologic and geomorphic setting,KAYALS OF KERALA COASTAL LAND 63 which renders its sub-division into low and high coastal land. The strand plain, which covers the low coastal land, is less stable than the high coastal plains covering the Precambrian/Tertiary. The unique feature of this coastal plain is the occurrence of Kayals of varying size, shape and orientation, and based on which they are classified into Type I (shore parallel), Type II (shore perpendicular) and Type III (shore distant). The origin of kayals is linked to the evolution of strand plains of coastal land, which in turn is controlled by the marine transgression and regression during the Tertiary time and the structural makeup of the coastal land. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Suggestions of an anonymous reviewer immensely improved the text. Many of the points presented in the paper had accrued over the past several years and discussichs KPT had with his colleagues helped to clarify some of these points. SJ thanks the CSIR, New Delhi for funding in the form of a Research Associateship. References Auman, E. (1972) Coastal Geomorphology of India: Orient Longman, Madras, 222p. AGARWAL, DP. Gurr, S.K. and Kusumcar, S. (1970) Radiocarbon dates of Quaternary samples. Curr. 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