1

CAVITATION INCEPTION ON
SHIP P R O P E L L E R M O D E L S
\
CAVITATION INCEPTION O N SHIP P R O P E L L E R MODELS

>a o
Cf- O
OD 00

BIBLIOTHEEK TU Delft
P 1649 4039

C 481966
 CAVITATION INCEPTION ON
SHIP P R O P E L L E R M O D E L S

PROEFSCHRIFT
TER V E R K R I J G I N G V A N DE G R A A D V A N DOCTOR IN DE
TECHNISCHE WETENSCHAPPEN A A N DE TECHNISCHE
H O G E S C H O O L D E L F T OP G E Z A G V A N D E R E C T O R
M A G N I F I C U S , P R O F . IR. B. P. T H . V E L T M A N
VOOR E E N COMMISSIE A A N G E W E Z E N DOOR HET C O L L E G E VAN
D E K A N E N T E V E R D E D I G E N O P W O E N S D A G 11 M A A R T 1981
T E 16.00 U U R

DOOR

GERRIT KUIPER
SCHEEPSBOUWKUNDIG INGENIEUR
G E B O R E N TE R O T T E R D A M

H. V E E N M A N E N Z O N E N B.V. W A G E N I N G E N - 1981
 D i t proefschrift is goedgekeurd
d o o r de p r o m o t o r e n

Prof. D r . Ir. J . D . van M a n e n

Prof. D r . Ir. L . van W i j n g a a r d e n
Aan mijn ouders
 1

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Cavitation 1
1.2. C a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n 2
1.3. The mechanics o f c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n 3
1.3.1. The bubble e q u i l i b r i u m approach 3
1.3.2. V i s c o u s e f f e c t s on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n 5
1.3.3. A d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t s on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n 6
1.3.3.1. Turbulence 6
1.3.3.2. Bubble response i n a p r e s s u r e f i e l d 7
1.3.3.3. D i f f u s i o n 8
1.3.3.4. C o n v e c t i v e d i f f u s i o n 9
1.3.3.5. R e c t i f i e d d i f f u s i o n 11
1.4. S c a l i n g o f c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n 11
1.4.1. S c a l i n g parameters 11
1.4.2. Examples o f s c a l i n g c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n 12
1.4.3. S c a l i n g o f p r o p e l l e r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n 15
1.5. Test f a c i l i t i e s 16
1.6. P r o p e l l e r s f o r s p e c i f i c types o f c a v i t a t i o n 20
2. THE CALCULATION OF THE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION 23
2.1. The l i f t i n g s u r f a c e t h e o r y 24
2.2. An e s t i m a t e of t h e l i n e a r i z a t i o n e r r o r 25
2.3. The p o s i t i o n o f t h e bound v o r t i c e s 26
2.4. The p o s i t i o n o f t h e t r a i l i n g vortices 28
2.5. Corrections f o r v i s c o u s e f f e c t s on the l i f t 29
2.6. Effects of thickness on t h e l i f t 31
2.7. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e magnitude o f t h e s e c t i o n a l inflow
velocity 34
2.8. The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e l i f t distribution 34
2.9. The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n 35
2.10 C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e open-water diagrams 42
2.11 Comparison w i t h d a t a from t h e l i t e r a t u r e 45
3. THE BOUNDARY LAYER ON PROPELLER BLADES 49
3.1. P a i n t t e s t s on p r o p e l l e r models 50
3.2. P o s s i b l e s i d e e f f e c t s due t o the p a i n t l a y e r 52
3.3. Some s y s t e m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f the p r o p e l l e r boundary
layer 55
 3.4. The boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r s B, S and V 59
3.4.1. The boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r B 60
3.4.2. The boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r S 60
3.4.3. The boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r V 63
4. ROUGHNESS AT THE LEADING EDGE 65
4.1. The a p p l i c a t i o n o f roughness a t the l e a d i n g edge 65
4.2. The e f f e c t o f roughness on the l e a d i n g edge geometry 68
4.2.1. The m a n u f a c t u r i n g a c c u r a c y 68
4.2.2. Reynolds number e f f e c t s on t h e geometry 70
4.3. C a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on roughness elements 73
4.4. The e f f e c t o f roughness on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on a
circular cylinder 74
4.4.1. Measurements on t h e smooth c y l i n d e r 75
4.4.2. Measurements on t h e roughened c y l i n d e r 77
4.4.3. Measurements on the c y l i n d e r w i t h a s i n g l e roughness
line 79
4.4.4. C o n c l u s i o n s 81
4.5. E f f e c t s o f l e a d i n g edge roughness on t h e t h r u s t and t o r q u e
of p r o p e l l e r s B, S and V. 83
5. NUCLEI 87
5.1. The presence o f n u c l e i 87
5.2. G e n e r a t i o n o f n u c l e i by e l e c t r o l y s i s 88
5.3. The a p p l i c a t i o n o f e l e c t r o l y s i s i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d
Towing Tank 94
5.3.1. Bubble stream o b s e r v a t i o n s 94
5.3.2. Measurements w i t h s c a t t e r e d laser light 96
5.4. E l e c t r o l y s i s i n t h e C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel 98
6. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS WITH BUBBLE CAVITATION 100
6.1. P r o p e l l e r B a t J=0.6 i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank 100
6.2. P r o p e l l e r B a t J=0.6 i n t h e C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel 107
6.3. I n c e p t i o n measurements on p r o p e l l e r B a t J=0.6 109
6.4. P r o p e l l e r B a t J=0.4 i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank 109
6.5. P r o p e l l e r B a t J=0.4 i n t h e C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel 112
6.6. I n c e p t i o n measurements on p r o p e l l e r B a t J=0.4 114
7. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS WITH SHEET CAVITATION 115
7.1. P r o p e l l e r S a t J=0.4 i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank 115
7.2. P r o p e l l e r S a t J=0.4 i n t h e C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel 120
 7.3. P r o p e l l e r S a t J=0.6 i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank 123
7.4. P r o p e l l e r S a t J=0.6 i n t h e C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel 127
7.5. I n c e p t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s on roughened p r o p e l l e r blades 127
8. TIP VORTEX CAVITATION 130
8.1. I n c e p t i o n o f t i p v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n 130
8.2. An i n v i s c i d a n a l y s i s of a c a v i t a t i n g t i p vortex 135
8.3. O b s e r v a t i o n s of t i p v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n on p r o p e l l e r V 137
8.3.1. E f f e c t s o f r o l l - u p o f t h e v o r t e x sheet 144
8.3.2. E f f e c t s o f t h e t o t a l a i r content 145
8.3.3. V i s c o u s e f f e c t s on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n 146
8.4. D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n of a t i p vortex
from t h e r a d i u s o f t h e c a v i t a t i n g core 152
8.5. An approximate f o r m u l a f o r t h e c a v i t a t i o n index a t
inception 157
9. DISCUSSION 160
9.1. Bubble c a v i t a t i o n 162
9.1.1. The presence o f n u c l e i 162
9.1.2. The e f f e c t s o f a l a c k o f n u c l e i 163
1 f i 4
9.1.3. The d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n c e p t i o n
9.1.3.1. The e f f e c t o f t h e Reynolds number 164
9.1.3.2. The d e f i n i t i o n o f i n c e p t i o n 164
9.1.3.3. Gaseous c a v i t a t i o n 165
9.1.3.4. Bubble s c r e e n i n g 166
9.1.3.5. The use o f p r o p e l l e r B as a s t a n d a r d
cavitator 166
9.1.4. G e n e r a t i o n o f n u c l e i by e l e c t r o l y s i s 167
9.1.5. G e n e r a t i o n of n u c l e i by roughness elements 168
9.2. Sheet c a v i t a t i o n 168
9.2.1. The e f f e c t s o f l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r f l o w 168
9.2.2. The e f f e c t s o f a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble 169
9.2.3. C a v i t a t i o n inception on roughness elements 171
9.2.4. The e f f e c t s o f a l a c k o f n u c l e i 172
10. CONCLUSIONS 175
Appendix 1 178
Appendix 2 184
References 190
Nomenclature 199
Summary 204
Samenvatting 206
Levensbeschrijving 208
Dankwoord 209
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

Cavities are volumes filled with vapor in a local low pressure region
in a fluid flow. The beginning or inception of cavitation is important for
scaling of cavitation. In this section the mechanism of cavitation inception
is discussed and a simple theoretical model of bubble equilibrium is
described. Arguments are given why diffusion and bubble dynamics can be
neglected in cavitation inception. The parameters for scaling cavitation on
ship propellers are given and the facilities used in this investigation are
described.

1.1. CAVITATION

When i n a f l u i d f l o w h i g h v e l o c i t i e s o c c u r l o c a l l y , t h e p r e s s u r e w i l l
c o n s e q u e n t l y drop and when t h e p r e s s u r e decrease i s l a r g e enough p a r t o f
the f l u i d w i l l become vapor. The r e g i o n s i n which vapor e x i s t s a r e c a l l e d
cavities.
The volume i n c r e a s e due t o v a p o r i z a t i o n l i m i t s t h e p r e s s u r e decrease
to about t h e e q u i l i b r i u m vapor p r e s s u r e a t t h e l o c a l temperature. At room
temperature t h e temperature o f t h e f l u i d i s h a r d l y a f f e c t e d by t h i s p r o c e s s
of c a v i t a t i o n . T h i s d i s t i n g u i s h e s c a v i t a t i o n from b o i l i n g , which o c c u r s
when t h e temperature i s r a i s e d to the b o i l i n g - p o i n t and where t h e
v a p o r i z a t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d by heat t r a n s f e r ( P l e s s e t and P r o s p e r e t t i , 1969).
In c a v i t a t i o n t h e dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f t h e vapor " b u b b l e s " i s
d e c i s i v e . Because low p r e s s u r e s and h i g h v e l o c i t i e s go t o g e t h e r the time
d u r i n g which a f l u i d p a r t i c l e i s i n a low p r e s s u r e r e g i o n i s g e n e r a l l y
s h o r t and the motions o f t h e c a v i t i e s a r e m o s t l y v i o l e n t , r e s u l t i n g i n
d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s such as e r o s i o n , v i b r a t i o n s and e x c e s s i v e n o i s e
p r o d u c t i o n , w h i l e l a r g e amounts o f c a v i t a t i o n w i l l cause a l o s s o f
performance o f e.g. h y d r o f o i l s , s h i p p r o p e l l e r s o r pumps.

C a v i t a t i o n i s a widespread phenomenon i n f l u i d s e n g i n e e r i n g . Everywhere

where h i g h f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s a r e r e q u i r e d o r where b o d i e s move through a
f l u i d w i t h h i g h speed t h e r e i s a r i s k o f c a v i t a t i o n . C a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s from

1
rocket f u e l systems to normal t a p s , from r i v e r dam overflows to s l u i c e -
g a t e s . C a v i t a t i o n i s common i n marine p r o p u l s i o n , but a l s o o c c u r s on fins,
domes, r u d d e r s , b o s s i n g s , h y d r o f o i l s , t o r p e d o ' s , e t c . But also i n
unexpected cases as i n the m e d i c a l use of u l t r a s o n i c s c a v i t a t i o n i s
suspected to occur.
E s p e c i a l l y where r e l i a b i l i t y i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t , e.g. i n reactor
coolant systems, c a v i t a t i o n poses u n a c c e p t a b l e r i s k s . Sometimes c a v i t a t i o n
can be made use o f , such as i n the case of s u p e r c a v i t a t i n g p r o p e l l e r s and
rock-cutting.

1.2. CAVITATION INCEPTION

A l t h o u g h the p r e s s u r e i n a c a v i t y i s c l o s e to the vapor p r e s s u r e i t

sometimes r e q u i r e s v e r y low p r e s s u r e s to c r e a t e a c a v i t y , because the fluid
can w i t h s t a n d h i g h t e n s i o n s . An extreme example was g i v e n by B r i g g s (1950) ,
o
who found a maximum t e n s i o n i n p u r e , s t a n d i n g water at 10 C of 277 bars !
The p r e s s u r e at which c a v i t i e s are formed i s c a l l e d the inception
pressure. In most cases the d e v i a t i o n of the i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e from the
vapor p r e s s u r e i s below 1 b a r , but c e r t a i n l y not n e g l i g i b l e . A p o s s i b l e
consequence of t h i s d e v i a t i o n of the i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e from the vapor
p r e s s u r e i s c a v i t a t i o n h y s t e r e s i s , which means t h a t the d i s a p p e a r a n c e of
c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s at a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e than the appearance o r i n c e p t i o n of
cavitation.

The d e v i a t i o n of the i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e from the vapor p r e s s u r e

causes s e r i o u s problems when c a v i t a t i o n i s s c a l e d , t h a t i s when the
c a v i t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r of a d e v i c e i s i n v e s t i g a t e d on model s c a l e , as i s e.g.
common i n the case of s h i p p r o p e l l e r s . C o r r e c t s c a l i n g of c a v i t a t i o n
i n c e p t i o n to model s c a l e i s i m p o r t a n t not o n l y f o r the c o r r e c t p r e d i c t i o n of
the o c c u r r e n c e of c a v i t a t i o n , but also f o r a proper r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of
p r o p e l l e r i n d u c e d v i b r a t i o n s , which has become v e r y i m p o r t a n t . Improper
s c a l i n g of c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n can s t r o n g l y a f f e c t the hydrodynamic forces
on the h u l l , e s p e c i a l l y the h i g h e r harmonics. Here s c a l e e f f e c t s can occur,
which can be m i s t a k e n l y a t t r i b u t e d t o s c a l e e f f e c t s i n the wake of a s h i p
model.

2
 These problems t r i g g e r e d the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n and i t s purpose
t h e r e f o r e i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e parameters which c o n t r o l cavitation
i n c e p t i o n on model p r o p e l l e r s and t o devi se t e s t t e c h n i q u e s which improve
the p r e d i c t i o n o f c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on the p r o t o t y p e from model t e s t s .

1.3. THE MECHANISM OF CAVITATION INCEPTION

1.3.1. The bubble e q u i l i b r i u m approach

Since pure l i q u i d s can w i t h s t a n d h i g h t e n s i o n s some a d d i t i o n a l

mechanism i s r e q u i r e d t o break the bond between t h e water m o l e c u l e s at
c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . Elements a b l e t o do t h i s are c a l l e d n u c l e i , and one
form o f a n u c l e u s i s a f r e e gas bubble. Knapp and H o l l a n d e r (1948) v i s u a l i z e
the growth and c o l l a p s e o f c a v i t a t i o n bubbles i n t h e i r c l a s s i c a l h i g h speed
f i l m of bubble c a v i t a t i o n on a 1.5 c a l i b e r o g i v e headform. P l e s s e t (1949)
showed t h a t the observed b e h a v i o u r o f t h e c a v i t i e s c o u l d remarkably a c c u r a -
t e l y be d e s c r i b e d by the somewhat m o d i f i e d R a y l e i g h e q u a t i o n :

pRR + |pR 2
= -p+p y - ~ + -3 (1.1)
R

where: R = bubble r a d i u s
R, R = time d e r i v a t i v e s o f the bubble r a d i u s
p = p r e s s u r e i n the f l u i d s u r r o u n d i n g the bubble
p = vapor p r e s s u r e at t h e l o c a l temperature
s = surface tension
K = c o n s t a n t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e amount o f gas i n t h e b u b b l e ,
assuming i s o t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n .

P l e s s e t d i d not need the gas p r e s s u r e t o o b t a i n a good c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e

o b s e r v a t i o n s s i n c e the bubbles had a l r e a d y grown s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e f o r e
becoming v i s i b l e , which made the gas p r e s s u r e v e r y low. Initially,
however, such a gas bubble e x i s t e d i n the f l u i d w i t h a r a d i u s R which can
0
' o
be found from t h e e q u i l i b r i u m e q u a t i o n :

p-p + 1^- - -4- - 0 (1.2)

o R
O
with p as t h e p r e s s u r e a t i n f i n i t y . When t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f eq. 1.2 e x i s t s
o
the bubble growth w i t h d e c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e i s s m a l l . Below a c e r t a i n critical
pressure e q u i l i b r i u m i s , however, no l o n g e r p o s s i b l e and the bubble w i l l
grow r a p i d l y . T h i s c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e can be c o n s i d e r e d as t h e i n c e p t i o n
p r e s s u r e , which i s ( B l a k e , 1949):

( 1 3 )
Pi= 3R^T -
crit

i n which

R . e (I (1.4)
crit 2 s

The i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e p. i n eq. 1.3 i s s m a l l e r t h a n t h e vapor p r e s s u r e

and depends on the l a r g e s t gas bubbles i n t h e f l o w .
The growth r a t e of t h e bubble a f t e r i n c e p t i o n can be approximated by:

| R 2
= p -pv (1.5)

which i s an a s y m p t o t i c s o l u t i o n o f eq. 1.1.

The d e f i n i t i o n o f c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n when a gas-vapor bubble becomes

unstable c o i n c i d e s with the a c o u s t i c a l d e t e c t i o n of c a v i t a t i o n inception,
s i n c e a v i o l e n t c o l l a p s o c c u r s o n l y when t h e bubble i s u n s t a b l e . G e n e r a l l y ,
however, c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i s d e t e c t e d v i s u a l l y by o b s e r v i n g bubbles
which exceed a c e r t a i n minimum s i z e , and when the i n i t i a l bubble d i a m e t e r
i s not t o o s m a l l a gas-vapor bubble can grow t o v i s i b l e dimensions w i t h o u t
b e i n g u n s t a b l e . When the bubble i s v i s i b l e the e f f e c t o f s u r f a c e t e n s i o n
can be n e g l e c t e d and the i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e can be w r i t t e n from eq. 1.2 a s :

K
P • = P + —7 (1.6)
x
where R^ i s the r a d i u s o f a bubble j u s t v i s i b l e . In such a case t h e
i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e depends on t h e gas c o n t e n t K o f t h e i n i t i a l bubble and
the i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e i s higher than the vapor p r e s s u r e . H o l l ( 1 9 6 0 ) c a l l e d t h i s
3
type o f c a v i t a t i o n "gaseous c a v i t a t i o n " and he suggested t h a t K/R remains
c o n s t a n t due t o gas d i f f u s i o n i n t o t h e b u b b l e .

4
1.3.2. V i s c o u s e f f e c t s on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n

The r a d i a l motions of a gas-vapor bubble are determined by the pressure

i t e x p e r i e n c e s . S i n c e the bubbles are g e n e r a l l y s m a l l t h i s p r e s s u r e i s not
n e c e s s a r i l y the l o c a l mean p r e s s u r e . D a i l y and Johnson (1956) observed gas
bubbles of about 0.25 mm diameter i n a t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r . Arndt and
Ippen (1968) d i d the same i n the boundary l a y e r above a roughened s u r f a c e .
They observed a critical r a d i u s when the bubbles a r r i v e d i n a low pressure
r e g i o n and a l s o determined the growth r a t e . Both the c r i t i c a l pressure,
c a l c u l a t e d from eq. 1.3 and the l o c a l p r e s s u r e , c a l c u l a t e d from eq. 1.5
were lower than the measured w a l l p r e s s u r e , which i s the mean p r e s s u r e i n
the boundary l a y e r . T h i s p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e was much l a r g e r than c o u l d be
e x p l a i n e d by the rms-value o f the t u r b u l e n t p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s , so
apparently l o c a l low p r e s s u r e r e g i o n s o c c u r i n a t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r
w i t h a p r e s s u r e c o n s i d e r a b l y below the mean p r e s s u r e . These low pressure
r e g i o n s o c c u r i n the c e n t e r o f the t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r s i n c e the
bubbles m a i n l y expanded i n t h a t r e g i o n .

Kermeen et a l (1955) e x p e r i m e n t a l l y v e r i f i e d on a h e m i s p h e r i c a l
headform t h a t negative p r e s s u r e s o c c u r r e d i n the minimum p r e s s u r e region
w i t h o u t c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . They observed m i c r o s c o p i c bubbles growing
i n t o c a v i t i e s at a p o s i t i o n downstream of the minimum p r e s s u r e p o i n t . S i n c e
these bubbles grew w h i l e a t t a c h e d t o the body the a t t e n t i o n was focussed
on d i f f u s i v e growth o f microbubbles which are immersed i n a boundary l a y e r
(v.d. W a l l e , 1962; H o l l , 1960; Oshima, 1961; v. Wijngaarden, 1967; Holl and
Kornhauser, 1970). V i s u a l i z a t i o n of the boundary l a y e r by A r a k e r i and
A c o s t a (1973), however, r e v e a l e d the e x i s t e n c e o f a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t e d region
i n the boundary l a y e r of the h e m i s p h e r i c a l headform and they r e l a t e d the
i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e w i t h the p r e s s u r e at the s e p a r a t i o n p o i n t . S i m i l a r
f i n d i n g s were made by Casey (1974) on two-dimensional headforms. Alexander
(1974) h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t d i f f u s i v e bubble growth o c c u r r e d due to a longer
r e s i d e n c e time o f the bubbles i n the s e p a r a t e d r e g i o n , but A r a k e r i (1975)
and Huang and Hannan (1975) measured s t r o n g w a l l - p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n
the reattachment r e g i o n of the s e p a r a t i o n bubble. (The s e p a r a t e d r e g i o n i s
c a l l e d a s e p a r a t i o n "bubble", which s h o u l d not be confused w i t h a c t u a l
bubbles i n the f l o w ) . These w a l l - p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s were an o r d e r o f
magnitude l a r g e r than those i n a f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r .

5
S i m i l a r p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s , but somewhat l e s s s t r o n g , were measured by
Huang and Hannan (1975) i n the t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n of a body w i t h o u t l a m i n a r
s e p a r a t i o n , w h i l e A r a k e r i and A c o s t a (1973) found a remarkable c o r r e l a t i o n
between the mean p r e s s u r e at t r a n s i t i o n and the vapor p r e s s u r e at c a v i t a t i o n
i n c e p t i o n . A c t u a l l y Huang (1979) observed t h a t the t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n was
the l o c a t i o n of c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n , as was a l s o measured by H o l l and
Carroll (1979).

S i n c e these p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s were r e c o g n i z e d as the cause of

c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n a k i n d of d u a l i s t i c p r e d i c t i o n of i n c e p t i o n has pre-
v a i l e d . On the one hand the bubble e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r y i s used to describe
c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n at the minimum p r e s s u r e p o i n t , r e s u l t i n g i n t r a n s i e n t
bubble c a v i t a t i o n , on the o t h e r hand the s t r o n g p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n the
boundary l a y e r are used to p r e d i c t i n c e p t i o n at reattachment or t r a n s i t i o n ,
assuming i n c e p t i o n at the vapor p r e s s u r e (Huang and P e t e r s o n , 1976). Still
i t can be expected t h a t a l s o when i n c e p t i o n i s c o n t r o l l e d by viscous
e f f e c t s n u c l e i are s t i l l n e c e s s a r y f o r i n c e p t i o n , and when no sensitivity
for t h e i r i n i t i a l s i z e i s found the mechanism c a u s i n g t h i s should be
identified.

1.3.3. A d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t s on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n

1.3.3.1. Turbulence

The turbulence l e v e l of the i n f l o w can affect cavitation inception

i n d i r e c t l y by changing t r a n s i t i o n i n the boundary l a y e r (Gates, 1977; Keller,
1979). P r o b a b l y t h i s o c c u r s when the t u r b u l e n c e provides i n i t i a l disturbances,
which are a m p l i f i e d i n the l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r (Mack, 1977).
A s h i p p r o p e l l e r g e n e r a l l y o p e r a t e s i n a h i g h l y t u r b u l e n t wake and i t
is therefore sometimes assumed t h a t t h i s f a c t o f f s e t s , as l e a s t p a r t i a l l y ,
the e f f e c t of a low Reynolds number on model s c a l e . L i t t l e i n f o r m a t i o n is
a v a i l a b l e , but some o b s e r v a t i o n s made w i t h p a i n t s t r e a k s on model p r o p e l l e r s
i n behind c o n d i t i o n r e v e a l e d t h a t l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r f l o w p e r s i s t e d
d e s p i t e the h i g h t u r b u l e n c e l e v e l s , which i s p o s s i b l e when the turbulence
frequencies do not match w i t h the u n s t a b l e frequencies on the propeller
blades.

6
1.3.3.2. Bubble response i n a p r e s s u r e f i e l d .

The bubble e q u i l i b r i u m approach o f c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i s a s t r o n g l y

s i m p l i f i e d approach and i t r e q u i r e s some more arguments t o make c l e a r t h a t
i t i s a good a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . The p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t ,
e x p e r i e n c e d by a bubble p a s s i n g through a low p r e s s u r e r e g i o n , can be too
l a r g e f o r the bubble t o be i n s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m . The r a d i a l motion of the
bubble i s then governed by the R a y l e i g h - P l e s s e t e q u a t i o n , eq. 1.1. In water
the e f f e c t o f v i s c o s i t y on the bubble motion can be n e g l e c t e d .
An extreme case of a r a p i d p r e s s u r e drop i s a p r e s s u r e s t e p . When the
p r e s s u r e s t e p i s s m a l l and negative the bubble w i l l grow d y n a m i c a l l y and
perform an o s c i l l a t i o n around a new e q u i l i b r i u m r a d i u s . Above a c r i t i c a l
v a l u e of the p r e s s u r e s t e p the bubble w i l l remain u n s t a b l e and grow
i n d e f i n i t e l y w i t h a growth r a t e as g i v e n i n eq. 1.5. Persson(1973) c a l c u l a t e d this
critical p r e s s u r e and showed t h a t i t d i f f e r e d l e s s than 10% from the
c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e o b t a i n e d from s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m . O l d e n z i e l (1979)
f o r m u l a t e d an e x p l i c i t e x p r e s s i o n f o r the bubble w a l l v e l o c i t y , n e g l e c t i n g
the vapor p r e s s u r e and v i s c o s i t y and u s i n g a p o l y t r o p i c gas c o n s t a n t of 4/3.
The c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e s d e r i v e d from t h i s e x p r e s s i o n were a l s o w i t h i n 10%
of those from the e q u i l i b r i u m approach. These d e v i a t i o n s o c c u r r e d f o r l a r g e
i n i t i a l r a d i i , and t h e r e f o r e we may conclude t h a t eq. 1.3 can a l s o be used
i n t h i s case o f a s t r o n g p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t .

A dynamic b e h a v i o u r o f the r a d i a l bubble motion can a l s o o c c u r when the

bubble i s s u b j e c t e d t o f l u c t u a t i n g p r e s s u r e s , as f o r example, o c c u r i n the
reattachment r e g i o n of a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n b u b b l e . When the f r e q u e n c y o f the
p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s i s h i g h the t h r e s h o l d p r e s s u r e a m p l i t u d e becomes frequency
dependent (e.g. F l y n n , 1964). T h i s o c c u r s o n l y at f r e q u e n c i e s h i g h e r than
resonance f r e q u e n c y , which i n the i s o t h e r m a l l i n e a r case can be w r i t t e n as:

{3 + } (1 7
"o = ~2 <Po-Pv ¥> " f ->
pR
For f r e q u e n c i e s much lower than the resonance f r e q u e n c y eq. 1.3 can a l s o be used
w i t h good a c c u r a c y , as was shown by N e p p i r a s and N o l t i n k (1951) f o r an
u l t r a s o n i c pressure f i e l d and by F l y n n (1964) f o r a s i n g l e p r e s s u r e p u l s e ,
F l y n n a l s o showed t h a t f o r f r e q u e n c i e s up t o about one t e n t h of the resonance
frequency the bubble e x p a n s i o n i s i s o t h e r m a l . When the bubble i n t e r i o r i s

7
not c o n s i d e r e d as homogeneous the e x p a n s i o n p r o c e s s remains i s o t h e r m a l up
to much h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s ( P l e s s e t and H s i e h , 1960).

I t must be mentioned t h a t the assumption t h a t p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s a c t

on m i c r o s c o p i c bubbles i s r e l a t e d w i t h the way i n which t u r b u l e n c e i s
c o n s i d e r e d . In the s t o c h a s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e t u r b u l e n t motion the
bubbles e x p e r i e n c e p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s . In a more d e t e r m i n i s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n ,
however, i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t a c e r t a i n frequency o r coherent s t r u c t u r e
dominates t h e f l o w and the bubble can t r a v e l a t t h e same v e l o c i t y as the
wave o r coherent s t r u c t u r e . In such a case the p r e s s u r e e x p e r i e n c e d by a
bubble i n the boundary l a y e r can be lower than the lowest w a l l p r e s s u r e ,
and t h e time s c a l e d u r i n g which t h i s low p r e s s u r e i s e x p e r i e n c e d can be
l o n g e r than t h a t o f the w a l l p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s .

1.3.3.3. D i f f u s i o n .

In the bubble e q u i l i b r i u m approach t h e amount o f gas i n t h e bubble i s

c o n s i d e r e d c o n s t a n t and d i f f u s i o n has been n e g l e c t e d . D i f f u s i o n can i n c r e a s e
the amount o f gas i n t h e bubble when t h e f l u i d i s s u p e r s a t u r a t e d , thus
s t i m u l a t i n g i n c e p t i o n because t h e c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e i s reached sooner.
The mass f l o w i n t o a bubble can be w r i t t e n a s :

2
a? - < " •>#.

i n which D i s the d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t , C i s t h e gas c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e

f l u i d and R i s t h e bubble r a d i u s . Due t o t h i s mass f l o w t h e bubble r a d i u s
changes a s :

_ ( ( 1 9 )
dt p g 3r>R -

where pg i s t h e s p e c i f i c mass o f t h e gas. E p s t e i n and P l e s s e t (1950) gave a

s o l u t i o n f o r the concentration gradient:

, , < + ) ( C C
» » - S ^ - - o '

1
i n which t h e l e n g t h (lTDt) can be r e g a r d e d as a d i f f u s i o n boundary l a y e r
t h i c k n e s s . F o r s m a l l bubbles t h i s t h i c k n e s s i s l a r g e r than t h e r a d i u s R.

8
 2
N e g l e c t i n g the term (TTDt) i n eq. (1.10) t h i s l e a d s t o

2 D C
R 2 co
(gM = i+ J fc
(LID
o p„R
9J o
The gas c o n c e n t r a t i o n at the bubble w a l l C has been n e g l e c t e d i n t h i s case
o
s i n c e the gas p r e s s u r e i n an expanding bubble w i l l be v e r y low. The t i m e ,
needed f o r a 20 |im d i a m e t e r bubble t o double i t s d i a m e t e r i n a f i v e times
s a t u r a t e d f l u i d can be c a l c u l a t e d from eq. (1.11) t o be 0.75 seconds, u s i n g
the data :

-9 2
D = 2x19 m /sec
c / p
~ g (i.i2)
R = 10
R/R = 2
O

/ -4
The d i f f u s i o n boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s /TTDt i s 1.1x10 i n t h i s case,
which i s i n d e e d l a r g e r than R and the a p p r o x i m a t i o n of eq. 1.11 i s
o
therefore allowed.

The time of 0.75 seconds needed t o double the bubble s i z e i n t h i s

highly s u p e r s a t u r a t e d c o n d i t i o n i s too l o n g t o have an e f f e c t on cavitation
inception. It i s therefore j u s t i f i e d to neglect d i f f u s i o n e f f e c t s i n
cavitation inception.

1.3.3.4. C o n v e c t i v e d i f f u s i o n

A s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n the growth v e l o c i t y o f a bubble o c c u r s when

the bubble i s i n motion r e l a t i v e t o the f l u i d and c o n v e c t i v e d i f f u s i o n
t a k e s p l a c e . The d i f f u s i o n boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i s o f the o r d e r (RD/U)
where U i s the r e l a t i v e bubble v e l o c i t y , R the bubble r a d i u s and D the
diffusion coefficient, (see L e v i c h , 1962). For a 20 ]im d i a m e t e r b u b b l e ,
moving at 1 cm/sec through the f l u i d , t h i s boundary layer thickness i s
10 ^ m, which i s an o r d e r of magnitude l e s s than the r a d i u s R, used i n
eq. 1.11 and the d o u b l i n g time w i l l t h e r e f o r e be s h o r t e r .
Van Wijngaarden (1967) d e r i v e d the time needed f o r the growth of a
bubble from R t o R„ t o be:

9
 up 1 I
t = 2-^— ƒ r^dr (1.13)
2
(2UD) C R Q

In t h i s r e l a t i o n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f the vapor p r e s s u r e and o f the s u r f a c e

t e n s i o n has been n e g l e c t e d . When a g a i n the v a l u e s (1.12) a r e used the
d o u b l i n g time reduces from 0.75 seconds f o r d i f f u s i o n t o 0.11 seconds f o r
c o n v e c t i v e d i f f u s i o n when t h e r e l a t i v e bubble v e l o c i t y U=0.01 m/sec.

A r e l a t i v e bubble v e l o c i t y can be caused by t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s

a l o n g a p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n . Assuming t h a t t h e bubble r e s i s t a n c e i s t h a t o f
a s o l i d sphere t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e bubble v e l o c i t y and t h e p r e s s u r e
gradient i s

ub = 1
9 SyÍ 3x
9£ 14.. a * >
( 1 1 4 )

Steep adverse p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s o c c u r b e h i n d a sharp low p r e s s u r e peak at

the l e a d i n g edges o f a p r o p e l l e r . As an example: the maximum p r e s s u r e
g r a d i e n t s , c a l c u l a t e d on a p r o p e l l e r w i t h such low p r e s s u r e peaks a t the
l e a d i n g edge ( P r o p e l l e r S, as w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 1.6) were
5 6
between 10 ( a t an advance r a t i o o f 0.6) and 10 ( a t an advance r a t i o o f
0.4). The r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y U, o f a 20 ym d i a m e t e r bubble i s between 0.002
b
and 0.02 m/sec. However, t h e time d u r i n g which t h e s e s t e e p p r e s s u r e
-4
g r a d i e n t s a c t on t h e bubble i s l e s s than 10 seconds and d u r i n g t h i s time
the bubble growth due t o c o n v e c t i v e d i f f u s i o n can be n e g l e c t e d .
A l s o t u r b u l e n t v e l o c i t y f l u c t u a t i o n s can cause a bubble motion
r e l a t i v e t o t h e f l o w . The time s c a l e o f t h e bubble motion can be e s t i m a t e d
as ( O l d e n z i e l , 1979):
2
10 R
t = — ( i . i 5 )

-6 2
For a bubble of 20 ym d i a m e t e r i n water (V=10 m / s e c ) t h i s time s c a l e i s
-3
10 sec and a p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n v e c t i v e d i f f u s i o n w i l l o c c u r f o r such a
bubble i n t u r b u l e n c e f r e q u e n c i e s above 1 kHz. The l e n g t h s c a l e o f t h e
t u r b u l e n c e has t o be l a r g e r e l a t i v e t o t h e bubble s i z e and t h i s possibility
of convective d i f f u s i o n i s t h e r e f o r e r e s t r i c t e d t o very small bubbles.
E x p e r i m e n t a l v e r i f i c a t i o n s o f t h i s mechanism i n t h e boundary l a y e r o f a body
arenot a v a i l a b l e .
10
 S t r o n g r a d i a l bubble growth can a l s o cause c o n v e c t i v e diffusion
( O l d e n z i e l , 1979) which i s t h e reason why c a v i t a t i o n generates f r e e gas
bubbles i n the f l o w . T h i s o n l y o c c u r s , however, when t h e bubbles are u n s t a b l e
and beyond i n c e p t i o n .

1.3.3.5. R e c t i f i e d diffusion

When a gas bubble i s s u b j e c t e d t o an o s c i l l a t i n g p r e s s u r e f i e l d t h e

o s c i l l a t o r y bubble motion i n c r e a s e s d i f f u s i o n . When t h e d i f f u s i o n l e n g t h
s c a l e /iXo i s s m a l l (CO i s t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l frequency) r e l a t i v e to the
bubble s i z e R t h e gas i n f l o w becomes independent o f the frequency a). F o r
o
t h i s case H s i e h and P l e s s e t (1960) d e r i v e d t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e
d o u b l i n g time o f a gas bubble due t o r e c t i f i e d diffusion:
r 2
9 Prr
g
t = ° . (1.16)
4C D p
P P
max~ o
where p i s t h e r e l a t i v e p r e s s u r e amplitude with p « 1 .
a p a
Even i f p =0.5 i n a f i v e times s u p e r s a t u r a t e d f l o w (C /p =0.1) t h e
d o u b l i n g time f o r a 20 ym diameter gas bubble i s s t i l l 4.5 seconds and a g a i n
t h i s i s t o o l o n g a time t o be important forcavitation inception.

1.4. SCALING OF CAVITATION INCEPTION

1.4.1. S c a l i n g parameters

As t o t h e m o d e l l i n g o f c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on f o i l s and headforms the

bubble e q u i l i b r i u m approach, a l t h o u g h i t i s s t r o n g l y s i m p l i f i e d , i s t h e
o n l y approach a v a i l a b l e and no improvements a r e t o be expected without f u r t h e r
q u a n t i t a t i v e knowledge about t h e n u c l e i d i s t r i b u t i o n s and the l o c a l pressures
i n t h e boundary l a y e r , e x p e r i e n c e d by t h e n u c l e i . The f o l l o w i n g p h y s i c a l
parameters govern the i n c e p t i o n problem a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r y :

V Flow v e l o c i t y m sec
-1
P -pQ D i f f e r e n c e between l o c a l p r e s s u r e and vapor p r e s s u r e
v kgm s e c
s/R . , P r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e due t o t h e s u r f a c e t e n s i o n kgm ''sec
crit _2
p Fluid density kgm
2 -1
V Kinematic v i s c o s i t y m sec
D Body diameter m

11
These s i x p h y s i c a l parameters i n t h r e e dimensions l e a d t o t h r e e non-
d i m e n s i o n a l parameters which c o m p l e t e l y d e s c r i b e the problem. These p a r a -
meters are g e n e r a l l y f o r m u l a t e d a s :

P ~P
O V
a = ~— c a v i t a t i o n index (1.17)

Re = Reynolds number (1.18)

2
pV R
crit
We = Weber number (1.19)

The Weber number i s o f t e n r e l a t e d w i t h t h e body diameter instead of with the

c r i t i c a l bubble r a d i u s , but i t s h o u l d be kept i n mind t h a t t h i s i s o n l y
p o s s i b l e when t h e r a t i o R ,./D i s e n t e r e d as a f o u r t h d i m e n s i o n l e s s parameter.
crit

1.4.2. Examples o f s c a l i n g c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n

For a c o r r e c t s c a l i n g o f t h e i n c e p t i o n c o n d i t i o n these t h r e e dimension-

l e s s parameters s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d . The e f f e c t s of v a r i a t i o n s o f each o f
these parameters were i n v e s t i g a t e d e x t e n s i v e l y on f o i l s and headforms, as
e.g. summarized by H o l l and W i s l i c e n u s (1961). A g e n e r a l problem i n such
t e s t s i s t h a t t h e n u c l e i d i s t r i b u t i o n , and c o n s e q u e n t l y the c r i t i c a l bubble
radius R . , i s not known. I t i s , however, s t i l l important t h a t i n t e r p r e -
crit
t a t i o n o f the r e s u l t s i n terms o f t h e bubble e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r y i s p o s s i b l e .

Two examples o f r e s u l t s , g i v e n by H o l l and W i s l i c e n u s , a r e shown i n

F i g s . 1.1a and 1.1b f o r a h e m i s p h e r i c a l headform and a Joukowsky h y d r o f o i l
r e s p e c t i v e l y . The i n c e p t i o n i n d e x i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g Reynolds number,
but decreases w i t h i n c r e a s i n g body d i a m e t e r . In terms o f the bubble
e q u i l i b r i u m t h e o r y the decrease o f t h e i n c e p t i o n i n d e x by an i n c r e a s e o f
body diameter a t a c o n s t a n t Reynolds number (from A t o C i n F i g s . 1.1) can
o n l y be caused by a change i n Weber number. T h i s change i n i n c e p t i o n i n d e x
i s t h e r e f o r e i n d i c a t e d as Aa .
w
The decrease o f t h e i n c e p t i o n index i s p l a u s i b l e s i n c e an i n c r e a s e o f the
body diameter at c o n s t a n t Reynolds number i m p l i e s a decrease i n tunnel
v e l o c i t y . U n l e s s t h e c r i t i c a l bubble r a d i u s i n c r e a s e s r a p i d l y w i t h d e c r e a s i n g

12
 1 1 1—I—I I I I I 1 1 1 I I I I II
5 6 ?
10 K) 10
Re

Fig. 1.1a. Inception index as a function of Reynolds number on a

hemispherical headform. (Data from Parkin and Holly 1954.
Tunnel: 48" A.R.L.).

t u n n e l v e l o c i t y and p r e s s u r e , t h e Weber number w i l l decrease and so w i l l

the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x .
The e f f e c t o f the v a r i a t i o n o f Reynolds number a t c o n s t a n t Weber number
can be seen from t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n i n c e p t i o n i n d e x Ao^ between c o n d i t i o n s C
and B i n F i g s . 1.1. The Weber number does not change between these two
c o n d i t i o n s s i n c e t h e t u n n e l v e l o c i t y and p r e s s u r e a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y the same.
From t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e decrease o f t h e i n c e p t i o n
i n d e x on t h e 2" b o d i e s i n F i g s . 1.1 due t o a decrease o f Reynolds number
(from c o n d i t i o n A t o B) i s c o m p l e t e l y caused by a change i n t h e n u c l e i
c o n t e n t i n t h e case o f t h e Joukowski airfoil ( F i g . 1.1b), w h i l e i n t h e case
of t h e h e m i s p h e r i c a l headform the Reynolds e f f e c t dominates ( F i g . 1.1a).

13
 The Reynolds dependency o f the h e m i s p h e r i c a l headform was
examined c l o s e l y by many i n v e s t i g a t o r s and c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on t h i s body
indeed proved t o be c o n t r o l l e d by v i s c o u s e f f e c t s ( A r a k e r i and A c o s t a , 1973;
van d e r Meulen, 1976; H o l l and C a r r o l l , 1979; K e l l e r , 1979). The i n c e p t i o n
b e h a v i o u r o f t h e Joukowski a i r f o i l has not been c o n s i d e r e d so c l o s e l y , but
p r o b a b l y i n c e p t i o n o f bubble c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r r e d i n t h e midchord region.
These examples i l l u s t r a t e t h a t a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e type and
l o c a t i o n o f the c a v i t i e s a t i n c e p t i o n as w e l l as a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f
the t u n n e l c o n d i t i o n s and p r o p e r t i e s i s necessary f o r a proper i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . T h i s was e l e g a n t l y i l l u s t r a t e d by Johnsson (ITTC, 1969)
who r e p o r t e d a wide range o f i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e s w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g wide
range o f c a v i t a t i o n p a t t e r n s o b t a i n e d on t h e same headform i n a v a r i e t y o f

14
c a v i t a t i o n tunnels. Reproducability of inception i s s t i l l a problem, as was
a g a i n i l l u s t r a t e d by i n c e p t i o n measurements on one body r e p o r t e d by t h e ITTC
C a v i t a t i o n Committee (ITTC, 1978).

1.4.3. S c a l i n g o f p r o p e l l e r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n

In the case o f p r o p e l l e r s a second v e l o c i t y s c a l e i s p r e s e n t : t h e

r o t a t i o n a l speed, e x p r e s s e d as the number o f r e v o l u t i o n s p e r second. A
p r o p e l l e r a l s o g e n e r a l l y o p e r a t e s i n a v e r t i c a l p l a n e , which means t h a t
g r a v i t y i n f l u e n c e s the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n . These two parameters add two
n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l parameters t o the t h r e e o f eqs. 1.17 t o 1.19. They are
formulated i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n as:

P ~P
_
°n 2—2 p r o p e l l e r c a v i t a t i o n index (1.20)
Ipn D

2
nD
n e ^ — —-— p r o p e l l e r Reynolds number (1.21)

2
p U R
crit
We = Weber number (1.22)

U
=
/g.D Froude number (1.23)

J — Advance r a t i o (1.24)

The v e l o c i t y U i s the f o r w a r d speed o f t h e p r o p e l l e r . The p r e s s u r e p i s

o
the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e a t s h a f t h e i g h t , which i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank
i s found from t h e tank p r e s s u r e p by p =p +pgh.
t o t

The p r o p e l l e r c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x and t h e p r o p e l l e r Reynolds number a r e

parameters f o r t h e p r o p e l l e r . The r e l e v a n t v e l o c i t y f o r t h e p r o p e l l e r
s e c t i o n s i s t h e r o t a t i o n a l i n f l o w v e l o c i t y a t t h a t r a d i u s , which i n t h e f a r
field i s :

2 5
V(r) = {U+ (§ T r n D ) } ' (1.25)

15
The c a v i t a t i o n index f o r the p r o p e l l e r section i s therefore w r i t t e n as:

p -p -pgh
Q v

a (I) = x (1.26)
km

where h i s the h e i g h t o f t h e p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n above t h e s h a f t . I n most

cases the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e i s i n u p r i g h t p o s i t i o n and h=r.

The p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t on t h e b l a d e s e c t i o n , which has t o be r e l a t e d

w i t h a, i s d e f i n e d a s :

P(S)-(P -pgh)
C (r,s) = , (1.27)
p
hpv z

i n which t h e p r e s s u r e p -pgh i s t h e p r e s s u r e a t i n f i n i t y a t t h e same h e i g h t

o
and p ( s ) i s t h e l o c a l p r e s s u r e a t chordwise p o s i t i o n s.

Generally Reynolds-and Weber number a r e n o t accounted f o r i n

s c a l i n g c a v i t a t i o n , p r o v i d e d they both exceed some minimum v a l u e . Cavitation
inception i s then assumed a t a c e r t a i n r a d i u s i f :

-C (r,s) = a(r) (1.28)

p min

if t h i s i s n o t t h e case c a v i t a t i o n on t h e model i s no l o n g e r a c o r r e c t
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c a v i t a t i o n on f u l l s c a l e and s o - c a l l e d scale effects
o c c u r . These s c a l e e f f e c t s w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d and t h i s i s done by u s i n g
p r o p e l l e r models i n a uniform a x i a l f l o w t o a v o i d t h e d i f f i c u l t problem o f
i n t e r a c t i o n between the p r o p e l l e r and t h e i n f l o w v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . The
t e s t s were c a r r i e d out i n two t e s t f a c i l i t i e s : a c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l , i n which
much e x p e r i e n c e i n c a v i t a t i o n t e s t i n g e x i s t s , and a D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing
Tank, i n which t h e c o n d i t i o n s a r e d i f f e r e n t from those i n a t u n n e l . The
investigations w i l l be c a r r i e d out f o r t h r e e s p e c i f i c types o f c a v i t a t i o n
(bubble, sheet and v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n ) f o r which purpose t h r e e s p e c i a l
propellers were d e s i g n e d .

1.5. TEST FACILITIES

T e s t s were c a r r i e d out i n t h e N.S.M.B.* D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank at

N e t h e r l a n d s s h i p model B a s i n

16
Ede, the N e t h e r l a n d s . The use of a towing tank has s p e c i f i c advantages,
m a i n l y because the n u c l e i contents o f the water i s v e r y low and independent
of the p r o p e l l e r v e l o c i t y . A d e s c r i p t i o n o f the tank i s g i v e n by K u i p e r
(1974) and o n l y some r e l e v a n t d a t a w i l l be mentioned.

The tank c o n s i s t s o f a water b a s i n of 240x18x8 meters, which i s

covered by a c y l i n d r i c a l r o o f . The a i r p r e s s u r e i n s i d e the tank can be
lowered t o a minimum p r e s s u r e of about 40 mbar. The tank i s f i l l e d w i t h t a p
water and the t o t a l a i r contents i s g e n e r a l l y ppm. The a i r contents of the
water can be changed by a c i r c u l a t i o n system a l o n g the l e n g t h o f the tank:
one tube near the s u r f a c e a t one s i d e , one tube near the bottom at the o t h e r
s i d e . D e a e r a t i o n o f the water can be done by b l o w i n g water out o f the upper
p i p e through s m a l l h o l e s at low tank p r e s s u r e . The c a v i t a t i n g j e t s which
are formed at the h o l e s d e a e r a t e the water. A e r a t i o n i s done at atmospheric
p r e s s u r e by b l o w i n g a i r i n t o the c i r c u l a t i o n c i r c u i t and pumping t h i s a i r -
water m i x t u r e through the lower p i p e i n t o the tank. To o b t a i n a s i g n i f i c a n t
change i n the a i r c o n t e n t s e v e r a l hours o f a e r a t i n g o r d e a e r a t i n g are
n e c e s s a r y . The t o t a l a i r contents o f the water i s measured a t atmospheric
p r e s s u r e by a van S l y k e a p p a r a t u s , u s i n g a water sample t a k e n from the
c e n t e r of the tank at 1 meter below the s u r f a c e . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the
t o t a l and f r e e gas contents o f the tank w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n S e c t i o n 2. The
water temperature was about 10°C for a l l tests.
The c a r r i a g e has a maximum v e l o c i t y o f 4.6 m/sec and reaches this
speed i n a f i x e d time i n t e r v a l of 16 seconds. The constancy o f the speed
i s v e r y h i g h t o a v o i d a c c e l e r a t i o n s and the a c c u r a c y of the speed i s b e t t e r
than 0.5%. A s k e t c h of the tank i s g i v e n i n F i g . 1.2.

The s h i p models are brought i n t o the tank through a p r e s s u r e l o c k . To

t e s t open-water c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a p r o p e l l e r t h i s r e q u i r e s a s p e c i a l
f l o a t i n g p l a t f o r m . T h e r e f o r e a catamaran-type v e s s e l was used, as shown i n
Fig. 1.3. P r o p e l l e r s were mounted on a r i g h t angle d r i v e and the r a t e of
r e v o l u t i o n s c o u l d be kept w i t h i n 0.5% o f the r e q u i r e d p r o p e l l e r r e v o l u t i o n s .
O b s e r v a t i o n s o f the s u c t i o n s i d e of the p r o p e l l e r were made through windows
i n the h u l l o f the catamaran by r e m o t e l y c o n t r o l l e d camaras. The
s t r o b o s c o p e s f o r i l l u m i n a t i o n were a l s o p l a c e d i n the catamaran. For the
a p p l i c a t i o n o f e l e c t r o l y s i s a g r i d of w i r e s was mounted a t 1.6 meter i n
f r o n t of the p r o p e l l e r s . T h i s g r i d was not removed f o r t e s t s w i t h o u t
electrolysis.

17
18
 ELECTROLYSIS

2.30 m

Fig. 1.3. Test arrangement in the Depressurized Towing Tank.

Small d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e p r o p e l l e r i n f l o w were caused by t h e

catamaran a t the p r o p e l l e r l o c a t i o n . These d i s t u r b a n c e s were dependent on
the c a r r i a g e speed and c o u l d grow t o 3% o f t h e c a r r i a g e speed, which
determined t h e accuracy o f t h e chosen advance r a t i o . These catamaran induced
d i s t u r b a n c e v e l o c i t i e s were f a i r l y u n i f o r m over the p r o p e l l e r d i s k and
reproduced good as a f u n c t i o n o f the c a r r i a g e v e l o c i t y . When t h e p r o p e l l e r
Reynolds number i s v a r i e d , i m p l y i n g a v a r i a t i o n i n c a r r i a g e speed, t h e
i n a c c u r a c y o f t h e advance r a t i o i s c o n s e q u e n t l y 3% maximum.

The p r o p e l l e r s were a l s o t e s t e d i n t h e N.S.M.B. C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel i n

Wageningen. A s k e t c h o f t h i s t u n n e l i s g i v e n i n F i g . 1.4. The dimensions o f
the t e s t s e c t i o n a r e 0.9x0.9 meter w i t h rounded c o r n e r s . The minimum
p r e s s u r e i s about 200 mbar.
E l e c t r o l y s i s was a p p l i e d i n t h i s t u n n e l u s i n g a p a i r o f s t a i n l e s s
s t e e l s t r i p s , g l u e d on t o p o f a p r o f i l e which was mounted i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n
at 1.6 meter i n f r o n t o f t h e p r o p e l l e r . The t o t a l a i r contents was 6.5 ppm
and t h e temperature o f t h e t u n n e l water was always near 20°C.
For o b s e r v a t i o n reasons t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s i n the t u n n e l were observed
i n t h e downward p o s i t i o n .

19
 E

Fig. 1.4. The N.S.M.B. Large Cavitation Tunnel.

1.6. PROPELLERS FOR SPECIFIC TYPES OF CAVITATION

I t has been observed on headforms t h a t d i f f e r e n t types o f c a v i t a t i o n

have d i f f e r e n t i n c e p t i o n i n d i c e s . So i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d i s t i n g u i s h the types
of c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r r i n g on a p r o p e l l e r c a r e f u l l y . C a v i t a t i o n can assume many
shapes, the most d i s t i n c t i v e o f which a r e bubble c a v i t a t i o n , sheet c a v i t a t i o n
and v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n .
Bubble c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s when d i s t i n c t vapor bubbles are formed, which
t r a v e l w i t h the f l u i d .
Sheet c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s when a vapor r e g i o n , a t t a c h e d t o the w a l l , i s
formed. T h i s vapor r e g i o n d i s p l a c e s the s t r e a m l i n e s o f the f l u i d flow.
V o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s i n the c e n t e r of a v o r t e x and makes t h i s v o r t e x
v i s i b l e as a l o n g tube of vapor, which moves w i t h the f l o w .

Cavitation, has, however, g e n e r a l l y a m u l t i t u d e o f appearances. One of them

i s c l o u d c a v i t a t i o n , w h i c h , f o r example, o c c u r s i n a f r e e shear l a y e r . I t c o n s i s t s
of vapor r e g i o n s which are v e r y i r r e g u l a r l y shaped and t h i s i s connected w i t h
v i o l e n t t u r b u l e n t motions i n the f l u i d . E x c e l l e n t p i c t u r e s of t h i s type o f
c a v i t a t i o n were made by Hoyt and T a y l o r (1979). C l o u d c a v i t a t i o n i s a l s o
t y p i c a l b e h i n d an unsteady sheet c a v i t y .

20
 A l s o d e s c r i p t i o n s as s p o t s , s t r e a k s o r patches a r e used t o d e s c r i b e t h e
form o f a c a v i t y , while the surface o f a sheet can be b u b b l y , glassy,
foamy, s t r e a k y , e t c . In general, i t r e q u i r e s a good photograph t o document
properly what type o f c a v i t a t i o n i s i n v o l v e d . Much a t t e n t i o n has t h e r e f o r e
been p a i d t o document t h e appearance of c a v i t i e s i n t h e p r e s e n t study.

Three p r o p e l l e r s were d e s i g n e d t o e x h i b i t the t h r e e " b a s i c " types o f

c a v i t a t i o n : b u b b l e , sheet and t i p - v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n . Each o f these
p r o p e l l e r s was d e s i g n e d t o e x h i b i t one type o f c a v i t a t i o n o n l y . The
p r o p e l l e r geometry g i v e n i n F i g . 1.5, was made as s i m p l e as p o s s i b l e : no
r a k e , no skew, an e l l i p t i c b l a d e c o n t o u r and one type of s e c t i o n s over t h e
whole r a d i u s . The d i f f e r e n c e s between the t h r e e p r o p e l l e r s are i n t h e r a d i a l
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e maximum t h i c k n e s s , o f the maximum camber and o f t h e p i t c h .
The p r o p e l l e r w i t h bubble c a v i t a t i o n , d e s i g n a t e d as p r o p e l l e r B, has
t h i c k , cambered p r o f i l e s t o a v o i d sheet c a v i t a t i o n . The p r o p e l l e r w i t h sheet
c a v i t a t i o n , d e s i g n a t e d p r o p e l l e r S, has t h i n p r o f i l e s w i t h s m a l l cambers
Both p r o p e l l e r s have a s t r o n g l y reduced p i t c h a t t h e t i p t o a v o i d t i p vortex
cavitation.
The p r o p e l l e r with t i p vortex c a v i t a t i o n , d e s i g n a t e d p r o p e l l e r V, has a
c o n s t a n t p i t c h over the r a d i u s and t h i c k , cambered p r o f i l e s .
The geometry o f these p r o p e l l e r s i s g i v e n i n F i g . 1.5 and the d e t a i l e d
geometry i s g i v e n i n Appendix I .

P r o p e l l e r s B, S and V were a l s o made w i t h d i a m e t e r s o f 0.48 m and

0.24 m. These p r o p e l l e r s were not y e t used f r e q u e n t l y , but w i l l be mentioned
o c c a s i o n a l l y . They w i l l be i n d i c a t e d by one dot f o r the 0.24 m diameter
p r o p e l l e r s and by two dots f o r t h e 0.48 m d i a m e t e r p r o p e l l e r s .

P r o p e l l e r s B and S were t e s t e d a t two advance r a t i o s : J=0.4 and J=0.6.

Because p r o p e l l e r V e x h i b i t e d p r e s s u r e - s i d e c a v i t a t i o n a t J=0.6 t h i s
p r o p e l l e r was t e s t e d a t J=0.4 and J=0.5. The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s on t h e
b l a d e s i n these c o n d i t i o n s w i l l be c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e next s e c t i o n .

22
2. T h e calculation of t h e pressure distribution

Knowledge about the 'pressure distributions on the blades is indispensable

for the interpretation of cavitation phenomena. The lifting surface theory
combined with a two-dimensional approach to include the blade thickness, is
used to calculate the pressure distribution. The assumptions, made in the
calculations, are discussed and the sensitivity of the results for these
assumptions is investigated to determine the accuracy of the calculations.
Some comparisons with data from literature are made.

For t h e p r e d i c t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f c a v i t a t i o n , knowledge o f t h e

p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e b l a d e s i s n e c e s s a r y . I t i s , however, e x t r e m e l y
d i f f i c u l t t o measure t h i s p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s . A
number o f attempts have been made. ( M a v l u d o f f (1966), Hoiby (1970), Kato (1977),
Takahashi and Oku (1977), Yamasaki (1978), Dohrendorf e t a l (1978), T a k e i e t
al ( 1 9 7 9 ) ) . U n t i l now no measurements have emerged which a r e g e n e r a l l y
accepted as a check f o r c a l c u l a t i o n s . The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f v e r y s m a l l p r e s s u r e
p i c k - u p s as e.g. used by T a k e i e t a l (1979) s h o u l d make i t p o s s i b l e t o a r r i v e
at such a s e t o f d a t a i n t h e near future.

C a l c u l a t i o n s remain n e c e s s a r y s i n c e measurements a r e t o o e l a b o r a t e
and a l s o s i n c e t h e p r e s s u r e peak a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e ,
w h i c h , i f p r e s e n t , c o n t r o l s c a v i t a t i o n , i s m o s t l y t o o sharp t o measure. The
c a l c u l a t i o n o f the pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n i s not a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d process.
Due t o s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s and a p p r o x i m a t i o n s and t h e subsequent application of
c o r r e c t i o n s a wide v a r i e t y o f c a l c u l a t i o n procedures i s p o s s i b l e . I t i s
t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o document these c a l c u l a t i o n procedures carefully
In t h e f o l l o w i n g t h e c a l c u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e , used t o a r r i v e a t t h e
c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s , w i l l be d i s c u s s e d and t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f
the r e s u l t s f o r v a r i o u s a p p r o x i m a t i o n s w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d . The mathematical
formulation o f t h e problem and i t s s o l u t i o n w i l l n o t be g i v e n , s i n c e t h a t
has been done elsewhere (Van Gent, 1975, 1977).

23
2.1. THE LIFTING SURFACE THEORY

In a l l c a l c u l a t i o n methods a p o t e n t i a l t h e o r y i s used, which i m p l i e s

two s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s , v i z . , the v i s c o s i t y o f t h e f l u i d i s n e g l e c t e d and t h e
v o r t i c i t y o f t h e incoming f l o w i s assumed t o be z e r o . T h i s assumption,
a l t h o u g h o f t e n i g n o r e d when a wake f i e l d i s c o n s i d e r e d , i s c o r r e c t i n
uniform flow.

The v e l o c i t y f i e l d around a p r o p e l l e r can be r e p r e s e n t e d by a source

o r v o r t e x d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e p r o p e l l e r s u r f a c e , which l e a d s a f t e r
d i s c r e t i z a t i o n t o t h e s o - c a l l e d p a n e l method. T h i s method, f o r m u l a t e d by
Hess and Smith (1972) i s used f o r a i r p l a n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . A disadvantage
for p r o p e l l e r a p p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t f o r a proper r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the sharp
p r e s s u r e peak a t t h e l e a d i n g edge a l a r g e number o f p a n e l s a r e needed,
r e s u l t i n g i n l o n g computer runs. An e f f o r t t o apply t h i s method t o p r o p e l l e r s
was made a t Twente T e c h n i c a l U n i v e r s i t y (Roodbergen, 1976). Although
p r o m i s i n g r e s u l t s were o b t a i n e d f o r the n o n - l i f t i n g c o n d i t i o n t h e program
has not been made o p e r a t i o n a l .
The problem i s c o n s i d e r a b l y s i m p l i f i e d when i t i s l i n e a r i z e d , w h i c h l e a d s
to t h e l i f t i n g s u r f a c e t h e o r y . T h i s method w i l l be used i n t h i s investigation.
F i r s t the f l o w f i e l d w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e r o t a t i n g p r o p e l l e r i s d i v i d e d
i n t o a f a r f i e l d w i t h incoming v e l o c i t y V, and a n e a r - f i e l d w i t h incoming
v e l o c i t y V , as shown i n F i g . 2.1. The d i f f e r e n c e between these two v e l o c i t i e s
E
i s the p r o p e l l e r induced v e l o c i t y V.. Both V and V. a r e averaged over t h e
i E i
p r o p e l l e r c h o r d l e n g t h . The l i n e a r i z a t i o n i s a p p l i e d by assuming the

cor

Fig. 2.1. Velocity diagram on a propeller section.

24
p e r t u r b a t i o n s of V due t o the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s small r e l a t i v e to V . I t
E E
must be mentioned t h a t i s o n l y s m a l l when the p r o p e l l e r i s l i g h t l y loaded.
At a moderate o r heavy p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g becomes l a r g e , which keeps the
e f f e c t i v e angle of a t t a c k a s m a l l . L i n e a r i z a t i o n i s t h e r e f o r e a l s o p o s s i b l e
for higher p r o p e l l e r loadings.

The s e n s i t i v i t y o f the r e s u l t s f o r v a r i o u s parameters w i l l be i n v e s t i g a -

t e d u s i n g the " s t a n d a r d " program. Each of the " s t a n d a r d " parameters w i l l be
defined.

2.2. AN ESTIMATE OF THE LINEARIZATION ERROR

The e r r o r , made by the l i n e a r i z a t i o n , can be e s t i m a t e d using

B e r n o u l l i ' s equation along a streamline (see F i g . 2.2).

P +hp
Q V 2
= p+Jip(V +V) E
2
(2.1)

where p i s the l o c a l p r e s s u r e at a p o i n t on the p r o p e l l e r s u r f a c e . Neglecting

t h i r d o r d e r s of the angle of a t t a c k a eq. 2.1 can be w r i t t e n as:

c* = ^2 = 2-H- {4 + 4+
+
4 + (2 2
->

2 2 2 2
P
W
V
* v v v v
where u, v and w are the components o f the l o c a l p e r t u r b a t i o n v e l o c i t y v
(u i n the d i r e c t i o n o f the chord and w i n r a d i a l direction).

25
 From the c o n d i t i o n o f t a n g e n t i a l f l o w i t f o l l o w s t h a t t o the first
order :

Hi

where f ( x ) i s the camber and t ( x ) the t h i c k n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n . The magnitude

C
u p
of — can be approximated i n h i n d s i g h t as .
V 2
E

Except i n the l e a d i n g and t r a i l i n g edge r e g i o n (where u and v are not

s m a l l ) and i n the t i p r e g i o n (where w i s not s m a l l ) and p r o v i d e d t h a t the
3f 91
s l o p e o f the p r o f i l e s u r f a c e T T - + i j — i s o f o r d e r a, the e r r o r i n the
dx — 3x '

c a l c u l a t e d l i n e a r i z e d p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t i s of the order:

C 2
2 *

e = 0(a + ~f~) (2.4)

The r e g i o n of i n t e r e s t f o r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i s the minimum p r e s s u r e
r e g i o n , w h i l e the angles o f a t t a c k g e n e r a l l y remain s m a l l . As a r e s u l t the
second term mostly dominates the e r r o r .

C l o s e t o the l e a d i n g edge the p e r t u r b a t i o n v e l o c i t y becomes o f the

same o r d e r as the incoming v e l o c i t y V , which l e a d s t o the well-known l e a d i n
E
edge s i n g u l a r i t y , s i n c e the p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t becomes i n f i n i t e . T h i s i s
one of the main drawbacks o f the l i n e a r i z e d t h e o r y , because i t makes i t
i m p o s s i b l e t o c a l c u l a t e the minimum p r e s s u r e near the l e a d i n g edge,
which can be a measure f o r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . T h i s problem has t o be
overcome w i t h a n o n - l i n e a r c a l c u l a t i o n , as w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 2.9.

2.3. THE POSITION OF THE BOUND VORTICES

The l i n e a r i z a t i o n makes i t p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e the p r o p e l l e r induced

v e l o c i t i e s by a d i s t r i b u t i o n of v o r t i c e s (or p r e s s u r e d i p o l e s ) and sources
i n the p r o p e l l e r p i t c h p l a n e . Only the v o r t i c e s o r p r e s s u r e d i p o l e s are
considered i n the l i f t i n g s u r f a c e t h e o r y . The e f f e c t of p r o p e l l e r thickness
w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n s 2.6 and 2.9.

In the l i f t i n g s u r f a c e program the bound v o r t i c e s are p o s i t i o n e d i n a

h e l i c a l plane w i t h a c o n s t a n t p i t c h o v e r the r a d i u s . In case of a p r o p e l l e r
w i t h a c o n s t a n t p i t c h over the r a d i u s the h e l i c a l p i t c h i s chosen e q u a l to

26
the p r o p e l l e r p i t c h . When the p r o p e l l e r has a s t r o n g l y v a r y i n g p i t c h
d i s t r i b u t i o n over the r a d i u s the c h o i c e o f the h e l i c a l p i t c h i s l e s s
o b v i o u s . T h i s i s e.g. the case w i t h p r o p e l l e r s S and B.

The s t a n d a r d h e l i c a l p i t c h i n the program i s chosen as the p r o p e l l e r

p i t c h at 0.7R. T h i s c h o i c e i s r a t h e r a r b i t r a r y , but i s unimportant as l o n g
as the angle <j> between the h e l i c a l plane and the p i t c h plane remains o f
2
o r d e r a. In F i g . 2.3 the squares of the induced angles o f a t t a c k a are
2
compared w i t h the squares of the d e v i a t i o n angles <j) between the p r o p e l l e r
p i t c h and the h e l i c a l p i t c h . A c c o r d i n g t o eq. 2.4 these v a l u e s s h o u l d be
2
compared w i t h C* /4, which v a l u e at midchord has a l s o been p l o t t e d i n
F i g . 2.3. Only at r a d i i l a r g e r than 0.9 the d e v i a t i o n of the h e l i c a l pitch
dominates. The d a t a i n F i g . 2.3 are f o r p r o p e l l e r S. The d a t a o f p r o p e l l e r

Fig. 2.3. A comparison of error components on propeller S.

27
B are v e r y s i m i l a r .
So even i n t h i s case of extreme p r o p e l l e r pitch variations the use of
a c o n s t a n t p i t c h f o r the singular p l a n e i s w i t h i n the a c c u r a c y of the
linearization.

2.4. THE POSITIONS OF THE TRAILING VORTICES

The p o s i t i o n s of the t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s are d i f f i c u l t to e s t a b l i s h since

contraction of the r a c e and r o l l - u p of the v o r t e x sheet o c c u r . The influence
of the t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s on the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s d e c r e a s e s w i t h the distance
from the b l a d e s , so a r e a s o n a b l e e s t i m a t e f o r the p i t c h of the trailing
v o r t e x sheet i s i n between the p r o p e l l e r p i t c h angle 0
and the p i t c h angle
P
of the incoming v e l o c i t y Sn (see F i g . 2.1). S i n c e Bj cannot be determined
b e f o r e h a n d , w h i l e the d i f f e r e n c e w i t h $ i s s m a l l , the p i t c h of the t r a i l i n g
P
v o r t e x sheet i s t a k e n as the p r o p e l l e r p i t c h a n g l e . Bound and trailing
vortices are therefore located i n the same h e l i c a l p l a n e . In case of a
v a r y i n g p i t c h d i s t r i b u t i o n the p i t c h at r/R=0.7 i s a g a i n t a k e n as the
helical pitch.

The s e n s i t i v i t y of the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n t o the c h o i c e of the pitch

of the h e l i c a l p l a n e i s shown i n F i g . 2.4 and 2.5. The v a r i a t i o n of the pitch

u
1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 r
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
x
/c

Fig. 2.4. Effect of variation of the helical pitch and of viscous

corrections on the calculated pressure distribution. (Propeller
S at r/R=0.6).

28
 -1.0
STANDARO CALCULATION
HELICAL PITCH RATIO 0.670 INSTEAD OF 0.795
NO VISCOUS CORRECTION ON CAMBER
-OB
( INSTEAD OF 0.75° )

-0.6-

\
>X J_=.04.
-0.4-

-0.2-

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

Fig. 2.5. Effect of variation of the helical pitch and of viscous

corrections on the calculated pressure distribution .
(Propeller B at r/R=0.6).

r a t i o c o r r e s p o n d s t o a change o f the p i t c h angle o f 3 degrees.

The s e n s i t i v i t y o f the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r the c h o i c e o f t h e
2
h e l i c a l p i t c h i s s m a l l r e l a t i v e t o the accuracy o f . In the strongly
n o n - l i n e a r p r e s s u r e peaks a t t h e l e a d i n g edge the influence o f the h e l i c a l
p i t c h i s l a r g e r , as i s shown i n F i g . 2.6. These v a r i a t i o n s i n the minimum
p r e s s u r e due t o p i t c h v a r i a t i o n s i n d i c a t e the a c c u r a c y which s h o u l d be
a t t r i b u t e d t o the c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e s .
S i m i l a r l y the e f f e c t o f the h e l i c a l p i t c h on the c a l c u l a t e d open-water
diagrams i s shown i n F i g . 2.7, i n d i c a t i n g i n which range the calculated
r e s u l t s can be v a r i e d rather arbitrarily.

2.5. CORRECTIONS FOR VISCOUS EFFECTS ON THE LIFT

V i s c o s i t y not o n l y causes f r i c t i o n a l d r a g , i t a l s o i n f l u e n c e s t h e
l i f t o f a p r o f i l e by changing the c i r c u l a t i o n . When no s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s
f a r upstream o f the t r a i l i n g edge t h i s e f f e c t remains small.
Calculation o f the e f f e c t o f v i s c o s i t y r e q u i r e s c a l c u l a t i o n of the
boundary l a y e r f o r which the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s needed. T h i s t h e r e f o r e
l e a d s t o an i t e r a t i o n . The n u m e r i c a l c o m p l e x i t y , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r
a p p r o x i m a t i o n s , do not w a r r a n t such an i t e r a t i o n t o determine a s m a l l e f f e c t .

29
 STANDARD CALCULATION
• HELICAL PITCH RATIO
0.709 INSTEAD O F 0-838

Fig. 2.6. Effect of variation of the helical pitch and of viscous

corrections on the calculated minimum pressures.

T h e r e f o r e an e s t i m a t e o f t h e e f f e c t o f v i s c o s i t y on t h e l i f t has t o be made
G e n e r a l l y v i s c o s i t y reduces the l i f t of a propeller section,
which C a n be accounted f o r by a decrease o f t h e e f f e c t i v e a n g l e o f
a t t a c k o r , i n t h e case o f a p r o p e l l e r , by a decrease o f t h e p r o p e l l e r p i t c h .

The s t a n d a r d c o r r e c t i o n a p p l i e d i n t h e program i s a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e
p r o p e l l e r p i t c h by 0.75 degrees. T h i s i s a crude assumption, made by Van
Gent (1977)>with the aim t o b r i n g t h e c a l c u l a t e d open-water diagrams i n
agreement w i t h c a l c u l a t i o n s . E s p e c i a l l y i n r e g i o n s w i t h a l i g h t l o a d i n g , as

30
 J I I I I I I I I
STANDARD CALCULATION
HELICAL PITCH RATIO 0.7O9
INSTEAD OF 0.839

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
J

Fig. 2. 7. Effect of variation of the helical pitch and of viscous

corrections on the calculated open-water curves.
(Propeller S).

o c c u r s e.g. i n the t i p r e g i o n o f p r o p e l l e r s B and S, t h i s c o r r e c t i o n i s t o o

l a r g e o r can even have the wrong d i r e c t i o n .

The e f f e c t of the a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s viscous c o r r e c t i o n on the pressure

d i s t r i b u t i o n , on the minimum p r e s s u r e and on the open-water curves i s shown
i n F i g s . 2.4 t o 2.7. A l t h o u g h t h i s v i s c o u s c o r r e c t i o n needs r e f i n e m e n t i t s
e f f e c t s are comparable w i t h those o f h e l i c a l p i t c h v a r i a t i o n s .

2.6. EFFECTS OF THICKNESS ON THE LIFT

In a n o n - p l a n a r case t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l t h i c k n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n induces
a normal v e l o c i t y component on the p r o p e l l e r i n f l o w , g e n e r a l l y reducing the

31
a n g l e o f a t t a c k . T h i s e f f e c t i s taken i n t o account i n a s i m i l a r way as t h e
v i s c o u s c o r r e c t i o n by r e d u c i n g t h e p r o p e l l e r p i t c h by a c e r t a i n angle.
T h i s angle now v a r i e s o v e r t h e r a d i u s . As a s t a n d a r d procedure these
c o r r e c t i o n s were taken from i n t e r p o l a t i o n p o l y n o m i a l s c a l c u l a t e d by Van
Oossanen (1974) and r e p r e s e n t i n g the c o r r e c t i o n s as c a l c u l a t e d by Morgan e t a l
(1968) w i t h parameters: t h e number o f b l a d e s , the b l a d e area r a t i o , t h e i n d u c e d
advance r a t i o , t h e b l a d e t h i c k n e s s and t h e r a d i u s . The induced advance r a t i o
i s approximated by t h e p i t c h r a t i o . S i n c e i t i s t h e n o n - p l a n a r geometry o f
the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s which generates t h i s normal v e l o c i t y component i t can
be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e p i t c h d i s t r i b u t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t . The c a l c u l a t i o n s o f
Morgan e t a l were, however, c a r r i e d o u t f o r c o n s t a n t p i t c h o n l y , and i t i s
n e c e s s a r y t o check the e r r o r made by t h e use o f t h e i n t e r p o l a t i o n p o l y n o m i a l s .
The normal v e l o c i t i e s , t r a n s l a t e d i n angle o f a t t a c k c o r r e c t i o n s , were
t h e r e f o r e a l s o c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e c o r r e c t source d i s t r i b u t i o n . A program,
developed by Wels (1976) was used f o r these c a l c u l a t i o n s . I n F i g . 2.8 t h e
c o r r e c t i o n s on t h e angle o f a t t a c k a r e g i v e n f o r p r o p e l l e r S, c a l c u l a t e d
both ways. They a r e compared w i t h t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k v a r i a t i o n s , caused by
v a r i a t i o n o f t h e h e l i c a l p i t c h . As can be seen t h e e r r o r made by u s i n g t h e
p o l y n o m i a l s i s s m a l l e r than t h e u n c e r t a i n t y caused by t h e c h o i c e o f t h e
p i t c h o f t h e t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s , so t h e use o f t h e p o l y n o m i a l s i s a c c u r a t e

2.0- _L _L _L _L _L
EFFECT OF HELICAL PITCH VARIATION
SOURCE DISTRIBUTION
POLYNOMIALS

Fig. 2.8. Correction on angle of attack or pitch due to thickness.

(Propeller S).

32
enough i n t h i s case. F i g . 2.8 a l s o shows t h a t the c o r r e c t i o n f o r
v i s c o s i t y o f 0.75 degree i s dominant and s h o u l d be r e f i n e d f i r s t .

2.7. DETERMINATION OF THE MAGNITUDE OF THE SECTIONAL INFLOW VELOCITY

The v e l o c i t y components used t o determine the magnitude o f the s e c t i o n a l

inflow velocity V are shown i n F i g . 2.9.
Fi
The a x i a l i n f l o w v e l o c i t y U and the c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y Ur are
known. When the v e l o c i t y u i s known,the induced v e l o c i t y V i s c a l c u l a t e d
w 1
assuming t h a t V. i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o V , which i s t r u e i n the t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l
i E
l i n e a r i z e d case, and assuming t h a t the d i r e c t i o n of V_ i s the p i t c h angle g ,
E p
which i s a l l o w e d s i n c e the angle o f a t t a c k i s s m a l l .

The v o r t i c i t y i n the p r o p e l l e r wake i s r e p r e s e n t e d by the trailing

v o r t i c e s on a h e l i c a l p l a n e . C o n t r a c t i o n m o d i f i e s t h i s r o t a t i o n , and the
e f f e c t i s l a r g e s t on the a x i a l component of the r o t a t i o n , c a u s i n g an
a d d i t i o n a l a x i a l i n f l o w v e l o c i t y component u . The velocity u i s c a l c u l a t e d by
w w
u s i n g an a c t u a t o r d i s k model of the same r a d i a l l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n as the
p r o p e l l e r . An i t e r a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y out t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n , but a
maximum of t h r e e i t e r a t i o n s i s a l r e a d y s u f f i c i e n t t o o b t a i n the required
a c c u r a c y o f 1% i n t h r u s t and torque. (Van Gent, 1977).
The magnitude o f the v e l o c i t y u^ i s g i v e n i n F i g . 2.10 f o r p r o p e l l e r S.
T h i s v e l o c i t y component i s o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t i n the hub r e g i o n . There i t i s ,
however, i m p o r t a n t , because i t keeps the a n g l e s o f a t t a c k s m a l l , making i t
p o s s i b l e f o r the l o a d i n g at the hub t o go t o z e r o w h i l e the linearization

cor

Fig. 2.9. Determination of the magnitude of the seetional inflow

velocity V .

33
 With the r e s u l t a n t v e l o c i t y V and as boundary c o n d i t i o n t h e s l o p e o f
* E
the c a m b e r l i n e c o r r e c t e d f o r t h i c k n e s s and v i s c o u s e f f e c t s , t h e v o r t e x o r
d i p o l e d i s t r i b u t i o n can be c a l c u l a t e d .

2.8. THE CALCULATION OF THE LIFT DISTRIBUTION

The s o l u t i o n o f t h e l i f t i n g s u r f a c e problem i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d now,

although i t i s a cumbersome n u m e r i c a l problem due t o the h i g h l y s i n g u l a r
c h a r a c t e r o f the i n t e g r a l equation.
The problem i s s o l v e d by f u l f i l l i n g t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s i n a d i s c r e t e
number o f c o n t r o l p o i n t s on t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s . The c h o i c e o f t h e number
of c o n t r o l p o i n t s i s a t r a d e - o f f between computer time and r e q u i r e d accuracy.
In the present c a l c u l a t i o n s c o n t r o l p o i n t s at f o u r chordwise and t e n spanwise
p o s i t i o n s were chosen.

The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n spanwise d i r e c t i o n i s f a i r l y r e g u l a r and t e n

c o n t r o l p o i n t s i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r an a c c u r a t e representation.

34
The p o s i t i o n s o f the c o n t r o l p o i n t s were taken as:

2 5
T = ( 1 +
X ) c o s
N+I" < >

N = number o f spanwise c o n t r o l p o i n t s .

T h i s i s more d i f f i c u l t i n chordwise d i r e c t i o n , where the l e a d i n g edge

s i n g u l a r i t y can l e a d t o a sharp peak a t the l e a d i n g edge. F o r t h i s lift
d i s t r i b u t i o n the i n t e r p o l a t i o n p o l y n o m i a l

P-l
Ap = I C H (s) (2.6)
p=0 P P

is t a k e n , where the f u n c t i o n s H are Tschebychoff p o l y n o m i a l s i n the c h o r d -

P
wise d i r e c t i o n s. The number o f chordwise c o n t r o l p o i n t s i s P and the
chordwise p o s i t i o n s o f the c o n t r o l p o i n t s are taken a c c o r d i n g t o Multhopp (1955)
as:

2 1 }
-f = (1-cos 2 ¿ + 3 > k = 0(1)P-1 (2.7)

The b e h a v i o u r o f the p r e s s u r e i n eq. 2.6 has been d i s c u s s e d by Van Gent (1979).

To i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f the c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r
the number o f chordwise c o n t r o l p o i n t s the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n at p r o p e l l e r
S was c a l c u l a t e d w i t h s i x i n s t e a d o f f o u r chordwise c o n t r o l p o i n t s . The
d i f f e r e n c e i n C* w i t h the s t a n d a r d c a l c u l a t i o n o f f o u r c o n t r o l p o i n t s was
P
l e s s than 0.01, except near the p r e s s u r e peak at the l e a d i n g edge. The
c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e s are compared i n F i g . 2.11. D i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r
o n l y i n the h i g h l y n o n - l i n e a r p r e s s u r e peak at the l e a d i n g edge and t h e i r
magnitude i s comparable t o those due t o v a r i a t i o n s i n the h e l i c a l pitch.

The s o l u t i o n o f the l i f t i n g s u r f a c e problem i s the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e

l o a d i n g . To a r r i v e at the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on the b l a d e s the b l a d e
thickness must be taken i n t o account.

2.9. THE CALCULATION OF THE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

The l i n e a r i z a t i o n makes i t p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e the e f f e c t s of l i f t

and t h i c k n e s s , a p a r t from a s l i g h t i n t e r a c t i o n as t r e a t e d i n s e c t i o n 2.6.
The v o r t e x o r d i p o l e d i s t r i b u t i o n g i v e s the p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g , and the source

35
 STANDARD CALCULATION

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Fig. 2.11. Effect of the number of chordwise control points on the

calculated minimum pressure coefficients of propeller S.

d i s t r i b u t i o n g i v e s the mean p r e s s u r e between s u c t i o n and p r e s s u r e s i d e . Both

results a r e , however, i n f i n i t e a t t h e l e a d i n g edge, which i s t h e p r i c e t o be
paid f o r the l i n e a r i z a t i o n .

A method t o e l i m i n a t e this s i n g u l a r i t y i s g i v e n by L i g h t h i l l (1951) and

Van D i j k e (1964), which y i e l d s :

36
in which i s t h e l e a d i n g edge r a d i u s , u' i s t h e c o r r e c t e d v e l o c i t y a t a
d i s t a n c e x from t h e l e a d i n g edge and u i s the v e l o c i t y a t t h a t p o s i t i o n
o b t a i n e d from t h e l i n e a r i z e d t h e o r y (see a l s o Tsakones e t a l , 1979).
The v e l o c i t y component due t o t h e l i f t can e a s i l y be c a l c u l a t e d from
eq. 2.6, but f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y component due t o the t h i c k -
ness the d e t a i l e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the s o u r c e s near t h e l e a d i n g
edge i s r e q u i r e d . The l a t t e r s o l u t i o n was not a v a i l a b l e and t h e r e f o r e another
approach i s used.
In the p r e s e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s the chordwise l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n , as g i v e n
by eq. 2.6, i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o an e f f e c t i v e camber d i s t r i b u t i o n and angle
of a t t a c k by

f (s) = - S - j Y i (C + C )cos 2li2±i! { 2 . 9 )

r c
2irrV p=l
c
e

C + C C + C
1 2 3 4 5
0 = ( C + C ) + + + ( 2 1 0 )
— 2 o l - T - —5^ -
e
where the c o e f f i c i e n t s C a r e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s o f eq. 2.6 as c a l c u l a t e d by t h e
P
l i f t i n g s u r f a c e program. T h i s e f f e c t i v e c a m b e r l i n e f ( s ) i s combined w i t h t h e
g e o m e t r i c a l t h i c k n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n , which g i v e s t h e two-dimensional effective
p r o f i l e . The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h i s e f f e c t i v e p r o f i l e i s c a l c u l a t e d
at t h e angle o f a t t a c k a from eq. 2.10 u s i n g G o l d s t e i n ' s t h i r d approximation,
(see e.g. Robinson and Laurman, 1956).

T h i s approach i s n o n - l i n e a r and g i v e s a f i n i t e p r e s s u r e i n the l e a d i n g

edge r e g i o n . I t accounts f o r the p r o p e l l e r t h i c k n e s s i n a two-dimensional
way and n e g l e c t s the e f f e c t o f t h e b l a d e aspect r a t i o on t h e mean p r e s s u r e .
T h i s i s o n l y a l l o w e d because the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s are t h i n and a l a r g e e r r o r
in the c a l c u l a t e d mean p r e s s u r e i s s t i l l a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l e r r o r i n the
t o t a l p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , which i s dominated by t h e l i f t .
To i l l u s t r a t e t h e e r r o r the l i n e a r i z e d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l mean p r e s s u r e
on p r o p e l l e r S was c a l c u l a t e d by u s i n g a source d u s t r i b u t i o n on t h e b l a d e s , as
programmed by Wels (1976). Only f i v e chordwise c o n t r o l p o i n t s were used on
f o u r r a d i i . These t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l mean p r e s s u r e s were compared w i t h two-
dimensional c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e mean p r e s s u r e and t h e d i f f e r e n c e at midchord
is g i v e n i n F i g . 2.12 as t h e two-dimensional e r r o r . I t i s compared i n
2
Fig. 2.12 w i t h t h e e r r o r due t o l i n e a r i z a t i o n C /4.

37
 2 DIM ERROR (FROM FIG. 2 21)
0.10- LINEARISATION ERROR
(Cp AT ' c = 0.5, SUCTION SIDE )
2 x

ERROR
IN
C'P
J=0.4\

0.05-

o
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 06 07 0.8 09 10

Fig. 2.12. Errors due to the two-dimensional calculation of the

thickness effect. (Propeller S).

Although the e r r o r due t o the two-dimensional approach o f t h e t h i c k n e s

was l a r g e r than t h e l i n e a r i z a t i o n e r r o r , t h e o r d e r o f magnitude i s t h e same
S i n c e t h e two-dimensional mean p r e s s u r e i s lower than t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
mean p r e s s u r e , the p r e s s u r e s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e s u c t i o n s i d e i n the p r e s e n t
calculations w i l l tend t o be t o o low i n the midchord r e g i o n .

The c a l c u l a t e d l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e e f f e c t i v e p r o f i l e w i l l be
s l i g h t l y h i g h e r than f o l l o w e d from t h e l i f t i n g s u r f a c e c a l c u l a t i o n , (some
15% near the hub, o n l y a few p e r cent near t h e t i p ) . S i n c e the p r o p e l l e r
l o a d i n g , as c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e l i f t i n g s u r f a c e t h e o r y , has t o be m a i n t a i n e
the l i f t on t h e e f f e c t i v e p r o f i l e has been m a i n t a i n e d using Pinkerton's
(1934) method.

F i n a l l y , t h e thus c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t C* i s r e l a t e d t o V .
P 2 2 2
S i n c e t h i s v e l o c i t y i s n o t e a s i l y found the incoming v e l o c i t y V=u +w r was
taken as t h e r e f e r e n c e v e l o c i t y , t a k i n g :

(2.11)

These l a s t two c o r r e c t i o n s were n o t a p p l i e d i n p r e v i o u s papers (Kuiper

1978b, 1979b).

38
 The c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s on p r o p e l l e r s B, S and V i n the
investigated conditions are g i v e n i n F i g s . 2.13 t o 2.18. These p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s are used f o r the a n a l y s i s of the boundary l a y e r on the blades
and of the c a v i t a t i o n p r o p e r t i e s of the propellers.

2.10. CALCULATION OF THE OPEN-WATER DIAGRAMS

The open-water diagrams or K -K - J - c u r v e s form a means to check the

T Q
c a l c u l a t i o n s , s i n c e t h r u s t and t o r q u e are r e l a t i v e l y easy t o measure. The
c o e f f i c i e n t s K and K are d e f i n e d as:
T Q

K T = - f - y (2.12)
pn D

K = -^-5 ( 2
- 1 3 )

pn D

For the c a l c u l a t i o n of these open-water c u r v e s the s e c t i o n a l drag i s

needed, and b o t h t h r u s t and t o r q u e are a f f e c t e d by the r a t h e r difficult
c a l c u l a t i o n of the s e c t i o n a l drag.
S i n c e t h i s drag c a l c u l a t i o n does not d i r e c t l y a f f e c t the calculated
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n we w i l l only touch upon i t , m a i n l y to a s s e s s
the s e n s i t i v i t y of the t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t f o r the c a l c u l a t e d s e c t i o n a l drag.
The c a l c u l a t i o n method of Van Gent (1979) i s followed.

The f o r c e s , a c t i n g on a p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n , are g i v e n i n F i g . 2.19.

Fig. 2.19. Force components on a propeller section.

The lift f o r c e L can be c a l c u l a t e d from the l i f t d i s t r i b u t i o n Ap as

g i v e n i n eq. 2.6 and contains o n l y the c o e f f i c i e n t C :
o

42
 L = c C (2.14)
o

The s u c t i o n f o r c e F g a t t h e l e a d i n g edge, which i n a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l

f l o w makes t h e r e s u l t i n g n o n - v i s c o u s f o r c e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the i n f l o w
v e l o c i t y , i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e l e a d i n g edge s i n g u l a r i t y and can be
expressed as:

P _ 1
C 2
F = - ~ - 1 C (2.15)
p
ipV.ir p=0

To account f o r v i s c o u s e f f e c t s F i s t a k e n as i F . F o r s i m i l a r reasons t h e
si s
lift i s d e c r e a s e d by h a l f t h e s u c t i o n f o r c e , so F =2F . The v i s c o u s drag
s2 s
f o r c e F i s c a l c u l a t e d w i t h a s i n g l e f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f 0.0008 f o r a l l
v
conditions.

CALCULATED
CALCULATED WITH F s l =0
CALCULATED WITH F s 2 =0
0.3- CALCULATED WITH C f :0
MEASURED

0.2

10 K Q

0.1 -

0.8 0.9 1.0

Fig. 2.20. Effect of various sectional forces on the open-water curves of

propeller S.

43
 To a s s e s s the s e n s i t i v i t y o f the open-water c u r v e s f o r these rather
crude a p p r o x i m a t i o n s the open-water diagram o f p r o p e l l e r S was c a l c u l a t e d
F F = 0 a n d c = 0
with s l =°> S 2 f r e s p e c t i v e l y , The r e s u l t s are shown i n F i g . 2.20.
E s p e c i a l l y the t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t i s i n s e n s i t i v e f o r those a p p r o x i m a t i o n s
and can t h e r e f o r e be used as a rough check o f the c a l c u l a t i o n s .

The measured open-water curve o f p r o p e l l e r S i s a l s o g i v e n i n F i g . 2.20

and the agreement o f the measured and c a l c u l a t e d t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s i s good.
In F i g s . 2.21 and 2.22 the c a l c u l a t e d open-water c u r v e s are compared w i t h
the measurements f o r p r o p e l l e r B and V and the t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s are a g a i n
accurately c a l c u l a t e d . The agreement o f the c a l c u l a t e d t o r q u e c o e f f i c i e n t s
i s bad, so the v i s c o u s e f f e c t s on the p r o p e l l e r have t o be c a l c u l a t e d more
accurately. This does, however, not a f f e c t the c a l c u l a t i o n o f the p r e s s u r e
"distribution.

_L _L _l_

LIFTING SURFACE
MEASURED
03- \
\
\
\
\ \
\
\
10 KQ
\
KT
\. \
0.2
w 10 K Q

0.1 -

\
\

—i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r —
1.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
J
Fig. 2.21. Open-water curves of propeller B.

44
 LIFTING SURFACE
MEASURED
0.3

10 K Q

KT
0.2

0.1

—I 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
J

Fig. 2.22. Open-water curves of propeller V.

In o r d e r t o o b t a i n a good c o r r e l a t i o n between the c a l c u l a t e d and

measured t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s an e m p i r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n , a p p l i e d i n the s t a n d a r d
program, had t o be l e f t o u t . T h i s e m p i r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n was found t o cause
the d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n t h e c a l c u l a t e d t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s i n an e a r l i e r study
(Kuiper, 1979b). S i n c e t h i s e m p i r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n f o r the c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t used i n t h i s s t u d y , i t i s further discussed i n
Appendix 2.

2.11. COMPARISONS WITH DATA FROM LITERATUP.E

To get an i m p r e s s i o n o f the m e r i t s o f the chosen c a l c u l a t i o n method t h e

measurements o f T a k e i (1979) were compared w i t h r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e s e n t
program. The open-water c u r v e s a r e compared i n F i g . 2.23 and t h e p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s at r/R=0.77 f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t advance r a t i o s a r e g i v e n i n

45
F i g . 2.24. The agreement between the c a l c u l a t e d and the measured p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n s i s good, which g i v e s some c o n f i d e n c e i n the c a l c u l a t i o n method.

A comparison between a l a r g e number o f c a l c u l a t i o n s was made by the

propeller committee of the 15th I.T.T.C. (1979). The r e s u l t s o f the p r e s e n t
program f o r t h a t p r o p e l l e r (N.S.R.D.C. P r o p e l l e r 4118) are shown i n F i g . 2.25,
t o g e t h e r w i t h the band i n which the m a j o r i t y o f the c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e s were
r e p o r t e d . At i n n e r r a d i i the p r e s e n t c a l c u l a t i o n method p r e d i c t s a lower
p r e s s u r e at midchord ( a t l e a s t on the s u c t i o n s i d e ) , presumably due t o the
t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l treatment o f the t h i c k n e s s . The shape o f the p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n i s s i m i l a r f o r most c a l c u l a t i o n s , a l t h o u g h the minimum
p r e s s u r e s at the l e a d i n g edge can d i f f e r w i d e l y .

46
47
 0.3-1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 h
0 Q1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 08 0.9 1.0
L.E. */c TE.

Fig. 2.25. Comparison of the present calculation method with a number

of other methods for the same propeller.

48
3.The b o u n d a r y layer on propeller blades

The character of the boundary layer on the suction side of propeller

blades is investigated. Paint tests were developed to visualize the
character of the boundary layer and possible side effects due to the paint
are discussed. The general behaviour of the boundary layer is summarized
from earlier investigations and the character of the boundary layer on
propellers B, S and V is shown and discussed.

The s i m i l a r i t y parameter f o r the p r o p e l l e r boundary l a y e r i s the

p r o p e l l e r Reynolds number (eq. 1.5). When a p r o p e l l e r i s t e s t e d behind a
s h i p model the Froude number (eq. 2.7) has t o be m a i n t a i n e d , which i m p l i e s
t h a t a t t h e same advance r a t i o J (eq. 2.8) the Reynolds number on model s i z e
3/2
i s s m a l l e r than t h a t on the p r o t o t y p e by a f a c t o r A , where X i s the s c a l e
r a t i o . Generally t h i s means t h a t t h e Reynolds number on model s c a l e i s one
or two o r d e r s o f magnitude s m a l l e r than on the p r o t o t y p e . Also i n a c a v i t a t i o n
t u n n e l , where t h e Froude number i s l e s s i m p o r t a n t , t h e Reynolds number o f t h e
prototype i s , f o r t e c h n i c a l r e a s o n s , almost never m a i n t a i n e d on model s c a l e .

T h i s s t r o n g decrease o f t h e Reynolds number a f f e c t s t h e p r o p e l l e r

boundary l a y e r and causes r e g i o n s where the boundary l a y e r i s l a m i n a r . When
t h i s o c c u r s t h e p r o p e l l e r t h r u s t and t o r q u e a r e dependent on t h e l o c a t i o n o f
t r a n s i t i o n and t h i s makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o e x t r a p o l a t e measured model d a t a i n t o
f u l l - s c a l e v a l u e s . E x t r a p o l a t i o n methods such as t h e " e q u i v a l e n t p r o f i l e method"
( L e r b s , 1951) assume a f u l l y t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r on the p r o p e l l e r blades,
a l t h o u g h some e m p i r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n s f o r l a m i n a r flow regions a r e sometimes
made ( L i n d g r e n , 1967).
A common c r i t e r i u m f o r the absence o f a s t r o n g Reynolds dependency i s a
minimum s e c t i o n a l Reynolds number o f 2x10*' at 0.7R. The s e c t i o n a l Reynolds
number i s d e f i n e d as

V c ( 0 7 )
Re(0.7) = - - (3.1)
v

49
w i t h c(0.7) as t h e chord l e n g t h and V as d e f i n e d i n eq. 2.9, both on r=0.7R.
However, boundary l a y e r v i s u a l u z a t i o n s w i t h p a i n t by Meyne (1972), Sasajima
(1975) and Tsuda and K o n i s h i (1978) showed t h a t r e g i o n s w i t h a l a m i n a r boundary
l a y e r f l o w c o u l d p e r s i s t up t o much h i g h e r s e c t i o n a l Reynolds numbers.

U n t i l now the a t t e n t i o n has been f o c u s s e d on t h e r e l a t i o n between the

boundary l a y e r on the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s and the p r o p e l l e r performance ( t h r u s t and
t o r q u e ) . In t h i s study t h e r e l a t i o n between the boundary l a y e r and c a v i t a t i o n
i n c e p t i o n w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d . F o r t h a t purpose t h e p a i n t t e s t t e c h n i q u e i s
used. T h i s technique i s d e s c r i b e d and d i s c u s s e d n e x t . Some s y s t e m a t i c results
o f p a i n t t e s t s on p r o p e l l e r models a r e subsequently presented i n this section
and f i n a l l y t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r s B, S and V i s
v i s u a l i z e d for correlation with c a v i t a t i o n observations i n s e c t i o n s 6, 7 and 8.

3.1. PAINT TESTS ON PROPELLER MODELS

The c h a r a c t e r o f t h e boundary l a y e r can be judged from t h e l o c a l

frictional s t r e s s , e x e r t e d on t h e blade by t h e f l u i d . When t h e boundary l a y e r
becomes t u r b u l e n t t h i s s t r e s s w i l l i n c r e a s e s t r o n g l y . Because t h e c e n t r i f u g a l
f o r c e remains c o n s t a n t t h i s r e s u l t s i n a change o f d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l o c a l
f r i c t i o n f o r c e on t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e when t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r s . T h i s change o f
d i r e c t i o n i s v i s u a l i z e d by p a i n t s t r e a k s on the blade surface.

An example i s shown i n P l a t e 3.1. On blade 2 t h e p a i n t s t r e a k s a r e

t h i c k e r and d i r e c t e d more outward i n t h e l e a d i n g edge r e g i o n than i n t h e
t r a i l i n g edge r e g i o n . The t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n i s l o c a t e d where t h e t h i c k e r
s t r e a k s change i n t o t h i n n e r s t r e a k s i n n e a r l y c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n .
On blade 1 t h e l e a d i n g edge was roughened as w i l l be d e s c r i b e d i n
s e c t i o n 4. The l a m i n a r r e g i o n has disappeared and t h e f l o w i s t u r b u l e n t over
the whole s u c t i o n s i d e at r a d i i l a r g e r than 0.3R. At the l e a d i n g edge, where
the h i g h e s t f l o w v e l o c i t i e s o c c u r , the p a i n t was washed away.
The p a i n t , used i n t h e p r e s e n t t e s t s , i s white l e a d - o x i d e , mixed w i t h
linseed o i l . This mixture i s i n s o l u b l e i n water and makes f i n e s t r e a k s on
metal and p a i n t e d s u r f a c e s , p r o v i d e d these s u r f a c e s a r e n o t greasy. A red
f l u o r e s c e n t dye ("Dayglo" d a y l i g h t f l u o r e s c e n t pigment, S w i t z e r B r o t h e r s , Inc.,
C l e v e l a n d , Ohio) i s used t o c o l o u r the p a i n t . The v e r y t h i n p a i n t s t r e a k s ,
sometimes h a r d l y v i s i b l e t o the eye, can be photographed w i t h good c o n t r a s t
using u l t r a - v i o l e t illumination.

50
 U l t r a v i o l e t i l l u m i n a t i o n was obtained by u s i n g a normal e l e c t r o n i c
flashlight ( l i g h t v a l u e 45) covered w i t h a bandpass f i l t e r ( O r i e l type
G-774-3550, peak at 3550A). The r e s u l t i n g i l l u m i n a t i o n i s mainly u l t r a violet,
but c o n t a i n s some b l u e l i g h t , which i s advantageous, because the u n p a i n t e d p a r t s
of the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e become v i s i b l e i n a b l u e c o l o r . The flashlight was
p o s i t i o n e d at a d i s t a n c e o f 50 cm from the b l a d e s . The p i c t u r e s were taken
w i t h a400 ASA c o l o u r negative f i l m (Kodak CH 400) u s i n g a diaphragm of f5.6.

B e f o r e the t e s t the p a i n t was a p p l i e d to the l e a d i n g edge, as shown i n

F i g . 3.2. The p r o p e r v i s c o s i t y of the p a i n t was determined experimentally
and depends on the p r o p e l l e r Reynolds number.

A l l paint patterns reported i n t h i s study were taken i n the

Depressurized Towing Tank under atmospheric c o n d i t i o n s . The time r e q u i r e d to
a r r i v e at the d e s i r e d c o n d i t i o n s a f t e r the p a i n t s t a r t e d to run was about
10 seconds. The run-time of a p a i n t t e s t was about 60 seconds, the stopping
time about 8 seconds.

Fig. 3.2. Application of the paint.

51
3.2. POSSIBLE SIDE EFFECTS DUE TO THE PAINT LAYER.

The p a i n t l a y e r on the b l a d e s u r f a c e may change the boundary l a y e r on

the b l a d e s , w h i l e the d i r e c t i o n o f the p a i n t s t r e a k s may d i f f e r from the
d i r e c t i o n o f the f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e s on top o f the p a i n t l a y e r . An a n a l y s i s o f
these e f f e c t s i s g i v e n by S q u i r e ( i n M a l t b y , 1962). T h i s a n a l y s i s can be
s l i g h t l y modified f o r the case o f a r o t a t i n g p r o p e l l e r .

Consider a p a i n t l a y e r o f t h i c k n e s s h w i t h a boundary l a y e r o f
t h i c k n e s s 6, as shown i n F i g . 3.3. The p a i n t moves v e r y s l o w l y over the
p r o p e l l e r b l a d e and the Reynolds number i n v o l v e d i s low. ( I t takes about
60 seconds f o r the p a i n t t o f l o w over a chord o f 0.1 m, so the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
-3 -4
v e l o c i t y i s 1.7x10 m/sec. With a k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y o f 10 this results
i n a Reynolds number of the order 1. The equations f o r c r e e p i n g motion can be
used f o r the p a i n t v e l o c i t y v^(u^,v^)

rf- H—— grad p =V v -ax (a) x r )

P
(3.1)
div v

The c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e i s i n c l u d e d , w h i l e the C o r i o l i s f o r c e s can be n e g l e c t e d

due t o the low l o c a l velocities.
The connection between f l u i d and p a i n t can be w r i t t e n as

3v Jv.
(3.2)
f 8z

Z-DIRECTION

R FLUID BOUNDARY LAYER

P p PAINT LAYER
X-DIRECTION

Y-DIRECTION

Fig. 3. 3. Coordinate system in the paint layer and the fluid boundary
layer.
52
In t h e f l u i d boundary l a y e r the v e l o c i t y v^ i s 0 ( 1 ) and t h e d e r i v a t i v e s i n
z - d i r e c t i o n are therefore o f 0 ( 1 / 6 ) .When t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e p a i n t y i s
P
large r e l a t i v e t o that o f the f l u i d ( y ^ / y =£) i t can be found from eq. 3.2
t h a t -r-£= 0 ( E / 6 ) . When h i s o f 0 ( 6 ) t h i s means t h a t v =0(e) . As l o n g as t h e
dz p
v i s c o s i t y o f t h e p a i n t remains h i g h (£<<1) t h e p a i n t v e l o c i t y v^ w i l l be
low and t h e e f f e c t o f t h e p a i n t on the boundary l a y e r w i l l be s m a l l .

2
When o n l y the terms of t h e order e/6 a r e r e t a i n e d i n eq. 3.1, as a n a l y s e d
by S q u i r e , t h i s l e a d s t o
2
9 u , 3p
v P _ J_ o
2 p 8 X
P 3z p
(3.3)
2
3 v , 3p -
p 1 ""o 2
v J- = - u> r
2 P 3 y
P 3z P

Integration gives

, 3p 2 8u
1 o ,z , , , , p,
u = r— (-=--hz}+ u• z

D y 3 x 2 3 z z=h
P
(3.4)
. 3p 7 2 3v
V
p = IT ( ^ - P W
2
r ) ( ^ - h z ) + (-^) z = h .z

W r i t t e n i n f l u i d p r o p e r t i e s , u s i n g t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n eq.(3.2), t h i s y i e l d s

3p 2 3u,
E o ,z , . , r,
u = — T- HsT — ( - = — h z ) + e£Z
z i(3z• - ) ,
p y , 3x 2 z=h
(3.5)
3p , 2 9v
v = — ( ^ - p (o r ) ( V " h z ) + 2
e ( — ) ,
P V ç 3y P 3z z = h

The d i r e c t i o n o f t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e o f t h e p a i n t on t h e wake can now be

w r i t t e n as

3v 3u
tga i-sri'i-sP z=o (3.6)

or

53
 3v 3p
/ f \ h , o
£
2 .
(—;—) . (-= poj r)
3 z z=h vi _ 3-y
tga = —* k (3.7)
9u 3
P -e u P
( _f) _ JL _l£
3z z=h y^ 3x

The angle of the f r i c t i o n f o r c e between f l u i d and p a i n t i s

T3v 3u 1
fc
^f = TT / TT „ ( 3
- 8 )

1
J z=h
which i s a l s o the angle of the f r i c t i o n f o r c e o f the f l u i d w i t h o u t p a i n t .
The d i f f e r e n c e between eqs. 3.7 and 3.8 i s the v a r i a t i o n o f the
d i r e c t i o n o f the p a i n t v e l o c i t y over the p a i n t t h i c k n e s s . T h i s v a r i a t i o n can
be s i g n i f i c a n t , as the f o l l o w i n g example w i l l illustrate.
C o n s i d e r a r o t a t i n g d i s k s e c t o r . The f r i c t i o n forces i n r a d i a l and
t a n g e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n are

2 2 v
x r = C POJ r — j -
air <j)

(3.9)
2 2 V
T
e = c
fe p u r
- T T

In a l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r at 20° from the l e a d i n g edge (<)>=0.35) the friction

c o e f f i c i e n t s are c a l c u l a t e d to be 0.22 and 0.39 r e s p e c t i v e l y . T a k i n g some
v a l u e s which are r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r the s i t u a t i o n on a p r o p e l l e r model
3 3 -5
(p =1000 kg/m , 0)=38 r a d / s e c or 6 r p s , r=0.10, p =4000 kg/m , h=10 m) the
f P
o o
r e s u l t s from eqs. 3.7 and 3.8 are: a =30 and a =43 . So the angle o f the &
f p
p a i n t v e l o c i t y changes r a p i d l y over the h e i g h t of the p a i n t l a y e r , even i f
i t i s as t h i n as 10 ym. The angle o f the p a i n t s t r e a k s can t h e r e f o r e very well
be l a r g e r than those o f the f l u i d w i t h o u t p a i n t .
An i n c r e a s e of U) at the same Reynolds number, thus at a s m a l l e r radius
(01=152 r a d / s e c , r=0.05) r e s u l t s i n a =53°. So an i n c r e a s e o f the r o t a t i o n r a t e
P
at a c o n s t a n t Reynolds number tends to i n c r e a s e the angle o f the p a i n t s t r e a k s .

Such a v a r i a t i o n of the r o t a t i o n r a t e at a c o n s t a n t Reynolds number was

c a r r i e d out on p r o p e l l e r B f o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t d i a m e t e r s , as shown i n P l a t e
3.4. The angle o f the p a i n t s t r e a k s i n the l a m i n a r r e g i o n i s remarkably
constant. Since the p a i n t s t r e a k s are at l e a s t 10 y t h i c k t h i s i n d i c a t e s that
m

54
the s t r e a k angle i s close to a and independent o f to.

A s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n o c c u r s a t l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n . Then, from eq. 3.7,

3u 3p
1 7 " h
^ T = 0 ( 3
- 1 0 )

3uf 3p Q

w h i l e the f l u i d f l o w s e p a r a t e s when y —=0. The e r r o r h - r — may be s i g n i f i c a n t

1 02 OX

when t h e adverse p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i s l a r g e , as o c c u r s behind t h e low-pressure

peak a t the l e a d i n g edge. In those r e g i o n s t h e f l u i d v e l o c i t i e s are high,
keeping t h e p a i n t t h i c k n e s s h and thus the e r r o r l i m i t e d .
In a t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n which i s c l o s e t o s e p a r a t i o n t h e p a i n t t h i c k n e s s
i n c r e a s e s and s e p a r a t i o n may be i n d i c a t e d t o o e a r l y , a l t h o u g h the pressure
g r a d i e n t i s o n l y moderately adverse.

3.3. SOME SYSTEMATIC INVESTIGATIONS OF THE PROPELLER BOUNDARY LAYER

No s y s t e m a t i c d a t a on t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e boundary l a y e r on a p r o p e l l e r
blade a r e a v a i l a b l e . G e n e r a l l y i t i s assumed t h a t a t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n e x i s t s
from t h e hub t o t h e t i p . An i n c r e a s e o f Reynolds number moves t h e t r a n s i t i o n
r e g i o n t o t h e l e a d i n g edge. T h i s assumption u n d e r l i e s the i d e a o f a c r i t i c a l
Reynolds number, which i s t h e Reynolds number a t which t r a n s i t i o n o c c u r s close
to t h e l e a d i n g edge at a l l r a d i i . In an e a r l i e r study ( K u i p e r , 1978b) t h i s was
i n v e s t i g a t e d and some r e s u l t s w i l l be summarized.

When a l a m i n a r r e g i o n e x i s t s a t t h e l e a d i n g edge, as i s e.g. the case i n

P l a t e 3.1 on t h e smooth b l a d e , an i n c r e a s e i n Reynolds number w i l l indeed shift
the t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n towards the l e a d i n g edge. However, i t r e q u i r e s very high
Reynolds numbers t o b r i n g the t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n c l o s e t o t h e l e a d i n g edge, as
i s shown i n F i g . 3.5 on two commercial p r o p e l l e r s . The s e c t i o n a l Reynolds num-
6
ber a t r=0.7R must be much h i g h e r than 10 t o o b t a i n such a c o n d i t i o n . The
c r i t i c a l Reynolds number w i l l be much h i g h e r than 2x10^ i n t h i s case, although
the e f f e c t o f l a m i n a r r e g i o n s on t h r u s t and torque w i l l become very s m a l l l o n g
b e f o r e a l l l a m i n a r r e g i o n s have disappeared.

The same p r o p e l l e r s a t a h e a v i e r l o a d i n g e x h i b i t e d a t u r b u l e n t
boundary l a y e r from t h e l e a d i n g e d g e . o n , s p e c i f i c a l l y near t h e b l a d e t i p s . At
a c e r t a i n r a d i u s t h e p a i n t s t r e a k s o f t h e l a m i n a r f l o w r e g i o n were c u t o f f

55
 1.0
• PROPELLER C SUCTION SIDE SLIP =0.3
• P R E S S U R E SIDE .. = 0.6
O PROPELLER A SUCTION SLIP =0.3
P R E S S U R E SIDE
SLIP =0.6
A

0.5

6
5x10 5
5x10
Re C0.7>
n

Fig. 3.5. Chordwise position of the transition region.

and a t u r b u l e n t r e g i o n s t a r t e d , as sketched i n F i g . 3.6. T h i s sudden change

of the boundary l a y e r i s caused by a s h o r t l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble a t t h e
l e a d i n g edge i n t h e t u r b u l e n t r e g i o n . The r a d i u s a t which t h i s o c c u r s was
c a l l e d the " c r i t i c a l " p r o p e l l e r r a d i u s . (A b e t t e r name i s " s e p a r a t i o n "
r a d i u s t o a v o i d c o n f u s i o n w i t h the c r i t i c a l bubble r a d i u s and t h i s name w i l l
be used f u r t h e r ) . The o c c u r r e n c e o f l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n i s independent o f t h e
Reynolds number and the s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s was indeed found t o be independent
o f t h e Reynolds number, as i s shown i n F i g . 3.7. The s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s i s
very s e n s i t i v e f o r v a r i a t i o n s in l o a d i n g , as i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e d a t a
of Sasajima (1975) i n F i g . 3.7, who found t h a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s was

CRITICAL RADIUS O R
LAMINAR SEPARATION RADIUS

LEADING
EDGE
Fig. 3.6. Paint pattern at the separation radius.

56
 • PROPELLER A SLIP = 0.3 TUNNEL
0
a „ „ TANK
X ,. „ „ = 0.6
° „ B „ = 0.3
O SASAJIMA (1975) TANK
• „ „ TUNNEL

R e x 10
n

Fig. 3.7. Variation of the separation radius with Reynolds number.

constant i n the towing tank but v a r i e d s l i g h t l y i n the c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l ,

where the p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g can be i n f l u e n c e d by w a l l e f f e c t s .

The s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s can a l s o p r o v i d e an i n d i r e c t check of the calcula-

ted pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n . The boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i n the l e a d i n g edge
r e g i o n was c a l c u l a t e d w i t h Thwaites' method (see e.g. Rosenhead, 1963). For
t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n the t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n over the p r o p e l l e r
s e c t i o n s was used, which was found t o be a l l o w e d i n the l e a d i n g edge r e g i o n
of r o t a t i n g f o i l s by Dwyer and McCroskey (1971). The occurrence of laminar
s e p a r a t i o n at each r a d i u s was p r e d i c t e d by u s i n g the m o d i f i e d v a l u e s of C u r i e
and Skan (see a l s o Rosenhead, 1963) and the thus c a l c u l a t e d s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s
was compared w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n s of p a i n t t e s t s . The agreement was good, as i s
shown i n F i g . 3.8. S i n c e the c a l c u l a t e d s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s depends on the
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the minimum p r e s s u r e r e g i o n t h i s good c o r r e l a t i o n
g i v e s some c o n f i d e n c e i n the c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e s i n that region.

The c h a r a c t e r of the boundary l a y e r on the s u c t i o n s i d e o f a p r o p e l l e r

blade can now be d e s c r i b e d as i n F i g . 3.9. In the r e g i o n of h i g h l o a d i n g AB,
g e n e r a l l y at the p r o p e l l e r t i p , a s h o r t l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble e x i s t s near
the l e a d i n g edge, making the boundary l a y e r t u r b u l e n t o v e r the r e s t of the

57
chord. The s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s i s found at BC and i t s r a d i a l p o s i t i o n i s
s t r o n g l y dependent on t h e p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g . The r e g i o n CD i s a t r a n s i t i o n
r e g i o n , i t s chordwise p o s i t i o n depends on the Reynolds number but i s
g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d a t some d i s t a n c e from the l e a d i n g edge. The r e g i o n DE i s
a region of laminar separation at midchord due t o the very low s e c t i o n a l
Reynolds number a t those r a d i i i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h i c k p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n s .
The p o s i t i o n o f t h e p o i n t s B, C and D can v a r y s t r o n g l y w i t h t h e shape
of the p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n s , the p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g and the p r o p e l l e r Reynolds
number.

The boundary l a y e r on t h e p r e s s u r e side of a p r o p e l l e r blade i s

g e n e r a l l y l e s s complex. In normal o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s no l a m i n a r separation
o c c u r s on t h e p r e s s u r e s i d e and a s i g n i f i c a n t l a m i n a r r e g i o n e x i s t s n e a r the
l e a d i n g edge. T r a n s i t i o n o f t e n o c c u r s more g r a d u a l l y than on the s u c t i o n s i d e
due to a favourable pressure gradient. In such a case the p a i n t s t r e a k s bend
continuously from t h e l a m i n a r to the turbulent direction.

58
 AB SHORT LAMINAR SEPARATION BUBBLE
BC CRITICAL RADIUS
CD TRANSITION REGION
DE LAMINAR SEPARATION

Fig. 3.9. Schematic representation of the boundary layer regimes on

the suction side of a propeller.

3.4. THE BOUNDARY LAYER ON PROPELLERS B, S AND V.

The character o f t h e boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r s B, S and V was

i n v e s t i g a t e d i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank a t atmospheric p r e s s u r e , i f
not s p e c i f i c a l l y mentioned t h e s u c t i o n s i d e i s observed.

C a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r were made by u s i n g Thwaites'

method, based on the t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l chordwise p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e
propeller sections as mentioned b e f o r e . Based on t h e same p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
the s t a b i l i t y o f the l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r was c a l c u l a t e d by u s i n g t h e diagrams
of Smith and Gamberoni (1956), from which the a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r o f an
i n i t i a l d i s t u r b a n c e o f a c e r t a i n u n s t a b l e f r e q u e n c y can be c a l c u l a t e d .
9
T r a n s i t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y assumed when t h e a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r exceeds e at
any frequency. The c a l c u l a t e d maximum a m p l i f i c a t i o n f a c t o r s a t t h e l o c a t i o n
2
of t r a n s i t i o n on the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s d i d not exceed e . So s t a b i l i t y

59
calculations, i f appropriate, s h o u l d be made i n t h r e e dimensions (Mack, 1977).
Such c a l c u l a t i o n s were n o t made d u r i n g t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

The Reynolds numbers, g i v e n i n t h e p i c t u r e s a r e t h e p r o p e l l e r Reynolds

numbers. They can e a s i l y be c o n v e r t e d i n t o the s e c t i o n a l Reynolds number a t
r=0.7R, as g i v e n by eq. 3.1 by

Re(0.7) = 0.75 Re n (3.11)

i n which r e l a t i o n the i n f l u e n c e o f the advance v e l o c i t y i s n e g l e c t e d .

3.4.1. The boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r B.

The p a i n t p a t t e r n s on p r o p e l l e r B a t J=0.6 and 0.4 a r e g i v e n i n

P l a t e s 3.10 and 3.11 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n at

J=0.6 i s n e a r l y shock f r e e ( F i g . 2.13). The c a l c u l a t i o n s show a s m a l l low
pressure peak n e a r the l e a d i n g edge a t J=0.4 ( F i g . 2.14), but no l a m i n a r
separation i s caused by t h i s peak, as shown i n P l a t e 3.11. The e f f e c t o f t h e
Reynolds number on t h e c h o r d w i s e p o s i t i o n o f t r a n s i t i o n i s moderate at J=0.6
and s m a l l a t J=0.4. In any case i t r e q u i r e s very h i g h s e c t i o n a l Reynolds
numbers t o b r i n g t r a n s i t i o n t o t h e l e a d i n g edge. A f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e o f t h e
p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g does n o t change t h e t r a n s i t i o n l o c a t i o n , as i s shown i n
P l a t e 3.12. The t i p r e g i o n , however, becomes t u r b u l e n t due t o l a m i n a r
s e p a r a t i o n a t t h e l e a d i n g edge and t h e s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s i s a t r=0.77R.
That t h e boundary l a y e r can remain c o m p l e t e l y l a m i n a r , even a t a
5
s e c t i o n a l Reynolds number a t 0.7R o f 4.2x10 , i s shown i n P l a t e 3.13.

3.4.2. The boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r S.

The p a i n t p a t t e r n on p r o p e l l e r S a t J=0.6 i s shown i n P l a t e 3.14. A low

pressure peak was c a l c u l a t e d a t t h e l e a d i n g edge ( F i g . 2.15) b u t t h e c a l c u l a -
t i o n s of the laminar boundary l a y e r i n d i c a t e d no s e p a r a t i o n . T h i s i s c o n f i r m e d
by P l a t e 3.14.
The p a i n t p a t t e r n o f P l a t e 3.14 a t t h e h i g h e r Reynolds number i s
remarkable. A number o f t u r b u l e n t s t r e a k s , o r i g i n a t i n g near t h e l e a d i n g edge,
disturb the laminar region, although the t r a n s i t i o n region i s only slightly
moved towards t h e t r a i l i n g edge by t h e i n c r e a s e i n p r o p e l l e r Reynolds number.

60
 In t h i s case the i n c r e a s e o f the Reynolds number and the subsequent
decrease o f the boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s make the boundary l a y e r more
s e n s i t i v e f o r s u r f a c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s . T h i s b l u r r e d type o f p a i n t p a t t e r n i s
r e g u l a r l y obtained i n a c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l , p a r t l y because o f the higher
Reynolds number which may be o b t a i n e d t h e r e , but a l s o p a r t l y because o f
particles a t t a c h i n g themselves t o the l e a d i n g edge. When a f u l l y turbulent
boundary l a y e r on a p r o p e l l e r b l a d e i s o b t a i n e d by an i n c r e a s e o f the Reynolds
number i t i s g e n e r a l l y by p a r t i c l e s o r s u r f a c e irregularities.

The q u e s t i o n may a r i s e why such t u r b u l e n t s t r e a k s d i d not o c c u r on

p r o p e l l e r B at J=0.4, which has a p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f
p r o p e l l e r S at J=0.6. The e x p l a n a t i o n i s t h a t the t h i c k n e s s of the b l a d e s of
p r o p e l l e r B i s t w i c e t h a t o f p r o p e l l e r S. The minimum p r e s s u r e on p r o p e l l e r S
t h e r e f o r e o c c u r s much c l o s e r t o the l e a d i n g edge and the r e g i o n w i t h an
adverse p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t , which i s s e n s i t i v e f o r d i s t u r b a n c e s , begins when
the boundary l a y e r i s t h i n n e r than on p r o p e l l e r B.

The p a i n t p a t t e r n s on p r o p e l l e r S at J=0.4 are g i v e n In P l a t e 3.15.

There i s a sharp low p r e s s u r e peak at the l e a d i n g edge ( F i g . 2.16) which
causes l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n at the l e a d i n g edge. T h i s s e p a r a t i o n bubble i s
c l e a r l y v i s i b l e on P l a t e 3.15. An i n c r e a s e of the Reynolds number, which i s
not shown i n P l a t e 3.15, d e c r e a s e s the chordwise l e n g t h o f the separation
b u b b l e . Two b l a d e s are shown i n P l a t e 3.15 t o i l l u s t r a t e the d i f f e r e n c e
between the blades.
The way i n which the s e p a r a t i o n bubble ends near the t i p i s v e r y abrupt. On blade
2 the " l o n g " s e p a r a t i o n bubble ends at r=0.73R. In the r e g i o n 0.73<r/R<0.92
some areas w i t h l a m i n a r f l o w are p r e s e n t . At r>0.92R the boundary l a y e r i s
t u r b u l e n t from the l e a d i n g edge on, p o s s i b l y a s h o r t s e p a r a t i o n bubble i s
p r e s e n t t h e r e . On b l a d e 4 t h i s r e g i o n s t a r t s at r=0.87R, at the r a d i u s
where the " l o n g " s e p a r a t i o n bubble ends.

Gaster (1966) measured the l e n g t h o f s e p a r a t i o n bubbles and r e l a t e d

them w i t h the Reynolds number based on the l o c a l v e l o c i t y u and the momentum
s
t h i c k n e s s 8^ at the l o c a t i o n o f s e p a r a t i o n . Huang and P e t e r s o n (1976)
approximated t h i s r e l a t i o n by

61
 ^ = T ~ ~ for Re fl <300 (3.12)
6
s l o g
i o R e
e s R e
e s
e s

u e g

where Re„ = . In F i g . 3.16 the l e n g t h r a t i o o f the s e p a r a t i o n bubble as

Us V
found from P l a t e 3.15 i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t Re„ as c a l c u l a t e d . The t r e n d i s
Us
s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f eq. 3.12 but the observed l e n g t h i s s m a l l e r . I t must be
kept i n mind, however, t h a t the d a t a supporting eq. 3.12 were i n the range
150<Re n <450.
0s
When l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s the boundary l a y e r i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o
the shape o f the l e a d i n g edge. S m a l l d i f f e r e n c e s between the b l a d e s can l e a d
.to l a r g e d e v i a t i o n s o f the s e p a r a t e d r e g i o n , as shown i n P l a t e 3.17. In t h i s

62
 0.60

0.55-

0.50-

J
0.45-

0.40-

0.35
0.2 03 0 4 0 5 06 0.7 0 8 0.9 1.0

Fig. 3.19. Calculated and observed separation radii on propeller S.

c o n d i t i o n t h e o b s e r v e d d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e b l a d e s o f p r o p e l l e r S a r e
l a r g e . On b l a d e 1 no s e p a r a t i o n i s found, on b l a d e 4 a s e p a r a t i o n bubble i s
p r e s e n t up t o r=0.65R, w i t h t u r b u l e n t s t r e a k s up t o r=0.8R. These v a r i a t i o n s
can cause l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n c a v i t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r , as w i l l be shown i n
s e c t i o n 7.

The i n c r e a s e o f t h e s e p a r a t e d r e g i o n w i t h i n c r e a s i n g l o a d i n g i s shown
i n P l a t e 3.18. The o b s e r v e d s e p a r a t i o n r a d i i a r e compared w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t e d
r a d i i i n F i g . 3.19. The agreement i s good near t h e t i p , b u t a t i n n e r radii
s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s e a r l i e r than c a l c u l a t e d . A p a r t from d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n leading
edge shape t h i s may be caused by t h e t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l treatment o f t h e t h i c k -
ness i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n method, which causes an u n d e r e s t i m a t i o n of the leading
edge p r e s s u r e peak a t t h i c k e r b l a d e s e c t i o n s .

3.4.3. The boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r V.

The p a i n t p a t t e r n s on p r o p e l l e r V a t J=0.5 were very s i m i l a r t o those

on p r o p e l l e r B a t J=0.6, as given i n P l a t e 3.11. T h e r e f o r e they a r e n o t shown
here.
Very c l o s e t o t h e t i p a s e p a r a t e d r e g i o n c o u l s sometimes be
observed. T h i s became more apparent at J=0.4, as shown i n P l a t e 3.20. At t h e
h i g h e s t Reynolds number t h e i n c r e a s e d s e n s i t i v i t y f o r surface irregularities
i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e t u r b u l e n t s t r e a k . The b l a d e s o f p r o p e l l e r V a r e as t h i c k

63
as those of p r o p e l l e r B and the t u r b u l e n t s t r e a k s were a l s o l e s s frequent
than on p r o p e l l e r S at the same Reynolds number.
The s e n s i t i v i t y o f the chordwise l o c a t i o n o f t r a n s i t i o n t o the Reynolds
number i s n e g l i g i b l e , the s e n s i t i v i t y of the s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s t o manufactu-
r i n g a c c u r a c y and l o a d i n g i s i l l u s t r a t e d by the v a r i a t i o n o f t h i s radius
between both b l a d e s .

64
4.Roughness at t h e l e a d i n g edge

The application of a very narrow region with artificial roughness at

the leading edge is used to induce transition to turbulence in the boundary
layer. The geometrical implications are discussed and the consequences on
cavitation inception are investigated on a circular cylinder. Some measure-
ments of the influence of leading edge roughness on thrust and torque are
given.

4.1. THE APPLICATION OF ROUGHNESS AT THE LEADING EDGE

Boundary l a y e r s on p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s can be l a m i n a r over considerable

r e g i o n s , as was shown by p a i n t t e s t s . An i n c r e a s e i n Reynolds number does n o t
g e n e r a l l y move t h e t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n t o t h e l e a d i n g edge. Whenever an i n c r e a s e
i n Reynolds number i s e f f e c t i v e i n t h i s r e s p e c t , i t i s through the mechanism
of s u r f a c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s . So i t i s o n l y n a t u r a l t o t r y t o s t i m u l a t e this
p r o c e s s by means o f a r t i f i c i a l roughness.
T h i s i s common p r a c t i c e i n t e s t i n g the h u l l r e s i s t a n c e o f s h i p models.
A s i m i l a r use o f t r i p p i n g d e v i c e s was made on p r o p e l l e r models t o
e l i m i n a t e the Reynolds dependency o f t h e p r o p e l l e r t h r u s t and torque. The use
of t r i p p i n g d e v i c e s has n o t been g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e d t o p r o p e l l e r models
because o f t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e l e a d i n g edge
to the p r o p e l l e r geometry i n t h a t r e g i o n and because a r t i f i c i a l roughness
may cause c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n p r e m a t u r e l y .
Still the removal o f t h e l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r r e g i o n can be o f prime
i m p o r t a n c e , as w i l l be shown l a t e r , and the drawbacks o f t r i p p i n g d e v i c e s
have t o be compared w i t h the drawbacks o f l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r f l o w .

Only v e r y few i n v e s t i g a t i o n s with t r i p p i n g devices i n cavitating

c o n d i t i o n s have been r e p o r t e d . Gates (1977), used a t r i p w i r e on a h e m i s p h e r i c a l
headform upstream o f t h e maximum p r e s s u r e p o i n t and observed w i t h t h e S c h l i e r e n
t e c h n i q u e t h a t l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r s e p a r a t i o n d i s a p p e a r e d , as d i d the
c a v i t a t i o n . Arndt (1976) t r i e d t r i p w i r e s l o c a t e d a t 10% o f t h e chord on

65
p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s , but he found t h a t the c a v i t a t i o n p a t t e r n depended s t r o n g l y
on the p o s i t i o n and the diameter of the w i r e , (see a l s o K u i p e r , 1978a). To
a v o i d t h i s , d i s t r i b u t e d roughness was a p p l i e d at the l e a d i n g edge of p r o p e l l e r
b l ades.

To r e p r e s e n t the c o n d i t i o n on the p r o t o t y p e , the boundary l a y e r s h o u l d

be made t u r b u l e n t almost from the l e a d i n g edge on. A p p l i c a t i o n of roughness
elements i n the l o w - p r e s s u r e r e g i o n s h o u l d be avoided because t h i s may
generate e a r l y c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . Consequently the roughness s h o u l d be
a p p l i e d i n the r e g i o n w i t h a f a v o u r a b l e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t between the stagna-
t i o n p o i n t and the l e a d i n g edge.
T e c h n i c a l l y t h i s i s not f e a s i b l e on t h i n p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s , where
the minimum p r e s s u r e o c c u r s v e r y c l o s e t o the l e a d i n g edge. On t h i c k e r b l a d e
s e c t i o n s , as occur near the hub, t h i s i s f e a s i b l e , but the s t r o n g l y f a v o u r a b l e
p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s t a b i l i z e s the l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r and i t r e q u i r e s l a r g e
d i s t u r b a n c e s t o induce t u r b u l e n c e i n t h i s r e g i o n ( F e i n d t , 1 9 5 6 ) . The effect
of the p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t on the s t a b i l i t y o f the boundary l a y e r i s very
pronounced (see e.g. L i n , 1955) and the p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t i s very s t r o n g near
the l e a d i n g edge, so the d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h a t r e g i o n must be l a r g e i n d e e d ,
thereby a f f e c t i n g the s e c t i o n shape. From p a i n t t e s t s i t was found t h a t no
t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r was generated by 60 ym carborundum when i t was only
a p p l i e d i n r e g i o n s w i t h a s t r o n g f a v o u r a b l e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t . So the presence of
roughness elements i n the l o w - p r e s s u r e r e g i o n near the l e a d i n g edge cannot
be avoided.
The s i z e of the roughness elements s h o u l d be as s m a l l as p o s s i b l e t o
a v o i d a change i n the l e a d i n g edge c o n t o u r of the p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n s , which
i s a p o i n t of c o n t i n u a l concern f o r any p r o p e l l e r manufacturer. However, on a
flat plate a c r i t i c a l roughness h e i g h t e x i s t s f o r d i s t r i b u t e d roughness. Below
t h i s h e i g h t the roughness i s i n e f f e c t i v e . At the c r i t i c a l roughness h e i g h t
transition will a b r u p t l y jump from the l o c a t i o n of the smooth c o n d i t i o n t o a
p o s i t i o n upstream on the roughness, i n a way s i m i l a r to three-dimensional
s i n g l e roughness elements ( K l e b a n o f f et a l , 1955). F e i n d t ( 1 9 5 6 ) found a
minimum roughness Reynolds number f o r t r a n s i t i o n .

^ > 120 (4.1)

V

where k i s the roughness h e i g h t and V i s the o u t e r f l o w v e l o c i t y .

66
 The l e a d i n g edge o f the p r o p e l l e r s B, S and V was roughened w i t h
carborundum o f a g r a i n s i z e o f about 60 ym. The p a r t i c l e s have a very i r r e g u -
l a r shape w i t h sharp edges. The carborundum was glued t o the s u r f a c e o f the
p r o p e l l e r w i t h very t h i n v a r n i s h over a w i d t h o f approx. 1 mm from the
l e a d i n g edge on. Near the hub the carborundum was a p p l i e d o v e r a w i d e r
d i s t a n c e , approx. e q u a l t o the nose r a d i u s o f the s e c t i o n s . An i m p r e s s i o n of
such an a p p l i c a t i o n i s g i v e n i n F i g . 4.1. The e f f e c t o f the carborundum was
verified by paint tests.

« SO >

Fig. 4.1. Application of leading edge roughness.

67
 A p p l i c a t i o n o f a s m a l l e r g r a i n s i z e o f 30 ym was a l s o t r i e d but a
number o f problems o c c u r r e d . F i r s t l y , i t was very d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n an even
spreading o f t h e g r a i n s s i n c e they tended t o c l o g t o g e t h e r . Secondly,even i f
a p p l i e d as good as p o s s i b l e , the boundary l a y e r was o f t e n n o t t u r b u l e n t . The
6
roughness Reynolds number a t Re =10 and r=0.5R i s below 200 f o r 30 ym g r a i n
n
size. I t i s t h e r e f o r e p l a u s i b l e t h a t the c r i t i c a l g r a i n s i z e i s approached.
T h e r e f o r e o n l y 60 ym carborundum was used i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

The question may a r i s e i f i t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on

the roughness elements t h a t t h e boundary l a y e r becomes t u r b u l e n t . I t c o u l d be
imagined t h a t i n c e p t i o n t a k e s p l a c e on t h e roughness elements w h i l e t h e
boundary l a y e r remains l a m i n a r . In c a v i t a t i o n t e s t s , however, no e f f e c t o f
roughness on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n was found when t h e boundary l a y e r was n o t
t r i p p e d , so the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e roughness on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n can
be judged from i t s e f f e c t on t h e boundary l a y e r .

An example o f t h e e f f e c t o f l e a d i n g edge roughness on t h e p a i n t pattern

has a l r e a d y been g i v e n i n P l a t e 3.1.

4.2. THE EFFECT OF ROUGHNESS ON THE LEADING EDGE GEOMETRY

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f 60 ym carborundum p a r t i c l e s t o the l e a d i n g edge w i l l

e f f e c t i v e l y d i s p l a c e the contour of the p r o p e l l e r sections by say 40 ym,
which i n f l u e n c e s t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e minimum pressure
at t h e l e a d i n g edge. T h i s e r r o r i n t h e geometry o f t h e p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n s
has t o be compared w i t h o t h e r e r r o r s which a r e made on model s c a l e , v i z . , the
m a n u f a c t u r i n g e r r o r s and t h e e r r o r s i n e f f e c t i v e geometry due t o d e v i a t i o n s
i n t h e Reynolds number.

4.2.1. The m a n u f a c t u r i n g a c c u r a c y

The required manufacturing accuracy f o r prototype p r o p e l l e r s i s given

by t h e ISO-standard and we w i l l r e s t r i c t o u r s e l v e s t o the very h i g h accuracy
propellers, ( c l a s s S ) . The maximum d e v i a t i o n o f t h e l e a d i n g edge from t h e
design i s 0.5 mm. At a s c a l e r a t i o o f 25, which i s taken as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ,
t h i s means a t o l e r a n c e o f + 20 ym on model s c a l e (ISO/DIN 484/1 - 1977). The
tolerance for the thickness outside t h e l e a d i n g edge i s +2/-1 mm on t h e

68
p r o t o t y p e o r +80/-40 ym on model s c a l e .

The a c t u a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g accuracy o f model p r o p e l l e r s i s o f t e n worse.

To i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e b l a d e s o f p r o p e l l e r s B, S
and V was i n v e s t i g a t e d . The c o n t o u r o f the p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n s was v i s u a l i z e d by
u s i n g a l a s e r beam f o c u s s e d i n t o a s l i t a t the p o s i t i o n o f t h e l e a d i n g edge
of t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e . The r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n t o u r was observed and
photographed through a microscope. The arrangement i s s k e t c h e d i n F i g . 4.2.
Photos , o b t a i n e d i n t h i s way a r e g i v e n i n F i g s . 4.3 and 4.4 f o r a smooth
and a roughened b l a d e r e s p e c t i v e l y . The accuracy which can be o b t a i n e d from
t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s i s e s t i m a t e d t o be + 20 ym.
The maximum v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e s e c t i o n c o n t o u r s a t a c e r t a i n r a d i u s i s
shown i n F i g . 4.5. These c o n t o u r s were measured w i t h o u t roughness at t h e
l e a d i n g edge. The maximum d e v i a t i o n between t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s o f one
p r o p e l l e r was about 100 ym.

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f 60 ym roughness a t t h e l e a d i n g edge i s t h e r e f o r e

w i t h i n the m a n u f a c t u r i n g accuracy o f t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s . I t may influence
the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , and t h e r e b y the c a v i t a t i o n on the b l a d e s but t h i s

Fig. 4.2. Arrangement of leading edge contour observations.

69
 Fig. 4.3. Leading edge contour of a smooth blade (Propeller S at
r=0.6R).

i n f l u e n c e w i l l be w i t h i n the i n f l u e n c e caused by the d i f f e r e n c e s which may

e x i s t between the smooth b l a d e s .

4.2.2. Reynolds number e f f e c t s on the geometry

The l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e i n Reynolds number between model and f u l l scale

causes a d i f f e r e n c e i n the r e l a t i v e d i s p l a c e m e n t t h i c k n e s s of the boundary
l a y e r 6 / c , which can be c o n s i d e r e d as an e f f e c t i v e c o n t o u r change. As a
crude a p p r o x i m a t i o n of t h i s e f f e c t the t h i c k n e s s of the boundary layer 6 at

Fig. 4.4. Leading edge contour of a roughened blade (Propeller S at

r=0.6R).

70
 1 mm

5 mm

1 mm

Fig. 4.5. Observed maximum variations of the leading edge contour.

the s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t can be considered

h
f» = 2 .4 « Re ~ (4.2)
c 8 (s/c) c '

i n which V i s the s e c t i o n a l i n f l o w v e l o c i t y , u the l o c a l v e l o c i t y on the s u c t i o n

side and s the d i s t a n c e along the f o i l from the s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t . Re i s
C
V.c
the s e c t i o n a l Reynolds number • (See e.g. S c h l i c h t i n g , 1968, p 88, 8 9 ) .
The d e r i v a t i v e of the f l o w v e l o c i t y near the s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t depends on the
l e a d i n g edge r a t i o and v a r i e d between 50 and 1000 on p r o p e l l e r B, S and V.
8
Assuming Re =10 c and c=2 m on the p r o t o t y p e eq. 4.2 g i v e s a boundary layer
t h i c k n e s s o f 15 t o 68 ym, which c o r r e s p o n d s t o a d i s p l a c e m e n t t h i c k n e s s on

71
f u l l s c a l e o f some 5 t o 23 ym. F o r p r o p e r g e o m e t r i c s c a l i n g t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t
t h i c k n e s s on t h e model s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be from 0.1 t o 1 ym

However, t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i s o n l y v e r y weakly dependent on

the s c a l e r a t i o . When t h e Froude number i s m a i n t a i n e d the Reynolds number
, 3/2
Re i n eq. 4.2 v a r i e s w i t h A and i t f o l l o w s t h a t
c

(prototype) = { 4 3 )

^(model)

and w i t h X=25 t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t t h i c k n e s s reduces t o 2 t o 10 ym on model

s c a l e . The e r r o r i n the s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t w i l l t h e r e f o r e be from 2 t o 9 ym.
The boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s a t t h e minimum p r e s s u r e p o i n t w i l l be a
few times t h a t a t the s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t . So an e s t i m a t e o f t h e g e o m e t r i c a l
e r r o r due t o boundary l a y e r d i s p l a c e m e n t i s 10 t o 20 ym.
There i s a n o t h e r , i n d i r e c t , e f f e c t o f the Reynolds number on t h e
minimum p r e s s u r e a t the l e a d i n g edge t h r o u g h i t s e f f e c t on t h e l i f t . Although
the l i f t v a r i e d o n l y s l i g h t l y w i t h Reynolds number and w i l l h a r d l y a f f e c t
the p r o p e l l e r performance, t h i s e f f e c t i s a m p l i f i e d i n the n o n - l i n e a r r e g i o n
near the l e a d i n g edge, as was a l r e a d y shown i n F i g . 2.6, where t h e v i s c o u s
e f f e c t was e s t i m a t e d by a 0.75 degree p i t c h r e d u c t i o n .

A t h i r d v i s c o u s e f f e c t which i n f l u e n c e s t h e minimum p r e s s u r e i s the

o c c u r r e n c e o f l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n on model s c a l e . When a s e p a r a t i o n bubble
o c c u r s t h e minimum p r e s s u r e i s g e n e r a l l y decreased (see e.g. G a u l t , 1955)
c a u s i n g another d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e e f f e c t i v e geometry between model and f u l l
scale.

In g e n e r a l these Reynolds e f f e c t s on t h e minimum p r e s s u r e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d

to be s m a l l e r than those due t o m a n u f a c t u r i n g e r r o r s , but they c o n s t i t u t e a
t h e o r e t i c a l l i m i t t o t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e minimum p r e s s u r e on model s c a l e . In
p r a c t i c e t h e e r r o r s are determined by t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g a c c u r a c y o f t h e
p r o p e l l e r s and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f 60 ym carborundum i s w i t h i n t h a t a c c u r a c y .
The e f f e c t o f l e a d i n g edge roughness on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n through a change
of t h e minimum p r e s s u r e i s t h e r e f o r e expected t o be i n s i g n i f i c a n t .

However, even i f the mean p r e s s u r e i s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y changed by t h e

roughness elements, t h e i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e can v e r y w e l l be i n f l u e n c e d , which
w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d n e x t .

72
 4.3. CAVITATION INCEPTION ON ROUGHNESS ELEMENTS

C a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on s i n g l e roughness elements was s y s t e m a t i c a l l y

i n v e s t i g a t e d by H o l l (1960). He used t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l roughness elements such as
t r i a n g l e s and c i r c u l a r a r c s i n a t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r w i t h o u t p r e s s u r e
gradient. Benson (1966) d i d the same f o r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l elements ( s p h e r e s ,
cones and c y l i n d r i c a l s t u d s ) and Bohn (1972) i n v e s t i g a t e d s l o t s . Those d a t a
were summarized i n a power law f o r the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x on a f l a t p l a t e :

a = C { ) { ] <4 4)
ir -8 — -

with t h e v e l o c i t y a t t h e roughness h e i g h t k. The c o n s t a n t s a, b and C

were determined f o r each type o f roughness element (Bohn, 1972).
When such an element i s p o s i t i o n e d on a body w i t h a c e r t a i n p r e s s u r e
distribution C on t h e smooth body, H o l l (1960) used a s u p e r p o s i t i o n r e l a t i o n
ps
t o c a l c u l a t e t h e i n c e p t i o n i n d e x on t h e roughness

a. = -C + a. ( 1 - C ) (4.5)
l ps l r ps

From eq. 4.5 i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e d e v i a t i o n from t h e c l a s s i c a l i n c e p t i o n law

O.=-C i s l a r g e s t when C i s l a r g e s t , which i s i n t h e minimum p r e s s u r e region,
i ps ps
Arndt and Ippen (1968) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f d i s t r i b u t e d
roughness on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n and r e l a t e d the i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e w i t h the
t u r b u l e n t p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e boundary l a y e r , which i n t u r n a r e a
f u n c t i o n o f t h e f r i c t i o n v e l o c i t y a t t h e w a l l . The r e s u l t o f t h e i r measurements
was t h e s i m p l e r e l a t i o n

AO = 16 C f (4.6)

i n which C i s t h e l o c a l f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t and t h e c a v i t a t i o n index a t

f
i n c e p t i o n i s found from

a. = -C ( m i n ) + A a (4.7)
i- P

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f d i s t r i b u t e d roughness a l s o l e a d s t o an i n c r e a s e o f
the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x r e l a t i v e t o the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x on t h e smooth body.
Generally the increase i s l e s s than t h a t due t o a s i n g l e roughness, as g i v e n
i n eq. 4.4.

73
The r o l e of n u c l e i i s i g n o r e d both i n eq. 4.3 and i n eq. 4.6. Arndt and Ippen
p a i d d e t a i l e d a t t e n t i o n t o t h i s and observed gas bubbles i n the turbulent
boundary l a y e r . The bubbles were l a r g e enough (about 200 ym i n d i a m e t e r ) to
become u n s t a b l e at a l o c a l p r e s s u r e c l o s e to the vapor p r e s s u r e . As already
mentioned the introduction the mean p r e s s u r e i n the boundary l a y e r was
h i g h e r than the c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e c a l c u l a t e d from the observed c r i t i c a l radius
and the bubbles t h e r e f o r e e x p e r i e n c e d l o c a l low p r e s s u r e s which were much
l a r g e r than would f o l l o w from the rms-values of the t u r b u l e n t w a l l pressure
f l u c t u a t i o n s . Anyhow, i t i s c l e a r t h a t eqs. 4.4 and 4.6 are o n l y v a l i d when
enough l a r g e n u c l e i are available.

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f eqs. 4.4 and 4.6 i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t because d e t a i l e d

knowledge of the roughness shape and of the boundary l a y e r i s r e q u i r e d . This
knowledge i s g e n e r a l l y not a v a i l a b l e , e s p e c i a l l y not i n the s t e e p p r e s s u r e
g r a d i e n t s n e a r the l e a d i n g edge of a p r o p e l l e r .

4.4. THE EFFECT OF ROUGHNESS ON CAVITATION INCEPTION ON A CIRCULAR CYLINDER

The e f f e c t of 60 ym carborundum i n the r e g i o n of a l o w - p r e s s u r e peak was

i n v e s t i g a t e d by u s i n g a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r p e r p e n d i c u l a r to the flow. The
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and the f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t on such a c y l i n d e r were
measured by Achenbach (1968). The e f f e c t of d i s t r i b u t e d s u r f a c e roughness on
the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and the boundary l a y e r development on a c i r c u l a r
c y l i n d e r was i n v e s t i g a t e d by Achenbach (1971) and Gviven e t a l (1980).

A 0.10 m diameter c y l i n d e r was placed i n a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n the

t e s t s e c t i o n of the NSMB l a r g e c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l . Three h o l e s of 1 mm
d i a m e t e r were used to measure the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on the c y l i n d e r , which
was done by r o t a t i n g the c y l i n d e r . The arrangement i s g i v e n i n F i g . 4.6.
Inception measurements were c a r r i e d out for two v e l o c i t i e s , v i z . , 5.7
and 9.6 m/sec. The Reynolds number based on the c y l i n d e r d i a m e t e r i s between
6 6
5.7x10 and 9.6x10 , which i s i n the c r i t i c a l range (Achenbach, 1968). In t h i s
range a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble e x i s t s downstream of the minimum p r e s s u r e
point and turbulent separation o c c u r s f u r t h e r downstream.

74
 TUNNEL WALL

j> 100 mm

TUNNEL WALL

Fig. 4.6. Test arrangement of a circular cylinder in the cavitation tunnel.

4.4.1. Measurements on t h e smooth c y l i n d e r

The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e n o n - c a v i t a t i n g c o n d i t i o n around t h e
smooth c y l i n d e r i s shown i n F i g s . 4.7 and 4.8 f o r both f l o w v e l o c i t i e s . The
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e p r e s s u r e h o l e s was r a t h e r l a r g e , b u t was very
repeatable. S i n c e these d i f f e r e n c e s v a r i e d s t r o n g l y w i t h t u n n e l speed, i t i s
b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s was caused by t h e non u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e i n f l o w . The p r e s s u r e
i n t h e r e g i o n o f p r e s s u r e r e c o v e r y was sometimes u n s t a b l e , b u t no s i g n i f i c a n t

asymmetry i n t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n was found. The minimum p r e s s u r e occurs

o o
at 85 , t u r b u l e n t s e p a r a t i o n a t 120 .
C a v i t a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e smooth c y l i n d e r a r e g i v e n i n P l a t e s 4.10
and 4.11, observed from a p o s i t i o n as g i v e n i n F i g . 4.9.

C a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n does n o t o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y over t h e whole h e i g h t

of t h e c y l i n d e r . A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s a v e r y s m a l l v a r i a t i o n i ncavitation index
over t h e h e i g h t o f t h e c y l i n d e r (<0.01) t h i s i s n e g l i g i b l e . The main causes
are t h e i n f l o w v a r i a t i o n and e s p e c i a l l y d e v i a t i o n s from the c y l i n d r i c a l shape.

75
 TOP HOLE (1 )
MIDDLE HOLE ( 2 )
BOTTOM HOLE ( 3 )

1.

\ /
A — "
/

//
/
//

Fig. 4.8. Pressure distribution on the smooth cylinder at 9.6 m/s

76
 FLOW
VELOCITY

CYLINDER

CAMERA

Fig. 4.9. Observation angle of the cylinder in the cavitation tunnel.

The type o f c a v i t a t i o n i s n o t bubble c a v i t a t i o n , a l t h o u g h some c a v i t a -

t i o n bubbles were observed. The g l a s s y appearance i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n c e p t i o n
o c c u r s a t l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n , which i s v e r y w e l l p o s s i b l e a t t h i s Reynolds
number. Laminar s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s c l o s e t o t h e minimum p r e s s u r e i n t h i s case,
so t h e i n c e p t i o n i n d e x i s c l o s e t o the minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t .

4.4.2. Measurements on t h e roughened c y l i n d e r .

The same c y l i n d e r was roughened by g l u e i n g 60 ym carborundum on t h e

whole s u r f a c e . S m a l l r e g i o n s around t h e p r e s s u r e h o l e s were l e f t smooth t o
a v o i d e d g e - e f f e c t s on t h e p r e s s u r e measurements.
The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n around t h e roughened c y l i n d e r i s g i v e n i n
F i g s . 4.12 and 4.13. A d r a s t i c change has taken p l a c e , t h e i n c r e a s e d l o c a l
stress due t o " t h e roughness causes e a r l y t u r b u l e n t s e p a r a t i o n and t h e minimum
p r e s s u r e i s much h i g h e r than on t h e smooth c y l i n d e r . The r e s u l t i n g drag
i n c r e a s e was a l r e a d y measured by Fage and Warsap (1929). The p r e s s u r e distri-
b u t i o n v a r i e s o n l y s l i g h t l y w i t h the v e l o c i t y and t h e c y l i n d e r i s a p p a r e n t l y
i n t h e t r a n s - c r i t i c a l range (Achenbach, 1971) where the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
i s o n l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e roughness r a t i o k/D. Giiven e t a l (1980) used t h e
p r e s s u r e r e c o v e r y , e x p r e s s e d as t h e d i f f e r e n c e between the minimum p r e s s u r e
c o e f f i c i e n t and t h e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t i n the wake, as a measure f o r t h e
boundary l a y e r a t t h e minimum p r e s s u r e p o i n t and he a l s o found t h a t above a

77
 I | J
10
TOP HOLE (1 )
S. MIDDLE HOLE ! 2 )
\ BOTTOM HOLE ( 3 )

vl —•

)- -

)-

3- r~ r~ r~
0° 45° 90° 135° 180°

Fig. 4.12. Pressure distribution on the roughened cylinder at 5.7 m/sea.

1.0-| 1 1 i
TOP HOLE (1 )
MIDDLE HOLE ( 2 )
BOTTOM HOLE ( 3 )

-2.0-

t: r- 1- 1 (-

0 45 90 135 180°

Fig. 4.13. Pressure distribution on the roughened cylinder at 5. 7 rn/sec.

c e r t a i n Reynolds number t h e p r e s s u r e r e c o v e r y became c o n s t a n t and dependent
on t h e roughness r a t i o o n l y . The p r e s s u r e r e c o v e r y on the roughened c y l i n d e r
-4
i s between 0.4 and 0.45 i n F i g s . 4.12 and 4.13 f o r k/D=6xlO which i s i n
agreement w i t h the v a l u e s o f Giiven e t a l , who found a v a l u e o f about 0.5,
_3
a l t h o u g h o n l y f o r roughness r a t i o s above 2x10

C a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on t h e roughened c y l i n d e r o c c u r s f i r s t i n t h e wake,
where l o c a l low p r e s s u r e s e x i s t i n t h e v o r t i c e s . Only a f t e r e x t e n s i v e
c a v i t a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e wake i n c e p t i o n o c c u r s on t h e c y l i n d e r itself.
T h i s can a f f e c t t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n . An i n c r e a s e o f t h e minimum p r e s s u r e
c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h 0.1 t o 0.2 was measured i n t h e c a v i t a t i n g c o n d i t i o n , but
c a v i t a t i o n on t h e p r e s s u r e h o l e may have made t h i s measurement u n r e l i a b l e .

At a v e l o c i t y o f 5.7 m/sec i n c e p t i o n on t h e c y l i n d e r was v e r y i n t e r -

mittent, as shown i n P l a t e 4.14. The r a t h e r e x t e n s i v e c a v i t a t i o n a t a=1.86
o c c u r r e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y . At 10 m/sec a somewhat more s t a b l e c a v i t a t i o n was
found a t 0=1.80 ( P l a t e 4.15) but i t s appearance w i t h d e c r e a s i n g c a v i t a t i o n
index was v e r y abrupt. The l o c a t i o n o f t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c a v i t y was c l o s e
to t h e measured minimum p r e s s u r e l o c a t i o n .
The abrupt appearance o f c a v i t a t i o n on t h e roughened c y l i n d e r indicates
that i n c e p t i o n i s d e l a y e d , which i s p o s s i b l e when t h e r e i s a l a c k o f n u c l e i .
When t h i s i s t h e case t h e i n c e p t i o n i n d e x i s h i g h e r when enough n u c l e i are p r e s e n t .
The a i r content o f t h e t u n n e l water was about 7 ppm by weight and t h e
water a t t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e minimum p r e s s u r e was n o t y e t s a t u r a t e d . I t i s
i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h i s , s i n c e on t h e p r o p e l l e r models n u c l e i were generated by
the roughness elements themselves, p r o v i d e d the f l u i d was l o c a l l y s u p e r s a t u r a t e d .
T h i s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 6.

4.4.3. Measurements on t h e c y l i n d e r w i t h a s i n g l e roughness l i n e .

A l i n e o f 60 ym roughness p a r t i c l e s was a t t a c h e d on t h e smooth

c y l i n d e r . The l i n e was about 5 p a r t i c l e s wide and i t s t o t a l w i d t h was about
1 mm. The l i n e was a t t a c h e d from t i p t o bottom a t t h e p o s i t i o n o f the p r e s s u r e
h o l e s , which i n t e r r u p t e d the l i n e .

S i n c e c i r c u l a t i o n was generated by t h e roughness l i n e t h e p r e s s u r e

d i s t r i b u t i o n was o n l y measured t o f i n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f minimum p r e s s u r e , as i s
shown i n F i g s . 4.16 and 4.17. The minimum p r e s s u r e was found a t about 85°, so

79
the l i n e was p o s i t i o n e d t h e r e and i n c e p t i o n measurements were made i n t h i s
p o s i t i o n . At 5.7 m/sec i n c e p t i o n took p l a c e v e r y suddenly and the c a v i t a t i o n
p a t t e r n a t i n c e p t i o n i s shown i n P l a t e 4.18. At a t u n n e l v e l o c i t y o f 9.6 m/sec
i n c e p t i o n was g r a d u a l , as shown i n P l a t e 4.19. The i n c e p t i o n i n d e x i n t h i s
condition i s higher than a t 5.7 m/sec.

4.4.4. C o n c l u s i o n s

The p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s a t i n c e p t i o n a r e compared w i t h t h e i n c e p t i o n
index i n F i g . 4.20. I t i s c l e a r t h a t both d i s t r i b u t e d roughness and the s i n g l e
roughness l i n e cause e a r l y i n c e p t i o n , t h a t i s O.>-C (min). The i n c e p t i o n
1
P
i n d e x on the smooth l i n e i s c l o s e t o t h e minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h a
tendency t o be lower.

An e x e r c i s e w i t h a v a i l a b l e d a t a from Bonn i s p o s s i b l e by c o n s i d e r i n g
the roughness l i n e as a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l c i r c u l a r element w i t h a h e i g h t t o
l e n g t h r a t i o o f 0.175. The c o n s t a n t s i n eq. 4.4 f o r t h i s roughness element a r e

CAVITATION INCEPTION 0\
'"p (min)

i 1 9.6 /sec ROUGH

m

i 1 5.7 /sec ROUGH

m

m
9.6 /sec SINGLE ROUGHNESS >—
m
5.7 /sec SINGLE ROUGHNESS • 1

m
9.6 /sec SMOOTH
m
5.7 /sec SMOOTH

I
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
C
- P'°'i
Fig. 4.20. Comparison of inception index with minimum pressure
coefficient on the cylinder.

81
 a = 0.344
b = 0.267
C = 0.041

The boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s on a c y l i n d e r a t 85° was c a l c u l a t e d by S c h l i c h t i n g

(1968, p.160) and i s g i v e n by

^ /2Re = 2 . 8 (4.8)

5 o
At a Reynolds number o f 5.7x10 t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s a t 85 i s
-4
2.6x10 and k/6=0.23. A g a i n from t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f S c h l i c h t i n g the v e l o c i t y
i n t h e boundary l a y e r a t 0.236 i s e s t i m a t e d t o be 0.5 U, where U i s t h e o u t e r
v e l o c i t y a t t h a t l o c a t i o n . U i s found from

I = A-C p (4.9)

u 6
and w i t h C =-2.4 (from F i g . 4.16) we have u =5.26 m/sec and —^—=1361
P S
-6
(V=l.004x10 ). The r e s u l t from eq. 4.4 i s a =0.17 o r from eq. 4.5
lr
0.=2.98 which i s c l o s e t o t h e observed i n c e p t i o n index.
i

A similar e x e r c i s e can be made f o r the d i s t r i b u t e d roughness u s i n g t h e

f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t as measured by Achenbach (1971) i n t h e minimum p r e s s u r e
r e g i o n o f roughened cylinders:

t = 0 .0014 p V 2
(4.10)
CO

5
where V i s t h e t u n n e l v e l o c i t y (The v a l u e 0.014 was f o r Re=6.5x10 w i t h a
_3
roughness r a t i o k / D = l . l x l 0 .(k i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t sand roughness h e i g h t ,
s s
which i s not n e c e s s a r i l y equal to the grain size).
The minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t i n these measurements was about -2 and
the l o c a l f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i n t h e minimum p r e s s u r e r e g i o n t h e r e f o r e i s
T
C = — ^ = 0.0093 (4.11)

w i t h U t h e o u t e r v e l o c i t y a t t h e minimum p r e s s u r e p o i n t , which i s 1.73V (from

eq. 4.9) a t C =-2.
P
Application o f t h i s f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i n eq. 4.6 l e a d s t o Ao=0.15,
which i s much s m a l l e r than t h e measured d i f f e r e n c e o f about 0.5. Even a t t h e

8:'.
h i g h e s t f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t measured by Achenbach (k /d=4.5xl0 and
6 s
Re=3xl0 ) t h e w a l l f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i n eq. 4.10 was o n l y 0.025. Combined
w i t h the low -C^(min)=l. 1 on t h e roughened c y l i n d e r ( F i g s . 4.12 and 4.13) t h e
c a l c u l a t e d A0 i s s t i l l o n l y 0.36. A p p a r e n t l y t h e s t r o n g p r e s s u r e gradient
changes t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r and s t i m u l a t e s inception,
making eq. 4.6 l e s s applicable.
D i s t r i b u t e d roughness may i n d e e d i n c r e a s e the i n c e p t i o n index. E x t r a -
p o l a t i o n to the s i t u a t i o n at the l e a d i n g edge o f a p r o p e l l e r i s s t i l l difficult.
The l e a d i n g edge r a d i u s i s generally s m a l l and t h e roughness r a t i o k /d on a
s
t h i n b l a d e ( a s on p r o p e l l e r S a t 0.6R) can be as h i g h as 0.2. Experiments
w i t h roughness a t t h e l e a d i n g edge a r e n e c e s s a r y t o i n v e s t i g a t e the i n c e p t i o n
b e h a v i o u r i n such a c o n d i t i o n . T h i s w i l l be done i n s e c t i o n 7.

4.5. EFFECTS OF LEADING EDGE ROUGHNESS ON THE THRUST AND TORQUE OF PROPELLERS
B, S AND V.

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f roughness a t t h e l e a d i n g edge a f f e c t s t h e p r o p e l l e r

performance ( t h r u s t and t o r q u e ) i n two ways. F i r s t l y by changing t h e boundary
l a y e r on t h e b l a d e s and secondly by t h e i r own r e s i s t a n c e . As shown i n s e c t i o n 3
the c h a r a c t e r o f t h e boundary l a y e r i s r a t h e r complex and t h e e f f e c t o f
roughness a t t h e l e a d i n g edge w i l l be a c c o r d i n g l y complex.

The open-water diagrams o f p r o p e l l e r s B, S and V were measured i n t h e

smooth and i n the roughened c o n d i t i o n . The measurements were c a r r i e d out w i t h
the p r o p e l l e r i n f r o n t o f t h e catamaran, as shown i n F i g . 4.21. The d i s t u r b i n g
e f f e c t s o f t h e catamaran were a v o i d e d i n t h i s way, w h i l e t h e c o n d i t i o n s were
s i m i l a r as d u r i n g the p a i n t t e s t to p r e s e r v e the character o f t h e boundary l a y e r .
The t o r q u e and t h r u s t were measured w i t h a new dynamometer, mounted i n s i d e
of the p r o p e l l e r hub, i n s t e a d o f w i t h the r e g u l a r dynamometer which i s mounted
i n t h e s h a f t . The f r i c t i o n a l e f f e c t s o f t h e b e a r i n g s a r e thus a v o i d e d .
The measured open-water curves a r e g i v e n i n F i g s . 4.20 t o 4.22. A l s o
measured was p r o p e l l e r A, o f which t h e geometry and t h e open-water curves a r e
g i v e n i n Appendix 2.
The e f f e c t o f the l e a d i n g edge roughness o f t h e t h r u s t and torque
c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e shown i n F i g s . 4.22 and 4.23. The a c c u r a c y o f t h e measured
t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t i s e s t i m a t e d t o be +_ 0.002 and t h a t o f t h e torque c o e f f i c i e n t
+ 0.003. The p o s s i b l e e r r o r s i n the d i f f e r e n c e i s t h e r e f o r e t w i c e these values,
as i n d i c a t e d i n F i g s . 4.22 and 4.23.

83
 Fig. 4.21. Test arrangement for open-water measurements.

A method t o c o r r e c t t h e t h r u s t and t o r q u e c o e f f i c i e n t f o r v a r i a t i o n s
i n t h e boundary l a y e r o f the p r o p e l l e r i s the method o f L i n d g r e n (1972) based
on t h e drag v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n a t 0.75R. The e f f e c t o f an
i n c r e a s e o f t h e s e c t i o n a l drag AC^ on t h e p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n a t 0.75R i s g i v e n
as

AK T = -0.28 AC D P/D (^) r = Q ^ (4.12)

AK Q = +0 .248 AC D (^> r = ( K 7 5 R (4.13)

U s i n g Ac =0.0066 as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v a l u e , which i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n drag

c o e f f i c i e n t between a f u l l y l a m i n a r and a f u l l y t u r b u l e n t f l a t p l a t e a t Re=10
we a r r i v e a t

AK T = -0.0018
10AK = 0.022
Q

84
 0.02

0.01

-0.01-

-0.02

Fig. 4.22. Effect of leading edge roughness on the thrust coefficient.

0.03 _L
PROPELLER A
PROPELLER B
PROPELLER S
0.02-
PROPELLER V

IOAK/
0.01-
ACCURACY

-0.01
0.5 1.0 1.5

Fig. 4.23. Effect of leading edge roughness on the torque coefficient.

The measured i n c r e a s e o f t h e t o r q u e c o e f f i c i e n t i s about h a l f t h i s v a l u e , which

i n d i c a t e s t h a t the own r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e l e a d i n g edge roughness i s n e g l i g i b l e .
The measured decrease o f t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t , however, i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y

85
l a r g e r i n some c o n d i t i o n s , which i n d i c a t e s t h a t the c h a r a c t e r of the boundary
l a y e r i n f l u e n c e s the l i f t o f the s e c t i o n s . T h i s e f f e c t was i g n o r e d i n
eqs. 4.12 and 4.13.
The i n f l u e n c e o f l e a d i n g edge roughness on the performance of a model
p r o p e l l e r needs f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , which i s beyond the scope o f t h i s
study.

86
5 Nuclei

In cavitation test facilities the nuclei content is often insufficient

for cavitation. This is specifically the case in a Depressurized Towing Tank.
Electrolysis proved to be an appropriate means to generate nuclei. The
production of gas bubbles from a cathode wire is investigated in this section
and the a p p l i c a t i o n of electrolysis in the Depressurized Towing Tank is
described. Efforts to apply electrolysis in the NSMB Large Cavitation Tunnel
are also mentioned.

5.1. THE PRESENCE OF NUCLEI

The m o d e l l i n g of n u c l e i as gas bubbles r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n where these

bubbles o r i g i n a t e . In a s t a b l e f l u i d they cannot p e r s i s t . E i t h e r they w i l l be
d r i v e n i n t o s o l u t i o n by the s u r f a c e t e n s i o n (eq. 1.8) o r they w i l l r i s e t o
the s u r f a c e . Gas bubbles w i t h a d i a m e t e r up t o 100 ym r i s e l i k e s o l i d spheres
because o f the e x i s t e n c e o f s u r f a c e a c t i v e m a t e r i a l s p r e s e n t i n u n t r e a t e d
water (see L e v i c h , 1962) and the r i s e v e l o c i t y V, can be approximated by
b
S t o k e s ' law
,2
9 d
1 b

where d^ i s the bubble r a d i u s . Eq. 5.1 h o l d s good as l o n g as the Reynolds number

V .d /V i s s m a l l e r than one.
b b

Free gas bubbles can be d r i v e n i n t o s o l u t i o n by a p p l y i n g a h i g h p r e s s u r e

i n the t u n n e l b e f o r e the t e s t o r by a r e s o r b e r . Both methods s t i m u l a t e
d i f f u s i v e r e s o l u t i o n o f the gas b u b b l e s . S t i l l i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o remove
a l l the gas from the water. S e v e r a l t h e o r i e s have been d e v i s e d t o e x p l a i n the
p e r s i s t e n c e of f r e e gas, e.g. the presence of a monomolecular s h e l l on s m a l l
bubbles, which p r e v e n t s d i f f u s i o n (Fox and H e r z f e l d , 1954), the c o n s t a n t gene-
r a t i o n of n u c l e i by cosmic r a y s ( S e t t e and W a n d e r l i n g , 1967) o r the presence
of hydrophobic p a r t i c l e s which c o n t a i n f r e e gas i n c r e v i c e s (Harvey e t a l , 1947).

87
 Only t h e l a s t h y p o t h e s i s has been e x p e r i m e n t a l l y c o n f i r m e d f o r
c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n s i n c e t h e use o f f i l t e r e d water d i d reduce the i n c e p t i o n
index i n a c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l ( K e l l e r , 1972).

I t i s very d i f f i c u l t t o observe and count f r e e gas b u b b l e s because they

are v e r y s m a l l and s e n s i t i v e t o d i s t u r b a n c e s i n t h e f l o w . Out o f many
p o s s i b l e methods t o d e t e c t n u c l e i (see Morgan, 1972) o n l y d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n
by holography ( P e t e r s o n , 1972) and measurements by s c a t t e r e d l i g h t ( K e l l e r , 1974,
1979) were used i n combination w i t h c a v i t a t i o n measurements. The r e s u l t s
o f both methods have been compared, showing a good agreement i n one case
( P e t e r s o n e t a l , 1975) but l a r g e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n another ( B i l l e t and Gates,
1979). O l d e n z i e l (1979) developed a measuring t e c h n i q u e by c o u n t i n g the noise
p u l s e s of bubble c o l l a p s e s i n a v e n t u r i . T h i s t e c h n i q u e has t h e p o t e n t i a l t o
measure a bubble spectrum. I t c o r r e c t l y d i s c r i m i n a t e s n u c l e i which a r e a c t i v e
i n c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n but has the drawback t h a t a water sample has t o be
e x t r a c t e d from t h e f l o w , w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e f r e e gas c o n t e n t i s
changed.

In a c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l f r e e gas bubbles a r e generated by t h e i m p e l l e r ,

by sharp corners i n t h e c i r c u i t and by t h e c a v i t a t i n g d e v i c e i n t h e t e s t
s e c t i o n . In a d e p r e s s u r i z e d towing tank these mechanisms a r e not p r e s e n t and
the n u c l e i c o n t e n t w i l l be v e r y low, r e s u l t i n g i n s e r i o u s d e l a y s o f c a v i t a t i o n
i n c e p t i o n . T h e r e f o r e N o o r d z i j (1976) a p p l i e d e l e c t r o l y s i s i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d
Towing Tank t o c r e a t e a d d i t i o n a l n u c l e i . S i m i l a r problems were met by
A l b r e c h t and Bjorheden (1975) i n t h e i r f r e e s u r f a c e t u n n e l . They generated
f r e e gas bubbles by s m a l l c a v i t a t i n g j e t s . C o n t r o l o f t h e n u c l e i c o n t e n t was
o b t a i n e d i n a s p e c i a l c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l by Schiebe (1969).

The a p p l i c a t i o n o f e l e c t r o l y s i s w i l l be f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t e d now and

e l e c t r o l y s i s w i l l be used both i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank and i n t h e
C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel t o generate additional nuclei.

5.2. GENERATION OF NUCLEI BY ELECTROLYSIS

When e l e c t r o l y s i s i s a p p l i e d , w a t e r i s decomposed i n t o i t s components

hydrogen and oxygen as g i v e n by t h e r e a c t i o n e q u a t i o n s

88
 4H 0 + 4e •+ 2H + + 40H
2 2 (cathode)

40H~ + 4e •+ 2H 0 + 0^ 2 (anode)

The t o t a l amount o f gas, produced at b o t h p o l e s , depends on the c u r r e n t o n l y

7 3 1
and i s 1.74x10 mA sec . ( a t 1013 mbar and 0°C). The amount o f hydrogen
i s t w i c e the amount o f oxygen and the cathode i s t h e r e f o r e o f t e n used f o r the
p r o d u c t i o n o f gas b u b b l e s . The method i s t h e r e f o r e a l s o c a l l e d the "hydrogen
bubble t e c h n i q u e " , a t e c h n i q u e known as a method f o r f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n .
For f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n i t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t the bubbles are v e r y s m a l l
(e.g. below 10 pm i n d i a m e t e r ) to a v o i d d e v i a t i o n s of the bubble path from
the s t r e a k l i n e s (Schraub e t a l , 1965; D a v i s and Fox, 1967). When e l e c t r o -
l y s i s i s used f o r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n l a r g e r bubbles are n e c e s s a r y t o b r i n g
the c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e near the vapor p r e s s u r e . In p r i n c i p l e o n l y the l a r g e s t
bubbles are of i m p o r t a n c e , p r o v i d e d they are s u f f i c i e n t i n number. To
i n v e s t i g a t e the maximum bubble s i z e and the parameters c o n t r o l l i n g the maximum
bubble s i z e some i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on s t a i n l e s s s t e e l cathode w i r e s were
c a r r i e d out.
The parameters which must be taken i n t o account are

d wire diameter (m)

V flow v e l o c i t y (msec 'S
-1 -2
p s t a t i c pressure (kgm sec )
._ 3
p s p e c i f i c mass of the water (kg m )
-2
s s u r f a c e t e n s i o n (water t o a i r )
(kg sec )
V k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y o f the water (m sec )
G gas p r o d u c t i o n per u n i t l e n g t h o f the w i r e (m sec )
-2
g a c c e l e r a t i o n due t o g r a v i t y (m sec )

The gas d e n s i t y , gas d i f f u s i o n and thermodynamic e f f e c t s are c o n s i d e r e d t o

be unimportant and are t h e r e f o r e n e g l e c t e d . Chemical e f f e c t s l i k e corrosion
o f the w i r e and the a c i d n e s s of the water may p l a y a r o l e i n the s t a t i c case
when the bubbles r i s e due t o buoyancy (Tory and Haywood, 1971) but these
e f f e c t s are a l s o c o n s i d e r e d n e g l i g i b l e when t h e r e i s a f l u i d f l o w p a s t the
wire.
The gas volume produced by the cathode per u n i t l e n g t h can be found
from

89
 I 1013 273 + t , 1 1
,..-7
0
, 3
m s e c
-1, „ x
G = j i - ^ ( ' (5-2)
p
g
where: I = t h e c u r r e n t through t h e w i r e
t = the length of the wire
p = the gas p r e s s u r e
g

t = t h e temperature i n C
The gas p r e s s u r e p^ can be found from t h e s t a t i c equilibrium

+ ( 5 3 )
Pg " P-Pv ¥ -

where R i s t h e bubble r a d i u s and p t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e at t h e w i r e .

The e i g h t mentioned parameters can be w r i t t e n i n d i m e n s i o n l e s s form

as

TT^ = *• 2 pressure c o e f f i c i e n t (5.4)

pV

Q
IT2 =
gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter (5.5)

V.d
TT_, = Reynolds number (5.6)
3 v

V
TT. = — Froude number (5.7)

2
pV d
TT- = — — Weber number (5.8)
5 s

When the v e l o c i t y V i s z e r o t h e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t becomes meaningless and

the v e l o c i t y V i n a l l parameters has t o be r e p l a c e d by G/d. T h i s s i t u a t i o n ,
where t h e Froude number i s d o m i n a t i n g , has t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e
s i t u a t i o n w i t h v e l o c i t y , where the shear f o r c e s remove the gas bubbles from
the w i r e and where t h e Reynolds number i s dominant. The r u l e o f thumb t h a t
the bubble d i a m e t e r i s r o u g h l y e q u a l t o the w i r e d i a m e t e r i s o n l y a p p l i c a b l e i n
the s t a t i c case, and even then o n l y when t h e gas p r o d u c t i o n i s low, as i s
i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 5.1. With i n c r e a s i n g c u r r e n t t h e s i z e o f the bubbles

90
 Fig. 5.2. Arrangement for observations of hydrogen bubbles.

d e c r e a s e s , u n t i l at a l a r g e gas p r o d u c t i o n t h e i r maximum s i z e i n c r e a s e s
a g a i n due t o amalgamation.

When t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t v e l o c i t y the s i t u a t i o n i s d i f f e r e n t . T h i s
was i n v e s t i g a t e d more c l o s e l y i n the NSMB h i g h speed c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l , which
has a t e s t s e c t i o n o f 5x10 cm. A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h i s t u n n e l i s g i v e n by
Van der Meulen (1978), Two w i r e s were mounted i n the t e s t s e c t i o n , as shown
i n F i g . 5.2. and photographs were taken o f the bubbles coming from the cathode.
Two w i r e d i a m e t e r s , 0.3 and 0.9 mm, were i n v e s t i g a t e d .

A t y p i c a l sequence o f o b s e r v a t i o n s i s shown i n P l a t e 5.3, where the

p r e s s u r e parameter TT (eq. 5.4) was v a r i e d on a 0.9 mm diameter cathode.
The Reynolds number, based on the w i r e diameter i s 2700 and the f l o w i s
subcritical.
P e r i o d i c a l l y the bubbles c o n c e n t r a t e i n rows. For both w i r e diameters
the S t r o u h a l number d/A ( w i t h d the w i r e diameter and A the wave l e n g t h ,
which i s equal t o two times the d i s t a n c e between the bubble rows) was always
n e a r 0.2. The bubble rows are t h e r e f o r e caused by the Karman v o r t i c e s .

92
 The gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter t t ^ (eq. 5.5) was m a i n t a i n e d by k e e p i n g t h e
r a t i o I/p c o n s t a n t . T h i s i m p l i e s (eq. 5.2) t h a t i t i s assumed t h a t p=p and
g
t h a t the i n f l u e n c e o f the s u r f a c e t e n s i o n and o f t h e vapor p r e s s u r e i s n e g l i -
g i b l e (eq. 5.3). However, t h e r e i s a v i s u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e amount o f gas
produced a t h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s i n P l a t e 5.3. So t h e s u r f a c e t e n s i o n has a
c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t . T h i s g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n about t h e s i z e o f t h e bubbles
produced, because i t i m p l i e s t h a t t h e term 2s/R i n eq. 5.3 i s o f the same o r d e r
of magnitude as t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e p. From P l a t e 5.3 t h i s means t h a t a t a
p r e s s u r e o f 270 mbar t h e average bubble r a d i u s i s l e s s than 10 ym i n d i a m e t e r ,
which i s not v i s i b l e on t h e photographs. The i n c r e a s e i n gas volume w i t h
i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e i s v i s i b l e t o a p r e s s u r e o f a t l e a s t 1080 mbar, where
l a r g e r bubbles o f some 0.1 mm become v i s i b l e . T h i s means t h a t a l s o i n t h a t
case t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e gas i s s t i l l p r e s e n t i n much s m a l l e r gas b u b b l e s .

V a r i a t i o n o f t h e gas p r o d u c t i o n by an i n c r e a s e o f the c u r r e n t i s shown

i n P l a t e 5.4 and the e f f e c t i s s i m i l a r , though more pronounced, as i n
P l a t e 5.3. With a s m a l l gas p r o d u c t i o n v e r y s m a l l bubbles a r e produced. When
the amount o f gas i s i n c r e a s e d the bubbles a p p a r e n t l y c o a l e s c e i n t h e Karman
v o r t i c e s and i n d i v i d u a l bubbles o f 200 ym i n diameter were observed i n
the case o f 16 A/m i n P l a t e 5.3. The c u r r e n t i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s , however,
extremely high.
V a r i a t i o n o f t h e Reynolds number (eq. 5.6) on t h e 0.9 mm cathode d i d
not change t h e p i c t u r e as g i v e n i n P l a t e 5.3. At h i g h e r Reynolds numbers,
thus at h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s , the gas volume a g a i n i n c r e a s e d when I/p was kept
c o n s t a n t , so t h e average bubble diameter remained e x t r e m e l y s m a l l .

A r e d u c t i o n o f t h e w i r e diameter from 0.9 t o 0.3 mm s t r o n g l y reduced

the v i s i b l e gas p r o d u c t i o n . In t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f P l a t e 5.3 t h e gas p r o d u c t i o n
was n e a r l y i n v i s i b l e . Both t h e maximum and t h e average bubble s i z e a p p a r e n t l y
depend on t h e w i r e diameter. S i n c e t h e Reynolds number was shown t o have
l i t t l e e f f e c t t h i s means a s t r o n g Weber number e f f e c t (eq. 5.8).

From these o b s e r v a t i o n s i t can be concluded t h a t t h e average bubble

s i z e , produced by e l e c t r o l y s i s , i s v e r y s m a l l . Only w i t h s u f f i c i e n t gas
p r o d u c t i o n l a r g e r bubbles a r e formed, which a r e e s t i m a t e d t o have a maximum
s i z e o f 0.2 times the w i r e diameter.

93
5.3. THE APPLICATION OF ELECTROLYSIS IN THE DEPRESSURIZED TOWING TANK

E l e c t r o l y s i s was a p p l i e d i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank u s i n g a w i r e

g r i d as shown i n F i g . 5.5. T h i s g r i d was mounted a t a d i s t a n c e o f 1.6 meter
i n f r o n t o f t h e p r o p e l l e r , as shown i n F i g . 1.3. The w i r e s were 0.3 mm i n
diameter and t h e c u r r e n t through each s e t o f the w i r e s was 0.2A
i n a l l c o n d i t i o n s , so t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e c u r r e n t p e r u n i t l e n g t h was always
0.4 A/m.

5.3.1. Bubble stream observations

The bubble stream from t h e e l e c t r o l y s i s w i r e s c o u l d be observed i n the

p r o p e l l e r p o s i t i o n by using a l i g h t source n e a r l y o p p o s i t e t o t h e camera.
Examples o f such o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e g i v e n i n F i g . 5.6. The p r o p e l l e r has been
r e p l a c e d by a p r o f i l e w i t h a c e n t i m e t e r s c a l e and t h e anode w i r e was a t a
l a r g e r d i s t a n c e from t h e cathode (7.5 cm) so o n l y t h e bubble stream from t h e
cathode w i r e i s observed. The p r e s s u r e s g i v e n i n F i g . 5.6 a r e t h e p r e s s u r e s
at t h e w i r e .

WIRES ƒ 0.3 mm

70

70

70

70

70
10
20
10
100 500
SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW
DIMENSIONS ARE GIVEN IN mm

Fig. 5.5. Electrolysis grid used in the Depressurized Towing Tank.

94
 1 m/sec

2 m/sec

3 m/sec

80 mbar

120 mbar

160 mbar

Variation in pressure (1 m/sec, lA/m)

Variation in current (1 m/sec, 80 mbar)

Fig. 5.6. Observations of bubble streams in the Depressurized Towing

Tank.

95
 The bubbles r e a c h t h e p r o p e l l e r p o s i t i o n i n s h e e t s w i t h a t h i c k n e s s o f
about 3 cm. An e s t i m a t e o f t h e w i d t h o f t h e wake b e h i n d a c y l i n d e r i s
(e.g. S c h l i c h t i n g , 1968, p.692)

L
2
w = 1.14 ( x . C .d) (5.9)

w i t h x the d i s t a n c e b e h i n d t h e w i r e , t h e drag c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e w i r e
and d t h e w i r e d i a m e t e r . In t h e range o f Reynolds numbers used f o r t h e
e l e c t r o l y s i s w i r e s (Rep=300 t o 1200) the drag c o e f f i c i e n t i s always n e a r l y
one and the wake a t a d i s t a n c e o f 1.6 m b e h i n d the 0.3 mm d i a m e t e r w i r e i s
c a l c u l a t e d from eq. 5.9 t o be 25 mm. T h i s i s c l o s e t o the observed t h i c k n e s s
of the bubble stream, so i t can be c o n c l u d e d from t h i s e s t i m a t e t h a t t h e
bubbles remain i n t h e wake o f t h e w i r e .
The h i g h e s t f r e e gas d e n s i t y i n F i g . 5.6, a t 1 m/sec, 80 mbar and 1.6 A/m
c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h t h e f r e e gas d e n s i t y o f 16 A/m i n P l a t e 5.4, which i s v e r y
h i g h . In t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e l a r g e s t b u b b l e s w i l l o c c u r and t h e s e bubbles w i l l
r i s e t o the s u r f a c e at a v e l o c i t y which i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y g i v e n by S t o k e s '
law (eq. 5.1). V a r i a t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y i n F i g . 5.6 h a r d l y a f f e c t s t h e
t h i c k n e s s o f t h e bubble l a y e r , and from t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i t can be i n f e r r e d
t h a t t h e r i s e v e l o c i t y i s l e s s than 0.5 cm/sec, which means t h a t t h e maximum
bubble s i z e i s below 100 ym i n d i a m e t e r . T h i s i s i n accordance w i t h t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n i n P l a t e 5.4,that a t a h i g h gas p r o d u c t i o n the l a r g e s t bubbles
were about 0.2 times t h e w i r e d i a m e t e r , which i s 60 ym i n t h e case o f F i g . 5.6.

5.3.2. Measurements w i t h s c a t t e r e d l a s e r light

Some e f f o r t s were made t o measure the bubble spectrum b e h i n d an

e l e c t r o l y s i s g r i d by using the s c a t t e r e d l a s e r l i g h t t e c h n i q u e . These measurements
were c a r r i e d out by K e l l e r ( u n p u b l i s h e d ) . The s i z e range which c o u l d be
measured i n these t e s t s was from 15 t o 150 ym i n d i a m e t e r .
The measured spectrum w i t h o u t e l e c t r o l y s i s i s g i v e n i n F i g . 5.7. The
spectrum i s e x p r e s s e d i n the bubble number d e n s i t y , as d e f i n e d by Gates (1977):

number o f b u b b l e s w i t h d i a m e t e r s between d^ and d^

number d e n s i t y =

(5.10)

96
 _L_ _J_

6 0 . 4 m b a r . (6 RUNS )
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE (6 RUNS)

E
5.

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
BUBBLE DIAMETER IN jUm

Fig. 5.7. Nuclei distributions in the Depressurized Towing Tank without

electrolysis.

The measured bubble spectrum was not s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e tank

p r e s s u r e , as i s shown i n F i g . 5.7. T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e l a s e r l i g h t was
s c a t t e r e d by s o l i d p a r t i c l e s . However, s i n c e the r e f l e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s o f
these p a r t i c l e s are unknown the measured s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n has l i t t l e meaning.
Anyhow no n u c l e i l a r g e r than 50 ym i n diameter are p r e s e n t i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d
Towing Tank.

R e s u l t s o f s i m i l a r measurements behind the e l e c t r o l y s i s g r i d are g i v e n

i n F i g . 5.8. The tank p r e s s u r e was 60 mbar, w h i l e the measured p o s i t i o n was
0.4 m below the water s u r f a c e , so the p r e s s u r e a t the w i r e was 100 mbar, a
s i t u a t i o n c l o s e t o the s i t u a t i o n o f F i g . 5.6c a t 0.4 A/m.

From F i g . 5.8 the f r e e gas r a t i o i n the c o n t r o l volume can be c a l c u l a t e d

-6 o
t o be 1.96x10 , reduced t o s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s (1013 mbar and 0 C ) . In t h i s
c a l c u l a t i o n the gas p r e s s u r e i n the bubbles was taken from eq. 5.3, so the
s u r f a c e t e n s i o n was accounted f o r .
The t o t a l amount o f gas, produced by both the cathode and anode p e r
-7 3
u n i t l e n g t h i s 6.96x10 m / s e c reduced t o s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s . At a f l o w

97
 0.4 A/mELECTROLYSIS (3 RUNS)
NO ELECTROLYSIS (4 RUNS)
CARRIAGE SPEED 1 m / s s c
TANK PRESSURE 6 0 m b a r

10'*

1 Ï

10 20 30 40 50 60 70
BUBBLE DIAMETER IN film

Fig. 5.8. A nuclei distribution in the Depressurized Towing Tank with

electrolysis.

v e l o c i t y of 1 m/sec and w i t h a t h i c k n e s s o f the bubble l a y e r o f 3 cm (from

-6
F i g . 5.6) t h i s l e a d s t o a gas volume r a t i o i n s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s o f 2.3x10
-6
which i s i n good agreement w i t h the v a l u e o f 1.96x10 as c a l c u l a t e d from t h e
bubble spectrum.

The gas p r o d u c t i o n i n t h i s case i s comparable to the c o n d i t i o n w i t h

1.6 A/m i n P l a t e s 5.3 and 5.4. S t i l l the maximum bubble s i z e i s about 70 ym.
So a l s o i n cases w i t h a low gas p r o d u c t i o n the maximum bubble diameter seems
t o be about 0.2 times the w i r e d i a m e t e r , which i s l a r g e r than observed
i m m e d i a t e l y b e h i n d the cathode w i r e . P o s s i b l y some amalgamation of small
bubbles t a k e s p l a c e d u r i n g the time between bubble g e n e r a t i o n and measurement
o f the bubbles at t h e p r o p e l l e r location.

5.4. ELECTROLYSIS IN THE CAVITATION TUNNEL

Some measurements o f the n u c l e i spectrum i n the NSMB Large C a v i t a t i o n

Tunnel were r e p o r t e d by Arndt and K e l l e r (1976). They measured n u c l e i w i t h a
d i a m e t e r i n the range o f 10 t o 150 ym. They found a s t r o n g dependency o f the

98
t o t a l f r e e gas volume on t h e r a t e o f s u p e r s a t u r a t l o n i n the t e s t s e c t i o n .
When the water i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n was not s a t u r a t e d the f r e e gas content was n e a r l y
independent o f the t o t a l a i r content
o f t h e water. T y p i c a l numbers o f bubbles
3
i n t h e range o f 80-150 ym were found from 0.5/cm a t a low t o t a l a i r content
3
o f 7.5 ppm t o 15/cm a t a h i g h a i r content (12.5 ppm by w e i g h t ) although
the c o n d i t i o n s were not c o m p l e t e l y given.
So a t a low a i r content o n l y a few bubbles w i t h a diameter over 100 ym
are present i n the tunnel.
A p p l i c a t i o n of e l e c t r o l y s i s i n a c a v i t a t i o n tunnel requires a higher
c u r r e n t due t o the h i g h e r t u n n e l v e l o c i t y r e l a t i v e t o t h a t i n a d e p r e s s u r i z e d
towing tank. V i b r a t i o n s o f t h e w i r e s caused f r e q u e n t b r e a k i n g o f the e l e c t r o -
l y s i s w i r e s , so a d i f f e r e n t arrangement was chosen.
A f o i l was mounted h o r i z o n t a l l y through t h e c e n t e r o f t h e t e s t s e c t i o n ,
at a d i s t a n c e o f 1.6 m i n f r o n t o f t h e p r o p e l l e r . On t h e upper s i d e o f t h e
f o i l two 5 mm wide and 0,2 mm t h i c k s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s t r i p s were glued a t 1 cm
d i s t a n c e from each o t h e r . These s t r i p s were used as t h e e l e c t r o d e s .

In o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t gas p r o d u c t i o n a t i n c r e a s i n g v e l o c i t i e s
3
and p r e s s u r e s t h e c u r r e n t has t o i n c r e a s e w i t h V . E l e c t r o l y s i s i n a c a v i t a t i o n
t u n n e l t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e s h i g h c u r r e n t s . The maximum c u r r e n t which c o u l d be
o b t a i n e d i n the d e s c r i b e d c o n d i t i o n was 6 A/m. T h i s was o n l y e f f e c t i v e a t the
minimum t u n n e l p r e s s u r e a t a low v e l o c i t y .

Although t h e amount o f gas, produced by e l e c t r o l y s i s , i s f a i r l y small

the combination o f l o n g exposure times t o g e t h e r w i t h a h i g h c u r r e n t can
produce dangerous amounts o f gas. E l e c t r o l y s i s can t h e r e f o r e not be an
a p p r o p r i a t e means o f bubble g e n e r a t i o n i n a c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l and o t h e r
methods have t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d (see e.g. A l b r e c h t and B j o r h e d e n , 1975).

99
6. E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s with bubble cavitation

The influence of the boundary layer and of the nuclei content on bubble
cavitation is investigated on propeller B. For this purpose electrolysis and
roughness at the leading edge are applied and various Reynolds numbers are
considered. The differences between the occurrence of bubble cavitation in
the Depressurized Towing Tank and the Cavitation Tunnel are also investigated.

When t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t downstream o f a low p r e s s u r e r e g i o n i s

moderate, t h e f l o w w i l l remain a t t a c h e d t o t h e s u r f a c e when c a v i t a t i o n starts
and bubble c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s . Bubble c a v i t a t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be h i g h l y
e r o s i v e and model t e s t s a r e o f t e n c a r r i e d out t o v e r i f y i f no bubble c a v i t a t i o n
occurs. I t i s t h e r e f o r e very important t o s i m u l a t e t h e i n c e p t i o n o f bubble
c a v i t a t i o n p r o p e r l y on model s c a l e .

I n c e p t i o n o f bubble c a v i t a t i o n was i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h p r o p e l l e r B. T h i s
p r o p e l l e r has t h i c k b l a d e s w i t h l a r g e cambers t o a v o i d a low p r e s s u r e peak a t
the l e a d i n g edge.
In t h i s s e c t i o n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a a r e g i v e n . The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 9.

6.1. PROPELLER B AT J=0.6 IN THE DEPRESSURIZED TOWING TANK

At an advance r a t i o o f 0.6 t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e s u c t i o n s i d e
of p r o p e l l e r B has no sharp peak a t t h e l e a d i n g edge. The minimum p r e s s u r e
o c c u r s i n t h e midchord r e g i o n o f t h e b l a d e s e c t i o n s , as F i g . 2.13 shows. The
c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s are p l o t t e d i n F i g . 6.1.

The s e c t i o n a l minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t has t o be compared w i t h t h e

s e c t i o n a l c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x a, as d e f i n e d i n eqs. 1.25 t o 1.27. The p r o p e l l e r
c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x ö (eq. 1.20) can be c o n s i d e r e d as a d i m e n s i o n l e s s e x p r e s s i o n
n
f o r t h e p r e s s u r e a t t h e p r o p e l l e r s h a f t , so a t one v a l u e o f a a r a d i a l
n
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f O can be c a l c u l a t e d , as has been done i n F i g . 6.1. The v a l u e

100
 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
r
/R
Fig. 6.1. Radial distribution of the calculated minimum pressure
coefficients and of cavitation indices on propeller B
at J=0.8.

of 0 v a r i e s w i t h the b l a d e p o s i t i o n , depending on the number o f r e v o l u t i o n s .

The s e c t i o n a l c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x 0 i n F i g . 6.1 and s i m i l a r F i g u r e s are always
c a l c u l a t e d f o r the b l a d e i n top p o s i t i o n at a number o f r e v o l u t i o n s c o r r e s -
ding to a Reynolds number R e = l . 1x10**.
n

The c o n d i t i o n i n which the o b s e r v a t i o n s were made, are g i v e n i n

d i m e n s i o n l e s s form by Re, J and 0 . From these d a t a the tank p r e s s u r e , the
n n
number of r e v o l u t i o n s and the advance v e l o c i t y of the p r o p e l l e r can be found
o
when the temperature i s known, which was always about 10 C i n the
D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank and 20°C i n the C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel.
O b s e r v a t i o n s were made w i t h two b l a d e s smooth ( b l a d e s 2 and 4) and w i t h
two b l a d e s roughened at the l e a d i n g edge ( b l a d e s 1 and 3 ) . The observations
i n one c o n d i t i o n were made d u r i n g one r u n , e l e c t r o l y s i s was a p p l i e d i n the
second h a l f of the run u s i n g a c o n s t a n t c u r r e n t of 0.4 A/m i n a l l conditions
Twelve photographs of the whole p r o p e l l e r i n d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s were taken
d u r i n g one run t o v e r i f y i f the c a v i t a t i o n was steady.

101
 without electrolysis with electrolysis

smooth

102
 Observations of the c a v i t a t i o n p a t t e r n on p r o p e l l e r B at a =0.92 are
n
shown i n F i g . 6.2. At t h i s low c a v i t a t i o n index the minimum p r e s s u r e over the
whole r a d i u s i s lower than the vapor p r e s s u r e , as F i g . 6.1 shows, because
-Cp(min) i s always l a r g e r than a. S t i l l no c a v i t a t i o n occurs on the smooth
blade i n F i g . 6.2. T h i s may be e x p l a i n e d by a l a c k of n u c l e i of adequate
s i z e and the maximum bubble s i z e p r e s e n t i n the tank water can be c a l c u l a t e d
from t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n as f o l l o w s .
The minimum r a d i u s of n u c l e i needed f o r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n can be
c a l c u l a t e d . From eq. 1.3 i t i s found t h a t f o r i n c e p t i o n i t i s n e c e s s a r y that

4s
p ( m i n ) <p - v (6.1)
crit

which can be r e w r i t t e n as

R . > = — (6.2)
C
3pV (a+C (min))

T h i s minimum c r i t i c a l r a d i u s i s p l o t t e d i n F i g . 6.3, u s i n g the d i f f e r e n c e

between 0 and C^(min) from F i g . 6.1. The corresponding i n i t i a l bubble r a d i u s

°i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 07 0.8 0.9 1.0
r
'R

Fig. 6.3. Critical bubble radius and minimum bubble radius needed for
cavitation inception in the condition of Fig. 6.2.

103
R q i n the incoming f l o w can be found from eq. 1.2 w i t h

2 2
K = 4 s R (6.3)
3 crit

The r e s u l t i n g v a l u e s o f R are a l s o p l o t t e d i n F i g . 6.3 and bubbles w i t h a

o
r a d i u s of l e s s than 10 ym o r a diameter o f l e s s than 20 ym are n e c e s s a r y f o r
i n c e p t i o n a t r=0.7R. At o t h e r r a d i i l a r g e r bubbles are needed, so the n u c l e i
i n the tank water were s m a l l e r than 20 ym i n d i a m e t e r .

E l e c t r o l y s i s has a d r a s t i c e f f e c t . Many bubbles o c c u r between r=0.45R

and r=0.85R. The r a d i a l e x t e n t i s s t i l l somewhat l e s s than would f o l l o w from
Fig. 6.1. A p a r t from e r r o r s i n the c a l c u l a t i o n method t h i s couB mean t h a t
the s i z e o f the e l e c t r o l y s i s bubbles i s l i m i t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o F i g . 6.3 a
maximum bubble s i z e of 30 ym i n d i a m e t e r would r e s t r i c t c a v i t a t i o n t o
0.45<r/R<0.9. T h i s bubble s i z e i s 10% of the w i r e diameter which i s i n the
range found i n s e c t i o n 5 f o r these c o n d i t i o n s .

The roughened b l a d e w i t h o u t e l e c t r o l y s i s i n F i g . 6.2 i s also free from

bubble c a v i t a t i o n . On the smooth b l a d e the boundary l a y e r was laminar u n t i l
midchord, as P l a t e 3.8 shows. With roughness the boundary l a y e r , i n t h i s case,
was on the verge of b e i n g f u l l y t u r b u l e n t . The p a i n t p a t t e r n was s i m i l a r as i n
P l a t e 3.14 at the h i g h Reynolds number. S t i l l t h i s change o f the boundary
l a y e r had no i n f l u e n c e on the c a v i t a t i o n . The boundary l a y e r has a p p a r e n t l y no
e f f e c t on bubble c a v i t a t i o n , as c o u l d be expected.

However, t h i s c o n d i t i o n appeared t o be r a t h e r c r i t i c a l . An i n c r e a s e of
the Reynolds number, a s l i g h t decrease o f the c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x and even some
d i s t u r b a n c e o f the tank water (caused when the tank water was d e a e r a t e d the
n i g h t b e f o r e ) each d i d cause bubble c a v i t a t i o n on the roughened b l a d e w i t h o u t
e l e c t r o l y s i s . T h i s phenomenon w i l l a l s o be observed i n o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s later
on. Roughness a l s o c r e a t e s a s h o r t t i p v o r t e x . T h i s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n
s e c t i o n 8.

Somewhat c o n f u s i n g are the o b s e r v a t i o n s i n the same c o n d i t i o n at a

h i g h e r Reynolds number, as shown i n F i g . 6.4. In t h i s c o n d i t i o n the e l e c t r o l y s i s
w i r e s were c a v i t a t i n g , g e n e r a t i n g l a r g e amounts o f b u b b l e s , even w i t h o u t
e l e c t r o l y s i s . However, those bubbles d i d not c r e a t e c a v i t a t i o n . The mechanism
c a u s i n g t h i s i s not c l e a r and we w i l l pay f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n t o i t i n s e c t i o n 9.

104
without electrolysis with electrolysis

smooth

105
 On t h e roughened b l a d e bubble c a v i t a t i o n does o c c u r . The roughness
apparently generates n u c l e i i t s e l f , as was a l s o o b s e r v e d i n c i d e n t a l l y by
Arndt and Ippen (1968). A minimum roughness h e i g h t r e l a t i v e t o t h e boundary
l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i s a p p a r e n t l y n e c e s s a r y f o r t h i s s i n c e i t d i d not happen i n
Fig. 6.2. The t o t a l a i r c o n t e n t i n t h e tank was 15.2 ppm by weight and at
the low tank p r e s s u r e t h e water was t h e r e f o r e h i g h l y s u p e r s a t u r a t e d , which
i s an e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n f o r the g e n e r a t i o n o f n u c l e i , as w i l l be shown
l a t e r on.

E l e c t r o l y s i s was i n e f f e c t i v e on t h e smooth b l a d e . T h i s may be caused by

the f a c t t h a t t h e w i r e s were c a v i t a t i n g , but s i n c e t h i s was s y s t e m a t i c a l l y
found a t h i g h e r tank p r e s s u r e s i t i s a t t r i b u t e d t o an inadequate maximum
bubble s i z e o f t h e e l e c t r o l y s i s b u b b l e s . The gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter TT^
-3
(eq. 5.5) v a r i e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y w i t h Re whereas the c r i t i c a l bubble r a d i u s
-2
(eq. 6.2) v a r i e s w i t h Re . The maximum bubble s i z e o f t h e e l e c t r o l y s i s
bubbles i s r e l a t e d w i t h the gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter and a t a c o n s t a n t
c u r r e n t the maximum bubble s i z e can become t o o s m a l l w i t h i n c r e a s i n g Reynolds
number.
When t h e maximum bubble s i z e g e n e r a t e d by e l e c t r o l y s i s i s i n t h e range
of t h e minimum bubble s i z e needed f o r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n , t h e appearance
of t h e bubble c a v i t a t i o n becomes s t r o n g l y dependent on the e l e c t r o l y s i s
c u r r e n t , as i s shown i n P l a t e 6.5. The b l a d e i n P l a t e 6.5 i s smooth and the
c o n d i t i o n i s s i m i l a r as i n F i g . 6.2., but a t a somewhat h i g h e r p r e s s u r e .
The maximum s i z e o f t h e e l e c t r o l y s i s bubbles a t a c u r r e n t o f 0.4 A/m
i s a p p a r e n t l y about t h e minimum r a d i u s needed f o r i n c e p t i o n , which can be
c a l c u l a t e d t o be 10 ym a t r=0.7R i n a s i m i l a r way as i n F i g . 6.3. So a t t h i s
p r e s s u r e the maximum s i z e o f t h e e l e c t r o l y s i s b u b b l e s i s about 20 ym i n
diameter.
An i n c r e a s e o f the c u r r e n t , and thus o f t h e gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter,
i n c r e a s e s t h e maximum bubble s i z e , u n t i l a t 2.0 A/m a c a v i t a t i o n e x t e n t i s
reached s i m i l a r as i n F i g . 6.2, f o r which bubbles l a r g e r than 30 ym a r e
required.
An i n c r e a s e o f t h e gas p r o d u c t i o n t h e r e f o r e i n c r e a s e s t h e maximum bubble
s i z e , as was a l s o found i n Plate 5.4 f o r h i g h e r v a l u e s o f t h e gas p r o d u c t i o n
parameter.
I t can a l s o be seen from P l a t e 6.5 t h a t an i n c r e a s e o f t h e e l e c t r o l y s i s

106
c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s the number of bubbles which become u n s t a b l e . T h i s i n c r e a s e
i n the number of bubble c a v i t i e s reduces their maximum s i z e . Large i s o l a t e d
c a v i t a t i o n bubbles are an i n d i c a t i o n f o r a l a c k o f n u c l e i of adequate size.

6.2. PROPELLER B AT J=0.6 IN THE CAVITATION TUNNEL

O b s e r v a t i o n s on p r o p e l l e r B were made i n the C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel at the

same c a v i t a t i o n number as i n F i g s . 6.2 and 6.4. A h i g h e r Reynolds number was
n e c e s s a r y because of the h i g h e r minimum p r e s s u r e which can be reached i n t h i s
f a c i l i t y . The o b s e r v a t i o n s are shown i n P l a t e 6.6.
The t o t a l a i r c o n t e n t of the t u n n e l water was reduced t o 6.5 ppm by
weight. The t e s t s e c t i o n was s p e c k l e d w i t h v i s i b l e bubbles a t t h i s low t u n n e l
p r e s s u r e . S t i l l o n l y i n c i d e n t a l l y a l a r g e bubble c a v i t y o c c u r s on the smooth
b l a d e , as P l a t e 6.6 shows. The c r i t i c a l r a d i u s i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n , needed f o r
c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n a t r=0.7R, can be found from eq. 6.2 t o be o n l y about
8 ym. Measurements w i t h the s c a t t e r e d l a s e r t e c h n i q u e i n d i c a t e d l a r g e amounts
of n u c l e i of t h i s s i z e (Arndt and K e l l e r , 1976). These were a p p a r e n t l y s o l i d
p a r t i c l e s , s i m i l a r as i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank ( F i g . 5.7) and s u r p r i -
s i n g l y the C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel c o n t a i n s o n l y v e r y s m a l l f r e e gas bubbles i n
this condition.

I n s t e a d of bubble c a v i t a t i o n t h e r e are c a v i t a t i n g s p o t s both on the

smooth and on the roughened b l a d e s o f P l a t e 6.6. T h i s i s a f a m i l i a r type of
c a v i t a t i o n . I t i s c a l l e d spot c a v i t a t i o n because i t o r i g i n a t e s on a f i x e d
spot on the b l a d e , as i s e.g. the case on b l a d e 4. The spot c a v i t y on b l a d e 1
has a l e s s sharp p o i n t an r e v e a l s the o r i g i n o f the s p o t : s m a l l b u b b l e s ,
expanding and c o a l e s c i n g downstream. These bubbles o r i g i n a t e from a s u r f a c e
i m p e r f e c t i o n and t h i s i m p e r f e c t i o n can be l o c a t e d f a r upstream o f the
b e g i n n i n g of the s p o t . A decrease of the p r e s s u r e i n such a case moves the
b e g i n n i n g of the spot towards the s u r f a c e i m p e r f e c t i o n s .

The roughness elements at the l e a d i n g edge do, however not generate

n u c l e i , c o n t r a r y t o what happened i n F i g . 6.4. The Reynolds number i n P l a t e
6.6 i s h i g h e r than i n F i g . 6.4 so the roughness h e i g h t r e l a t i v e t o the
boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i s l a r g e r . However, the water at the roughness
elements at the l e a d i n g edge was not s a t u r a t e d . (The water i n the t e s t s e c t i o n
was nearly s a t u r a t e d , but the roughness elements are i n a r e g i o n w i t h a h i g h e r

107
p r e s s u r e ) . A p p a r e n t l y i t r e q u i r e s both a minimum roughness h e i g h t and locally
s u p e r s a t u r a t e d water f o r a roughness element t o generate f r e e gas b u b b l e s .

A p p l i c a t i o n of e l e c t r o l y s i s i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n i n the C a v i t a -
t i o n Tunnel causes some bubble c a v i t a t i o n . The l a r g e s i z e of the bubble
c a v i t i e s , e s p e c i a l l y on b l a d e 4 of P l a t e 6.6, i n d i c a t e s t h a t the p r e s s u r e on
the b l a d e s i s below the vapor p r e s s u r e and t h a t o n l y few n u c l e i o f adequate
s i z e are p r e s e n t . At t h i s t u n n e l speed and p r e s s u r e the maximum p o s s i b l e
c u r r e n t of 6 A/m was n e c e s s a r y t o observe any e f f e c t . At t h i s c u r r e n t the
maximum bubble s i z e i s c a l c u l a t e d t o be about 20 ym i n d i a m e t e r . At h i g h e r
v e l o c i t i e s o r p r e s s u r e s e l e c t r o l y s i s i n the c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l had no e f f e c t ,
s i m i l a r l y as i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank.
Arndt and K e l l e r (1976) measured a r a p i d i n c r e a s e o f the f r e e gas
content i n the t e s t s e c t i o n when the water i n the t e s t s e c t i o n was s u p e r -
s a t u r a t e d . To o b t a i n t h i s the t o t a l a i r contents o f the t u n n e l water was
i n c r e a s e d t o 12.3 ppm. An abundant amount o f gas bubbles was p r e s e n t i n the
t e s t s e c t i o n i n the same c o n d i t i o n as i n P l a t e 6.6, which i m p a i r e d the
visibility. In t h i s s e c t i o n bubble c a v i t a t i o n appeared s i m i l a r as i n the
D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank when e l e c t r o l y s i s was a p p l i e d , as i s shown i n
Fig. 6.7. T h i s F i g u r e i l l u s t r a t e s the p r o f o u n d e f f e c t the t o t a l a i r c o n t e n t
i n the t u n n e l can have on bubble c a v i t a t i o n .

roughened smooth

Fig. 6.7. Cavitation observations in the Cavitation Tunnel with a high

total air content. Propeller B at J-0.8 (a =0.92, Re =2.11x10 ).

108
6.3. INCEPTION MEASUREMENTS ON PROPELLER B AT J=0.6.

The foregoing observations were made i n a c o n d i t i o n beyond t h e i n c e p t i o n

c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p r o p e l l e r . At i n c e p t i o n o n l y a few s m a l l c a v i t i e s a r e formed,
which do n o t i n t e r a c t w i t h t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n . Such a c o n d i t i o n can
o n l y be o b t a i n e d when s u f f i c i e n t n u c l e i a r e p r e s e n t . Observations of
c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n were made i n v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s and t h e r e s u l t s a r e
given i n T a b e l 6.1.

Facility T o t a l a i r content Re a.
n i
6
CT 5.5 ppm by weight 2.11xl0 l.i
CT 12.3 ppm by weight 2.llxlO 6
1.3
DTT E l e c t r o l y s i s 2 A/m 1.1 xlO 6
1.4

Table 6.1. Observed inception of bubble cavitation on propeller B

at J=0.6.

The highest i n c e p t i o n i n d e x was measured i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing

Tank w i t h t h e maximum e l e c t r o l y s i s c u r r e n t a v a i l a b l e . From F i g . 6.1 i t can
be seen t h a t a t t h i s c a v i t a t i o n index t h e minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t i s close
to the s e c t i o n a l c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x , so t h e observed i n c e p t i o n i n d e x agrees w i t h
the c a l c u l a t i o n s .

6.4. PROPELLER B AT J=0.4 IN THE DEPRESSURIZED TOWING TANK

At a h e a v i e r p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e s u c t i o n
s i d e o f p r o p e l l e r B becomes v e r y f l a t w i t h a s m a l l low p r e s s u r e peak a t t h e
l e a d i n g edge, as F i g . 2.14 shows. T h i s i s a common type o f p r e s s u r e distribu-
t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y i n n a v a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , because i t i s the c o n d i t i o n o f maximum
lift j u s t before c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . Such a p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n can cause
special scale effects.
The c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e g i v e n i n F i g . 6.8, both
for midchord and for the l e a d i n g edge.
The small pressure peak a t the l e a d i n g edge does n o t cause l a m i n a r s e -
p a r a t i o n and t h e boundary l a y e r remains l a m i n a r , as P l a t e 3.11 shows.

109
 1.0
a
p (min)
0.8- CT = 0.92\ CT = 1.3\ \ V
N N
^7 =
N 3.8

4 W \

0.6-
(J
c
p(min)
0.4-

0.2-

0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 10

Fig. 6.8. Radial distribution of the calculated minimum pressure

coefficients and of cavitation indices on propeller B
at J=0.4.

O b s e r v a t i o n s i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank are shown i n F i g . 6.9.

A l t h o u g h a c c o r d i n g t o F i g . 6.8 the minimum p r e s s u r e over the whole r a d i u s
both at midchord and at the l e a d i n g edge i s f a r below the vapor p r e s s u r e , no
c a v i t a t i o n at a l l i s found on the smooth b l a d e w i t h o u t e l e c t r o l y s i s . Only a
few, l a r g e bubble c a v i t i e s r e v e a l t h a t the p r e s s u r e i s i n d e e d below the
vapor p r e s s u r e .
E l e c t r o l y s i s r e s t o r e s bubble c a v i t a t i o n i n the midchord r e g i o n . Two rows
of bubble c a v i t a t i o n are p r e s e n t . T h i s i s caused by the l a y e r s i n which the
bubbles a r r i v e i n the p r o p e l l e r p l a n e . A l t h o u g h enough n u c l e i are a v a i l a b l e
no sheet c a v i t y at the l e a d i n g edge o c c u r s . T h i s i s s y s t e m a t i c a l l y found
when the boundary l a y e r i n the r e g i o n of the minimum p r e s s u r e peak i s l a m i n a r ,
as w i l l be demonstrated i n section 7.

On the roughened b l a d e i n F i g . 6.9 sheet c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s , a l t h o u g h

o n l y from r=0.6R i n s t e a d o f from about r=0.5R as would f o l l o w from F i g . 6.8.
At r<0.6R the roughness elements s t i l l generate bubbles and these bubbles
c r e a t e a f i n e screen of bubble c a v i t a t i o n downstream on the b l a d e s e c t i o n .
T h i s screen has a f i n e r s t r u c t u r e than on the smooth b l a d e w i t h e l e c t r o l y s i s ,

110
without electrolysis with electrolysis

111
which shows the i n f l u e n c e of the n u c l e i s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n and of the number
of n u c l e i on bubble c a v i t a t i o n . E l e c t r o l y s i s has no a d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t on
the roughened b l a d e s i n c e enough n u c l e i are a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e . .

The d i f f e r e n c e between the smooth b l a d e and the roughened b l a d e without

electrolysis i s very l a r g e , which i s t y p i c a l f o r p r o p e l l e r s w i t h a f l a t
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n at the s u c t i o n s i d e of the b l a d e s .

6.5. PROPELLER B AT J=0.4 IN THE CAVITATION TUNNEL

O b s e r v a t i o n s of p r o p e l l e r B i n the C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel are shown i n

P l a t e 6.10. Although the Reynolds number i s t w i c e t h a t o f F i g . 6.9 the
resemblance i s s t r i k i n g , which i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t an i n c r e a s e i n Reynolds
number not n e c e s s a r i l y decreases s c a l e e f f e c t s on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n .

The t o t a l a i r contents of the t u n n e l water was 5.2 ppm by weight and

a g a i n i t i s found t h a t at t h i s v e l o c i t y and p r e s s u r e very few n u c l e i o f
adequate s i z e are a v a i l a b l e i n the t e s t s e c t i o n . The l a r g e bubble c a v i t y
on the smooth b l a d e i l l u s t r a t e s the low p r e s s u r e on the b l a d e . Huge i s o l a t e d
bubble c a v i t i e s are t y p i c a l f o r t e s t s i n a c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l w i t h a very low
nuclei content.
E l e c t r o l y s i s has o n l y a very s m a l l e f f e c t because the maximum o b t a i n a b l e
c u r r e n t was too low t o c r e a t e s u f f i c i e n t n u c l e i , but i t i n d i c a t e s t h a t an
i n c r e a s e i n n u c l e i i n c r e a s e s the bubble c a v i t a t i o n .

Roughness at the l e a d i n g edge has the same e f f e c t as i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d

Towing Tank. C o n t r a r y t o the c o n d i t i o n at J=0.6 the roughness p a r t i c l e s are
now i n a low p r e s s u r e r e g i o n where the water i s s u p e r s a t u r a t e d , so they can
generate nuclei.
The o n l y e f f e c t o f the i n c r e a s e d Reynolds number i n the C a v i t a t i o n
Tunnel compared t o t h a t i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank ( F i g . 6.9) i s the
o c c u r r e n c e o f s p o t s o f c a v i t a t i o n on the smooth b l a d e , a p p a r e n t l y caused by
s u r f a c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s on the l e a d i n g edge which become e f f e c t i v e at a
h i g h e r Reynolds number. D u r i n g some t e s t s the number of s t r e a k s i n c r e a s e d
due t o s m a l l p a r t i c l e s which a t t a c h e d themselves t o the l e a d i n g edge. At the
l o c a t i o n o f these s p o t s p a i n t t e s t s show t u r b u l e n t s t r e a k s through a l a m i n a r
r e g i o n , as i s the case e.g. in Plate 3.20.

112
When the Reynolds number i s f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e d the number o f s p o t s on the
smooth b l a d e i n c r e a s e s as well as i s shown i n P l a t e 6.12. In t h i s P l a t e the
c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x i s h i g h e r than i n P l a t e 6.10 and the r e l a t i o n between the
s p o t s at the l e a d i n g edge and the bubble c a v i t a t i o n at midchord i s clearly
shown.
On the roughened b l a d e a sheet c a v i t y at the l e a d i n g edge i s p r e s e n t i n
P l a t e 6.12 and the chordwise e x t e n t of t h i s sheet i s much l o n g e r than the
l e n g t h of the i s o l a t e d s p o t s on the smooth b l a d e , e s p e c i a l l y near the t i p .
T h i s i s a l s o found on p r o p e l l e r S and w i l l be d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 7.

When the t o t a l a i r contents of the water i n the C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel was

r a i s e d t o 12.3 ppm by w e i g h t , s i m i l a r as i n F i g . 6.7, bubble cavitation
appeared a g a i n , as F i g . 6.11 shows. The c o n d i t i o n s i n F i g . 6.11 are the same
as i n P l a t e 6.10. Even at t h i s e x t r e m e l y h i g h f r e e a i r c o n t e n t no sheet
c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s a t the l e a d i n g edge, and t h i s phenomenon w i l l be examined
i n s e c t i o n 7.

roughened smooth

Fig. 6.11. Cavitation observations in the Cavitation Tunnel with a

high total air content. Propeller B at J=0.4
6
(a =0.92, Re =2.11xl0 ).

113
6.6. INCEPTION MEASUREMENTS ON PROPELLER B AT J=0.4

I n c e p t i o n o f bubble c a v i t a t i o n on t h e smooth blade a t t h e h i g h total

a i r contents o f 12.3 ppm was measured i n t h e C a v i t a t i o n T u n n e l . I n c e p t i o n o f
bubble c a v i t a t i o n on the smooth b l a d e i n the c o n d i t i o n o f F i g . 6.11 was c a l l e d
at 0 =1.3. F i g . 6.8 shows t h a t t h i s agrees w i t h the c a l c u l a t e d minimum
n
pressure coefficient.
The agreement between t h e c a l c u l a t e d and t h e observed i n c e p t i o n o f
bubble c a v i t a t i o n s u p p o r t s t h e c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t , which
i s i m p o r t a n t because t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the c r i t i c a l bubble r a d i u s i n
s e c t i o n s 6.1 and 6.2 depends on t h i s p r e s s u r e coefficient.

I n c e p t i o n o f sheet c a v i t a t i o n near t h e t i p was c a l l e d on t h e roughened

b l a d e i n t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f F i g . 6.11 at a =3.8 and F i g . 6.8 shows t h a t
n
t h i s i s a l s o i n agreement w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e coefficient
near the t i p .

114
7. E x p e r i m e n t a l results with sheet cavitation

The influence of the boundary layer and the nuclei content on inception
of sheet cavitation is investigated on propeller S, using the same means as
on propeller B: electrolysis, roughness of the leading edge and variation of
the Reynolds number in both the Depressurized Towing Tank and the Cavitation
Tunnel.

When t h e r e i s a s t r o n g p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t behind a low p r e s s u r e peak t h e

f l o w w i l l s e p a r a t e from t h e s u r f a c e at c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n and a sheet
c a v i t y o c c u r s . T h i s type o f c a v i t a t i o n i s common on s h i p p r o p e l l e r s because
t h e i r b l a d e s have a low c h o r d - t h i c k n e s s r a t i o f o r e f f i c i e n c y reasons.

I n c e p t i o n o f sheet c a v i t a t i o n was i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h p r o p e l l e r S, which

has t h i n b l a d e s and s m a l l cambers. The e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a a r e g i v e n i n t h i s
s e c t i o n , a d i s c u s s i o n on the i m p l i c a t i o n s o f the o b s e r v a t i o n s w i l l be g i v e n
i n s e c t i o n 9.

7.1. PROPELLER S AT J=0.4 IN THE DEPRESSURIZED TOWING TANK

At an advance r a t i o o f J=0.4 t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on the s u c t i o n

s i d e o f p r o p e l l e r S has a very sharp peak a t t h e l e a d i n g edge, as was shown
i n F i g . 2.16. The c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t near the l e a d i n g
edge i s g i v e n i n F i g . 7.1 t o g e t h e r w i t h the r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e
s e c t i o n a l c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x a a t d i f f e r e n t tank o r t u n n e l p r e s s u r e s , which
are expressed i n t h e p r o p e l l e r c a v i t a t i o n index a .
n
To i l l u s t r a t e the sharpness o f t h e low p r e s s u r e peak t h e c a l c u l a t e d
p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t a t 1% o f t h e chord i s g i v e n i n F i g . 7.1. The low
p r e s s u r e peak o c c u r s over about 1% o f t h e chord from l e a d i n g edge o n l y . The
a c c u r a c y o f the c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e i s low because an a r b i t r a r y change
of t h e h e l i c a l p i t c h i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s changed t h e minimum p r e s s u r e

115
coefficient by as much as 25%,as was shown i n F i g . 2.6.

The sharp p r e s s u r e peak causes a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble from the hub

to about 0.7R, as P l a t e 3.15 shows. The o c c u r r e n c e o f t h i s l a r g e s e p a r a t i o n
bubble w i l l a l s o a f f e c t the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and the minimum
p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t . Between 0.7R and 0.9R a r e g i o n o f l a m i n a r f l o w w i t h
t u r b u l e n t s t r e a k s o c c u r s on b l a d e 2 o f P l a t e 3.15. At r>0.9R a very s h o r t
s e p a r a t i o n bubble o c c u r s .

116
 without electrolysis with electrolysis

roughened at the leading edge

Fig. 7.2. Cavitation observations in the Depressurized Towing Tank on

6
propeller S at J=0.4 (a =1.3, Re = l . l x l 0 ) .
n n
117
 O b s e r v a t i o n s of the c a v i t a t i n g p r o p e l l e r S i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing
Tank are g i v e n i n F i g . 7.2. B l a d e s 1 and 3 are smooth, b l a d e s 2 and 4 are
roughened at the l e a d i n g edge w i t h 60 ym carborundum. The o b s e r v a t i o n s were
made i n the same manner as those of p r o p e l l e r B ( s e c t i o n 6.1).
The v a r i o u s boundary l a y e r r e g i o n s are r e f l e c t e d i n the c a v i t a t i o n
p a t t e r n of F i g . 7.2. In t h e t i p r e g i o n o f the smooth b l a d e a sheet i s always
p r e s e n t , but i n the r e g i o n o f the pronounced s e p a r a t i o n bubble at i n n e r
r a d i i the sheet on the smooth b l a d e i s absent w i t h o u t e l e c t r o l y s i s . A l t h o u g h
i n c e p t i o n of sheet c a v i t a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y found t o be independent o f the
n u c l e i c o n t e n t t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n shows t h a t a l a c k of n u c l e i can inhibit
i n c e p t i o n of sheet c a v i t a t i o n i n a r e g i o n w i t h a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n b u b b l e .
In a d d i t i o n a l photographs i n the c o n d i t i o n o f F i g . 7.2 the sheet a t i n n e r
r a d i i was p r e s e n t , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t the n u c l e i contents of the water was about
s u f f i c i e n t f o r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . An i n c r e a s e o f the Reynolds number, a
decrease of the c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x and even a d i s t u r b a n c e o f the tank water
(when the tank was d e a e r a t e d the n i g h t b e f o r e ) , each caused t h a t the sheet
at i n n e r r a d i i was p r e s e n t on the smooth b l a d e w i t h o u t e l e c t r o l y s i s . The
d i f f e r e n c e between a and -C at 1% of the chord i s already as much as 0.66 at r=0.6R,
which i m p l i e s a c r i t i c a l bubble r a d i u s o f 5 ym. So o n l y v e r y s m a l l n u c l e i
were p r e s e n t when c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n was inhibited.

There i s a d i s t i n c t gap i n the sheet c a v i t y at about 0.75R. T h i s gap i s

v e r y p e r s i s t e n t . N e i t h e r an i n c r e a s e of the Reynolds number nor a decrease
of the c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x removed i t . E l e c t r o l y s i s was also i n e f f e c t i v e . The
gap c o i n c i d e s w i t h s i g n s o f l a m i n a r f l o w on b l a d e 2, as shown i n P l a t e 3.15,
which i n d i c a t e s t h a t l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r f l o w i n h i b i t s c a v i t a t i o n inception.

Roughness at the l e a d i n g edge removes the gap and a smooth sheet c a v i t y

o c c u r s at the l e a d i n g edge independent o f e l e c t r o l y s i s .
The chordwise e x t e n t of t h i s sheet i s l a r g e r than on the smooth b l a d e .
T h i s i s a t t r i b u t e d t o the presence of the gap i n the sheet on the smooth b l a d e
r a t h e r than t o the roughness at the l e a d i n g edge because t h i s difference
decreased or d i s a p p e a r e d both at h i g h e r and at lower p r e s s u r e s , when the
i n f l u e n c e o f the gap i s s m a l l e r , as w i l l be shown below.

O b s e r v a t i o n s at the same l o a d i n g and Reynolds number, but at a lower

c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x , are g i v e n i n F i g . 7.3. T h i s F i g u r e shows t h a t the gap i n

118
 without electrolysis with electrolysis

roughened at the leading edge

Fig. 7.3. Cavitation observations in the Depressurized Towing Tank on

6
propeller S at J=0.4 (a =0,92, Re = l . l x l 0 ) .

119
the sheet o f t h e smooth b l a d e p e r s i s t s even i n t h i s extreme c o n d i t i o n . I t
a l s o shows t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e between the c a v i t y l e n g t h o f t h e smooth and
the roughened b l a d e has d i s a p p e a r e d . E l e c t r o l y s i s does s t i l l not c l o s e t h e
gap on the smooth b l a d e , but causes i n c e p t i o n o f two spot c a v i t i e s i n t h e
gap.
The sheet i n F i g . 7.3 has a s p o t - l i k e appearance at t h e l e a d i n g edge,
a l t h o u g h t h e boundary l a y e r i n t h e n o n - c a v i t a t i n g c o n d i t i o n e x h i b i t s a
pronounced l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n b u b b l e , which i s g e n e r a l l y r e l a t e d w i t h a smooth
g l a s s y sheet. A p p a r e n t l y the c a v i t y i t s e l f a f f e c t s the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
and causes a s t r o n g l y t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l type of s e p a r a t i o n , s i m i l a r as t h e
p a t c h e s of c a v i t a t i o n found by A r a k e r i (1973) on a headform.

The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e roughened and t h e smooth b l a d e a t h i g h e r

p r e s s u r e s i s shown i n F i g . 7.4. At i n n e r r a d i i t h e r e i s not much d i f f e r e n c e ,
a l t h o u g h the sheet on the roughened b l a d e extends s l i g h t l y f u r t h e r i n w a r d s .
The gap on t h e smooth b l a d e between 0.72<r/R<0.83 remains, a l t h o u g h a t
0^=2.0 two s p o t s are p r e s e n t i n t h e gap. The sheet near t h e t i p i s reduced
t o a p a t c h of c a v i t a t i o n . The c a v i t y on t h e roughened b l a d e r e f l e c t s the
c a l c u l a t e d pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n better.

The o b s e r v a t i o n s i n F i g . 7.4 (made when t h e tank water was d i s t u r b e d

by d e a e r a t i n g the tank t h e n i g h t b e f o r e ) show t h a t the sheet a t i n n e r
r a d i i remained up t o CT =2.2.
n

7.2. PROPELLER S AT J=0.4 IN THE CAVITATION TUNNEL

The b e h a v i o u r o f p r o p e l l e r S a t J=0.4 i n t h e c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l i s s i m i l a r
t o t h a t i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank, as P l a t e 7.5 shows. The Reynolds
number i n t h e t u n n e l was h i g h e r because the l o w e s t a t t a i n a b l e p r e s s u r e i n
the t u n n e l was h i g h e r . On P l a t e 7.5 some a d d i t i o n a l d e t a i l s can be d i s t i n -
guished .

Very c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s t h e shape and the s t r u c t u r e o f the sheet a t

0.35<r/R<0.7. There i s a dark r e g i o n w i t h t a n g e n t i a l s t r e a k s on i t s s u r f a c e .
At the end o f t h i s sheet a t h i n t r i a n g u l a r r e g i o n e x i s t s w i t h a bubbly surface,
w h i l e sometimes r e g u l a r dark s t r i p e s i n r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n were v i s i b l e ,
b e a r i n g resemblance w i t h T o l l m i n - S c h l i c h t i n g waves. There i s a smooth end
o f t h e sheet c a v i t y when t h e l e n g t h i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g r a d i u s . When
the l e n g t h o f t h e c a v i t y i s c o n s t a n t o r d e c r e a s e s , a c l o u d y e n t r a i n m e n t o f

120
 O =1.7 a =2.0
n n
Blade 1 roughened al the leading edge, Blade 2 smooth, Re =1.1x10' .
G

Fig. 7.4. Differences between smooth and roughened blades with limited
cavitation (Propeller S at J=0.4, Be =1.1x10^),
vapor bubbles o c c u r s , which i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d as e r o s i v e . The structure
of the sheet i s s t r o n g l y t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l and a s e c t i o n a l d e s c r i p t i o n of
the sheet c a v i t y w i l l t h e r e f o r e be inadequate.
The l e a d i n g edge of the sheet on the smooth b l a d e i s s t i l l finger-like,
but the f i n g e r s are narrow and c l o s e t o g e t h e r .

Two types of spot c a v i t i e s appear i n the gap on the smooth b l a d e as

shown i n P l a t e 7.5. The w i d e r s p o t s are c l e a r l y caused by r e g i o n s of l a m i n a r
s e p a r a t i o n , which f o l l o w s from the shape o f the s p o t s near the l e a d i n g edge.
The narrow s p o t s are caused by s u r f a c e i m p e r f e c t i o n s .

Between 0.7R and the t i p the c a v i t y on the smooth b l a d e of P l a t e 7.5

d i f f e r s from t h a t i n F i g . 7.2. The gap i s w i d e r , w i t h more spot c a v i t i e s ,
and a sheet i s l o c a t e d at the t i p . T h i s may be caused by a s l i g h t l y
d i f f e r e n t l o a d i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n due t o t u n n e l w a l l e f f e c t s and illustrates
the s e n s i t i v i t y of r e g i o n s near l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n l o a d i n g .
The roughened b l a d e i n d i c a t e s a somewhat h e a v i e r l o a d i n g i n the Towing Tank
than i n the C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel.

A p p l i c a t i o n of roughness a t the l e a d i n g edge removes the gap, but does

not change the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the sheet as d e s c r i b e d above. The cavity
l e n g t h on the roughened b l a d e i s a g a i n somewhat l o n g e r than on the
smooth b l a d e .

The c a v i t a t i o n p a t t e r n at a h i g h e r c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x (a =2.2) i s shown

n
i n P l a t e 7.6. T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s comparable t o t h a t i n F i g . 7.4, although
t u n n e l w a l l e f f e c t s might have caused a d i f f e r e n c e i n p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g ,
w h i l e the Reynolds number i s a l s o h i g h e r . In P l a t e 7.6 the p r o p e l l e r loading
seems t o be somewhat h i g h e r than i n F i g . 7.4: the sheet i s somewhat l o n g e r
and t h e r e are more patches of c a v i t a t i o n on the smooth b l a d e at o u t e r r a d i i .
P l a t e 7.6 shows a g a i n t h a t the roughness at the l e a d i n g edge does not a f f e c t
the c a v i t y at i n n e r r a d i i . The chordwise l e n g t h of the patches of c a v i t a t i o n
on the smooth blade i s c l e a r l y l e s s than of the sheet on the roughened b l a d e .
The c a v i t y on the roughened b l a d e c o r r e c t l y r e p r e s e n t s the c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e
distribuí i o n .

122
7.3. PROPELLER S AT J=0.6 IN THE DEPRESSURIZED TOWING TANK

In the f o r e g o i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s i t was s y s t e m a t i c a l l y found t h a t sheet

c a v i t a t i o n was absent if the boundary l a y e r i n the low p r e s s u r e r e g i o n at
the l e a d i n g edge was laminar without s e p a r a t i o n . On p r o p e l l e r B at J=0.4
the sheet c a v i t y c o u l d o n l y be c r e a t e d by roughness at the l e a d i n g edge
( P l a t e 6.10, F i g . 6.9). On P r o p e l l e r S at J=0.4 a gap i n the sheet c a v i t y
o c c u r r e d whenever t h e r e were r e g i o n s of l a m i n a r f l o w w i t h o u t separation
( P l a t e 7.5, F i g s . 7.2 and 7.3).

T h i s phenomenon was f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h p r o p e l l e r S at an advance

r a t i o J=0.6. The c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n has a low p r e s s u r e peak
at the l e a d i n g edge, as F i g . 2.15 shows. The peak i s , however, not sharp
enough t o cause a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble at the l e a d i n g edge, so the
boundary l a y e r remains a t t a c h e d and l a m i n a r up t o the midchord r e g i o n ;
although at h i g h e r Reynolds numbers the boundary l a y e r becomes s e n s i t i v e
for surface i r r e g u l a r i t i e s ( P l a t e 3.14).

123
 without electrolysis with electrolysis

124
 The c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t a t t h e l e a d i n g edge i s g i v e n
i n F i g . 7.7 t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s e c t i o n a l c a v i t a t i o n index 0 a t v a r i o u s tank
o r t u n n e l p r e s s u r e s , which a r e e x p r e s s e d as 0 .
m

C a v i t a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e shown i n F i g . 7.8 a t 0 =0.92. Except f o r

n
some i s o l a t e d s p o t s o r patches no c a v i t a t i o n i s p r e s e n t on t h e smooth b l a d e
w i t h o u t e l e c t r o l y s i s , a l t h o u g h t h e p r e s s u r e a t the l e a d i n g edge i s lower
than t h e vapor p r e s s u r e ( F i g . 7.7) which i s c o n f i r m e d by t h e l e n g t h o f t h e
spot c a v i t i e s .
I t i s remarkable t h a t e l e c t r o l y s i s has no e f f e c t . Some bubbles can be
observed near t h e l e a d i n g edge, but no sheet c a v i t y appears. Electrolysis
d i d c r e a t e bubbles i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n , a s o b s e r v a t i o n s on p r o p e l l e r B i n e x a c t l y
the same c o n d i t i o n show ( F i g . 6.2). From t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s i n F i g . 6.2 as w e l l
as from t h e measurements i n s e c t i o n 5 i t was found t h a t n u c l e i up t o 30 pm
i n diameter were p r e s e n t i n t h e f l o w when e l e c t r o l y s i s was a p p l i e d . The
c r i t i c a l radius of the n u c l e i i n t h e c o n d i t i o n o f F i g . 7.8 i s 35 ym. These
n u c l e i can be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a d i f f e r e n c e o f 0.09 (eq. 6.2) between t h e
p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t C and t h e s e c t i o n a l c a v i t a t i o n index 0 a t r=0.6R i n
P
the c o n d i t i o n o f F i g . 7 . 8 . The c a l c u l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e , however, i s 0.35 and
i t i s t h e r e f o r e n o t p o s s i b l e t h a t a l a c k o f n u c l e i i n t h e f l o w causes this
d e l a y i n i n c e p t i o n . Some o t h e r mechanism must i n h i b i t sheet cavitation
i n c e p t i o n when t h e boundary l a y e r i s l a m i n a r .
The p i c t u r e on t h e roughened b l a d e i s d r a s t i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t . An
e x t e n s i v e sheet c a v i t y i s p r e s e n t . The chordwise l e n g t h o f t h e sheet on t h e
roughened b l a d e i s i r r e g u l a r . I t seems t h a t t h e roughness a t some l o c a t i o n s
i s n o t e f f e c t i v e , c a u s i n g gaps i n the sheet c a v i t y . Such a gap may i n f l u e n c e
the c a v i t y l e n g t h , as a l s o happened a t J=0.4.

F i g . 7.9 shows t h e c a v i t a t i o n p a t t e r n a t t h e h i g h e s t Reynolds number

which c o u l d be o b t a i n e d i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank. The c a v i t a t i o n
i n d e x 0 i s a t i t s lowest v a l u e o f 0.67. The e l e c t r o l y s i s w i r e s a r e c a v i t a -
n
t i n g , as was a l s o observed i n F i g . 6.4, and a l a r g e amount o f bubbles a r e
p r e s e n t i n t h e f l o w . S t i l l no sheet c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s on t h e smooth b l a d e s
w i t h o u t e l e c t r o l y s i s . At midchord the pressure i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s also
below the vapor p r e s s u r e , and a g a i n t h e l a r g e bubbles do n o t c r e a t e bubble
c a v i t a t i o n , s i m i l a r as on p r o p e l l e r B ( F i g . 6.4).
When e l e c t r o l y s i s i s a p p l i e d spot c a v i t i e s appear, but o n l y a f r a c t i o n

125
 without electrolysis with electrolysis

roughened at the leading edge

Fig. 7.9. Cavitation observations in the Depressurized Towing Tank

6
on propeller S at J=0.6 (a =0.67, Re =1.7xl0 ).

126
o f the sheet c a v i t y on the roughened b l a d e i s p r e s e n t . At midchord near
r=0.8R bubble c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s , s i m i l a r as shown i n P l a t e 6.12 on the smooth
b l a d e o f p r o p e l l e r B. The sheet at the l e a d i n g edge o f p r o p e l l e r S i s ,
however, s t i l l absent.
These o b s e r v a t i o n s show t h a t i t i s n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e t o c r e a t e sheet
c a v i t a t i o n when the boundary l a y e r i s l a m i n a r n e a r the l e a d i n g edge. The
s t r e a k s on the smooth b l a d e w i t h e l e c t r o l y s i s i n F i g . 7.9 can be r e l a t e d w i t h
t u r b u l e n t s t r e a k s i n the l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r , as was observed in Plate 3.14
at the same Reynolds number. When these s t r e a k s are not p r e s e n t , t h e r e i s no
sheet c a v i t a t i o n , independent of the n u c l e i c o n t e n t , as shown i n F i g . 7.8.

7.4. PROPELLER S AT J=0.6 IN THE CAVITATION TUNNEL

The c a v i t a t i o n p a t t e r n i n the C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel at J=0.6 i s shown i n

P l a t e 7.10 at a c a v i t a t i o n index equal to t h a t i n F i g . 7.8. The Reynolds
number was much h i g h e r , but o n l y a few s p o t s are p r e s e n t . E l e c t r o l y s i s d i d
not have any e f f e c t , a l t h o u g h i n the same c o n d i t i o n some bubble c a v i t i e s
were generated by e l e c t r o l y s i s . Some l a r g e bubbles are v i s i b l e i n the
f l o w , so the absence of the sheet cannot be e x p l a i n e d by a l a c k of n u c l e i .
Roughness at the l e a d i n g edge i s a g a i n n e c e s s a r y t o c r e a t e the sheet at
the l e a d i n g edge. At t h i s h i g h e r Reynolds number the roughness i s more
e f f e c t i v e and the sheet i s more r e g u l a r t h a n i n F i g . 7.8. P l a t e 7.10 i n d i c a t e s
t h a t i n the t u n n e l the p r o p e l l e r i s l i g h t e r l o a d e d than i n the Depressurized
Towing Tank, as was a l s o found at J=0.4.
The s p o t s on the smooth b l a d e are much s h o r t e r than the sheet c a v i t y on
the roughened b l a d e , s i m i l a r as the s p o t s i n the gap at J=0.4.

7.5. INCEPTION OBSERVATIONS ON ROUGHENED PROPELLER BLADES

The f o r e g o i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s were made i n c o n d i t i o n s o f developed cavita-

t i o n , where i n c e p t i o n was o n l y important because i t c o u l d p r e s e n t the
o c c u r r e n c e of developed c a v i t a t i o n . The experiments on the roughened c y l i n d e r
showed t h a t roughness caused an i n c r e a s e of the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x and i t i s
necessary t o c o n s i d e r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on the roughened b l a d e more
closely.

127
 In t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank c a v i t a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s were made near
inception on t h e roughened b l a d e s o f p r o p e l l e r S, both a t J=0.4 en J=0.6.
The l e n g t h o f the sheet c a v i t y at a c e r t a i n r a d i u s i s p l o t t e d a g a i n s t t h e
propeller c a v i t a t i o n index i n F i g . 7.11. The r a d i i which a r e c o n s i d e r e d
are those r a d i i a t which c a v i t a t i o n was most persistent.

From F i g . 7.11 i t appears t h a t t h e c a v i t y l e n g t h i s approaching a s m a l l

but f i n i t e l e n g t h when t h e c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x i n c r e a s e s . This small cavity
l e n g t h p e r s i s t s up t o h i g h c a v i t a t i o n i n d i c e s , but i s o f t e n too small t o
measure a c c u r a t e l y . An a p p r o p r i a t e d e f i n i t i o n o f i n c e p t i o n on a b l a d e w i t h
leading edge roughness i s t h e r e f o r e t h e c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x a t which t h e c a v i t y
l e n g t h approaches an a r b i t r a r y s m a l l v a l u e . F o r p r o p e l l e r S a t J=0.4 t h i s i s
2.0<a <2.2 and a t J=0.6 t h i s i s 2.8<a <3.0.
n n
The r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the s e c t i o n a l c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x f o r these
propeller cavitation indices at inception are p l o t t e d i n F i g s . 7.1 and 7.7.
The c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x 0 =2.2 a t J=0.6 agrees w i t h t h e c a l c u l a t e d minimum
n
p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t , as F i g . 7.7 shows. The i n c e p t i o n index 0^=3.0 i s close
to the c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t a t 1% o f t h e c h o r d , as F i g . 7.1 shows.
So t h i s approach i g n o r e s t h e v e r y s h o r t c a v i t y l e n g t h due t o t h e sharp
p r e s s u r e peak a t t h e l e a d i n g edge.

128
 In the c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l more d e t a i l e d i n c e p t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s are
p o s s i b l e and i n c e p t i o n was c a l l e d on the roughened b l a d e when the f i r s t tiny
s i g n o f c a v i t a t i o n was d e t e c t e d on the roughness elements. The results are
g i v e n i n the f o l l o w i n g T a b l e .

Re J 0.
1
n
6
1 7 x io 0.6 3.4
6
2 1 X io 0.6 3.0

1 4 x io 6
0.4 6.8
6
1 8 x io 0.4 7.3

Table 7.1. Visual ineeption measurements on a roughened blade of

propeller S in the Cavitation Tunnel.

T h i s t a b l e shows t h a t c a v i t a t i o n was observed l o n g b e f o r e the sheet begins

to grow i n chordwise d i r e c t i o n . From the c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e
c o e f f i c i e n t s i n F i g . 7.7 i n c e p t i o n i s found a t 0^=2.3. The observed inception
i n d e x 0 =3.0 t o 3.4 t h e r e f o r e i n d i c a t e s an i n c r e a s e o f the i n c e p t i o n index
n
by about 0.7 t o 1.1 due t o the roughness. A comparison w i t h the smooth
b l a d e c o u l d not be made, o f c o u r s e , s i n c e on the smooth b l a d e no inception
occurred.
At the observed i n c e p t i o n i n d e x 0 =6.8 t o 7.3 at J=0.4 the sectional
n
c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x i s s t i l l much lower than the c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e
c o e f f i c i e n t as shown i n F i g . 7.1. The c a l c u l a t e d minimum p r e s s u r e i s a p p a r e n t l y
too h i g h . On the smooth b l a d e c a v i t a t i o n became v e r y i n t e r m i t t e n t a t h i g h e r
p r e s s u r e s and a c o n s i s t e n t i n c e p t i o n i n d e x c o u l d not be d e f i n e d . T i n y s p o t s
remained v i s i b l e u n t i l about 0 =7.0 but these s p o t s were a l s o caused
n
by s u r f a c e i m p e r f e c t i o n s , s i m i l a r as on the roughened b l a d e .
The i n c e p t i o n measurements at J=0.6 show t h a t t h e r e i s indeed an
i n c r e a s e o f the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x due t o roughness a t the l e a d i n g edge. The
r e s u l t i n g c a v i t a t i o n , however, remains v e r y s m a l l .

129
8. Tip vortex cavitation

The character of a cavitating tip vortex is investigated on propeller V.

The observed radius of the cavitating vortex core near inception hardly
varies with the distance from the tip, although the vortex sheet rolls up
and the strength of the tip vortex increases with the distance from the
propeller tip. A description of the velocity field which accounts for both
facts is given. Contrary to the inception index the radius of the cavita-
ting core is independent of the nuclei content, the total gas content, the
Reynolds number and even of roughness applied on the blade surface near the
tip. This is used to determine cavitation inception on model scale. An
empirical formula to predict inception on model scale is given in order to
make a rough estimate of the inception index.

8.1. INCEPTION OF TIP VORTEX CAVITATION

Much a t t e n t i o n has been p a i d t o t i p v o r t i c e s generated by wings o f

a i r p l a n e s because o f t h e hazards these v o r t i c e s c r e a t e f o r f o l l o w i n g p l a n e s .
In t h a t case t h e s i t u a t i o n f a r behind the wing t i p , where t h e t r a i l i n g
v o r t e x sheet i s c o m p l e t e l y r o l l e d up, i s i m p o r t a n t . The r o l l e d - u p v o r t e x
sheet, w i t h a maximum c i r c u l a t i o n e q u a l t o t h e maximum c i r c u l a t i o n on t h e
g e n e r a t i n g wing, c o n s t i t u t e s t h e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n o f
decay and break-down o f t h e t r a i l i n g v o r t e x . A r e v i e w o f t h i s s u b j e c t has
been g i v e n by W i d n a l l (1975). An e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e survey o f methods t o
i n f l u e n c e t h e t i p v o r t e x , w i t h s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i n c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n , has
r e c e n t l y been g i v e n by P l a t z e r and Souders (1979). Most d a t a , however,
concern t h e f a r f i e l d o f t h e t i p v o r t e x . C a v i t a t i n g t i p v o r t i c e s a r e g e n e r a l l
a t t a c h e d t o t h e p r o p e l l e r t i p and t h e s i t u a t i o n c l o s e t o t h e t i p i s important
Therefore t h e r o l l - u p o f t h e v o r t e x sheet has t o be c o n s i d e r e d first.

Vortex r o l l - u p o c c u r s r a p i d l y i n t h e t i p r e g i o n , where t h e t r a i l i n g
v o r t e x sheet i s s t r o n g e s t . N u m e r i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s g i v e an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e

130
 r a p i d i t y o f r o l l - u p . An example of such a c a l c u l a t i o n , from Moore (1974) i s
g i v e n i n F i g . 8.1. The wing l o a d i n g i s e l l i p t i c a l w i t h the maximum c i r c u l a t i o n T
i n the c e n t e r o f t h e wing at x=0. Moore c o n s i d e r e d discrete vortices
and n u m e r i c a l l y c a l c u l a t e d the path of these d i s c r e t e t r a i l i n g vortices.
F i g . 8.1 shows t h a t at a l r e a d y 5% of the semi-span behind the wing t i p a
d i s c r e t e t i p v o r t e x e x i s t s . The d e t a i l e d s t r u c t u r e of the t i p v o r t e x could
not be c a l c u l a t e d by Moore s i n c e he had to c o l l a p s the t i g h t l y wound
v o r t i c e s i n the t i p v o r t e x i n t o a s i n g l e v o r t e x t o m a i n t a i n the s t a b i l i t y of
his calculation.

Moore v e r i f i e d t h a t the s t r e n g t h of the t i p v o r t e x w i t h i n 10% of the

semi-span behind the t i p can be approximated by Kaden's (1931) a n a l y t i c a l
result

1 /3
r\ . = 0.1 Y r (8.1)
O
1
tip

where y i s the d i s t a n c e behind the t i p , made d i m e n s i o n l e s s by the semi-

span o f the wing. From eq. 8.1 i t f o l l o w s t h a t at y=0.1 a l r e a d y 46% o f the
t o t a l v o r t i c i t y i s present i n the t i p v o r t e x . Moore c a l c u l a t e d complete
r o l l - u p at y=10, but at y=l a l r e a d y 80% of the c i r c u l a t i o n was concentrated
i n the t i p v o r t e x .

These r e s u l t s show t h a t i n the r e g i o n i m m e d i a t e l y behind the p r o p e l l e r

t i p , the s t r e n g t h of the t i p v o r t e x i s r a p i d l y i n c r e a s i n g w i t h the distance
from the t i p . For the p r e d i c t i o n of c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n the pressure
d i s t r i b u t i o n on the t i p v o r t e x has t o be known and t h e r e f o r e the velocity
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the t i p v o r t e x has t o be c o n s i d e r e d now.

0.1 r-

01 0 2 0.3 0 4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9\Oxki.o

Y 0

-x x x — x — x — x — x - x - x - x - x - x -x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-xx-x-x-***

o.i

Fig. 8.1. Calculated shape of the trailing vortex sheet at a distance

of 5% of the semi-span behind the wing ( From Moore, 1974).

131
 The s i m p l e s t d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e t i p v o r t e x i s a Rankine v o r t e x , which
has a l l v o r t i c i t y c o n c e n t r a t e d and e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d i n the vortex core
w i t h r a d i u s a , say. When r o l l - u p i s complete t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e t i p v o r t e x
i s e q u a l t o t h e maximum c i r c u l a t i o n V on the wing and the core r a d i u s a
o v
can be c a l c u l a t e d e.g.. by making use o f c o n s e r v a t i o n o f energy d u r i n g roll-up.
( S p r e i t e r and Sacks, 1951).
The v o r t i c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o u t s i d e t h e v o r t e x core o f a Rankine v o r t e x
can be w r i t t e n as

v(r) = — r > a v (8.2)

and inside t h e core t h e v e l o c i t y decreases l i n e a r l y t o zero

r r
v(r) = 2 - - - r < a v (8.3)
v

The velocity has a sharp maximum a t t h e r a d i u s a^. The p r e s s u r e distribution

i n t h e v o r t e x can be found by i n t e g r a t i n g

This r e s u l t s i n a minimum p r e s s u r e i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e v o r t e x core o f

p -p . =
*l (8.5)
c
™ minr
„ 2 2
4TT a
v
When t h e t i p v o r t e x i s generated by r o l l - u p o f t h e t r a i l i n g v o r t e x sheet
the v e l o c i t y distribution can a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d i n an i n v i s c i d way, as
sketched i n F i g . 8.2. The v o r t i c i t y s p i r a l can be approximated by a c i r c u l a r
distribution o f v o r t i c i t y w i t h an o u t e r r a d i u s a^. When r o l l - u p i s complete
the c i r c u l a t i o n o f the v o r t e x i s e q u a l t o the maximum c i r c u l a t i o n Y on t h e
o
wing and the p o s i t i o n o f t h e v o r t e x and t h e r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v o r t i c i t y
can be found by using B e t z ' s h y p o t h e s i s o f c o n s e r v a t i o n o f impulse and o f t h e
moment o f impulse d u r i n g r o l l - u p (Donaldson, 1971). Moore and Saffman (1973)
related the v e l o c i t y distribution i n the t r a i l i n g vortex w i t h the loading
d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e wing t i p . The c i r c u l a t i o n n e a r t h e t i p o f t h e wing can
be approximated by

1 _ m
F(X) = Y(§) (8.6)

132
 Fig. 8.2. Roll-up of the trailing vortex sheet.

where x i s t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e wing t i p and D i s t h e wing span. When t h e

v o r t i c i t y between a p o i n t x/D,on t h e wing near t h e t i p r o l l s up i n t o a v o r t e x
w i t h r a d i u s x/ D the r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v e l o c i t y i n t h e t i p v o r t e x
is

1 _ m
, , T (Ar/D)
1 1 YA „ _,.
v (r) = ~ —- = — r < a. (8.7)
2irr ,r m t
2TT (^) D

The v a l u e m=i r e p r e s e n t s an e l l i p t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the c i r c u l a t i o n on t h e

wing. Moore and Saffman now assume t h a t A i s c o n s t a n t f o r a l l v a l u e s o f r and
u s i n g the Betz c o n d i t i o n o f c o n s e r v a t i o n of a n g u l a r moment o f v o r t i c i t y they
a r r i v e a t A=2-m f o r the c o m p l e t e l y r o l l e d - u p t i p v o r t e x . Rossow (1973) p r e s e n t s
a s i m i l a r approach f o r a r b i t r a r y span l o a d i n g s .
T h i s approach i s i n v i s c i d and f o r m=0 t h e v e l o c i t y i n t h e c e n t e r o f t h e
core becomes i n f i n i t e a c c o r d i n g t o eq. 8.7. A v i s c o u s core w i l l therefore
e x i s t , w i t h a r a d i u s a which i s s m a l l e r than the r a d i u s o f t h e v o r t e x a .
v t

Experiments w i t h c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n have been p r e s e n t e d by McCormick

(1962). E l l i p t i c a l , r e c t a n g u l a r and d e l t a wings were i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r s e v e r a l
aspect r a t i o ' s and angles o f a t t a c k . McCormick found t h e i n c e p t i o n index o f

133
the t i p v o r t e x t o be independent o f t h e aspect r a t i o . F o r t h e e l l i p t i c a l
5
wing at a Reynolds number o f 7x10 h i s d a t a can be approximated by

1.29
e l l i p t i c a l wing : = 0.15 a
(8.8)
1.44
r e c t a n g u l a r wing : o. = 0.10 a

McCormicks r e s u l t s were remarkable s i n c e the s t r e n g t h o f t h e r o l l e d - u p t i p

v o r t e x i s equal t o the maximum c i r c u l a t i o n T on the wing, which v a r i e s w i t h
o
the aspect r a t i o . A l s o T i s p r o p o r t i o n a l w i t h the angle o f a t t a c k a, which
o
means t h a t when t h e v o r t e x has t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a Rankine v o r t e x the maximum
2 1.29
p r e s s u r e drop i s p r o p o r t i o n a l w i t h a (see eq. 8 . 5 ) i n s t e a d o f a
Chandrashekhara (1976) a l s o measured the i n c e p t i o n index of e l l i p t i c a l and
r e c t a n g u l a r f o i l s , but he a n a l y s e d the d a t a as

2
or, = C 1 a + C 2 (8.9)

i n which the c o n s t a n t was a t t r i b u t e d t o n u c l e i e f f e c t s . P l a t z e r and Souders

(1980), however, a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d an e l l i p t i c a l f o i l and found the c a v i t a t i o n
2
index p e r f e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l w i t h a .

McCormick found from h i s experiments t h a t t h e i n c e p t i o n index v a r i e d

w i t h the Reynolds number

0 3 5
a. = C R e " (8.10)

T h i s r e l a t i o n was a p p r o x i m a t e l y a l s o found by B i l l e t and H o l l (1979), who

a l s o found t h a t the t o t a l a i r content i n f l u e n c e s the i n c e p t i o n pressure.

In a s e m i - e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s McCormick c o n s i d e r e d t h e t i p v o r t e x as a
Rankine v o r t e x w i t h s t r e n g t h T and w i t h a v i s c o u s core r a d i u s r e l a t e d t o t h e
boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s at t h e t i p . He assumed t h a t

6 = k
-7-ÖT35 ( 8
- 1 1 )

w i t h £ as the l e n g t h as shown i n F i g . 8.3 and Re£ as t h e Reynolds number

related to and £. The c r o s s - f l o w v e l o c i t y a t t h e t i p o f an e l l i p t i c a l

134
 Fig. 8.3. Flow at the wing tip as assumed by MaCormiak (1962).

wing was by McCormick taken

and the unknown v a l u e s of k from eq. 8.11 and K and m from eq. 8.12 were,
from the i n c e p t i o n d a t a as g i v e n i n eq. 8.8, determined t o be k=0.31, K=53.7,
and m=0.8. A problem a r i s e s , however, from t h i s r e s u l t s i n c e f o r an e l l i p t i c a l
wing the v a l u e T /cU i s e q u a l t o h a l f the l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t , which i s o f the
o
o r d e r one. T h i s means t h a t the c r o s s - f l o w v e l o c i t y at the t i p i s an o r d e r
of magnitude l a r g e r than the incoming f l o w v e l o c i t y U, which is unlikely.
T h i s i s p r o b a b l y caused by an o v e r e s t i m a t e of the v o r t e x c i r c u l a t i o n V , as
o
w i l l be a n a l y s e d l a t e r .

8.2. AN INVISCID ANALYSIS OF A CAVITATING TIP VORTEX

C a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i s assumed t o t a k e p l a c e when the minimum p r e s s u r e i n

the v o r t e x i s near the vapor p r e s s u r e , p r o v i d e d enough n u c l e i o f s u f f i c i e n t
s i z e are a v a i l a b l e . The minimum p r e s s u r e o c c u r s i n the c e n t e r of the v o r t e x
c o r e , where v i s c o s i t y i s i m p o r t a n t . For i t s p r e d i c t i o n i t i s , t h e r e f o r e ,
n e c e s s a r y t o know the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the v i s c o u s c o r e , however, t h i s
knowledge i s not available.
In a c a v i t a t i n g v o r t e x the v i s c o u s core i s , at l e a s t p a r t i a l l y , r e p l a c e d
by vapor and t h i s vapor c o r e can be t r e a t e d as a s o l i d c o r e , r o t a t i n g w i t h an
o u t e r v e l o c i t y equal t o the f l u i d v e l o c i t y . The p r e s s u r e at t h i s cavitating
core r a d i u s a^ may be assumed t o be the vapor p r e s s u r e p , a l t h o u g h i t i s
p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e gas p r e s s u r e i n the core because the
f l u i d i s g e n e r a l l y h i g h l y s u p e r s a t u r a t e d at the vapor p r e s s u r e . U s i n g the

135
s p i r a l v o r t e x approach of Moore and Saffman (1974), t h r e e r e g i o n s can be
d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n the c a v i t a t i n g t i p v o r t e x :
1. The c a v i t a t i n g core r a d i u s a w i t h a c i r c u l a t i o n T at r=a .
° c c c
2. A r o l l e d - u p v o r t i c i t y r e g i o n , i n which the r a d i a l v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u -
t i o n i s assumed t o have the form

v(r) - - a > r > a c (8.13)

2-rrr

m
i n which C_=r a ^
1 c c
3. An i r r o t a t i o n a l r e g i o n o u t s i d e the r o l l e d - u p v o r t e x w i t h r a d i u s a^,
i n w h i c h the v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n has the form

v(r) = ^ r > a t (8.14)

a
where C =r ( — ) t o ensure c o n t i n u i t y of the v e l o c i t y at r=a .
2 c a^_ t

The pressure at the c a v i t a t i n g core r a d i u s a can be c a l c u l a t e d from

c
eq. 8.4 w i t h the v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n s from eqs. 8.13 and 8.14.

2 m
p - p ( a ) = — { l + ( m - l ) (-£) } (8.15)
8n ma t
c
Near i n c e p t i o n the c a v i t a t i n g core r a d i u s a i s s m a l l and the r a t i o a / a ^
c c t
i s t h e r e f o r e assumed t o be s m a l l . Eq. 8.15 can then be s i m p l i f i e d to
2 2 2

0 =
—2 2 2 2 =
° a g 2
( 8
- 1 6 )

4rr m a n D 4m(- f) "

F
C D
where p ( a )=p .
c v
The r e l a t i o n 8.16 between c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x , c i r c u l a t i o n at the cavitating
core and c a v i t a t i n g core r a d i u s has two important consequences:
1. The c i r c u l a t i o n around the c a v i t a t i n g core c o n t a i n s o n l y a s m a l l
f r a c t i o n of the t o t a l r o l l e d - u p v o r t i c i t y .
2. The r o l l - u p of v o r t i c i t y , and thus the i n c r e a s e of the c i r c u l a t i o n V
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d i s t a n c e from the p r o p e l l e r t i p , has no i n f l u e n c e on the
c a v i t a t i n g core r a d i u s a . This explains c a v i t a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s , where
c
invariably the c a v i t a t i n g core r a d i u s i s c o n s t a n t or decreasing w i t h the
d i s t a n c e from the t i p , even at p o s i t i o n s where the r o l l - u p p r o c e s s has not
yet been completed. When the v o r t e x sheet i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be completely
136
r o l l e d - u p the s t r e n g t h o f the c i r c u l a t i o n a t the core i s s t r o n g l y o v e r -
e s t i m a t e d , which explains the improbable regression coefficients, obtained
by McCormick i n eq. 8.12.
Chandrashekhara (1976) a l s o used a s p i r a l v o r t e x approach t o d e r i v e
the p r e s s u r e at the v i s c o u s core r a d i u s a . but he a l s o assumed the v o r t e x
v
a a
to be c o m p l e t e l y r o l l e d up and c o n s i d e r s the r a t i o c / t as a c o n s t a n t , which
l e a d s t o a m o d i f i e d Rankine v o r t e x approach.

Eq. 8.16 p r o v i d e s a r e l a t i o n between the c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x , the r a d i u s

o f the c a v i t a t i n g core and the c i r c u l a t i o n around the c a v i t a t i n g c o r e . The
circulation r i s a f u n c t i o n of the p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g F, o f the l o a d i n g
d i s t r i b u t i o n m, of the core r a d i u s a^ and p r o b a b l y a l s o of the shape o f the
p r o p e l l e r t i p . For one p r o p e l l e r at one l o a d i n g we t h e r e f o r e need the relation

r c = r (a )
c c (8.i7)

and t h i s r e l a t i o n i s unknown. Assuming t h a t eq. 8.17 can be expressed as

r = ( 8 1 8 )
c -i%=T r
-
a
c
2
i n which P =r /TOD and a'=a /D, we can w r i t e eq. 8.16 as
c c c c

c 2

2
(8.19)
a' 4m ?
c
In an e a r l i e r study ( K u i p e r , 1979a) a good c o r r e l a t i o n between measure-
ments at p r o p e l l e r V at J=0.4 and eq. 8.19 w i t h 2p=l was found. T h i s w i l l now
be i n v e s t i g a t e d more e x t e n s i v e l y i n v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s .

8.3. OBSERVATIONS OF TIP VORTEX CAVITATION ON PROPELLER V

Observations o f the t i p v o r t e x behind p r o p e l l e r V were made w i t h two

cameras. The f i r s t camera observed the t i p v o r t e x c l o s e l y behind the b l a d e ,
the second camera was f o c u s s e d on the same v o r t e x one revolution further
downstream. An example of such o b s e r v a t i o n s i s g i v e n i n F i g . 8.4. These
o b s e r v a t i o n s were made i n t h e NSMB Large C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel.
The c o n d i t i o n s i n which o b s e r v a t i o n s were made were v a r i e d s y s t e m a t i c a l l y .
A d i s t i n c t t i p v o r t e x was p r e s e n t at the advance r a t i o ' s J=0.4 and J=0.5.

137
CO
'S
Some o b s e r v a t i o n s were a l s o made a t J=0.3 but i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e t i p v o r t e x
was connected w i t h a sheet c a v i t y a t t h e s u c t i o n s i d e o f t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s
and t h e maximum p r e s s u r e i n t h e t u n n e l was t o o low t o make t h e c a v i t a t i o n d i s -
appear. At J=0.6 v e r y l i t t l e t i p v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n was p r e s e n t , and i t was a l -
ways combined w i t h p r e s s u r e s i d e c a v i t a t i o n on t h e b l a d e s .
The c a l c u l a t e d r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e b l a d e l o a d i n g i s g i v e n i n
F i g . 8.5. To i l l u s t r a t e the h i g h l o a d i n g o f the b l a d e t i p s o f p r o p e l l e r V
the r a d i a l l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r o p e l l e r S, which has a s t r o n g l y unloaded
t i p , i s a l s o shown. The l o a d i n g i n t h e t i p r e g i o n , n o r m a l i z e d w i t h the
maximum l o a d i n g r , i s g i v e n i n F i g . 8.6, i n which t h e well-known e l l i p t i c a l
o
d i s t r i b u t i o n i s shown f o r r e f e r e n c e . The maximum c i r c u l a t i o n Y on p r o p e l l e r V
o
can be found from

r
—^2 = 0.65 (0.82-J) (8.20)
TrnD

The e f f e c t o f roughness was i n v e s t i g a t e d by a p p l y i n g 60 pm carborundum

on t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e between r=0.9R and t h e t i p o v e r the whole b l a d e . To a v o i d
disturbances o f t h e t i p v o r t e x due t o t h e roughness, t h e o u t e r edge o f the t i p
was kept free from roughness p a r t i c l e s . The s i t u a t i o n was j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e then
when roughness was a p p l i e d a t t h e l e a d i n g edge. Here t h e b l a d e was roughened and
the edge was kept c l e a n . The roughness extended t o l e s s than 1 mm from t h e edge
of t h e b l a d e s .
Two b l a d e s were kept smooth ( b l a d e s 1 and 4 ) , one b l a d e was roughened
at t h e s u c t i o n s i d e (blade 2) and one b l a d e was roughened a t t h e p r e s s u r e
s i d e (blade 3 ) . The two smooth b l a d e s were t h e b l a d e s which showed maximum
d i f f e r e n c e s i n c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i n t h e smooth c o n d i t i o n t o a v o i d confusion
between e f f e c t s o f roughness and e f f e c t s due t o d e v i a t i o n s i n t h e b l a d e
geometry.
6
The t e s t s were c a r r i e d out a t two p r o p e l l e r Reynolds numbers, Re =l.38x10 n

and Re =2.76x10^. The r e q u i r e d Reynolds number and advance r a t i o was o b t a i n e d

n
by c o n t r o l l i n g t h e f l o w v e l o c i t y i n t h e t u n n e l and t h e p r o p e l l e r r e v o l u t i o n s .
The t h r u s t was measured as a check and i t was found t h a t t h e t h r u s t coeffi-
c i e n t v a r i e d w i t h t h e Reynolds number due t o t u n n e l w a l l e f f e c t s .
The e f f e c t i v e advance r a t i o , based on t h e measured t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t
and t h e measured open-water diagram was t h e r e f o r e also calculated. Variation
i n t h e t u n n e l p r e s s u r e a f f e c t e d t h e p r o p e l l e r t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t by l e s s
than 1% o n l y .

139
 Fig. 8.5. Calculated radial distribution of the circulation.

140
 AIR CONTENT BLADE
LOW / HIGH
A A SMOOTH
2.5- O ROUGHENED S S 2

\.\ 0 ROUGHENED P S 3

mm
v\ » SMOOTH 4

\
2.0- V \
J = 0.3
\ (0.33)

\
1.5H ESTIMATED
ACCURACY

\\
1.0H
\

• X «
\\ J = 0.4
(0.39)
\°
0.5- \ o
\8 \
Û V tP J =05
a Û Û (0.52)

20 30 40 50

Fig. 8.7. Measured radii of the cavitating cere of propeller V at

6
Re =1.38xl0 .
n

The o b s e r v a t i o n s were made a t two t o t a l a i r c o n t e n t s o f t h e t u n n e l w a t e r ,

v i z . 6.5 and 13 ppm.

141
 I
AIR C O N T E N T
BLADE
LOW / HIGH
V i a SMOOTH 1

2 5- O ROUGHENED S S 2
J = 0 3 \
• ROUGHENED P S . 3
( 0 28)
V x SMOOTH 4

o to
\
2 0 -

\:\
1.5-
\ ESTIMATED
\ -\ ACCURACY
\T \
•\-

1.0-

N•\ (0.37)

\? OS

05- J = 0.5
(048)

20 30 40 5.0

Fig. 8.8. Measured radii of the oavitating core of propeller V at

Re -2.76x10 .
n
Measurements o f t h e c a v i t a t i n g core r a d i u s a were made from s l i d e s a f t e r
c
p r o j e c t i n g them t e n times m a g n i f i e d . The measurements were made a t about
45 degrees b e h i n d the t i p and at one r e v o l u t i o n f u r t h e r downstream, a t about

142
405 degrees.
The r e s u l t s o f the measurements at 45° behind t h e t i p a r e shown i n
F i g s . 8.7 and 8.8 f o r t h r e e advance r a t i o s . The e f f e c t i v e advance r a t i o s
based on t h r u s t i d e n t i t y a r e g i v e n between b r a c k e t s . In those F i g u r e s t h e
d a t a f o r one advance r a t i o n e a r l y c o l l a p s on one l i n e for a l l c o n d i t i o n s , but
the d a t a o f t h e smooth b l a d e 4 d i f f e r from a l l o t h e r b l a d e s . T h i s was caused
by a s l i g h t d e v i a t i o n i n t h e p r o p e l l e r t i p o f b l a d e 4, as shown i n F i g . 4.5,
where t h e t h i n n e s t c o n t o u r of p r o p e l l e r V i s t h a t o f b l a d e 4, w h i l e t h e p i t c h
was s l i g h t l y h i g h e r .

The r a d i u s o f the core decreased over one r e v o l u t i o n . T h i s decrease has been

p l o t t e d i n F i g . 8.9 as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e r a d i u s a t 45 degrees behind t h e t i p .
C a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n was a l s o determined v i s u a l l y , where i n c e p t i o n was
c a l l e d when the t i p v o r t e x was v i s i b l e d u r i n g about 50% o f t h e time between
the p r o p e l l e r t i p and one r e v o l u t i o n b e h i n d t h e t i p . The r e s u l t s are g i v e n
i n T a b l e 8.1. When c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n c o u l d not be o b t a i n e d because l i m i t a -
t i o n s o f t h e t u n n e l p r e s s u r e t h e upper o r lower l i m i t which c o u l d be reached
i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h i s Table.

Rc n • 1 38 .10°

Re n = 2 76 .10°

z 1.0-

ACCURACY

0.5 1 0 1.5 2.0 2.5

Q c AT 45' BEHIND TIP

Fig. 8.9. Decrease of the radius of the cavitating core after one
revolution.

143
 J J(eff) Re Blade 4 Blade 1 Blade 2 Blade 3
n
rough rough
smooth smooth suction side pressure side

6
0 3 0 33 1 >4 .75 >4.75 >4.75 >4.75
38x10
0 3 0 28 2 76xl0 6
7.66 6.19 7.50 6.28
0 4 0 39 1 38xl0 6
>4.9 ( 4 41) >4.9 (3 9 ) >4.9 ( 4 .41) >4.9 ( 3 49)
0 4 0 37 2 6 6.86 (>4 75) 4.96 (4 5 ) 6.06 (>4 .75) 4.29 (>4 75)
76x10
0 5 0 52 1 6 5.27 ( 2 45) 3.13 (1 99) 3.28 ( 3 .13) 2.39 ( 1 69)
38x10
0 5 0 48 2 76xl0 6
>4.75 (>4 73) 3.48 (2 89) 4.59 ( 4 .36) 3.46 ( 2 87)
0 6 0 62 1 38xl0 6
1.90 <1.90 <1.90 <1.90
0 6 0 59 2 6 2.74 1.95 2.0 1.59
76x10
Table 8.1. Inaeption indices of the blades of propeller V in various
conditions.

(The d a t a between b r a c k e t s a r e f o r a low t o t a l a i r c o n t e n t , t h e o t h e r s f o r a

high t o t a l a i r content).

V a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f the f o r e g o i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s and measurements w i l l be

d i s c u s s e d now.

8.3.1. E f f e c t s o f r o l l - u p o f t h e v o r t e x sheet.

The s p i r a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t r a i l i n g v o r t e x sheet becomes v i s i b l e a t

low c a v i t a t i o n i n d i c e s , as F i g . 8.10 shows. There i s a sheet c a v i t y on t h e
s u c t i o n s i d e o f t h e blade i n these conditions, which r o l l s up i n t o a t i p vortex. A f t e r
one r e v o l u t i o n t h e c a v i t a t i n g core has a c y l i n d r i c a l shape. At a somewhat
l i g h t e r loading the s p i r a l s t r u c t u r e of the c a v i t a t i n g t i p vortex becomes
c y l i n d r i c a l w i t h a p e r i o d i c a l l y v a r y i n g r a d i u s , as i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 8.11.
An i n c r e a s e o f the p r e s s u r e o r a decrease o f t h e v o r t e x s t r e n g t h f i n a l l y
causes a c y l i n d r i c a l c a v i t a t i n g c o r e , as shown i n F i g . 8.4.
These o b s e r v a t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e t h a t r o l l - u p o f t h e v o r t e x sheet indeed
occurs up t o some d i s t a n c e behind t h e b l a d e t i p and t h a t i n t h a t r e g i o n t h e
r a d i u s o f t h e c a v i t a t i n g core i s not a f f e c t e d by t h e r o l l - u p process.

144
 after one behind tip
revolution

Fig. 8.10. Roll-up of the oavitating vortex sheet. (Propeller V blade 4

at J=0.?: , a =2.0, Re =2.76x10 ).
n n

8.3.2. E f f e c t s of the t o t a l a i r c o n t e n t .

When gas d i f f u s e s i n t o the c a v i t a t i n g v o r t e x core the p r e s s u r e i n the

c o r e , and s u b s e q u e n t l y the r a d i u s , w i l l i n c r e a s e . F i g s . 8.7 and 8.8 show t h a t
t h i s i s not the case s i n c e t h e t o t a l a i r contents o f the water, which c o n t r o l s
d i f f u s i o n d i d not change the r a d i u s of the c a v i t a t i n g c o r e .
At a h i g h t o t a l gas contents of t h e t u n n e l water t h e r e are more n u c l e i
p r e s e n t i n the water, which may i n f l u e n c e c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . From Table 8.1
i t f o l l o w s t h a t an i n c r e a s e o f the t o t a l a i r c o n t e n t i n the t u n n e l always
caused an i n c r e a s e i n the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x , as i s shown i n F i g . 8.12. Only on
b l a d e 2 w i t h roughness at the s u c t i o n s i d e the e f f e c t was n e g l i g i b l e at both
Reynolds numbers, but o n l y at J=0.5.
T e s t s i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank w i t h p r o p e l l e r V c o n f i r m e d the
s e n s i t i v i t y of t i p vortex i n c e p t i o n to n u c l e i , as F i g . 8.13 illustrates.
Without e l e c t r o l y s i s no i n c e p t i o n t a k e s p l a c e , w i t h e l e c t r o l y s i s a c a v i t a t i n g
c o r e i s p r e s e n t . In t h i s case a l l b l a d e s were smooth.
The s t r o n g dependence o f the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x o f the n u c l e i content i s i n
c o n t r a s t w i t h the i n s e n s i t i v i t y of the r a d i u s o f the c a v i t a t i n g core t o this

145
 Fig. 8.11. Example of varying core radius (Propeller V blade 4 at
6
J = 0.?, a =2.0, Re =1.38xl0 )
n 3
YI

parameter.

8.3.3. V i s c o u s e f f e c t s on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n .

At f i r s t s i g h t t h e r e appears t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e o f the
Reynolds number on t h e r a d i u s o f the c a v i t a t i n g core between F i g . 8.7 and
Fig. 8.8. However, when the core r a d i u s at 0 =2.8 i s p l o t t e d on basis
n
o f the e f f e c t i v e advance r a t i o the r a d i i at both Reynolds numbers f a l l i n
l i n e w i t h each o t h e r , as F i g . 8.14 shows f o r the averages of b l a d e s 1, 2 an
3. So i t may be c o n c l u d e d t h a t the d i f f e r e n c e between F i g s . 8.8 and 8.9 i s
caused by d i f f e r e n c e s i n e f f e c t i v e advance r a t i o , r e s u l t i n g i n d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t i p v o r t e x s t r e n g t h . The Reynolds number does not i n f l u e n c e the r a d i u s
of t h e c a v i t a t i n g core. T h i s agrees w i t h e a r l i e r measurements at the same
p r o p e l l e r V ( K u i p e r , 1979a) where no Reynolds number e f f e c t s were found
when the p r o p e l l e r t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t was kept c o n s t a n t , as w i l l be
discussed l a t e r ( F i g . 8.22).

146
 j i i_
6
o Re;
n 2 76 • 10
6
x Rez 1 38.10
n

1 o-

BL
A DE 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
'—I 1 1 1 1 1 1 r

Fig. 8.12. Increase of the inception index due to an increase in total

air content.

From the i n c e p t i o n d a t a Of T a b e l 8.1 the e f f e c t o f t h e Reynolds number

cannot be found d i r e c t l y because o f t h e v a r i a t i o n i n e f f e c t i v e advance r a t i o
which o c c u r s s i m u l a n e o u s l y w i t h t h e v a r i a t i o n i n Reynolds number. The d a t a
0.35
from wings i n d i c a t e t h a t the i n c e p t i o n index i s p r o p o r t i o n a l w i t h Re
(McCormick, 1962; B i l l e t and H o l l , 1979). T h i s would mean a 27% i n c r e a s e i n
a. when t h e p r o p e l l e r Reynolds number i s doubled.
The Reynolds number e f f e c t on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on t h e smooth b l a d e s
has been p l o t t e d i n Fig. 8.15 (from Table 8.1). Only a t a low a i r c o n t e n t an
i n c r e a s e o f t h e i n c e p t i o n i n d e x w i t h i n c r e a s i n g Reynolds number i s found,
which i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s apparent Reynolds e f f e c t i s caused by a change i n
the n u c l e i c o n t e n t , as o c c u r r e d i n F i g . 1.1b.

I t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g t o see i f a p p l i c a t i o n o f roughness
a f f e c t s t h e i n c e p t i o n i n d e x . The r e s u l t s o f Table 8.1 have been p l o t t e d i n F i g s . 8.16
and 8.17 f o r both roughened b l a d e s . Compared w i t h t h e i n c e p t i o n i n d i c e s o f
the smooth b l a d e 1 ( F i g . 8.15) roughness a t t h e s u c t i o n s i d e ( F i g . 8.16)
i n c r e a s e s t h e c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x and roughness a t t h e p r e s s u r e s i d e has no

147
 without electrolysis

with electrolysis

Fig. 8.13. Influence of electrolysis in the Depressurized Towing Tank on

tip vortex inception. (Propeller V at J=0.5, a =1.32, Re =1.1x10'

148
 ,6
Re = 2.76x10
mm
\
n

1 .38x10,6
2.0-
\

\ V
\
\
1.0-

-
—J— — r
0.3 0.4 0.5
Jeff.

Fig. 8.14. The aavitating core radius behind blades 1, 2 and 3

of propeller V at a^=2.8.

e f f e c t . T h i s i s i n c o n t r a s t w i t h McCormick's (1962) f i n d i n g s . He found t h a t

0^ was reduced by roughness on t h e p r e s s u r e s i d e . Arndt (1976) found t h a t
a p p l i c a t i o n o f roughness on t h e s u c t i o n s i d e o f p r o p e l l e r A (see appendix 2)
reduced t h e i n c e p t i o n index. I n t h a t case t h e t i p v o r t e x was, however,
p o s i t i o n e d at t h e s u c t i o n s i d e , as F i g . A2.7 shows. A p p a r e n t l y i t i s impor-
t a n t t h a t t h e roughness i s a p p l i e d i n t h e r e g i o n where t h e t i p v o r t e x
o r i g i n a t e s , as was a l s o found by P l a t z e r and Souders (1980). They found
t h a t roughness a t both t h e p r e s s u r e and t h e s u c t i o n s i d e reduced t h e i n c e p -
t i o n index. From F i g . 6.2 o f p r o p e l l e r B and from F i g . 7.2 o f p r o p e l l e r S
i t i s found t h a t a p p l i c a t i o n o f l e a d i n g edge roughness i n c r e a s e s the i n c e p t i o n
index, which may be because o f t h e low n u c l e i c o n t e n t i n t h a t c o n d i t i o n . In
the c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l roughness at t h e l e a d i n g edge indeed suppressed t i p
v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n ( P l a t e 7.6).
The f o r e g o i n g shows t h a t when t h e e f f e c t o f roughness on t i p v o r t e x
i n c e p t i o n i s i n v e s t i g a t e d , i t i s very important to consider a l s o t h e boundary
l a y e r near t h e t i p , t h e n u c l e i c o n t e n t i n t h e f l o w and t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e
t i p v o r t e x on t h e b l a d e as w e l l .

149
 BLADE 1
HIGH A.C.

0.3 0.4 0.5 j 0.6

Fig. 8.15. Inception data on the smooth blades (blade 1 and 4) of

propeller V.

I t i s remarkable t h a t the i n c r e a s e of the i n c e p t i o n index on the blade

w i t h roughness on the s u c t i o n s i d e i s not r e f l e c t e d i n the measured r a d i i
of the c a v i t a t i n g core ( F i g s . 8.7 and 8.8), which r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n i f
an e f f e c t of roughness on t i p v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n on model scale i s r e l e v a n t
f o r the p r o t o t y p e . T h i s has t o be further investigated.

The boundary l a y e r on the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s a l s o a f f e c t s the appearance

of the c a v i t a t i n g t i p v o r t e x , s p e c i f i c a l l y the l o c a t i o n of i n c e p t i o n . As
p a i n t t e s t s showed, the boundary l a y e r on p r o p e l l e r V was l a m i n a r at the
l e a d i n g edge up to the t i p , b o t h on p r e s s u r e and s u c t i o n s i d e . At an advance
r a t i o J=0.4 l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n was about t o s t a r t at the t i p and a separation
r a d i u s c o u l d be d e t e c t e d on the s u c t i o n s i d e , as P l a t e 3.10 shows. When the
boundary l a y e r was l a m i n a r at the t i p detached c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n occurred,

150
 i - l r
0.4 0.5 o:6

Fig. 8.16. Inception data on a blade of propeller V with roughness

on the suction side (blade 2).

as i s shown i n F i g . 8.18 at J=0.4. In F i g . 8.19 p r o p e l l e r V i s shown at

J=0.5 i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank and detached i n c e p t i o n takes place
on a l l b l a d e s . A p p l i c a t i o n o f e l e c t r o l y s i s d i d not change t h i s appearance,
and a l s o i n the c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l a detached t i p v o r t e x was found at h i g h
t o t a l a i r content. A p p a r e n t l y the same mechanism which p r e v e n t s cavitation
i n c e p t i o n of sheet c a v i t a t i o n i n a l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r a l s o p r e v e n t s
i n c e p t i o n o f the t i p v o r t e x at the b l a d e .
If l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s i n the boundary l a y e r at the p r o p e l l e r
t i p the c a v i t a t i n g t i p v o r t e x i s always a t t a c h e d t o the t i p and i n c e p t i o n
takes p l a c e at the p r o p e l l e r t i p , as i s shown i n F i g . 8.20.

151
 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Fig. 8.17. Inception data on a blade of propeller V with roughness

at the pressure side, (blade 3).

8.4. DETERMINATION OF CAVITATION INCEPTION OF A TIP VORTEX FROM THE RADIUS

OF THE CAVITATING CORE

The v i s u a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a t i p v o r t e x i s d i f f i c u l t . At i n c e p t i o n t h e
c a v i t a t i n g core i s not s t a r t i n g a t an i n f i n i t e l y s m a l l r a d i u s , but i t appears
i n t e r m i t t e n t l y a t a f i n i t e i n c e p t i o n r a d i u s . F i g . 8.21 g i v e s some examples
of the appearance o f a c a v i t a t i n g t i p v o r t e x near i n c e p t i o n . These p i c t u r e s
are made w i t h s t r o b o s c o p i c l i g h t and t h i s f r o z e n p i c t u r e s t i l l g i v e s much
more d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n than can be o b t a i n e d by v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n . To
a v o i d t h i s u n c e r t a i n way o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the i n c e p t i o n index i t
seems p o s s i b l e t o use t h e measurements o f t h e c a v i t a t i n g core r a d i u s f o r
t h a t purpose.

152
Fig. 8.18. Detached cavitation inception in the Cavitation Tunnel (Propel-
6
ler V blade 1 at J=0.4, a =2.5, Re =1.38xl0 ).

Fig. 8.19. Detached cavitation inception in the Depressurized Towing Tank

6
(J=0.5, a =1.0, Re = l . l x l 0 ) .
n n

153
 Fig. 8.20. Attached cavitation inception in the Cavitation Tunnel
6
(Propeller V blade 4 at J=0.4, a =3.90, Re =2.76xl0 ).
r
n n

In F i g s . 8.7 and 8.8 an e x p e r i m e n t a l r e l a t i o n between the c a v i t a t i o n

index a and the core r a d i u s a has been given. The minimum radius at i n c e p t i o n was
h c
always about 0.25 mm, provided t h a t i n c e p t i o n was not d e l a y e d by a l a c k of
nuclei. If c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i s d e f i n e d when the c a v i t a t i n g r a d i u s
e q u a l s a minimum r a d i u s a^ of say 0.25 mm, we a r r i v e at i n c e p t i o n indices
which are i n the range of the i n c e p t i o n i n d i c e s from Table 8.1 as found from
v i s u a l i n c e p t i o n measurements. The advantage of t h i s method to determine
i n c e p t i o n i s t h a t the s e n s i t i v i t y of the i n c e p t i o n index t o the Reynolds
number and to the n u c l e i c o n t e n t i s c i r c u m v e n t e d . However, a tends to go
c
t o the minimum r a d i u s a^ i n an a s y m p t o t i c a l way, which makes the determina-
t i o n of the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x s e n s i t i v e to the c h o i c e of the i n c e p t i o n radius
a. and f o r the e x t r a p o l a t i o n t o a..
l l

In a s i m i l a r way the advance r a t i o at which i n c e p t i o n of the t i p v o r t e x

o c c u r s at a c e r t a i n c a v i t a t i o n index can be o b t a i n e d from F i g . 8.14, where
the l o a d i n g i s v a r i e d at a c o n s t a n t c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x .

154
 Fig. 8.21. Examples of tip vortices at cavitation inception.

A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n between the c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x and the r a d i u s

o f the c a v i t a t i n g core i n one p r o p e l l e r c o n d i t i o n can h e l p t o determine
a , at a f i x e d i n c e p t i o n r a d i u s a., from F i g s . 8.7 and 8.8. A r e l a t i o n o f
the form

(8.21)
2
a' P
c
as was d e r i v e d i n eq. 8.19 does not f i t t h e measurements o f F i g s . 8.8 and 8.9.
The c o r r e l a t i o n between measured v a l u e s o f a and a and eq. 8.21 w i t h 2p=l,
c
as found e a r l i e r ( K u i p e r . 1979a) seems t o be i n c i d e n t a l s i n c e i t c o u l d not
be a p p l i e d i n o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s . When eq. 8.21 i s a p p l i e d i n the range o f the
s m a l l e s t core r a d i i a good c o r r e l a t i o n i s found w i t h 2p=0.5 i n s t e a d o f 1.
T h i s power a l s o f i t s the e a r l i e r d a t a as shown i n F i g . 8.22. There a l s o a
c u r v e f o r 2p=2 i s shown, which power i s found when the c i r c u l a t i o n
i s independent o f a and the v o r t e x i s c o n s i d e r e d as a Rankine v o r t e x , as i n
c
eq. 8.5. F o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of from a c o n s t a n t value o f a^, eq. 8.21
w i t h a power 2p=0.5 can e x t r a p o l a t e the measurements c l o s e t o i n c e p t i o n .

155
 2p =0.5

I I 1 I J
10 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 <7
N

Fig. 8.22. Measured radii of the aavitating core of blade 4 of

propeller V.

In t h i s approach on model s c a l e becomes independent o f t h e Reynolds

number, which c o n t r a d i c t s some e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s . From t h e i n c e p t i o n
observations on p r o p e l l e r V t h e r e a r e , however, i n d i c a t i o n s t h a t n u c l e i
e f f e c t s cause an apparent Reynolds dependency. When wings o f d i f f e r e n t s i z e
are t e s t e d , as was done by McCormick and by B i l l e t and H o l l , w a l l e f f e c t s
on t h e d i f f e r e n t wings may cause d i f f e r e n c e s i n l o a d i n g , r e s u l t i n g i n an
apparent Reynolds e f f e c t , s i m i l a r as t h e d i f f e r e n c e between F i g s . 8.7 and 8.8.
0.35
So i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i a t i o n o f a w i t h Re contains
I

a l l those e f f e c t s .

I n c e p t i o n on model s c a l e i s , however, o n l y i m p o r t a n t t o p r e d i c t inception

on the p r o t o t y p e and t h i s can be done by t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f an e m p i r i c a l
v a l u e o f t h e i n c e p t i o n r a d i u s a^ on the p r o t o t y p e .
The p r e s e n t approach i s i n v i s c i d and the c a v i t a t i n g c o r e r a d i u s will,
therefore,be proportional t o t h e p r o p e l l e r d i a m e t e r D. I t f o l l o w s from
eq. 8.21 w i t h 2p=0.5 t h a t

156
 0, •- C, ( ^ ) ^ (8.22)
i l a
c

where A i s the s c a l e r a t i o . N o o r d z i j found,for three p r o p e l l e r s investigated

behind a s h i p model i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank and a l s o observed on
f u l l s c a l e , t h a t i n c e p t i o n of t i p v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n s c a l e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y
0 35
w i t h Re ' , the same exponent as McCormick found on model s c a l e . In a
towing tank the Froude number has t o be m a i n t a i n e d and the Reynolds number
,3/2 ,0.53
scales with A , which means t h a t N o o r d z i j s c a l e d 0^ w i t h A . This i s
v e r y c l o s e t o eq. 8.22 and t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t w i t h a power 2p=0.5 i n eq. 8.21
the i n c e p t i o n r a d i u s on the p r o t o t y p e can be t a k e n equal t o t h a t on the model.

8.5. AN APPROXIMATE FORMULA FOR THE CAVITATION INDEX AT INCEPTION

A rough e s t i m a t e of the i n c e p t i o n index of the t i p v o r t e x i s often

needed i n the d e s i g n s t a g e . A l t h o u g h v i s u a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the inception
i n d e x of a p r o p e l l e r t i p v o r t e x i s d i f f i c u l t and inaccurate, t h i s may provide
the r e q u i r e d e s t i m a t e . Chandrashekhara (1976) determined the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x
f o r a s e r i e s of p r o p e l l e r s and a n a l y s e d the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x as

2
a. = C(P/D-J) +a (8.23)
l ' res

i n which a was a t t r i b u t e d to n u c l e i e f f e c t s . H i s r e s u l t s can also be

res
a n a l y s e d i n terms of McCormick's a n a l y s i s , as g i v e n i n eq. 8.8 and 8.10, which
i n terms o f a p r o p e l l e r y i e l d s

0, = C(P/D-J) q
Re°" 3 5
(8.24)

6
Data of Chandrashekhara, reduced to a p r o p e l l e r Reynolds number of 10 by u s i n g
eq. 8.24, are p l o t t e d i n F i g . 8.23. There i s a s y s t e m a t i c d i f f e r e n c e between
the d a t a of Chandrashekhara's p r o p e l l e r s A and B and those of h i s p r o p e l l e r E.
The r e s u l t s of our p r o p e l l e r V agree w i t h those of p r o p e l l e r E. The shift is
caused by the f a c t t h a t the a b c i s s a was taken as (P/D-J) at the t i p , which
i s c o r r e c t f o r p r o p e l l e r s w i t h a c o n s t a n t p i t c h over the r a d i u s . P r o p e l l e r s A
and B of Chandrashekharam have, however, a s t r o n g l y reduced t i p l o a d i n g . A l l
d a t a c o l l a p s on our curve if the p i t c h r a t i o at r=0.9R i s t a k e n as a
reference. T h i s was a l s o done by N o o r d z i j (1977).

157
 Re n : 10°

+ P
R OP
ELL
ER A
C
H ANDRA -
S
HE KHARA
(
1 976)
• P
R OP
ELL
ER

ön,

( P/D-J) TIP

Fig. 8.23. Inception data of various propellers.

From F i g . 8.23 a rough a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e i n c e p t i o n i n d e x o f a t i p

v o r t e x can be d e r i v e d

1 4 0 35
a , = 0.12 P/D-J „ ' J L R e - - " u
(8.25)
ni 0.9R n

The use o f t h e power 0.35 f o r t h e Reynolds number has t h e same e f f e c t as t h e

use o f a c o n s t a n t i n c e p t i o n r a d i u s a t a c o n s t a n t Froude number i n eq. 8.21
w i t h 2p=0.5.
Eq. 8.25 can be used f o r an i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e o f t h e i n c e p t i o n i n d e x o f
a model p r o p e l l e r . That t h i s e q u a t i o n a l s o g i v e s r e a s o n a b l e r e s u l t s f o r
p r o p e l l e r s w i t h a s t r o n g l y unloaded t i p can be i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e i n c e p t i o n
of t h e t i p v o r t e x on b l a d e S a t J=0.4, as shown i n P l a t e 7.6. The t i p v o r t e x
i s near i n c e p t i o n on t h e smooth b l a d e and a =2.2. Eq. 8.25 p r e d i c t s a .=2.06
n m
in this condition.

158
 Fig. 8. 24. Interaction between the tip vortex and pressure side
cavitation. (Propeller V blade 1 at J;0.6, a =1.46,
6
Re =2. 76xl0 ).
n

C a v i t a t i o n on t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e may s t r o n g l y i n t e r a c t w i t h the t i p
v o r t e x , making t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a c a v i t a t i n g r a d i u s i m p o s s i b l e . An
example o f such a case i s shown i n F i g . 8.24 where c a v i t a t i o n a t t h e p r e s s u r e
s i d e of t h e b l a d e i n t e r f e r e s w i t h the t i p v o r t e x , which was p e r f e c t l y s t r a i g h t
at a somewhat h i g h e r l o a d i n g . The a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e p r e s e n t inviscid
approach t o c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i n c o m p l i c a t e d and unsteady s i t u a t i o n s
has s t i l l t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d .

159
9.Discussion
Those aspects of cavitation which cause undesirable effects have to be
properly simulated on model scale. This simulation is discussed for sheet
and bubble cavitation. Based on the experimental results in sections 6 and 7
and on the paint tests in section 3 cavitation patterns can be interpreted
and scale effects can be recognized. Measures to avoid scale effects such as
the application of electrolysis and of roughness at the leading edge are
examined and it is concluded that roughness at the leading edge reduces
scale effects on cavitation inception in many cases. The implications of
scale effects on cavitation inception are discussed and some examples are
given.

The purpose o f c a v i t a t i o n t e s t s on model p r o p e l l e r s i s the p r e d i c t i o n

o f p o s s i b l y d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s o f c a v i t a t i o n on the p r o t o t y p e . The main
e f f e c t s are v i b r a t i o n s , n o i s e and e r o s i o n . The r i s k o f e r o s i o n i s g e n e r a l l y
judged from the appearance o f a c a v i t y on the p r o p e l l e r . The presence o f
bubble c a v i t a t i o n and c l o u d y c a v i t a t i o n behind a sheet as shown i n P l a t e 7.5,
i s considered t o be e r o s i v e . Sheet c a v i t a t i o n on the p r e s s u r e s i d e i s a l s o
avoided because o f e r o s i o n danger. The l o c a t i o n and the s t r e n g t h o f e r o s i o n
can be measured by u s i n g e r o s i o n s e n s i t i v e c o a t i n g on the p r o p e l l e r s u r f a c e
( L i n d g r e n and B j a r n e , 1974).
V i b r a t o r y h u l l f o r c e s , generated by the p r o p e l l e r and s p e c i f i c a l l y by
sheet c a v i t a t i o n on t h e p r o p e l l e r can be measured by u s i n g p r e s s u r e pick-ups
i n the h u l l (Van der K o o i j , 1979), w h i l e n o i s e , r a d i a t e d by c a v i t a t i o n on t h e
p r o p e l l e r , can be measured by hydrophones a t some d i s t a n c e from the p r o p e l l e r .
When the c a v i t a t i o n i s l i m i t e d t o p a r t o f the b l a d e area the e f f e c t on t h e
lift and drag o f the p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n s i s s m a l l and t h e r e f o r e c a v i t a t i o n
i n f l u e n c e s t h e p r o p e l l e r performance and the unsteady moments and f o r c e s on
the p r o p e l l e r s h a f t o n l y s l i g h t l y (van der K o o i j , t o be p u b l i s h e d ) . But c a v i t a t i o n
does change the b l a d e s p i n d l e torque o f c o n t r o l l a b l e p i t c h p r o p e l l e r s (Pronk,
1980).

160
 The e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s i n s e c t i o n 6 t o 8 show t h a t a d e l a y o f
c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n can e l i m i n a t e e x t e n s i v e cavitation. Cavitation
i n c e p t i o n i s therefore not only important f o r the determination of the condi-
t i o n a t which c a v i t a t i o n s t a r t s , but also f o r conditions with
s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f c a v i t a t i o n . When a p r o p e l l e r o p e r a t e s i n a wake
behind a s h i p c a v i t a t i o n may o c c u r over a p e r i o d d u r i n g e v e r y r e v o l u t i o n ,
which means t h a t i n c e p t i o n t a k e s p l a c e a t every r e v o l u t i o n . P r o p e r s c a l i n g
of c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t i n these c o n d i t i o n s , e.g. because
the r a t e o f growth o r c o l l a p s e , and thus the e f f e c t s o f t h e c a v i t a t i o n a r e
s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e moment o f i n c e p t i o n .

P r o p e r s c a l i n g o f c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n r e q u i r e s knowledge o f t h e
c o n d i t i o n s on t h e p r o t o t y p e . T h i s knowledge i s v e r y r e s t r i c t e d , a l t h o u g h
much e x p e r i e n c e has been g a i n e d r e l a t i n g t h e c a v i t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r on model
scale with the detrimental e f f e c t s on f u l l s i z e i n a s t a t i s t i c a l way. T h i s
experience includes s p e c i f i c test conditions i n s p e c i f i c t e s t f a c i l i t i e s . The
p r e d i c t i o n o f the c o n d i t i o n s on the p r o t o t y p e a r e t h e r e f o r e o f t e n b e t t e r than
a comparison between r e s u l t s i n v a r i o u s f a c i l i t i e s s u g g e s t s . ( e . g . I.T.T.C.
1969, 1978).
The statistical approach a l s o i n c l u d e s d i f f e r e n c e s between c a v i t a t i o n
on model s c a l e and on f u l l s c a l e . The c a v i t a t i o n p a t t e r n on the p r o t o t y p e
was observed i n a few cases o n l y . Consequently i t might be p o s s i b l e that
s c a l e e f f e c t s i n t h e wake f i e l d a r e o f f s e t by s c a l e e f f e c t s i n c a v i t a t i o n
i n c e p t i o n . A l s o when the r i s k o f e r o s i o n i s judged v i s u a l l y t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
of c a v i t a t i o n p a t t e r n s from f u l l - s c a l e e x p e r i e n c e s can account f o r s c a l e e f f e c t s
on c a v i t a t i o n . Large e r r o r s are, however, p o s s i b l e , w i t h u n c o n v e n t i o n a l designs.

The p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f c a v i t a t i o n from model t e s t s can o n l y

be improved i f the p r e d i c t i o n i s based on p h y s i c a l i n s t e a d o f on s t a t i s t i c a l
methods. P r o p e r s c a l i n g o f i n c e p t i o n i s o n l y t h e b e g i n n i n g o f such a p r e d i c -
t i o n , but i t i s e s s e n t i a l . From t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n the
previous sections the c o n d i t i o n s , required f o r proper s c a l i n g o f i n c e p t i o n ,
can be d e s c r i b e d .

161
9.1. BUBBLE CAVITATION

I n c e p t i o n o f bubble c a v i t a t i o n was d e f i n e d as t h e c o n d i t i o n i n which

a gas bubble i n t h e f l u i d becomes u n s t a b l e and expands r a p i d l y . T h i s i n s t a b i -
l i t y o c c u r s c l o s e t o t h e vapor p r e s s u r e i f t h e c r i t i c a l bubble r a d i u s i s
sufficiently large.
The r e l a t i o n between the c r i t i c a l bubble r a d i u s and the d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e vapor p r e s s u r e and the i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e i s g i v e n by eq. 6.2.
T y p i c a l s e c t i o n a l v e l o c i t i e s on p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s a r e 15 t o 35 m/sec on f u l l
scale. If i t i s e.g. r e q u i r e d t h a t |o+C ( min)|<0.02 t h e c r i t i c a l radius
to be l a r g e r than 46 t o 8 ym r e s p e c t i v e l y . At atmospheric p r e s s u r e t h i s means
t h a t t h e minimum i n i t i a l bubble diameter ranges from 5 t o 20 ym. N u c l e i o f
t h a t s i z e are p r e s e n t i n s e a water ( e . g . K e l l e r and W e i t e n d o r f , 1978) and on
the p r o t o t y p e c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n can indeed be expected i f t h e minimum
p r e s s u r e i s c l o s e t o the vapor p r e s s u r e .

9.1.1. The presence of n u c l e i

C a v i t a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank w i t h o u t
e l e c t r o l y s i s ( s e c t i o n 6.1) have shown t h a t n u c l e i beyond 20 ym i n diameter
are n o t p r e s e n t . I t was even found t h a t i n t h e C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel n u c l e i
beyond 10 ym i n diameter were absent when t h e t o t a l a i r content was
low ( s e c t i o n 6.2). T h i s was n o t expected because v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e
t e s t s e c t i o n s i n the c o n d i t i o n o f P l a t e 6.6 (which i s a t t h e lowest t u n n e l
p r e s s u r e o f 200 mbar) r e v e a l e d many s p e c k l e s i n t h e f l o w under s t r o b o s c o p i c
i l l u m i n a t i o n a g a i n s t a dark background. I t must be concluded therefore that
these s p e c k l e s were e i t h e r s o l i d p a r t i c l e s or that they were t o o s m a l l i n number
to cause f r e q u e n t bubble c a v i t a t i o n . J u d g i n g t h e n u c l e i content i n t h e t e s t
s e c t i o n o f a c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l by v i s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n i s a p p a r e n t l y d e c e i v i n g .
When t h e t e s t s e c t i o n i s s u p e r s a t u r a t e d the amount o f f r e e gas r i s e s
r a p i d l y , as was a l s o found by Arndt and K e l l e r (1976). In F i g . 6.7 the t e s t
s e c t i o n was 2.5 times s u p e r s a t u r a t e d and bubble c a v i t a t i o n was p r e s e n t ,
however, i n such a c o n d i t i o n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n i s misty and the o b s e r v a t i o n s are
i m p a i r e d by t h e f r e e gas i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n . Bubbles o f l a r g e diameter (about
5 mm) are a l s o p r e s e n t i n t h e f l o w , which may l e a d t o "gaseous" c a v i t a t i o n , as
w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d later.

162
9.1.2. The e f f e c t s o f a l a c k o f n u c l e i

When c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i s d e l a y e d by a l a c k o f n u c l e i a l a r g e c a v i t y
volume w i l l appear at i n c e p t i o n . When o n l y a s i n g l e n u c l e u s expands a l a r g e
bubble c a v i t y i s formed, as i s shown e.g. i n P l a t e 6.5 (at a c u r r e n t o f 0.4 A/m)
and i n P l a t e 6.10 (pn the smooth b l a d e w i t h o u t e l e c t r o l y s i s ) .
The r a t e o f growth o f an u n s t a b l e gas bubble can be e s t i m a t e d from
eq. 1.5 w i t h p=p(min).

2 2
R ="|v (a+C (min))
p ( 9 . l )

The maximum r a d i u s R can be found from

max
Rmax = R c r i.t + Rt la o\
(9.2)

but s i n c e R . i s always s m a l l r e l a t i v e t o R the i n i t i a l s i z e can be

crit max
n e g l e c t e d . So w i t h R =Rt and w i t h t=c/2V we have
max
R a+C (min) ,
max
= c ( E ) 2 9 3
T ' T 2 — <->
i n which C i s a c o n s t a n t of order the 1 a n d c i s t h e c h o r d l e n g t h o f t h e p r o p e l l e r
section.
In P l a t e 6.10 we have

0+Cp(min) =-0.20 (from F i g . 6.8)

c = 0.12 m

R =0.009
max

from which i t follows that the c o n s t a n t C i s about 0.6.

The maximum c a v i t y r a d i u s R i s independent o f t h e p r o p e l l e r r e v o l u -

max
t i o n s . An i n c r e a s e i n p r o p e l l e r r e v o l u t i o n s w i l l t h e r e f o r e n o t i n c r e a s e t h e
bubble s i z e . Large i n c i d e n t a l bubble c a v i t i e s i n d i c a t e a d i f f e r e n c e between
a and -C (min) and thus a l a c k o f n u c l e i . When t h e number o f bubble c a v i t i e s
P
increases, as shown i n P l a t e 6.5, t h e maximum s i z e o f the c a v i t i e s d e c r e a s e s
Large amounts o f bubble c a v i t i e s o c c u r o n l y when l a r g e amounts o f n u c l e i a r e
p r e s e n t . I t i s , however, v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o s u p p l y such an amount o f n u c l e i .
When the smooth blade i n P l a t e 6.12 had been p e r f e c t l y smooth no bubble c a v i t i e s
at a l l would have been p r e s e n t . Even i n F i g . 6.11 w i t h a v e r y h i g h f r e e gas
c o n t e n t i n t h e t u n n e l , t h e bubble c a v i t i e s a r e s t i l l fairly large.

163
When the s u p p l y of n u c l e i i s c o n c e n t r a t e d b e h i n d a roughness element a
bubble stream o c c u r s , l e a d i n g t o a spot c a v i t y w i t h a bubbly s u r f a c e , as
shown i n P l a t e 6.6. The o c c u r r e n c e of such s p o t s , s t a r t i n g away from the
l e a d i n g edge, a r e an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t bubble c a v i t a t i o n i s d e l a y e d by a l a c k
of n u c l e i .
On commercial p r o p e l l e r s bubble c a v i t a t i o n o f t e n o c c u r s i n the r e g i o n
near the hub, where the s e c t i o n a l Reynolds number i s low. The i n i t i a l bubble
s i z e , r e q u i r e d f o r i n c e p t i o n , i s l a r g e w h i l e the s e n s i t i v i t y t o surface
i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i s low. Bubble c a v i t a t i o n on model s c a l e i n those r e g i o n s can
t h e r e f o r e e a s i l y be o v e r l o o k e d . A r t i f i c i a l g e n e r a t i o n of n u c l e i can improve
t h i s and c r e a t e bubble c a v i t a t i o n i n r e g i o n s where i t g e n e r a l l y i s not found
on model s c a l e . A l t h o u g h t h i s i s an improvement o f the s i m u l a t i o n of bubble
c a v i t a t i o n , the s t a t i s t i c a l r u l e t h a t bubble c a v i t a t i o n i s always h i g h l y
e r o s i v e may need r e f i n e m e n t i n such a c a s e , because the c o n d i t i o n s i n those
r e g i o n s can be such t h a t the bubble c a v i t i e s do not cause e r o s i o n .

9.1.3. The d e t e r m i n a t i o n of i n c e p t i o n

9.1.3.1. The e f f e c t of the Reynolds number.

I f t h e c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x at i n c e p t i o n i s measured when o n l y v e r y s m a l l
n u c l e i are p r e s e n t i n c e p t i o n w i l l be found at too low a c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x and
t h i s can be r e c o g n i z e d , as mentioned above, by the s i z e of the bubbles at
i n c e p t i o n . An i n c r e a s e of the number of r e v o l u t i o n s , which i m p l i e s an i n c r e a s e
of the Reynolds number, o f t e n i n c r e a s e s the i n c e p t i o n i n d e x , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t
the i n c e p t i o n of bubble c a v i t a t i o n depends on the c h a r a c t e r of the boundary
l a y e r . The i n c r e a s e i n Reynolds number has, however, o n l y an i n d i r e c t effect:
the s e n s i t i v i t y f o r s u r f a c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s and c o n s e q u e n t l y the g e n e r a t i o n of
nuclei increases.

9.1.3.2. The d e f i n i t i o n of i n c e p t i o n .

The i n c e p t i o n i n d e x s h o u l d be determined i n a c o n d i t i o n w i t h ample

n u c l e i when the c a v i t i e s r e a c h a s i z e which i s j u s t v i s i b l e . When a f i x e d
bubble s i z e at i n c e p t i o n i s d e f i n e d , however, the c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x becomes
dependent on the model s i z e . The p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n o f i n c e p t i o n of bubble
c a v i t a t i o n remains a r b i t r a r y . A c c o r d i n g t o eq. 9.3 the maximum c a v i t y size
s h o u l d be r e l a t e d w i t h the c h o r d l e n g t h of the p r o p e l l e r . The b e s t way t o
determine i n c e p t i o n of bubble c a v i t a t i o n i s the a c o u s t i c way.

164
9.1.3.3. Gaseous c a v i t a t i o n .

Another r i s k o f defining c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n when v e r y s m a l l c a v i t i e s

o c c u r i s gaseous c a v i t a t i o n . Gaseous c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s when gas bubbles i n
the f l o w grow t o a v i s i b l e s i z e w i t h o u t b e i n g u n s t a b l e when they a r r i v e i n a
r e g i o n where the p r e s s u r e i s c l o s e t o t h e vapor p r e s s u r e . The r a d i u s o f such
a gas bubble can be found from s t a t i c bubble equilibrium

R = (9.4)
v 2s

with

K = R^ (p -p
o v + !*). (9.5)
o

When i n c e p t i o n i s c a l l e d a t a c e r t a i n bubble s i z e the r i s k o f gaseous

c a v i t a t i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e p , so w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p r o p e l l e r
o
r e v o l u t i o n s . Gaseous c a v i t a t i o n can be avoided when R from eq. 9.4 i s s m a l l
v
r e l a t i v e t o t h e r a d i u s o f t h e v i s u a l bubble c a v i t i e s a t i n c e p t i o n , which
r e q u i r e s a maximum i n i t i a l bubble size.

The i n c e p t i o n d a t a from Table 6.1 can be a n a l y s e d i n more d e t a i l now,

and we w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n w i t h t h e h i g h a i r content i n t h e t u n n e l
and the i n c e p t i o n c o n d i t i o n i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank. The r e l e v a n t
data are
CT DTT
V i s u a l l y determined a 1.3 1.4
ni
2 11x10 l.lxlO 6

Re
n
V(0.7R) 14.21 9.3 m/sec
R . (from eq. 6.2) 50 110 ym
crit
P "P 2 52xl0 4
1.17xl0 4
Pa
o V 40 IJm
R (min) 20
o
R (max) 180 240 ym
o

The maximum i n i t i a l r a d i u s was determined from eqs. 9.4 and 9.5 w i t h R = 1 mm

V
When c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i s c a l l e d when s m a l l e r bubbles are p r e s e n t R (max)
o
becomes s m a l l e r .
In t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank i t r e q u i r e s bubbles o f 480 ym i n

165
diameter t o cause gaseous c a v i t a t i o n . The e l e c t r o l y s i s w i r e s w i l l n o t generate
such l a r g e b u b b l e s and gaseous c a v i t a t i o n can t h e r e f o r e be e x c l u d e d . In the
c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l a t t h e h i g h a i r content i t i s very w e l l p o s s i b l e that f r e e
gas bubbles o f 360 pm i n diameter were p r e s e n t i n t h e f l o w and gaseous
c a v i t a t i o n cannot be e x c l u d e d .

9.1.3.4. Bubble s c r e e n i n g

In t h e c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l p a r t i c l e s o r b u b b l e s were always v i s i b l e , even

at low a i r c o n t e n t s , but they d i d n o t cause bubble c a v i t a t i o n . Large bubbles
were a l s o observed i n t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank i n F i g . 6.4, again without
c a u s i n g bubble c a v i t a t i o n . The mechanism behind t h i s i s n o t c l e a r . P o s s i b l y
some s c r e e n i n g o f bubbles takes p l a c e , as Johnson and Hsieh (1966) c a l c u l a t e d .
But s c r e e n i n g o c c u r s o n l y a t a sharp p r e s s u r e peak and the p r e s s u r e distribu-
t i o n i n the c o n d i t i o n o f F i g . 6.4 on the s u c t i o n s i d e had no low p r e s s u r e peak.
C a l c u l a t i o n s o f Kodama e t a l (1979) on a headform w i t h o n l y a moderately
sharp p r e s s u r e peak showed no e f f e c t o f t h e bubble path on t h e i n c e p t i o n
p r e s s u r e . P o s s i b l y the number d e n s i t y o f t h e l a r g e bubbles i s s t i l l t o o low,
making t h e presence o f bubble c a v i t i e s so i n f r e q u e n t , t h a t they a r e o v e r l o o k e d
when photographs a r e t a k e n . T h i s has t o be f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t e d .

9.1.3.5. The use o f p r o p e l l e r B as a s t a n d a r d cavitator

An i n t e r e s t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n o f p r o p e l l e r B i s i t s use as a s t a n d a r d
cavitator.
Schiebe (1969) proposed a headform w i t h an a t t a c h e d boundary l a y e r f o r
the measurement o f t h e n u c l e i content i n a t u n n e l . The c o m b i n a t i o n of tunnel
v e l o c i t y and p r e s s u r e , which can be i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h such an a x i s y m m e t r i c
body, i s d i f f e r e n t , however, then when a p r o p e l l e r i s t e s t e d . When e.g. t h e
h e m i s p h e r i c a l body was i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r t h e I.T.T.C. (Johnsson, 1969) most
t u n n e l s were o p e r a t i n g a t a much h i g h e r v e l o c i t y and a t a much lower pressure
than normal. T h i s drawback can be surmounted by u s i n g a p r o p e l l e r w i t h
a t t a c h e d f l o w o n l y , l i k e p r o p e l l e r B a t J=0.6. When t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e o f t h i s
p r o p e l l e r i s p o l i s h e d i t may a c t as a s t a n d a r d c a v i t a t o r f o r bubble c a v i t a t i o n
i n r e a l i s t i c tunnel conditions.

166
9.1.4. G e n e r a t i o n o f n u c l e i by e l e c t r o l y s i s

The main parameter c o n t r o l l i n g t h e maximum bubble s i z e from a w i r e i s

the gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter 7T (eq. 5.5) at t h e cathode. T h i s i s i l l u s t r a t e d
i n P l a t e 5.4. The gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter at the cathode can be w r i t t e n as

1 / 1 7
TT N = . 2 7
- 3
- 7
+
, T
1.16X10 (9.6)
1 (P -P )Vd
Q v 273

Here t h e e f f e c t o f the s u r f a c e t e n s i o n on the gas p r e s s u r e i n the bubble has

been n e g l e c t e d f o r reasons o f s i m p l i c i t y , a l t h o u g h i t was shown i n P l a t e s
5.3 and 5.4 t h a t t h i s i s n o t f u l l y j u s t i f i e d . The gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter as
d e f i n e d i n eq. 9.6 t h e r e f o r e o n l y g i v e s an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e r e a l gas volume
produced.

Fig. 6.2 shows a d r a s t i c e f f e c t o f e l e c t r o l y s i s . I n t h i s case the gas

9
p r o d u c t i o n parameter was 7.5x10 and t h e l a r g e s t gas bubbles which were gene-
r a t e d had a diameter o f about 30 urn, which i s about 0.1 times t h e w i r e
-9
diameter d. The gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter TT^=7.5X10 i s comparable t o the
s i t u a t i o n i n P l a t e 5.4 w i t h a c u r r e n t o f 4.5 A/m and t h e r e t h e l a r g e s t bubbles
were indeed o f t h e o r d e r o f 0.1 d. From P l a t e 6.5 i t can be seen t h a t an
i n c r e a s e o f t h e c u r r e n t i n c r e a s e s the maximum diameter of t h e generated
bubbles as w e l l as t h e i r d e n s i t y . At a c u r r e n t o f 0.4 A/m i n P l a t e 6.5 t h e gas
-9
p r o d u c t i o n parameter a t t h e cathode i s 2.6x10 and the minimum i n i t i a l bubble
diameter r e q u i r e d f o r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i s about 20 ym o r 0.07 d. From
P l a t e 5.4 i t can be seen t h a t a bubble s i z e o f 0.2 d r e q u i r e s about 16 A/m o r
-8
a gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter o f 3x10
These v a l u e s g i v e an i d e a o f t h e maximum bubble s i z e , generated behind
an e l e c t r o l y s i s w i r e and they show t h a t e l e c t r o l y s i s i s o n l y a p p r o p r i a t e a t
low p r e s s u r e s and a t low v e l o c i t i e s . The m a j o r i t y o f the gas i s produced i n
very s m a l l bubbles and t h e l a r g e s t bubbles are s t i l l o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f t h e
w i r e diameter. In a c a v i t a t i o n t u n n e l h i g h c u r r e n t s are r e q u i r e d t o generate
n u c l e i o f adequate s i z e , which i s n o t a t t r a c t i v e because t h i s may l e a d t o the
c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e e x p l o s i v e f r e e gas i n t h e t u n n e l . T h e r e f o r e t h e method o f
a r t i f i c i a l n u c l e i g e n e r a t i o n on the t u n n e l must be improved. In t h e Depres-
s u r i z e d Towing Tank e l e c t r o l y s i s i s u s e f u l and t o o b t a i n c o n s i s t e n t r e s u l t s t h e
gas parameter as g i v e n i n eq. 9.6 has t o be m a i n t a i n e d .

167
 On the p r o t o t y p e o n l y s m a l l n u c l e i are r e q u i r e d f o r i n c e p t i o n and those
n u c l e i are p r e s e n t i n l a r g e numbers behind a s h i p . K e l l e r and Weitendorf
3
(1978) measured 10 t o 100 bubbles per m i n the range of 20-40 ym in diameter).
To p r o v i d e an e q u a l number of expanding n u c l e i on model s c a l e the number
i 3

d e n s i t y of the n u c l e i above the minimum r a d i u s has to be s c a l e d w i t h A ,

r e s u l t i n g i n a very h i g h number d e n s i t y on model s c a l e .
Roughness at the l e a d i n g edge p r o v i d e s a l a r g e number of n u c l e i ( P l a t e
6.12 e.g.). I t r e q u i r e s a h i g h c u r r e n t to generate a s i m i l a r number of
expanding bubbles by e l e c t r o l y s i s ( P l a t e 6.5). I t can t h e r e f o r e be e x p e c t e d
that a f i n e screen of bubble c a v i t a t i o n as shown i n F i g . 6.12 represents
full-scale conditions.

The number of bubble c a v i t i e s determines t h e i r maximum s i z e . The effect

of the number and o f the s i z e of bubble c a v i t i e s on n o i s e and e r o s i o n has not
yet been i n v e s t i g a t e d .

9.1.5. G e n e r a t i o n of n u c l e i by roughness elements

The c o n d i t i o n s i n which bubbles are generated on roughness elements

are not q u i t e c l e a r as y e t . When the roughness does not cause a t u r b u l e n t
boundary l a y e r i t i s a l s o i n e f f e c t i v e i n g e n e r a t i n g n u c l e i . On the o t h e r hand
i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t no n u c l e i are generated when the roughness elements are
c r e a t i n g a t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r . T h i s i s shown i n P l a t e s 6.2 and 6.6.
In P l a t e 6.6 the roughness elements have an adequate s i z e r e l a t i v e to the
boundary l a y e r but the water at the roughness elements was not s a t u r a t e d . In
P l a t e 6.2 the water was s a t u r a t e d but the h e i g h t o f the roughness was too low.
When roughness elements c r e a t e t u r b u l e n t s t r e a k s i n the boundary l a y e r
i n a f l o w w i t h a low n u c l e i c o n t e n t , e l e c t r o l y s i s causes spot c a v i t i e s at such
l o c a t i o n s , as shown i n F i g . 7.9.

9.2. SHEET CAVITATION

9.2.1. The e f f e c t s of l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r f l o w

The most s t r i k i n g r e s u l t of the t e s t s w i t h sheet c a v i t a t i o n i s the

p e r s i s t e n t l a c k o f c a v i t a t i o n when the boundary l a y e r i s l a m i n a r i n the low
pressure r e g i o n , i r r e s p e c t i v e of the n u c l e i content.

168
 T h i s r e s u l t , i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the r e s u l t s of boundary l a y e r o b s e r v a -
t i o n s , e x p l a i n s some s c a l e e f f e c t s o f t e n observed on p r o p e l l e r models, e.g.
the f a c t t h a t a sheet c a v i t y on the p r o t o t y p e extends f u r t h e r inward than on
the model ( B i n d e l , 1969). On p r o p e l l e r S the t i p was unloaded to a v o i d t i p
v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n , w h i c h caused a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble at i n n e r radii.
Commercial p r o p e l l e r s have a h e a v i e r l o a d e d t i p and a c r i t i c a l radius or
separation radius occurs, as s k e t c h e d i n F i g . 3.9. This separation radius
l i m i t s sheet c a v i t a t i o n on model s c a l e .
When the s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s i s l a r g e , the sheet c a v i t y on model s c a l e
can be c o n s i d e r a b l y s u p p r e s s e d , as i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 9.1., taken from
Kuiper (1978a). In such a case a p p l i c a t i o n of roughness at the l e a d i n g edge
can s t r o n g l y reduce scale effects.
Laminar r e g i o n s f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r on model s c a l e and can e x p l a i n the
experiences obtained w i t h s c a l e e f f e c t s on p r o p e l l e r performance as already
formulated i n 1939 at the t h i r d I.T.T.C. c o n f e r e n c e . There i t was concluded
t h a t s c a l e e f f e c t s on performance were l a r g e s t at a s m a l l s l i p r a t i o on
p r o p e l l e r s w i t h p r o f i l e s w i t h a rounded nose ( o g i v a l s e c t i o n s at t h a t t i m e )
and i f the b l a d e s e c t i o n s at the r o o t were t h i c k (quoted by Yokoo, 1975).

The reason why c a v i t a t i o n i s i n h i b i t e d by a l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r f l o w

i s not c l e a r . A p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n might be t h a t s c r e e n i n g of n u c l e i occurs,
as Johnson and H s i e h (1966) and P e t e r s o n (1972) c a l c u l a t e d . Large b u b b l e s are
pushed away from the b l a d e s u r f a c e by the p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t near the nose.
Because the p r e s s u r e peak i s very sharp they do not a r r i v e i n the minimum
pressure r e g i o n on the b l a d e . An extreme example of l a r g e bubbles which do
not cause i n c e p t i o n i s shown i n F i g . 7.9. However, such a phenomenon was also
observed on p r o p e l l e r B i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n where bubble s c r e e n i n g i s not
p l a u s i b l e , so o t h e r e f f e c t s may be i n v o l v e d i n t h i s case. Bubble screening
should t h e r e f o r e be f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t e d .

9.2.2. The e f f e c t of a laminar separation bubble

In a c o n d i t i o n where the boundary l a y e r i s on the verge o f laminar

separation ( P l a t e 3.17) the e x t e n t o f sheet c a v i t a t i o n i s e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e
t o the a c c u r a c y o f the l e a d i n g edge geometry. T h i s i s not p r i m a r i l y caused by
the f a c t t h a t the minimum p r e s s u r e i s v e r y s e n s i t i v e to the b l a d e shape, but
by the f a c t t h a t l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n i s s e n s i t i v e to the b l a d e shape, which i n
t u r n c o n t r o l s i n c e p t i o n . T h i s i s a s c a l e e f f e c t and a p p l i c a t i o n of roughness

169
 Fig. 9.1. Example of suppression of sheet cavitation by laminar
boundary layer flow.

at the l e a d i n g edge can reduce the s c a l e e f f e c t s and a l s o reduce the

differences between the b l a d e s .
The r e g i o n where l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n occurs i s a l s o v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o
the p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g and, i n the unsteady case, t o the v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n
i n the wake. Because sheet c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s o n l y when l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n
takes p l a c e the induced p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s become a l s o very s e n s i t i v e t o
the wake d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s i s p a r t l y caused by s c a l e e f f e c t s on c a v i t a t i o n
i n c e p t i o n but might e r r o n e o u s l y be a t t r i b u t e d t o the wake d i s t r i b u t i o n . Wake
s c a l e e f f e c t s are o v e r e s t i m a t e d i n such a case.
Regions o f l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r f l o w may also influence the h u l l
p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s by changing the growth and c o l l a p s of sheet c a v i t i e s .
The sheet c a v i t y , shown i n F i g . 9.2, i s c o l l a p s i n g w h i l e the p r o p e l l e r blade
l e a v e s the wake peak behind a model. The p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a p p a r e n t l y
causes l a m i n a r r e g i o n s i n the boundary l a y e r and i n those r e g i o n s gaps o c c u r
i n the sheet c a v i t y on model s c a l e . A p p l i c a t i o n of roughness at the leading
edge can prevent these gaps and decrease the s c a l e e f f e c t s on the measured
p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s on the h u l l .

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 Fig. 9.2. Irregular disappearance of sheet cavitation due to laminar
boundary layer flow.

9.2.3. C a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n on roughness elements

The p e n a l t y f o r the a p p l i c a t i o n of roughness at the l e a d i n g edge i s

e a r l y i n c e p t i o n on the roughness elements. T h i s e f f e c t , however, i s very s m a l l ,
as shown i n F i g . 7.11. The roughness elements c r e a t e r e g i o n s of low pressures
i n the boundary l a y e r , w i t h a l e n g t h s c a l e e q u a l t o the roughness h e i g h t o r
l e s s . N u c l e i which a r r i v e i n t h i s low p r e s s u r e r e g i o n may become u n s t a b l e
w h i l e the mean p r e s s u r e i s s t i l l h i g h e r than the vapor p r e s s u r e . However,
bubble growth w i l l be a r r e s t e d by the mean p r e s s u r e and the c a v i t a t i o n which
o c c u r s on the roughness elements w i l l remain s m a l l .
The p r e c i s e i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e of sheet c a v i t a t i o n can no l o n g e r be
v i s u a l l y determined when the b l a d e i s roughened at the l e a d i n g edge, but
g e n e r a l l y t h i s p r e s s u r e i s o f no p r a c t i c a l importance. For the r i s k of
e r o s i o n or p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s the p r e s s u r e at which the sheet has a c e r t a i n
minimum l e n g t h and s t a r t s t o grow w i t h d e c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e , as d e s c r i b e d i n
Fig. 7.11, i s more i m p o r t a n t .

171
9.2.4. The e f f e c t s of a l a c k of n u c l e i .

In t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank the n u c l e i content i s so low t h a t

i n c e p t i o n i n t h e r e g i o n of a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble i s sometimes i n h i b i t e d ,
as F i g . 7.2 shows. T h i s o c c u r s e s p e c i a l l y on the b l a d e where the s e p a r a t i o n
bubble i s l o n g e s t , as on b l a d e 2 of p r o p e l l e r S i n P l a t e 3.15. Apparently the
p r e s s u r e at reattachment i s i m p o r t a n t . When more s m a l l n u c l e i were p r e s e n t
i n the f l o w , as i s the case i n the C a v i t a t i o n T u n n e l , the sheet c a v i t y appears
at much h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s and the i n c e p t i o n p r e s s u r e i s independent of the
n u c l e i c o n t e n t , as i s a l s o found on headforms. ( A r a k e r i and A c o s t a , 1979). The
n u c l e i s i z e , needed f o r i n c e p t i o n i n a r e g i o n of a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble
i n the boundary l a y e r i s v e r y s m a l l , which i n d i c a t e s t h a t low p r e s s u r e s occur
on a m i c r o s c o p i c s c a l e i n the reattachment r e g i o n . Very s m a l l n u c l e i , a r r i v i n g
i n these l o w - p r e s s u r e r e g i o n s , w i l l grow i n s i z e and develope i n t o bubble
c a v i t i e s when the mean p r e s s u r e at reattachment i s below the vapor p r e s s u r e ,
as H o l l and C a r r o l l (1979) showed w i t h the bubble r i n g , which o c c u r r e d i n
the reattachment r e g i o n on a h e m i s p h e r i c a l headform.
When the p r e s s u r e peak i s sharp the mean p r e s s u r e at reattachment will
be c l o s e t o the p r e s s u r e at s e p a r a t i o n and the minimum p r e s s u r e , so i n c e p t i o n
w i l l take p l a c e when a=-C^(min). On f u l l s c a l e , where the Reynolds number i s
h i g h , t r a n s i t i o n w i l l o c c u r b e f o r e l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n can t a k e p l a c e and the
mean p r e s s u r e at t r a n s i t i o n , which i s a l s o c l o s e t o the minimum p r e s s u r e ,
w i l l determine i n c e p t i o n . A l t h o u g h the mechanism i s d i f f e r e n t the s c a l e
e f f e c t s on i n c e p t i o n o f sheet c a v i t a t i o n w i l l be s m a l l i f a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n
bubble o c c u r s on model s c a l e . In t h i s case the Reynolds number and the n u c l e i
content have no i n f l u e n c e .
The measurement of p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s on the model h u l l can t h e r e f o r e
b e s t be c a r r i e d out at the c o r r e c t Froude number t o m a i n t a i n the c o r r e c t
p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i n h e i g h t over the p r o p e l l e r d i s k . An i n c r e a s e i n
Reynolds number w i l l not improve the s i m u l a t i o n of sheet c a v i t a t i o n . Roughness
at the l e a d i n g edge can always be a p p l i e d ; when a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble
o c c u r s on the smooth b l a d e i t has no e f f e c t , when a t t a c h e d l a m i n a r f l o w o c c u r s
i t reduces s c a l e e f f e c t s on sheet cavitation.

N o o r d z i j (1976) found a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e o f e l e c t r o l y s i s on the

o c c u r r e n c e of sheet c a v i t a t i o n . I t was v e r i f i e d that t h i s occurred i n a region
w i t h a s e p a r a t i o n bubble. T h i s i s a phenomenon, t y p i c a l f o r f a c i l i t i e s with

172
a very low f r e e a i r content l i k e t h e D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank, where a
l a c k o f n u c l e i can i n h i b i t i n c e p t i o n o f sheet cavitation.
An example o f such a phenomenon i s g i v e n i n F i g . 9.3 on a commercial
p r o p e l l e r . A l l b l a d e s a r e smooth and e x t e n s i v e sheet c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s ,
except on one b l a d e . The d i f f e r e n c e between the b l a d e s i s w i t h i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g
t o l e r a n c e s , but p a i n t t e s t s show t h a t t h e l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble on b l a d e
4 i s , i n chordwise d i r e c t i o n , somewhat l o n g e r than on t h e o t h e r b l a d e s . I n
a s i t u a t i o n w i t h o n l y v e r y few n u c l e i t h i s can mean t h e d i f f e r e n c e between
e x t e n s i v e sheet c a v i t a t i o n o r no c a v i t a t i o n at a l l , as o c c u r s i n F i g . 9.3.
In an unsteady c o n d i t i o n where t h e p r o p e l l e r b l a d e moves through t h e
wake peak a t every r e v o l u t i o n t h i s phenomenon o c c u r s more f r e q u e n t l y . When
the p r e s s u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s on t h e h u l l a r e measured t h e r e s u l t i s a p r e s s u r e
s i g n a l which i s n o t p e r i o d i c w i t h t h e b l a d e frequency. When p e r i o d i c i t y w i t h

Fig. 9.3. Example of the effect of a lack of nuclei when a laminar

separation bubble is present at the leading edge.

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the b l a d e frequency i s s t i l l assumed, e.g. when p e r i o d i c sampling and averaging
i s a p p l i e d , an erroneous harmonic c o n t e n t s o f the h u l l p r e s s u r e fluctuations
i s obtained.

A p p l i c a t i o n o f roughness at the l e a d i n g edge i n a c o n d i t i o n w i t h low

n u c l e i content w i l l generate sheet c a v i t a t i o n i n a l l c o n d i t i o n s . The roughness
elements, which are l o c a t e d i n the minimum p r e s s u r e r e g i o n , c r e a t e m i c r o s c o p i c
l o w - p r e s s u r e r e g i o n s which cause the gas t o come out o f s o l u t i o n , s i m i l a r as
w i t h bubble c a v i t a t i o n . T h i s was found i n a l l c o n d i t i o n s because the roughness
elements are l o c a t e d i n a p o s i t i o n w i t h a v e r y t h i n boundary l a y e r and near
the minimum p r e s s u r e where the water i s n e a r l y always s u p e r s a t u r a t e d . I n s t e a d
of e l e c t r o l y s i s , a p p l i c a t i o n o f roughness at the l e a d i n g edge can t h e r e f o r e be
a method t o prevent s c a l e e f f e c t s on sheet c a v i t a t i o n . T h i s can be used when
the n u c l e i c o n t e n t i s low and e l e c t r o l y s i s s h o u l d be avoided.

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10. C o n c l u s i o n s

T h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n has made i t c l e a r t h a t t h e c a v i t a t i o n p a t t e r n on a
model p r o p e l l e r has t o be i n t e r p r e t e d i n terms o f t h e p r o p e l l e r boundary
l a y e r and o f t h e n u c l e i c o n t e n t s o f the water. The tendency t o c a r r y out
c a v i t a t i o n o b s e r v a t i o n s a t t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e Reynolds number t o a v o i d
s c a l e e f f e c t s on c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i s not j u s t i f i e d i n g e n e r a l . The main
e f f e c t o f a h i g h p r o p e l l e r Reynolds number i s t h a t s u r f a c e irregularities
become more pronounced, which i s f a v o u r a b l e f o r c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . Applica-
t i o n o f roughness a t t h e l e a d i n g edge i n a c o n t r o l l e d manner i s more
effective.

Roughness a t t h e l e a d i n g edge can a l s o generate n u c l e i and can make

an a d d i t i o n a l s u p p l y o f n u c l e i , e.g. by e l e c t r o l y s i s , unnecessary.

The most important r e s u l t s o f t h i s study can be summarized as f o l l o w s :

1. The c a l c u l a t i o n method, used t o determine the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e

blades, gives r e s u l t s which c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t t h e c a v i t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f
the i n v e s t i g a t e d p r o p e l l e r s , p r o v i d e d t h a t i n c e p t i o n t a k e s p l a c e near t h e
vapor p r e s s u r e . The t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l treatment o f t h i c k b l a d e sections
near the hub needs f u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t .

2. The boundary l a y e r on t h e s u c t i o n s i d e o f a p r o p e l l e r e x h i b i t s l a m i n a r
r e g i o n s i n many c o n d i t i o n s . An i n c r e a s e o f t h e Reynolds number does n o t
g e n e r a l l y move t h e t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n t o the l e a d i n g edge, but may cause a
l o c a l turbulent boundary l a y e r due t o s u r f a c e irregularities. Laminar
separation a t t h e l e a d i n g edge i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t on model s c a l e and
the s e p a r a t i o n r a d i u s determines t h e r a d i a l e x t e n t o f sheet c a v i t a t i o n .

3. A p p l i c a t i o n o f roughness a t the l e a d i n g edge can be a p p l i e d w i t h o u t an

u n a c c e p t a b l e i n f l u e n c e on t h e minimum p r e s s u r e a t t h e l e a d i n g edge. Roughness
a f f e c t s the p r o p e l l e r performance, which has t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d more
c l o s e l y , s p e c i f i c a l l y the e f f e c t o f roughness on t h e l i f t o f t h e p r o p e l l e r
sections.

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4. The average s i z e of n u c l e i from a w i r e i s very s m a l l . L a r g e r bubbles w i t h a
diameter i n the o r d e r o f 0.1 times the w i r e diameter are o n l y generated i f
s u f f i c i e n t gas i s produced. These l a r g e r bubbles are then formed by
coalescence i n the Karman v o r t i c e s behind the w i r e .
The gas p r o d u c t i o n parameter at the cathode f o r the g e n e r a t i o n of bubbles
-8
of t h a t s i z e s h o u l d be at l e a s t 10

5. V i s u a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the f r e e gas c o n t e n t s of a t e s t s e c t i o n i s d e c e i v i n g .
A low number d e n s i t y o f l a r g e bubbles g i v e s the i m p r e s s i o n t h a t s u f f i c i e n t
n u c l e i are p r e s e n t . In cases of bubble c a v i t a t i o n a l a c k o f n u c l e i can be
r e c o g n i z e d by l a r g e s i n g l e bubble c a v i t i e s . Spot c a v i t i e s a l s o r e v e a l t h a t
a l a c k o f n u c l e i i n h i b i t s bubble c a v i t a t i o n .

6. For a proper s c a l i n g o f bubble c a v i t a t i o n the number d e n s i t y of the n u c l e i

should be h i g h . A method t o a c c o m p l i s h t h i s i s the a p p l i c a t i o n of roughness
at the l e a d i n g edge.

7. A l a m i n a r boundary l a y e r at the l e a d i n g edge o f a p r o p e l l e r b l a d e inhibits

c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n independent of the n u c l e i c o n t e n t . Roughness at the
l e a d i n g edge can r e s t o r e i n c e p t i o n i n t h a t case.

8. A l a c k of n u c l e i can suppress sheet c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i n the r e g i o n of

a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble i n the boundary l a y e r , but o n l y very s m a l l
n u c l e i are needed.

9. Roughness at the l e a d i n g edge can cause c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i f the mean

p r e s s u r e i s h i g h e r than the vapor p r e s s u r e . In a sharp p r e s s u r e peak the
c a v i t y i s , however, v e r y s m a l l .

10. The c i r c u l a t i o n around the c a v i t a t i n g t i p v o r t e x i s o n l y a f r a c t i o n o f the

t o t a l v o r t e x s t r e n g t h of the t i p v o r t e x . The t o t a l v o r t e x s t r e n g t h i n c r e a s e s
w i t h d i s t a n c e t o the p r o p e l l e r t i p due t o r o l l - u p of the v o r t e x sheet. The
c i r c u l a t i o n around the c a v i t a t i n g c o r e i s n e a r l y c o n s t a n t .

11. The r a d i u s o f t h e c a v i t a t i n g core of a t i p v o r t e x i s independent o f Reynolds

number and n u c l e i c o n t e n t . T h i s can be used f o r the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of c a v i t a -
t i o n i n c e p t i o n , both on the model and on the f u l l - s c a l e propeller.

176
An a t t a c h e d t i p v o r t e x o c c u r s when the boundary l a y e r s e p a r a t e s near the
t i p . Detached t i p v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n o c c u r s i f the boundary l a y e r i s
l a m i n a r near the t i p .

177
APPENDIX 1 : THE GEOMETRY OF PROPELLER B, S AND V

RADIUS CHORD PITCH RATIO MAX. CAMBER MAX. THICKNESS

f mox^ t maxy
% % % /c

.200 .242b<r71 .7441176 .0218939 .1978788

.250 .2117647 .8020221 .025140« .1820225

.300 .2779412 .8312500 .0279762 .1686508

.»00 .3036765 .8593750 .0314165 . 1»<*6731

.500 .323529« .863970t) .0317614 .1210227

.600 .3367647 .84593-59 .0268210 .0977074

.700 .3397059 .795036« .0228896 .0757576

.800 .3235294 .7066176 .0157386 .0568162

.850 .3025735 .6575366 .0119684 .0486027

.900 .2669118 .6093750 .0079201 .0413223

.950 .2036765 .5577206 .0041516 .036101 1

.975 .1496324 .5299632 .002*570 .0368550

Table Al.l. Geometry of propeller B.

178
 O t N Í I JlniMHOo O O —« •» J"l r- X 3* 3
•""•OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO"-"
OOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOO

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7 —-Xi-*í*)\|.^00©00^'\íT)Xl O "D X >
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ©
o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ©

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-ti-'(\;i\(Vr*ii*)n:i* •*
© o o o o o o o o o o
i^^mfurvirvi-^«—•
o o o o o o o o o

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r
x
> -*
ai/lTMiooaooaoH-yií í^ O t i
000C0C00000030000000
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO e
I I I o

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o o © © o o © © o © © o © o © o © o o o

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* xi i oo40Jio*-oor^oj'm* xj xi xi *
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© ^ r \ j i m r \ j x c \ i m x o r - c iv s * * ^ - ^ o
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m j*. x x r- x 3* o — i - H i y j - ^ o o j - h - x x
© e oo© © o * - « « - * « ^ ^ * - * o o o o o o

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OOOOOOOOOOOOOCOCOOOo
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T l - í D O O i r r X - • O r- X > X -•- <- DAJ

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* n r \ i - H ^ - . ^ o o o o o o oH^\ i
© o a o o o o o c o o o c o o o o o o ©

r- r~ x> '"^ -» o i o i n - i \ i n i f i r ) * i \ j x f -
x> x> x <x x o —• o r - - e x * i\, f*i I\I t n in X £>
X X 7- O — m 4 X > X X X X J X . -»O^oXr-X
O O O ^ H ~ H ^ ^ * - — « - * ^ ^ — ^ — t ^ —o o ©

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O 'VJ Xl f- O X O X 3 © G 0 0 X l © X ] © X l r » - 0
M - M (\l 1 1 Xl-Or-l»- X X T C T e r o

179
 RADIUS CHORO PITCH RATIO MAX. CAMBER MAX. THICKNESS

% fmox / c
t max.^.

.200 .2426471 ,78o7047 .0180303 .1643939

.250 .2t)17t>47 .8308&24 .0168539 ,14¿8371

.300 .2779412 .8678309 .0160714 .1234786

.400 .3036765 ,915*4l¿ .0155569 .0869831

.500 .3235294 ,9?849¿b .0151705 .0013636

.600 .3367647 .9047794 .0147380 .0429039

.700 .33*7059 .8393382 .0133658 .0332251

.800 .3235294 .7340074 .0103409 .02663t>4

.850 .3025735 ,678492b .0083232 .0278250

.900 ,2b69ll8 .6235¿94 .0059917 .0282369

.950 .2030765 .5659926 .0037906 .0309507

.975 .1496324 .53492o*.- .0023342 .0361179

Table Al. 3. Geometry of propeller S.

180
 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Q7 Q8 0.9 0.95
V/R
BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE
0. 0 .0b306 .03826 .03426 .02361 .01920 .01162 .009^8 .00415 .00541 .00108 .00611 .00165 .01064 .00561 .01*76 •00BO2
2 .5 .06642 •0275b .04463 .01627 .02678 .007*0 .01448 .00132 .00461 -.00071 .00948 •00049 .01309 .00433 .01665 .00726

-
b . 0 •075n7 .02176 .05130 .01248 .03179 .00500 .01887 .00016 .01299 -.00142 .01207 .00016 .01515 .00338 .01872 .00604

-
7 .b . 08252 .0177« .05659 .00442 .03582 .00362 .02205 .00045 .01567 -.00175 .01429 .0006U .01643 .00265 .02034 .00509

- -
11) . 0 .08636 .01454 .06113 .00794 .03432 .00262 .02484 .00060 .01794 -.00187 .01620 .00060 .01651 .00*06 .02140 .00-20

-
1 5. 0 .09802 .00971 .06869 .00505 .04520 .00130 .02957 .00111 .02193 -.00160 .01942 .00092 •02113 .00124 .02440 .0026»

-- -
20 . n .10551 .00040 .07460 .00316 .04485 .00059 .03336 .00107 .02514 -.0015* .02205 .00066 .02319 •0007J .02634 .00189

-
25 . 0 .111-4 .00400 .07931 .00164 .05359 .00019 .03643 .00090 .02773 -.00119 .02418 .000/2 .02485 .00040 .02768 .00116

-
•000b2 .02613 .00019 .02407
30 . 0 .11621 .00212 .08311 .00064 .05660 -.00010 .03691 -.O0U73 .02981 -.00066 •0?b«5 .00067

- -
40 . 0 .12193 .0002« .08771 .00003 .06031 -.00016 .04200 .00028 .03245 -.00029 .02801 .0002H .02777 -.ooooi .03055 .00010
50 . 0 .123*8 .00000 .08898 .00000 .06136 0.00000 .04290 0.00000 .03323 0.00000 .0286* 0 .00000 .02624 o.ooooo .03096 .00000
60 . 0 .12077 .00142 .08687 .00067 .05973 .00042 .04loO .00013 .03214 .00002 .02774 .00007 .02750 .000*5 •0J023 .000*2
70 . 0 • 1US9 .0057» .00330 .05481 .00170 .03766 .00053 .02886 .00006 .02506 .00027 .02531 .00101 .02610 .0016»
•080b0
7!. . 0 .10633 .00411 .07b63 .OObbT .05105 .00273 .03466 .00088 .02637 .00017 .02298 .00046 .02361 .00163 .026*5 .00261
HO . 0 .096*4 .01342 .069b4 . Ii 06 2» .04636 •00408 .03092 .00137 .0232* .00036 .020*0 .00079 .02154 .00239 .02*51 .00371
Hb . 0 .08909 .01864 .01149 .04076 .00b74 .02647 .00149 .01950 .00063 .01735 .00115 •01913 .003*4 .02233 .00*91
.06225
40 . 0 .07828 .02463 .015*1 .03431 .00763 .02134 .00270 .01525 .00067 .01391 .00149 .01648 •00409 .01443 .00616
.05386
45 . 0 .06626 .03119 .04452 .01426 .02712 .00467 .01560 .00343 .01053 .0010* .01010 .00176 .01356 .00495 .01732 .00750
47 . b .05961 .03466 .03951 .02140 .02325 .010/3 .01251 .00379 .00801 .00109 .00611 .00186 .01206 .00536 .01b46 .00616
100 . 0 .05308 .03626 .03426 .02361 .01920 •011B2 .00928 .00415 .00541 .00106 .00611 .00185 .0106« .00561 .01*76 .00662

Table AI. 4 Blade section geometry of propeller S.

 RADIUS CHORD PITCH RATIO MAX. CAMBER MAX. THICKNESS
f max^. t max^
% /D
P

.200 •7393J82 •024b212 . Ib43939

.250 .261 76<»7 .7391b"»-» .02436M0 .1432584

.300 .2779412 .7391344 ,02J809b .1250000

.«00 ,3Ü367bS .7389706 .0225182 .0949153

.500 ..<23b294 .7386029 .0211364 ,0696b91

.600 .3367*547 .7382Jb3 .0201419 .0«8b900

.700 .33970b9 .73b970b .0195687 .0316182

• bOO .323b294 .740992b .0203409 .0193750

.850 .3025735 .7431965 .0211422 .0150668

.900 .2669118 .74b9b39 .022036b . 0 119835

.950 .2036765 .7503676 .0232852 .0110108

.975 . W96324 .75275/4 .0233415 .0124079

Table AI.5. Geometry of -propeller V.

182
 ?R 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 Q9 095
?xK> BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE BACK FACE
c .0 . 04620 .03118 .030b3 . 0 1 9 2 b .01787 .009b2 . 0 0 7 1 2 .00128 - . 0 0 1 8 2 - . 0 0 5 7 4 - . 0 0 « 4 f i _
.01233 - . 0 1 4 2 6 . 0 1 7 8 4 - . 0 1 5 4 8 - .02008
2 . 5 .06095
.07050
. 0 2 1 0 « .04226 . 0 1 2 0 1 .0288b •004bb . 0 1 3 9 3 -.00160 . 0 0 3 2 6 - . 0 0 6 8 0 - . 0 0 S 4 4
-.01190 - . 0 1 1 4 3
_
-.01637 - . 0 1 2 7 6
- .. 00 11 86 25 60
5 . (1 .01593 .04943 .OObbl .03241 . O 0 * S l .01865 - . 0 0 2 5 9 . 0 0 6 9 3 - . 0 0 6 8 5 - . 0 0 2 4 9 .01109 - . 0 0 8 8 5 . 0 1 4 8 7 - . 0 1 0 2 2
- .01480
- .01018 -.01340 -.01319
7 . s .8TWOS .01251 .ObbOê . 0 0 0 * 9 . 0 3 7 8 3 .00129 .0225b - . 0 0 2 9 B . 0 1 0 0 9 - . 0 0 6 5 8 .00016 - . 0 0 6 4 7 - . 0 0 7 8 3
.06142
111 . 0 . 0 « 4 6 3 .00984 .0 04OH .04212
. 0 4 4 3 «
.00048 .02601 - . 0 0 3 1 0 . 0 1 2 8 8 - . 0 0 6 1 3 .00253
- .00920 - . 0 0 4 2 5
- .. 00 10 19 42 79 - . 0 0 5 6 0
-.01020
1 5 .0 . 0 9 5 5 4 . 0 0 b l 3 .07037 .00248 - . 0 0 0 4 4 . 0 3 1 « 9 - . 0 0 2 9 4 . 0 1 7 8 7 - . 0 0 5 0 5 . 0 0 6 6 8
- .00724 - . 0 0 0 3 3
- .00684 - . 0 0 1 6 1
- . 0 0 754
20 . 0 .10410 . 0 0 3 7 «
.QCc
.07744 •0012b . 0 5 5 1 8 - . 0 0 0 7 4 .03684 - . 0 0 * 4 5 . 0 2 1 6 3 -.00341 .01017 - .00544 .00300
-- . 0 0 4 8 2 .00179
-.005*7
25 . 0 .1 1043 lb .0831? .OOOb4 . 0 b 9 « b - . 0 0 0 7b •04049 - . 0 0 1 8 7 . 0 2 4 8 5 - . 0 0 2 8 3 .01306
- .00386 .00579 .00464
- .00339
3 0 . 0 .11044 .00044 .08770 .00001 . 0 8 3 8 3 - . 0 0 O 7 3 .04362 - . 0 0 1 3 7 . 0 2 7 4 6 - . 0 0 1 9 1 .01536
- .00251 .00804
- .00311 .00695
-.00087
40 . u .12313 -.0000*. .09332
.04442
- . 0 0 0 2 1
0.00000
• O b H HO
.Ob98b
- . 0 0 0 3 4
0.00000
. 0 4 7 5 3
. 0 4 8 6 9
- . 0 0 0 4 5
0.00000
. 0 3 0 8 0
. 0 3 1 8 2
- . 0 0 0 5 5
0.00000
.01842

.01938
- .00068 .01102
.01198
- .00080 .01001
. 0 1 1 0 1
-0 . 0 0 0 0 0
bO . 0 .12bU0 O.OOOUO 0.00000 0 .000UO
bO . 0 .12196 .00114 .04243 ,000b9 . 0 6 7 6 5 .00032 . 0 4 7 0 7 .00001 . 0 3 0 5 0 - . 0 0 0 2 5 .01824 .00044 .01092
- .00070 .00943
- .. 00 00 30 17 4«
70 . 0 .11278 .00400 .U8442 .00274 . 0 6 1 5 9 .00131 . 0 4 2 1 9 .00006 . 0 2 b 5 5 - . 0 0 1 0 0 .01485 •. 0 0 1 9 9 .00774
- .00281 .00670
- .00440
. 0 / 4 1 4
75 . 0 .1057b .00733
.0720b
.00440 . 0 5 6 9 7 . 0 0 2 1 2 . 0 3 8 4 8 .00014 . 0 2 3 5 5 - . 0 0 1 5 3 .01227
- .00307 .00534
- .00438 .00427
- .00707
80 . 0 . 0 4 « 4 9 . 0 1 0 B 6
.0b3b0
.OOObb • 0 b l 2 2 .00322 . 0 3 3 8 7 .00032 . 0 1 9 8 1 - . 0 0 * 0 9 .00409
- .00436 .00240
- .. 00 00 86 52 69 .00132
-
Mb . 0 . 0 « b 5 0 .01517
.05366
.00435 .04434 .00400 . 0 2 8 3 7 .00059 . 0 1 5 3 3 - . 0 0 2 7 1 .00b32
- .. O0 O0 7b O6 H9 - . 0 0 1 0 5
- .01124 - . 0 0 2 1 5
- .00966
40 . 0 . 07442 .02010
. 04269
.01243 . 0 3 8 4 3 . 0 0 b l 7 . 0 2 2 0 3 .00088 . 0 1 0 2 5 - . 0 0 350 . 0 0 1 0 2
- - . 0 0 4 9 9
- .01430 - . 0 0 6 1 1
- •. 00 11 6* b1 3«
WS . '1 .06047 .02546 .01574 .02780 .007B2 . 0 1 4 9 » . 0 0 1 1 2 . 0 0 4 5 7 - . 0 0 4 4 9 - . 0 0 3 7 8
- .00480 - . 0 0 9 4 2
- - . 0 1 0 5 8
-.01803
'.7 . 5 .05375 .02827 .03b80 .01747 . 0 2 2 8 5 .00006 . 0 1 1 1 3 .00121 . 0 0 1 5 3 - . 0 0 5 U 7 - . 0 0 6 3 4
- . 0 1 1 0 0 - . 0 1 1 8 0
- •01b49 - . 0 1 2 9 9
-.0200«
100 . 0 .04b20 .03118 .03083 .0142b . 0 1 7 8 7 .00452 . 0 0 7 1 2 .00128 - . 0 0 1 6 2 - . 0 0 5 / 4 - . 0 0 8 4 8
- .01233 - . 0 1 4 2 6
- 1784
. 0 - . 0 1 5 4 8
-

Table AÍ. 6. Blade section geometry of propeller V.

Appendix 2: AN EMPIRICAL CORRECTION FOR THE CALCULATED LIFT DISTRIBUTION.

It was found by Van Gent (1977) t h a t when t h e l i f t d i s t - r i b u t i o n was

calculated by the l i f t i n g surface program t h e c a l c u l a t e d t h r u s t was
systematically smaller than t h e measured t h r u s t , e s p e c i a l l y a t h i g h e r p r o p e l l e r
loadings. He t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e d t h a t an a d d i t i o n a l v e l o c i t y component was
n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e s e c t i o n a l i n f l o w v e l o c i t y . He found t h a t t h e p r o p e r s l o p e
of t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t was o b t a i n e d when t h e s e c t i o n a l i n f l o w v e l o c i t y
was taken a s :

V (A2.1)
p cosß

T h i s v e l o c i t y i s shown i n F i g . 2.9 and i t i m p l i e s t h a t t h e l i f t i s increased

w i t h a f a c t o r V /V .
P E

The e m p i r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r V /V y i e l d e d good r e s u l t s i n t h e case o f

P E
f o u r commercial p r o p e l l e r s (Kuiper, 1978b). One o f t h e s e p r o p e l l e r s ,
p r o p e l l e r A, i s shown i n F i g . A2.1 and the c a l c u l a t e d and measured open-water
c u r v e s a r e g i v e n i n F i g . A2.2. The e m p i r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n i s implemented i n
the s t a n d a r d program and g i v e s a good agreement w i t h the measurements.
Such an agreement was n o t found f o r p r o p e l l e r s B, S and V ( K u i p e r , 1979b),
where the c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h o u t t h e e m p i r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n yields better results

1.047
1.0
5=

0.7

0.5

0.2

5 BLADES
D • 0.327 m
A / A « 0.82
E 0

c /D - 0.37
PROPELLER A Q7

t/c(0.7) . 0.042

Fig. A2.1. Geometry of propeller A.

184
 O 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
J

o n
Fig. A2.2. Effect of the empirical correction Vp/Vg the calculated
open-water curves of propeller A.

for t h e t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t , as i s shown f o r p r o p e l l e r S i n F i g . A2.3.

The e m p i r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n V /V i n c r e a s e s t h e p r o p e l l e r l o a d i n g i n t h e hub
P ®
r e g i o n , as shown f o r p r o p e l l e r S i n F i g . A2.4. The l o a d i n g o f p r o p e l l e r A
is concentrated near the t i p , whereas the t i p l o a d i n g o f p r o p e l l e r S i s s t r o n g l y
reduced, as i s shown by t h e r a d i a l p i t c h d i s t r i b u t i o n i n F i g . A2.5. I t i s
therefore hypothesized t h a t t h e c o r r e c t i o n , n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n t h e measured
t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s by t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s , i s caused by t h e t i p v o r t e x , which
increases the l i f t at the p r o p e l l e r t i p .

Based on t h i s assumption t h e c o r r e c t i o n V /V was r e p l a c e d by a l i f t

P e
increase:

185
 Fig. A2.3. Effect of the empirical correction V /V^ on the calculated
open-water curves of propeller S.

k f-
AL = - 2 (A2.2)
(1+ Ax-r/R)

where T i s the r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c i r c u l a t i o n , as c a l c u l a t e d w i t h
the l i f t i n g s u r f a c e theory and dF/dr t h e r e f o r e r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t r e n g t h o f
the t i p v o r t e x . The c o n s t a n t k i s an e m p i r i c a l f a c t o r , Ax
r e p r e s e n t s a s m a l l d i s t a n c e between the t i p v o r t e x and the b l a d e and a v o i d s
t h a t the c o r r e c t i o n becomes s i n g u l a r a t t h e t i p .
With Ax=0.1 t h e measured t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t o f p r o p e l l e r S c o u l d be
calculated correctly a t a l l advance r a t i o ' s , i f t h e c o n s t a n t k was
suitable chosen. The r a d i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h i s l i f t i n c r e a s e i s shown i n
F i g . A2.4 and i s s t r o n g l y c o n c e n t r a t e d i n the t i p r e g i o n .

186
 The a p p l i c a t i o n o f eq. (A2.2) t o p r o p e l l e r s B, S and V w i t h the same
c o n s t a n t k r e s u l t e d a g a i n i n t o o h i g h c a l c u l a t e d t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t s a t low
advance r a t i o ' s . T h i s i s s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t r i g u i n g i n t h e case o f p r o p e l l e r V,
which has a r a d i a l l o a d d i s t r i b u t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f p r o p e l l e r A, as can
be seen from F i g . A2.5. A l t h o u g h a s t r o n g t i p vortex i s p r e s e n t at the b l a d e
t i p s o f p r o p e l l e r V, no c o r r e c t i o n f o r t h e l i f t was n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n a
good c o r r e l a t i o n o f the t h r u s t c o e f f i c i e n t , as shown i n F i g . A2.6. The
cause o f t h i s might be t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e t i p v o r t e x r e l a t i v e t o the b l a d e ,
as shown i n F i g . A2.7. P r o p e l l e r A, which r e q u i r e s a lift c o r r e c t i o n i n the
c a l c u l a t i o n s , has a t i p v o r t e x o r i g i n a t i n g at t h e l e a d i n g edge and p o s i t i o n e d
on t h e s u c t i o n s i d e of t h e b l a d e . P r o p e l l e r V has a t i p v o r t e x which i s not
c l o s e t o t h e b l a d e over a s i g n i f i c a n t d i s t a n c e .

188
 Propeller V Propeller A

Fig. A2.7. Comparison of the positions of the tip vortices on

propellers A and V.

On commercial p r o p e l l e r s the p o s i t i o n o f t h e t i p v o r t e x i s mostly

l i k e on p r o p e l l e r A, s t a r t i n g somewhere at t h e l e a d i n g edge. On navy
p r o p e l l e r s , w i t h a reduced t i p l o a d i n g , t h e p o s i t i o n i s t y p i c a l l y l i k e on
p r o p e l l e r V. T h i s may e x p l a i n the g e n e r a l e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
the s t a n d a r d program, t h a t f o r navy a p p l i c a t i o n s the c a l c u l a t e d thrust
c o e f f i c i e n t s were t o o h i g h , whereas i t y i e l d e d good r e s u l t s f o r commercial
propellers.
It i s outside t h e scope o f t h i s study t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s phenomenon
more c l o s e l y . The c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e c a l c u l a t e d and t h e measured t h r u s t
c o e f f i c i e n t w i t h o u t any e m p i r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n j u s t i f i e s t h a t such a c o r r e c t i o n
i s n o t used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , as c a r r i e d out
i n F i g s . 2.13 t o 2.18. A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e e m p i r i c a l c o r r e c t i o n V /V had an
P k
e f f e c t on the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n comparable i n magnitude t o the e f f e c t
caused by v a r i a t i o n o f t h e h e l i c a l p i t c h o f t h e s i n g u l a r p l a n e , as shown i n
F i g s . 2.4 t o 2.6.

189
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198
NOMENCLATURE
Dimension
radius of the c a v i t a t i n g vortex core m

r a d i u s o f the t r a i l i n g v o r t e x m

a r a d i u s o f the v i s c o u s core o f a v o r t e x m
V
_3

C - gas c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a f l u i d kg m

- constant o r c o e f f i c i e n t

drag coefficient

friction coefficient
P P
" o
C pressure c o e f f i c i e n t —
ƒ ipv 2
e p-p o

C pressure c o e f f i c i e n t *
p 2
ipv
C p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t on a smooth s u r f a c e
ps
C chord of a p r o p e l l e r section o r wing m
2 -1

D - diffusion coefficient m sec

- propeller diameter m

d w i r e diameter m

d, bubble diameter m
b

F g l e a d i n g edge f o r c e due t o s i n g u l a r i t y N

v i s c o u s drag c o r r e c t i o n on a p r o p e l l e r section N

v i s c o u s l i f t c o r r e c t i o n on a p r o p e l l e r section N
Fr Froude number —^—
^ 2 -1
G gas p r o d u c t i o n p e r u n i t l e n g t h m sec
-2
g acceleration due t o g r a v i t y

11^ T s c h e b y c h e f f p o l y n o m i a l s f o r chordwise l i f t distribution

h - s h a f t immersion o f p r o p e l l e r

- thickness of paint layer

U
J advance r a t i o —
nD

199
K c o n s t a n t r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e amount o f gas i n a bubble Nm
T
propeller thrust coefficient 2 4

pn „D
Q
p r o p e l l e r torque coefficient 2 5
T,
pn D
- roughness h e i g h t

- coefficient ( i n eq. 8.10)

e q u i v a l e n t sand roughness h e i g h t

L l i f t of p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n

I length of e l e c t r o l y s i s wire

l e n g t h o f a l a m i n a r s e p a r a t i o n bubble

- exponent

- mass o f gas i n a bubble kg

number o f spanwise c o n t r o l p o i n t s i n l i f t i n g surface

calculation

number o f p r o p e l l e r r e v o l u t i o n s

number o f chordwise c o n t r o l p o i n t s i n l i f t i n g surface

calculation

- pressure -2
Nm

- exponent

p r e s s u r e amplitude ratio

p r e s s u r e at i n c e p t i o n Nm

pressure i n paint l a y e r Nm"

-2
p r e s s u r e i n t e s t s e c t i o n o r i n tank a t s h a f t h e i g h t Nm"

vapor pressure Nm"

- pressure at i n f i n i t y Nm"
-2
- initial pressure Nm"

Q propeller torque Nm

R - bubble r a d i u s

- outer radius of p r o p e l l e r

200
R .. c r i t i c a l bubble r a d i u s m
crxt
R. bubble r a d i u s a t i n c e p t i o n m
X
R maximum bubble o r c a v i t y r a d i u s m
max
R bubble r a d i u s a t vapor p r e s s u r e m

R i n i t i a l bubble r a d i u s i n u n d i s t u r b e d flow m
O
V c
Re s e c t i o n a l Reynolds number —'-—
2
Re p r o p e l l e r Reynolds number
u 8
s s

Re„ Reynolds number a t s e p a r a t i o n

r v a r i a b l e r a d i u s on a p r o p e l l e r o r i n a v o r t e x m

r a d i u s o f p r o p e l l e r hub m

s - surface tension Nm

- chordwise c o o r d i n a t e o f a p r o f i l e o r p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n m

t - time sec

- thickness of a propeller section m

- temperature deg.

T propeller thrust N 1

U - a x i a l v e l o c i t y of p r o p e l l e r m sec - 1

- tunnel flow v e l o c i t y m sec 1

U, bubble v e l o c i t y m sec
b
f l u i d v e l o c i t y a t t h e roughness h e i g h t i n u n d i s t u r b e d
-1

flow m sec

U p e r t u r b a t i o n v e l o c i t y on a p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n i n
-1

chordwise d i r e c t i o n m sec

u.£ f l u i d v e l o c i t y i n a p r o p e l l e r boundary l a y e r i n
-1

chordwise d i r e c t i o n m sec

11^ p a i n t v e l o c i t y on p r o p e l l e r s u r f a c e i n chordwise
-1
direction m sec
-1
l o c a l outer flow v e l o c i t y at separation m sec
201
u' corrected p e r t u r b a t i o n v e l o c i t y near t h e l e a d i n g edge

of a p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n

V - flow v e l o c i t y

- undisturbed inflow velocity of a propeller section

V spanwise v e l o c i t y component near wing t i p

cl

e f f e c t i v e inflow v e l o c i t y of a propeller section

V - p e r t u r b a t i o n v e l o c i t y on a p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n normal

to t h e chord

- tangential v e l o c i t y i n a vortex

f l u i d v e l o c i t y i n p r o p e l l e r boundary l a y e r i n r a d i a l

direction m sec

V p a i n t v e l o c i t y on p r o p e l l e r s u r f a c e i n r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n m sec
p 2
pu R . +
cri t
We Weber number
s
W - p e r t u r b a t i o n v e l o c i t y on a p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n i n r a d i a l
-1
direction m sec

- w i d t h o f t h e wake behind a w i r e m

X - chordwise d i s t a n c e from t h e l e a d i n g edge o f a

propeller section m

- distance from wing- o r p r o p e l l e r t i p m

Z number o f p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s

a angle o f a t t a c k rad

dp angle o f p a i n t s t r e a k s w i t h t a n g e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n rad
2 -1
Y c i r c u l a t i o n near t h e p r o p e l l e r t i p m sec
r-
1 c i•r c u tl a *•
tion 2 - 1
m sec
2 - 1
1 c i r c u l a t i o n around t h e c a v i t a t m g core o f a v o r t e x m sec
2 -1

maximum c i r c u l a t i o n around a wing o r p r o p e l l e r b l a d e m sec

6 boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s m

6 g boundary l a y e r thickness at t h e s t a g n a t i o n p o i n t m

202
6* d i s p l a c e m e n t t h i c k n e s s o f a boundary l a y e r m

6 t a n g e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n (index)

6 g momentum t h i c k n e s s o f a boundary l a y e r a t s e p a r a t i o n m

A - scale ratio

- contraction f a c t o r i n vortex r o l l - u p

y dynamic v i s c o s i t y kg m ^"sec
2 -1
V kinematic v i s c o s i t y of f l u i d m sec
2 -1
kinematic v i s c o s i t y of paint m sec
-3
p s p e c i f i c mass o f f l u i d kg m
-3

Pp s p e c i f i c mass o f p a i n t kg m

p. l e a d i n g edge r a d i u s o f a p r o p e l l e r s e c t i o n m
-3
p s p e c i f i c mass o f gas kg m
5
P -P
O V
a s e c t i o n a l c a v i t a t i o n index — i 2 2
JpV p
èpn -p D
O V
a0 . pc ra ov pietlalteiro nc aindex
v i t a t iaotn i index
nception
1
0"^ r c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x at i n c e p t i o n on a roughness element

i n constant pressure
-2
T frictional stress Nm
-1

0) r o t a t i o n rate of p r o p e l l e r r a d sec

a> o resonance frequency o f a gas bubble sec

203
 I

SUMMARY

In model p r o p e l l e r t e s t i n g i t i s assumed t h a t c a v i t a t i o n s t a r t s when

the minimum p r e s s u r e on the b l a d e s i s at the vapor p r e s s u r e . S c a l i n g of
c a v i t a t i o n by m a i n t a i n i n g Thoma's c a v i t a t i o n i n d e x i s based on t h i s assump-
t i o n . However, to s t a r t c a v i t a t i o n ( c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n ) , n u c l e i
are r e q u i r e d t o break the s t r o n g bond between the water m o l e c u l e s . The nuclei
contents of the water c a n , t h e r e f o r e , b e a f a c t o r i n c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . Also
the c h a r a c t e r of the boundary l a y e r on the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s may influence
c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n . The purpose of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s to determine the
inception conditions on model p r o p e l l e r s and to d e v i s e t e s t t e c h n i q u e s t o
improve the p r e d i c t i o n of c a v i t a t i o n on the prototype.

Three p r o p e l l e r models were d e s i g n e d and made to serve t h i s purpose. Each

p r o p e l l e r model e x h i b i t e d a s p e c i f i c type of c a v i t a t i o n , v i z . bubble, sheet and t i p - v o r t e x
c a v i t a t i o n . The e x p e r i m e n t s were c a r r i e d out i n the D e p r e s s u r i z e d Towing Tank
and i n the l a r g e C a v i t a t i o n Tunnel of the N e t h e r l a n d s Ship Model B a s i n i n
o r d e r to compare c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n i n both f a c i l i t i e s . The experiments
were c a r r i e d out i n u n i f o r m a x i a l i n f l o w .
A s t r o n g l y s i m p l i f i e d model of a n u c l e u s i s a s p h e r i c a l gas bubble i n
s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m . T h i s approach i s d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 1 and arguments
are g i v e n why dynamic e f f e c t s and gas d i f f u s i o n can be i g n o r e d i n c a v i t a t i o n
i n c e p t i o n on p r o p e l l e r models.
In s e c t i o n 2 the c a l c u l a t i o n of the p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n on p r o p e l l e r s i n
an u n d i s t u r b e d f l o w i s d e s c r i b e d . The s e n s i t i v i t y of the c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s
to various assumptions made i n the c a l c u l a t i o n method, i s i n v e s t i g a t e d .
The boundary l a y e r on the b l a d e s of p r o p e l l e r models was investigated
by p a i n t t e s t s . In s e c t i o n 2 r e g i o n s w i t h v a r i o u s types of boundary l a y e r
f l o w are g i v e n . Laminar f l o w and laminar separation are shown t o be very
i m p o r t a n t on model s c a l e and v e r y h i g h Reynolds numbers are r e q u i r e d to avoid
these phenomena. T h e r e f o r e the l e a d i n g edge of the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s was
roughened w i t h 60 pm carborundum t o make the boundary l a y e r t u r b u l e n t . This
technique i s described i n s e c t i o n 4. The i n f l u e n c e of the roughness on the
blade geometry i s w i t h i n the m a n u f a c t u r i n g a c c u r a c y of the p r o p e l l e r b l a d e s .
Roughness may, however, cause e a r l y i n c e p t i o n of c a v i t a t i o n , as i s shown by
tests with a cylinder i n cross-flow.

204
 The n u c l e i c o n t e n t s of the water was v a r i e d by e l e c t r o l y s i s .
The s i z e of bubbles generated by w i r e s i s i n v e s t i g a t e d in section 5.
The c a v i t a t i o n p a t t e r n s on the p r o p e l l e r s w i t h bubble and sheet c a v i t a t i o n
are shown i n s e c t i o n s 6 and 7 r e s p e c t i v e l y . These p a t t e r n s are r e l a t e d with
the c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , w i t h the c h a r a c t e r of the boundary
l a y e r as observed w i t h p a i n t t e s t s and w i t h the n u c l e i c o n t e n t of the water
both w i t h and w i t h o u t e l e c t r o l y s i s . From the c a l c u l a t e d p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n
cavitation inception can be p r e d i c t e d , provided that inception t a k e s p l a c e at
the vapor p r e s s u r e . For the o c c u r r e n c e of bubble c a v i t a t i o n on model propellers
additional nuclei must be generated i n the tank as w e l l as i n the cavita-
tion tunnel. Sheet c a v i t a t i o n i s i n h i b i t e d if the boundary l a y e r i s l a m i n a r .
An increase of the Reynolds number does not improve t h i s , a l t h o u g h s u r f a c e
i r r e g u l a r i t i e s become e f f e c t i v e at h i g h Reynolds numbers. A p p l i c a t i o n of
roughness has a s i m i l a r e f f e c t and may a l s o produce n u c l e i . T h i s t e c h n i q u e
may reduce s c a l e e f f e c t s on c a v i t a t i o n inception.
T i p - v o r t e x c a v i t a t i o n i s d e s c r i b e d i n s e c t i o n 8. For the a n a l y s i s of
a c a v l t a t i n g t i p v o r t e x an i n v i s c i d d e s c r i p t i o n i s used and a method to
determine c a v i t a t i o n i n c e p t i o n by measuring the r a d i u s of the c a v i t a t i n g core
has been developed.
The r e s u l t s of t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n may e x p l a i n some of the s c a l e e f f e c t s which
r e g u l a r l y o c c u r i n model t e s t i n g , as d i s c u s s e d i n s e c t i o n 9. This
i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l s o g i v e s guidance to the a p p l i c a t i o n of e l e c t r o l y s i s and to
the use of roughened l e a d i n g edges of model p r o p e l l e r blades.
The most i m p o r t a n t c o n c l u s i o n s are summarized i n s e c t i o n 10.

205
SAMENVATTING

B i j het beproeven van scheepsschroeven op m o d e l s c h a a l wordt aangenomen dat

c a v i t a t i e o n t s t a a t wanneer de l a a g s t e druk op een s c h r o e f b l a d g e l i j k i s aan
de dampdruk. Het v e r s c h a l e n van c a v i t a t i e door het c o n s t a n t houden van het
c a v i t a t i e g e t a l van Thoma i s op deze v e r o n d e r s t e l l i n g gebaseerd.
Voor het o n t s t a a n van c a v i t a t i e ( c a v i t a t i e i n c e p t i e ) z i j n e c h t e r kernen
n o d i g d i e de s t e r k e b i n d i n g t u s s e n de w a t e r m o l e c u l e n kunnen v e r b r e k e n . Het
k e r n e n g e h a l t e van een v l o e i s t o f kan daarom mede bepalend z i j n voor het
o n t s t a a n van c a v i t a t i e . Ook de g r e n s l a a g op het s c h r o e f b l a d kan het o n t s t a a n
van c a v i t a t i e beïnvloeden. Het d o e l van d i t onderzoek i s het bepalen van de
c o n d i t i e s w a a r i n c a v i t a t i e op s c h r o e f m o d e l l e n o n t s t a a t en het o n t w i k k e l e n van
t e c h n i e k e n d i e v o o r s p e l l i n g van c a v i t a t i e op ware g r o o t t e v e r b e t e r e n .

Daartoe werden d r i e s c h r o e f m o d e l l e n ontworpen en gemaakt, d i e e l k s l e c h t s

één b e p a a l d type c a v i t a t i e v e r t o o n d e n , n a m e l i j k b e l l e n - , v l i e s - en t i p w e r v e l -
c a v i t a t i e . De experimenten werden u i t g e v o e r d zowel i n de Vacuumtank a l s i n de
C a v i t a t i e t u n n e l van het Nederlands Scheepsbouwkundig P r o e f s t a t i o n , zodat het
o n t s t a a n van c a v i t a t i e i n b e i d e f a c i l i t e i t e n kon worden v e r g e l e k e n . A l l e
experimenten werden u i t g e v o e r d i n ongestoorde a x i a l e aanstroming.
Een s t e r k vereenvoudigde v o o r s t e l l i n g van een k e r n i s een b o l v o r m i g
g a s b o l l e t j e dat i n s t a t i s c h evenwicht i s met de omgeving. Deze b e n a d e r i n g
wordt i n Hoofdstuk 1 beschreven. Ook wordt d a a r i n aangegeven waarom dynamische
v e r s c h i j n s e l e n en gas d i f f u s i e kunnen worden v e r w a a r l o o s d b i j het o n t s t a a n
van c a v i t a t i e op s c h a a l m o d e l l e n .
In Hoofdstuk 2 wordt de b e r e k e n i n g van de d r u k v e r d e l i n g op schroeven i n
ongestoorde aanstroming beschreven. De a f h a n k e l i j k h e i d van de b e r e k e n i n g s -
r e s u l t a t e n van a l l e r l e i v e r o n d e r s t e l l i n g e n , d i e i n de berekeningsmethode zijn
gemaakt,wordt nagegaan.
De g r e n s l a a g op de b l a d e n van s c h r o e f m o d e l l e n werd onderzocht met behulp
van v e r f p r o e v e n . In Hoofdstuk 3 worden gebieden met v e r s c h i l l e n d e typen
g r e n s l a a g s t r o m i n g aangegeven. L a m i n a i r e g r e n s l a a g s t r o m i n g en l a m i n a i r e
l o s l a t i n g b l i j k e n op m o d e l s c h a a l e r g b e l a n g r i j k en e r z i j n z e e r hoge Reynolds
g e t a l l e n n o d i g om deze v e r s c h i j n s e l e n t e voorkomen. Daarom werd de voorkant
van de s c h r o e f b l a d e n k u n s t m a t i g ruw gemaakt met c a r b o r u n d u m k o r r e l s van c a .
60 ym, zodat de g r e n s l a a g t u r b u l e n t werd. Deze t e c h n i e k wordt beschreven i n
Hoofdstuk 4. De i n v l o e d van de aangebrachte ruwheid op de geometrie van de

206
s c h r o e f b l a d e n i s k l e i n e r dan de f a b r i c a g e - n a u w k e u r i g h e i d van de s c h r o e f -
b l a d e n . Ruwheid kan e c h t e r wel c a v i t a t i e i n c e p t i e v e r v r o e g e n , z o a l s wordt
aangetoond door proeven met een c y l i n d e r i n dwarsstroming.
Het k e r n e n g e h a l t e van de v l o e i s t o f i s g e v a r i e e r d door t o e p a s s i n g van
e l e c t r o l y s e . De g r o o t t e van de b e l l e n d i e op dunne draden worden gevormd
wordt onderzocht i n Hoofdstuk 5.
C a v i t a t i e b e e l d e n op de schroeven met b e l l e n - en v l i e s c a v i t a t i e worden
getoond i n de Hoofdstukken 6 en 7 r e s p e c t i e v e l i j k . Deze beelden worden i n
verband gebracht met de berekende d r u k v e r d e l i n g , met het g r e n s l a a g g e d r a g op
de bladen z o a l s dat met v e r f p r o e v e n i s b e p a a l d , en met het k e r n e n g e h a l t e van
de v l o e i s t o f , zowel met a l s zonder e l e c t r o l y s e . De berekende d r u k v e r d e l i n g
b l i j k t c a v i t a t i e i n c e p t i e goed t e v o o r s p e l l e n m i t s maatregelen z i j n getroffen
om i n c e p t i e t e l a t e n p l a a t s v i n d e n b i j de dampdruk. Voor het v e r k r i j g e n van
b e l l e n c a v i t a t i e op modelschroeven moeten d a a r t o e k u n s t m a t i g kernen worden
geproduceerd, ook i n een c a v i t a t i e t u n n e l . V l i e s c a v i t a t i e wordt volledig
onderdrukt wanneer de g r e n s l a a g l a m i n a i r i s . V e r h o g i n g van het R e y n o l d s g e t a l
v e r a n d e r t daaraan w e i n i g , maar maakt dat de o p p e r v l a k t e r u w h e i d van de s c h r o e f -
b l a d e n merkbaar wordt. T o e p a s s i n g van ruwheid aan de voorkant van de b l a d e n
h e e f t een v e r g e l i j k b a a r r e s u l t a a t . Ook kan deze ruwheid kernen produceren.
Aangetoond wordt dat s c h a a l e f f e c t e n op c a v i t a t i e - i n c e p t i e daardoor worden
verkleind.
T i p w e r v e l c a v i t a t i e wordt onderzocht i n Hoofdstuk 8. B i j de a n a l y s e van
de c a v i t e r e n d e t i p w e r v e l wordt een w r i j v i n g s l o z e b e s c h r i j v i n g van de cavite-
rende t i p w e r v e l g e b r u i k t en een methode voor het bepalen van cavitatie-
i n c e p t i e door meting van de diameter van de c a v i t e r e n d e w e r v e l k e r n wordt
beschreven.
De r e s u l t a t e n van d i t onderzoek kunnen een a a n t a l problemen v e r k l a r e n
d i e vaak voorkomen wanneer modelschroeven worden b e p r o e f d . D i t wordt beschre-
ven i n Hoofdstuk 9. Uit het onderzoek kunnen ook r i c h t l i j n e n worden gevonden
voor het toepassen van e l e c t r o l y s e en van ruwheid op s c h r o e f b l a d e n .
De b e l a n g r i j k s t e c o n c l u s i e s z i j n samengevat i n Hoofdstuk 10.

207
LEVENSBESCHRIJVING

De s c h r i j v e r van d i t p r o e f s c h r i f t werd geboren t e Rotterdam op

28 o k t o b e r 1943. Na i n 1961 h e t diploma H.B.S.-B aan de I e C h r i s t e l i j k e
H.B.S. t e Rotterdam t e hebben b e h a a l d , v o l g d e h i j de s t u d i e aan de Technische
Hogeschool t e D e l f t i n de a f d e l i n g Scheepsbouwkunde, waar h i j i n 1968
a f s t u d e e r d e . Inmiddels was h i j reeds i n d i e n s t van h e t Nederlands Scheepsbouw-
k u n d i g P r o e f s t a t i o n g e t r e d e n , waar h i j onderzoek deed aan d r a a g v l a k t h e o r i e
voor scheepsschroeven. I n 1970 werd h i j hoofd van de C o m p u t e r a f d e l i n g , i n
1972 werd h i j b e l a s t met de o n t w i k k e l i n g en de l e i d i n g van de Vacuumtank
t e Ede. In 1976 werd een s t u d i e j a a r doorgebracht op h e t N a v a l S h i p Research
and Development C e n t e r t e Bethesda, Md, USA, a l s aanzet voor v e r d e r onderzoek
naar het o n t s t a a n van c a v i t a t i e . D i t p r o e f s c h r i f t i s een r e s u l t a a t van d i t
onderzoek.

208
DANKWOORD

Ik ben de D i r e c t i e van het Scheepsbouwkundig P r o e f s t a t i o n dankbaar

voor de g e l e g e n h e i d d i e m i j i s geboden voor het s c h r i j v e n van d i t p r o e f s c h r i f t
en voor de aanmoediging d a a r t o e , onder andere door m i j i n s t a a t t e
s t e l l e n een j a a r i n de Verenigde S t a t e n t e s t u d e r e n .
B i j de u i t v o e r i n g van d i t onderzoek z i j n v e l e n binnen het NSP betrokken
geweest. De goede c o n t a c t e n met c o l l e g a ' s i n de r e s e a r c h g r o e p van het NSP
waren e r g b e l a n g r i j k . B i j z o n d e r v e e l dank ben i k v e r s c h u l d i g d aan
I r . J . van der K o o i j , d i e door z i j n c r i t i s c h commentaar v e e l h e e f t b i j g e d r a g e n
tot d i t onderzoek.
Voorts w i l i k graag m i j n dank b e t u i g e n aan de heer B. M i l l e c a m voor
z i j n aandeel i n het f o t o g r a f i s c h e werk, aan de heer W.C. Nieuwboer voor zijn
v e l e t a a l k u n d i g e a a n w i j z i n g e n , aan de heer J . Hootsen voor het v e r v a a r d i g e n
van de meeste t e k e n i n g e n en aan Mevr. G.P.M. Swint-Jongsma voor het p e r s k l a a r
maken van het m a n u s c r i p t .

209
PLATES
 • DIRECTION OF ROTATION

WITH ROUGHNESS

PLATE t.'!. EXAMELE UF PATET TEST WLTP /!;!'/; WITHOUT EOUGEEESS AT TEA
LEADING EDGE. PROPELLES B AT ,¡=9,4, He -1.7x11)".
PLATE 3.17. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE BLADES WHEN LAMINAR SEPARATION OCCURS.
6
(PROPELLER S AT 1=0. bE, Re = l . l x l 0 ) .
à
 85 POSITION 8 5 ° POSITION 8 5 POSITION

HOLE 2

FLOW
VELOCITY

HOLE 3

G-2.32 (7=2 46 (7=2.65

PLATE 4.10. CAVITATION OBSERVATIONS ON THE SMOOTH CYLINDER AT 5.7 m/sec.

85° POSITION 85° POSITION 85° POSITION

HOLE 2

FLOW
VELOCITY

HOLE 3

(7=2.50 (7=2.60 a = 2.70

PLATE 4.11. CAVITATION OBSERVATIONS Oil TBE SMOOTH CYLINDER AT 9.6 m/s,
 70 POSITION 70 POSITION

%9Eyij|H
:

• JiS
1
HOLE 2
I* Il
1 VELOCITY
F
H » if l , ' 4
. •• ÉL

Vy m
, 4*
CT = 1.86 CT = 1.70
INTERMITTENT

PLATE 4.14. CAVITATION OBSERVATIONS OU THE ROUGHENED CYLINDER AT S.7 m/se

70 POSITION 70 POSITION 70 POSITION

HOLE 2
VELOCITY

CT=185
VERY INTERMITTENT

PLATE 4.25. CAVITATION OBSERVATIONS ON TEE ROVGEEUEE CYLINDER AT 9.6 m/sec.

 B5 POSITION

CYLINDER

FLOW
VELOCITY

O- 2.66
UNSTABLE

PLATE 4.18. CAVITATION OBSERVATIONS ON THE ROUGHNESS LISE AT 5.7 m/seo.

85 POSITION 85 POSITION 85 POSITION

FLOW

"VELOCITY

7; 118:

.IS •:,:;<.:

G- 293 O- 298 CT = 3.C

UNSTABLE

LINE AT 9.6 m/sec.

 I z 1.6 A/m
p = 270 mbar

I.= 3.2 A/m

p = 5 4 0 mbar

I : 4.8 A/m
p = 810 mbar

I = 6.4 A/m
p = 1080 mbar

I : 8.0 A/m
p = 1350 mbar

I : 16.0 A/m
p = 2700 mbar

THE EFFECT OF THE PRESSURE PARAMETER ON ELECTROLYSIS.

(V=3 m/seo, WIRE DIAMETER 0.9 mm).
PLATE 5.4. THE EFFECT OF GAS PRODUCTION ON ELECTROLYSIS.
(V=3 m/sec, p=270 mbar, WIRE DIAMETER 0.9 mm).
0 A/m 0.4 A/m 0.8 Al m 2.0 A/m

PL/ITE 6.5. VARIATION OF ELECTROLYSIS CURRENT ON PROPELLER B AT 1=0.S. 2H

6
(Re = l . l x l 0 , a =1.0).
 WITHOUT ELECTROLYSIS WITH ELECTROLYSIS

BLADE : 4 SMOOTH
BLADE : 1 ROUGHENED AT THE LEADING EDGE

PLATE 6.6. CAVITATION OBSERVATIONS IN THE CAVITATION TUNNEL. PROPELLER B 3EI

6
AT J=0.6. (a =0.92, Re =2.11xl0 ).
WITHOUT ELECTROLYSIS WITH ELECTROLYSIS
 ROUGH SMOOTH
PLATE 6.12. CAVITATION OBSERVATIONS IN THE CAVITATION TUNNEL AT HIGH
6
REYNOLDS NUMBER. (Re =2.88xl0 , a =1.15 , 1=0.4).
n n
ROUGH SMOOTH
Stellingen

1. V e r b e t e r i n g van het s c h r o e f o n t w e r p , van de f a b r i c a g e n a u w k e u r i g h e i d van

de modelschroef en van de b e p r o e v i n g s c o n d i t i e s leiden a l l e t o t vergro-
t i n g van de s c h a a l e f f e c t e n op c a v i t a t i e - i n c e p t i e .

2. T o e p a s s i n g van ruwheid aan de i n t r e d e n d e kant van de b l a d e n vaneen model-

schroef i s een b r u i k b a a r middel t e r v e r k l e i n i n g van s c h a a l e f f e c t e n op
cavitatie.

3. B e p a l i n g van c a v i t a t i e - i n c e p t i e van een t i p w e r v e l kan worden gedaan door

meting van de diameter van de t i p w e r v e l onder v e r s c h i l l e n d e omstandig-
heden .

4. De bewering dat s c h a a l e f f e c t e n b i j h e t o n t s t a a n van c a v i t a t i e i n een

vacuumtank b e l a n g r i j k g r o t e r z i j n dan i n een c a v i t a t i e t u n n e l i s o n j u i s t .

E.A. W e i t e n d o r f , R.I.N.A. Symp. on P r o p e l l e r Induced

V i b r a t i o n , d i s c u s s i o n t o paper 6, London 1979.

5. De t i j d s d u u r n o d i g voor het maken van een computerprogramma i s minimaal

twee maal zo l a n g a l s een a c c e p t a b e l e s c h a t t i n g aangeeft.

6. De i d e a l e werknemer l i j k t voor v e e l bazen op een computer, hoewel n i e t

b e s e f t wordt dat dan z e e r lange programma's n o d i g zouden z i j n . Slechts
programmeurs weten wat het zou inhouden wanneer werknemers u i t s l u i t e n d
p r e c i e s zouden doen wat hun gezegd i s .

7. Hoewel de t e c h n i e k van w e t e n s c h a p p e l i j k e methoden en r e s u l t a t e n gebruik

maakt wordt het eigen k a r a k t e r e r v a n t e n o p z i c h t e van de wetenschap o n v o l -
doende onderkend. D i t b e m o e i l i j k t i n n o v a t i e en v e r s l u i e r t h e t maatschappe-
l i j k k a r a k t e r van de t e c h n i e k . Wetenschapsbeoefening wordt daarentegen
versmalt t o t onderzoek waarvan de u i t k o m s t e n van t e voren kunnen worden
overzien.

8. Het b e s t a a n van e l k a a r overlappende o f z e l f s van samenvallende onderzoek-

programma ' s, u i t g e v o e r d i n verschillende instituten, i s productief i n plaats
van inefficiënt en doet r e c h t aan de naam "research".