Albert Einstein

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Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein in 1921

14 March 1879
Born Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg,
German Empire
18 April 1955 (aged 76)
Died
Princeton, New Jersey, United States
Germany, Italy, Switzerland, United
Residence
States
• Württemberg/Germany (until
1896)
• Stateless (1896–1901)
• Switzerland (from 1901)
Citizenship
• Austria (1911–12)
• Germany (1914–33)

• United States (from 1940)[1]

Alma mater • ETH Zurich
 • University of Zurich
• General relativity and special
relativity
• Photoelectric effect
• Mass-energy equivalence
• Quantification of the
Known for
Brownian motion
• Einstein field equations
• Bose–Einstein statistics

• Unified Field Theory

• Mileva Marić (1903–1919)

Spouse
• Elsa Löwenthal, née Einstein,
(1919–1936)
• Nobel Prize in Physics (1921)
• Copley Medal (1925)
Awards • Max Planck Medal (1929)

• Time Person of the Century

Signature

Albert Einstein ( /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879
– 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who discovered the theory of
general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is
often regarded as the father of modern physics.[2] He received the 1921 Nobel Prize in
Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law
of the photoelectric effect".[3]

Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no
longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the
electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He
realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational
fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the
general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics
and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of
molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation
of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to
model the structure of the universe as a whole.[4]

He escaped from Nazi Germany in 1933, where he had been a professor at the Berlin
Academy of Sciences, and settled in the U.S., becoming a citizen in 1940. On the eve of
World War II, he helped alert President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Germany might be
developing an atomic weapon, and recommended that the U.S. begin nuclear research.
That research, begun by a newly-established Manhattan Project, resulted in the U.S.
becoming the first and only country to possess nuclear weapons during the war. He
taught physics at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, until his
death in 1955.

Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific
works, and received honorary doctorate degrees in science, medicine and philosophy
from many European and American universities;[4] he also wrote about various
philosophical and political subjects such as socialism, international relations and the
existence of God.[5] His great intelligence and originality has made the word "Einstein"
synonymous with genius.[6]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Biography
o 1.1 Early life and education
o 1.2 Marriages and children
o 1.3 Patent office
o 1.4 Academic career
o 1.5 Travels abroad
o 1.6 Emigration from Germany
 1.6.1 World War II and the Manhattan Project
 1.6.2 U.S. citizenship
o 1.7 Death
• 2 Scientific career
o 2.1 Annus Mirabilis papers
o 2.2 Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics
o 2.3 Thought experiments and a-priori physical principles
o 2.4 Special relativity
o 2.5 Photons
o 2.6 Quantized atomic vibrations
o 2.7 Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables
o 2.8 Wave-particle duality
o 2.9 Theory of critical opalescence
 o 2.10 Zero-point energy
o 2.11 Principle of equivalence
o 2.12 Hole argument and Entwurf theory
o 2.13 General relativity
o 2.14 Cosmology
o 2.15 Modern quantum theory
o 2.16 Bose–Einstein statistics
o 2.17 Energy momentum pseudotensor
o 2.18 Unified field theory
o 2.19 Wormholes
o 2.20 Einstein–Cartan theory
o 2.21 Equations of motion
o 2.22 Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics
o 2.23 Collaboration with other scientists
 2.23.1 Einstein-de Haas experiment
 2.23.2 Schrödinger gas model
 2.23.3 Einstein refrigerator
o 2.24 Bohr versus Einstein
o 2.25 Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox
• 3 Political views
• 4 Religious views
• 5 Non-scientific legacy
• 6 In popular culture
• 7 Awards and honors
o 7.1 Awards named after him
• 8 See also
• 9 Publications
• 10 Notes
• 11 Further reading

• 12 External links

Biography
Early life and education
Einstein at the age of 4.

Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire
on 14 March 1879.[7] His father was Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer. His
mother was Pauline Einstein (née Koch). In 1880, the family moved to Munich, where
his father and his uncle founded Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, a company
that manufactured electrical equipment based on direct current.[7]

Albert Einstein in 1893 (age 14).

The Einsteins were non-observant Jews. Their son attended a Catholic elementary school
from the age of five until ten.[8] Although Einstein had early speech difficulties, he was a
top student in elementary school.[9][10]

His father once showed him a pocket compass; Einstein realized that there must be
something causing the needle to move, despite the apparent "empty space".[11] As he
grew, Einstein built models and mechanical devices for fun and began to show a talent
for mathematics.[7] In 1889, Max Talmud (later changed to Max Talmey) introduced the
ten-year old Einstein to key texts in science, mathematics and philosophy, including
Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason and Euclid's Elements (which Einstein called
the "holy little geometry book").[12] Talmud was a poor Jewish medical student from
Poland. The Jewish community arranged for Talmud to take meals with the Einsteins
each week on Thursdays for six years. During this time Talmud wholeheartedly guided
Einstein through many secular educational interests.[13][14]

In 1894, his father's company failed: direct current (DC) lost the War of Currents to
alternating current (AC). In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to
Milan and then, a few months later, to Pavia. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein
stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium (see de:Albert-
Einstein-Gymnasium München). His father intended for him to pursue electrical
engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the school's regimen and
teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost
in strict rote learning. In the spring of 1895, he withdrew to join his family in Pavia,
convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note.[7] During this time, Einstein
wrote his first scientific work, "The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic
Fields".[15]

Einstein applied directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (ETH) in Zurich,

Switzerland. Lacking the requisite Matura certificate, he took an entrance examination,
which he failed, although he got exceptional marks in mathematics and physics.[16] The
Einsteins sent Albert to Aarau, in northern Switzerland to finish secondary school.[7]
While lodging with the family of Professor Jost Winteler, he fell in love with Winteler's
daughter, Marie. (His sister Maja later married the Wintelers' son, Paul.)[17] In Aarau,
Einstein studied Maxwell's electromagnetic theory. At age 17, he graduated, and, with his
father's approval, renounced his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg to
avoid military service, and in 1896 he enrolled in the four year mathematics and physics
teaching diploma program at the Polytechnic in Zurich. Marie Winteler moved to
Olsberg, Switzerland for a teaching post.

Einstein's future wife, Mileva Marić, also enrolled at the Polytechnic that same year, the
only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the
teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein and Marić's friendship
developed into romance, and they read books together on extra-curricular physics in
which Einstein was taking an increasing interest. In 1900 Einstein was awarded the
Zurich Polytechnic teaching diploma, but Marić failed the examination with a poor grade
in the mathematics component, theory of functions.[18] There have been claims that Marić
collaborated with Einstein on his celebrated 1905 papers,[19][20] but historians of physics
who have studied the issue find no evidence that she made any substantive contributions.
[21][22][23][24]

Marriages and children

It has been suggested that Lieserl Einstein be merged into this article or section.
(Discuss)
In early 1902, Einstein and Mileva Marić had a daughter they named Lieserl in their
correspondence, who was born in Novi Sad where Marić's parents lived.[25] Her full name
is not known, and her fate is uncertain after 1903.[26]

Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple's first son, Hans
Albert Einstein, was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in
Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin, while his wife remained in
Zurich with their sons. Marić and Einstein divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived
apart for five years.

Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal (née Einstein) on 2 June 1919, after having had a
relationship with her since 1912. She was his first cousin maternally and his second
cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated permanently to the United States. In 1935,
Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936.
[27]

Patent office

Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein, who founded the Olympia
Academy

Einstein's home in Bern

After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching
post, but a former classmate's father helped him secure a job in Bern, at the Federal
Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner.[28] He
evaluated patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein's position at
the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion
until he "fully mastered machine technology".[29]

Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric
signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that
show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his
radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between
space and time.[30]

With a few friends he met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-
mockingly named "The Olympia Academy", which met regularly to discuss science and
philosophy. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David
Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.

Academic career

Einstein's official 1921 portrait after receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics.

In 1901, Einstein had a paper on the capillary forces of a straw published in the
prestigious Annalen der Physik.[31] On 30 April 1905, he completed his thesis, with Alfred
Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was
awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled "A New
Determination of Molecular Dimensions".[32] That same year, which has been called
Einstein's annus mirabilis or "miracle year", he published four groundbreaking papers, on
the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of
matter and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world.

By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the
University of Berne. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to
take the position of physics docent[33] at the University of Zurich. He became a full
professor at Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he returned to
Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics
(1914–1932)[34] and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, although with a
special clause in his contract that freed him from most teaching obligations. He became a
member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Einstein was appointed president
of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).[35][36]

In 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from
another star would be bent by the Sun's gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed
by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington during the
solar eclipse of May 29, 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world
famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Times printed a banner
headline that read: "Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian
Ideas Overthrown".[37] (Much later, questions were raised whether the measurements were
accurate enough to support Einstein's theory.)

In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Because relativity was still
considered somewhat controversial, it was officially bestowed for his explanation of the
photoelectric effect. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.

Travels abroad

Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an
official welcome by the Mayor, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He
went on to deliver several lectures at Colombia University and Princeton University, and
in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Science on a
visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British
statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned
scientific, intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at Kings College.[38]

In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month

excursion and speaking tour. His travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where
he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first lecture in Tokyo lasted
four hours, after which he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where
thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to
his sons:[39]:307 "Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest,
intelligent, considerate, and have a feel for art."[39]:308

On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for twelve days in what would become his
only visit to that region. "He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of
state rather than a theoretical physicist", writes Isaacson. This included a cannon salute
upon his arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel.
During one reception given to him, the building was "stormed by throngs who wanted to
hear him". In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed his happiness over the event:

I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found
something to regret in the Jewish soul, and that is the forgetfulness of its
own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the Jewish
 people learning to recognize themselves and to make themselves
recognized as a force in the world.[40]:308

Emigration from Germany

Next to Oliver Locker-Lampson, being protected in Norfolk, England, after escaping

Nazi Germany in 1933

In 1933, Einstein decided to emigrate to the United States due to the rise to power of the
Nazis under Germany's new chancellor, Adolf Hitler.[41] While visiting American
universities in April, 1933, he learned that the new German government had passed a law
barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. A
month later, the Nazi book burnings occurred, with Einstein's works being among those
burnt, and Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed, "Jewish
intellectualism is dead."[40] Einstein also learned that his name was on a list of
assassination targets, with a "$5,000 bounty on his head". One German magazine
included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, "not yet hanged".
[40][42]

Other German scientists fled as well, among them fourteen Nobel laureates and twenty-
six of the sixty professors of theoretical physics in the country. Other scientists who left
Germany or the countries it came to dominate included Edward Teller, Niels Bohr,
Enrico Fermi, Otto Stern, Victor Weisskopf, Hans Bethe, and Lise Meitner, many of
whom played a large part in the Allies developing nuclear weapons before the Nazis.[40]
With so many other Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America,
often working side by side, Einstein wrote to a friend, "For me the most beautiful thing is
to be in contact with a few fine Jews—a few millennia of a civilized past do mean
something after all." In another letter he writes, "In my whole life I have never felt so
Jewish as now."[40]

He took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey,[43] an
affiliation that lasted until his death in 1955. There, he tried to develop a unified field
theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.
He and Kurt Gödel, another Institute member, became close friends. They would take
long walks together discussing their work. His last assistant was Bruria Kaufman, who
later became a renowned physicist.

World War II and the Manhattan Project

In the summer of 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II, Einstein was
persuaded to write a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt and warn him that Nazi
Germany might be developing an atomic bomb. The letter, dictated by Einstein,[39]:630 and
translated with the help of Hungarian emigre physicist Leo Szilard, gave the letter more
prestige, with Einstein also recommending that the U.S. begin uranium enrichment and
nuclear research. According to F.G. Gosling of the U.S. Department of Energy, Einstein,
Szilard, and other refugees including Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, "regarded it as
their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win
the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to
resort to such a weapon."[44]

British columnist Ambrose Evans-Pritchard notes, however, that Washington at first

"brushed off with disbelief" the fears they expressed. He then describes how quickly
Roosevelt changed his mind:

Albert Einstein interceded through the Belgian queen mother, eventually

getting a personal envoy into the Oval Office. Roosevelt initially fobbed
him off. He listened more closely at a second meeting over breakfast the
next day, then made up his mind within minutes. "This needs action," he
told his military aide. It was the birth of the Manhattan Project.[45]

Gosling adds that "the President was a man of considerable action once he had chosen a
direction," and believed that the U.S. "could not take the risk of allowing Hitler" to
possess nuclear bombs.[44] Other weapons historians agree that the letter was "arguably
the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on
the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II". As a result of Einstein's letter, and his
meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the "race" to develop the bomb first, drawing
on its "immense material, financial, and scientific resources". It became the only country
to develop an atomic bomb during World War II as a result of its Manhattan Project.[46]

However, according to historian Fritz Stern, for Einstein, "war was a disease . . . [and] he
called for resistance to war." But in 1933, after Hitler assumed full power in Germany,
"he renounced pacifism altogether . . . In fact, he urged the Western powers to prepare
themselves against another German onslaught."[47]:110 In 1954, a year before his death,
Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, "I made one great mistake in my life —
when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made;
but there was some justification — the danger that the Germans would make them..."[48]
Accepting U.S. citizenship, (1940)

U.S. citizenship

Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at
Princeton, he expressed his appreciation of the "meritocracy" in American culture when
compared to Europe. According to Isaacson, he recognized the "right of individuals to
say and think what they pleased", without social barriers, and as result, the individual was
"encouraged" to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education.
Einstein writes:

What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the democratic trait among
the people. No one humbles himself before another person or class. . . American
youth has the good fortune not to have its outlook troubled by outworn traditions.
[40]:432

Einstein with David Ben Gurion, 1951

As a member of the NAACP at Princeton who campaigned for the civil rights of African
Americans, Einstein corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, and in 1946
Einstein called racism America's "worst disease".[49] He later stated, "Race prejudice has
unfortunately become an American tradition which is uncritically handed down from one
generation to the next. The only remedies are enlightenment and education".[50]
After the death of Israel's first president, Chaim Weizmann, in November 1952, Prime
Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly
ceremonial post.[51] The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, Abba
Eban, who explained that the offer "embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish
people can repose in any of its sons".[39]:522 However, Einstein declined, and wrote in his
response that he was "deeply moved", and "at once saddened and ashamed" that he could
not accept it:

All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the natural
aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and to exercise official
function. I am the more more distressed over these circumstances because my
relationship with the Jewish people became my strongest human tie once I
achieved complete clarity about our precarious position among the nations of the
world.[39]:522 [51][52]

Death

The New York World-Telegram announces Einstein's death on April 18, 1955.

On April 17, 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of
an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Dr.
Rudolph Nissen in 1948.[53] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a
television appearance commemorating the State of Israel's seventh anniversary with him
to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.[54] Einstein refused surgery,
saying: "I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done
my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly."[55] He died in Princeton Hospital early
the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.

Einstein's remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.
[56][57]
During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey,
removed Einstein's brain for preservation, without the permission of his family, in hope
that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so
intelligent.[58] In his lecture at Einstein's memorial, nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer
summarized his impression of him as a person:
 "He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness . . .
There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly
stubborn."[47]}

Scientific career

Albert Einstein in 1904.

Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. Most were about
physics, but a few expressed leftist political opinions about pacifism, socialism, and
zionism.[5][7] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other
scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein
refrigerator and others.[59]

Annus Mirabilis papers

Main article: Annus Mirabilis papers

Einstein's early papers all come from attempts to demonstrate that atoms exist and have a
finite nonzero size. At the time of his first paper in 1902, it was not yet completely
accepted by physicists that atoms were real, even though chemists had good evidence
ever since Antoine Lavoisier's work a century earlier. The reason physicists were
skeptical was because no 19th century theory could fully explain the properties of matter
from the properties of atoms.

Ludwig Boltzmann was a leading 19th century atomist physicist, who had struggled for
years to gain acceptance for atoms. Boltzmann had given an interpretation of the laws of
thermodynamics, suggesting that the law of entropy increase is statistical. In Boltzmann's
way of thinking, the entropy is the logarithm of the number of ways a system could be
configured inside. The reason the entropy goes up is only because it is more likely for a
system to go from a special state with only a few possible internal configurations to a
more generic state with many. While Boltzmann's statistical interpretation of entropy is
universally accepted today, and Einstein believed it, at the turn of the 20th century it was
a minority position.[citation needed]

The statistical idea was most successful in explaining the properties of gases. James Clerk
Maxwell, another leading atomist, had found the distribution of velocities of atoms in a
gas, and derived the surprising result that the viscosity of a gas should be independent of
density. Intuitively, the friction in a gas would seem to go to zero as the density goes to
zero, but this is not so, because the mean free path of atoms becomes large at low
densities. A subsequent experiment by Maxwell and his wife confirmed this surprising
prediction. Other experiments on gases and vacuum, using a rotating slitted drum,
showed that atoms in a gas had velocities distributed according to Maxwell's distribution
law.[citation needed]

In addition to these successes, there were also inconsistencies. Maxwell noted that at cold
temperatures, atomic theory predicted specific heats that are too large. In classical
statistical mechanics, every spring-like motion has thermal energy kBT on average at
temperature T, so that the specific heat of every spring is Boltzmann's constant kB. A
monatomic solid with N atoms can be thought of as N little balls representing N atoms
attached to each other in a box grid with 3N springs, so the specific heat of every solid is
3NkB, a result which became known as the Dulong–Petit law. This law is true at room
temperature, but not for colder temperatures. At temperatures near zero, the specific heat
goes to zero.

Similarly, a gas made up of a molecule with two atoms can be thought of as two balls on
a spring. This spring has energy kBT at high temperatures, and should contribute an extra
kB to the specific heat. It does at temperatures of about 1000 degrees, but at lower
temperature, this contribution disappears. At zero temperature, all other contributions to
the specific heat from rotations and vibrations also disappear. This behavior was
inconsistent with classical physics.

The most glaring inconsistency was in the theory of light waves. Continuous waves in a
box can be thought of as infinitely many spring-like motions, one for each possible
standing wave. Each standing wave has a specific heat of kB, so the total specific heat of a
continuous wave like light should be infinite in classical mechanics. This is obviously
wrong, because it would mean that all energy in the universe would be instantly sucked
up into light waves, and everything would slow down and stop.

These inconsistencies led some people to say that atoms were not physical, but
mathematical. Notable among the skeptics was Ernst Mach, whose positivist philosophy
led him to demand that if atoms are real, it should be possible to see them directly.[60]
Mach believed that atoms were a useful fiction, that in reality they could be assumed to
be infinitesimally small, that Avogadro's number was infinite, or so large that it might as
well be infinite, and kB was infinitesimally small. Certain experiments could then be
explained by atomic theory, but other experiments could not, and this is the way it will
always be.

Einstein opposed this position. Throughout his career, he was a realist. He believed that a
single consistent theory should explain all observations, and that this theory would be a
description of what was really going on, underneath it all. So he set out to show that the
atomic point of view was correct. This led him first to thermodynamics, then to statistical
physics, and to the theory of specific heats of solids.

In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, the leading German language physics
journal Annalen der Physik published four of Einstein's papers. The four papers
eventually were recognized as revolutionary, and 1905 became known as Einstein's
"Miracle Year", and the papers as the Annus Mirabilis Papers.

Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics

Main article: statistical physics

Einstein's earliest papers were concerned with thermodynamics. He wrote a paper

establishing a thermodynamic identity in 1902, and a few other papers which attempted
to interpret phenomena from a statistical atomic point of view.

His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size
on diffusion phenomena. As in Maxwell's work, the finite nonzero size of atoms leads to
effects which can be observed. This research, and the thermodynamic identity, were well
within the mainstream of physics in his time. They would eventually form the content of
his PhD thesis.[61]

His first major result in this field was the theory of thermodynamic fluctuations. When in
equilibrium, a system has a maximum entropy and, according to the statistical
interpretation, it can fluctuate a little bit. Einstein pointed out that the statistical
fluctuations of a macroscopic object, like a mirror suspended on spring, would be
completely determined by the second derivative of the entropy with respect to the
position of the mirror.

Searching for ways to test this relation, his great breakthrough came in 1905. The theory
of fluctuations, he realized, would have a visible effect for an object which could move
around freely. Such an object would have a velocity which is random, and would move
around randomly, just like an individual atom. The average kinetic energy of the object
would be kBT, and the time decay of the fluctuations would be entirely determined by the
law of friction.

The law of friction for a small ball in a viscous fluid like water was discovered by George
Stokes. He showed that for small velocities, the friction force would be proportional to
the velocity, and to the radius of the particle (see Stokes' law). This relation could be used
to calculate how far a small ball in water would travel due to its random thermal motion,
and Einstein noted that such a ball, of size about a micrometre, would travel about a few
micrometres per second. This motion could be easily detected with a microscope and
indeed, as Brownian motion, had actually been observed by the botanist Robert Brown.
Einstein was able to identify this motion with that predicted by his theory. Since the
fluctuations which give rise to Brownian motion are just the same as the fluctuations of
the velocities of atoms, measuring the precise amount of Brownian motion using
Einstein's theory would show that Boltzmann's constant is non-zero and would measure
Avogadro's number.[citation needed]

These experiments were carried out a few years later by Jean Baptiste Perrin, and gave a
rough estimate of Avogadro's number consistent with the more accurate estimates due to
Max Planck's theory of blackbody light and Robert Millikan's measurement of the charge
of the electron.[62] Unlike the other methods, Einstein's required very few theoretical
assumptions or new physics, since it was directly measuring atomic motion on visible
grains.

Einstein's theory of Brownian motion was the first paper in the field of statistical physics.
It established that thermodynamic fluctuations were related to dissipation. This was
shown by Einstein to be true for time-independent fluctuations, but in the Brownian
motion paper he showed that dynamical relaxation rates calculated from classical
mechanics could be used as statistical relaxation rates to derive dynamical diffusion laws.
These relations are known as Einstein relations.

The theory of Brownian motion was the least revolutionary of Einstein's Annus mirabilis
papers, but it is the most frequently cited, and had an important role in securing the
acceptance of the atomic theory by physicists.

Thought experiments and a-priori physical principles

Main article: Thought experiment

Einstein's thinking underwent a transformation in 1905. He had come to understand that

quantum properties of light mean that Maxwell's equations were only an approximation.
He knew that new laws would have to replace these, but he did not know how to go about
finding those laws. He felt that guessing formal relations would not go anywhere.

So he decided to focus on a-priori principles instead, which are statements about physical
laws which can be understood to hold in a very broad sense even in domains where they
have not yet been shown to apply. A well accepted example of an a-priori principle is
rotational invariance. If a new force is discovered in physics, it is assumed to be
rotationally invariant almost automatically, without thought. Einstein sought new
principles of this sort, to guide the production of physical ideas. Once enough principles
are found, then the new physics will be the simplest theory consistent with the principles
and with previously known laws.[citation needed]
The first general a-priori principle he found was the principle of relativity, that uniform
motion is indistinguishable from rest. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be
a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles
postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the
principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number. Another of Einstein's general
principles, Mach's principle, is fiercely debated, and whether it holds in our world or not
is still not definitively established.

The use of a-priori principles is a distinctive unique signature of Einstein's early work,
and has become a standard tool in modern theoretical physics.

Special relativity

Main article: History of special relativity

His 1905 paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced his theory of special
relativity, which showed that the observed independence of the speed of light on the
observer's state of motion required fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity.
Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body slowing down and
contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper
also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether – one of the leading theoretical entities
in physics at the time – was superfluous.[63] In his paper on mass–energy equivalence,
which had previously been considered to be distinct concepts, Einstein deduced from his
equations of special relativity what has been called the 20th century's best-known
equation: E = mc2.[64][65] This equation suggests that tiny amounts of mass could be
converted into huge amounts of energy and presaged the development of nuclear power.
[66]
Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was
accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.[67][68]

Photons

Main article: Photon

In a 1905 paper,[69] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles
(quanta). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists,
including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in
1919, with Robert Millikan's detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with
the measurement of Compton scattering.

Einstein's paper on the light particles was almost entirely motivated by thermodynamic
considerations. He was not at all motivated by the detailed experiments on the
photoelectric effect, which did not confirm his theory until fifteen years later. Einstein
considers the entropy of light at temperature T, and decomposes it into a low-frequency
part and a high-frequency part. The high-frequency part, where the light is described by
Wien's law, has an entropy which looks exactly the same as the entropy of a gas of
classical particles.
Since the entropy is the logarithm of the number of possible states, Einstein concludes
that the number of states of short wavelength light waves in a box with volume V is equal
to the number of states of a group of localizable particles in the same box. Since (unlike
others) he was comfortable with the statistical interpretation, he confidently postulates
that the light itself is made up of localized particles, as this is the only reasonable
interpretation of the entropy.

This leads him to conclude that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection
of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck's constant. He does not say much more,
because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that
this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.[70]

Quantized atomic vibrations

Main article: Einstein solid

Einstein continued his work on quantum mechanics in 1906, by explaining the specific
heat anomaly in solids. This was the first application of quantum theory to a mechanical
system. Since Planck's distribution for light oscillators had no problem with infinite
specific heats, the same idea could be applied to solids to fix the specific heat problem
there. Einstein showed in a simple model that the hypothesis that solid motion is
quantized explains why the specific heat of a solid goes to zero at zero temperature.[citation
needed]

Einstein's model treats each atom as connected to a single spring. Instead of connecting
all the atoms to each other, which leads to standing waves with all sorts of different
frequencies, Einstein imagined that each atom was attached to a fixed point in space by a
spring. This is not physically correct, but it still predicts that the specific heat is 3NkB,
since the number of independent oscillations stays the same.

Einstein then assumes that the motion in this model is quantized, according to the Planck
law, so that each independent spring motion has energy which is an integer multiple of
hf, where f is the frequency of oscillation. With this assumption, he applied Boltzmann's
statistical method to calculate the average energy of the spring. The result was the same
as the one that Planck had derived for light: for temperatures where kBT is much smaller
than hf, the motion is frozen, and the specific heat goes to zero.[citation needed]

So Einstein concluded that quantum mechanics would solve the main problem of
classical physics, the specific heat anomaly. The particles of sound implied by this
formulation are now called phonons. Because all of Einstein's springs have the same
stiffness, they all freeze out at the same temperature, and this leads to a prediction that the
specific heat should go to zero exponentially fast when the temperature is low. The
solution to this problem is to solve for the independent normal modes individually, and to
quantize those. Then each normal mode has a different frequency, and long wavelength
vibration modes freeze out at colder temperatures than short wavelength ones. This was
done by Peter Debye, and after this modification Einstein's quantization method
reproduced quantitatively the behavior of the specific heats of solids at low temperatures.
[citation needed]

This work was the foundation of condensed matter physics.

Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables

Main article: Old quantum theory

Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different
systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit
like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates
introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of
electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.

Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments
Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of
a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be
derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the
same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical
motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic
invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. The law that the action variable is
quantized was a basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known between 1900 and
1925.[citation needed]

Wave-particle duality

Main article: Wave-particle duality

Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in
1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the
University of Bern.[71] In "über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen
und die Konstitution der Strahlung" ("The Development of Our Views on the
Composition and Essence of Radiation"), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier
1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined
momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper
introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert
N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave-particle duality in quantum
mechanics.

Theory of critical opalescence

Main article: Critical opalescence

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the

density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are
controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the
critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density
fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky
white. Einstein relates this to Raleigh scattering, which is what happens when the
fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is
blue.[72]

Einstein at the Solvay Conference in 1911.

Zero-point energy

Main article: Zero-point energy

Einstein's physical intuition led him to note that Planck's oscillator energies had an
incorrect zero point. He modified Planck's hypothesis by stating that the lowest energy
state of an oscillator is equal to 1⁄2hf, to half the energy spacing between levels. This
argument, which was made in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the
thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two free atoms.

Principle of equivalence

Main article: Principle of equivalence

In 1907, while still working at the patent office, Einstein had what he would call his
"happiest thought". He realized that the principle of relativity could be extended to
gravitational fields. He thought about the case of a uniformly accelerated box not in a
gravitational field, and noted that it would be indistinguishable from a box sitting still in
an unchanging gravitational field.[73] He used special relativity to see that the rate of
clocks at the top of a box accelerating upward would be faster than the rate of clocks at
the bottom. He concludes that the rates of clocks depend on their position in a
gravitational field, and that the difference in rate is proportional to the gravitational
potential to first approximation.

Although this approximation is crude, it allowed him to calculate the deflection of light
by gravity, and show that it is nonzero. This gave him confidence that the scalar theory of
gravity proposed by Gunnar Nordström was incorrect. But the actual value for the
deflection that he calculated was too small by a factor of two, because the approximation
he used doesn't work well for things moving at near the speed of light. When Einstein
finished the full theory of general relativity, he would rectify this error and predict the
correct amount of light deflection by the sun.

From Prague, Einstein published a paper about the effects of gravity on light, specifically
the gravitational redshift and the gravitational deflection of light. The paper challenged
astronomers to detect the deflection during a solar eclipse.[74] German astronomer Erwin
Finlay-Freundlich publicized Einstein's challenge to scientists around the world.[75]

Einstein thought about the nature of the gravitational field in the years 1909–1912,
studying its properties by means of simple thought experiments. A notable one is the
rotating disk. Einstein imagined an observer making experiments on a rotating turntable.
He noted that such an observer would find a different value for the mathematical constant
pi than the one predicted by Euclidean geometry. The reason is that the radius of a circle
would be measured with an uncontracted ruler, but, according to special relativity, the
circumference would seem to be longer because the ruler would be contracted.

Since Einstein believed that the laws of physics were local, described by local fields, he
concluded from this that spacetime could be locally curved. This led him to study
Riemannian geometry, and to formulate general relativity in this language.

Hole argument and Entwurf theory

Main article: Hole argument

While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge
invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a
general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally
covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under
general linear transformations only.

In June, 1913 the Entwurf ("draft") theory was the result of these investigations. As its
name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by
additional gauge fixing conditions. Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than
general relativity, after more than two years of intensive work Einstein abandoned the
theory in November, 1915 after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.[76]

General relativity
See also: History of general relativity

In 1912, Einstein returned to Switzerland to accept a professorship at his alma mater, the
ETH. Once back in Zurich, he immediately visited his old ETH classmate Marcel
Grossmann, now a professor of mathematics, who introduced him to Riemannian
geometry and, more generally, to differential geometry. On the recommendation of
Italian mathematician Tullio Levi-Civita, Einstein began exploring the usefulness of
general covariance (essentially the use of tensors) for his gravitational theory. For a while
Einstein thought that there were problems with the approach, but he later returned to it
and, by late 1915, had published his general theory of relativity in the form in which it is
used today.[77] This theory explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime
by matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter. During World War I, the work of
Central Powers scientists was available only to Central Powers academics, for national
security reasons. Some of Einstein's work did reach the United Kingdom and the United
States through the efforts of the Austrian Paul Ehrenfest and physicists in the
Netherlands, especially 1902 Nobel Prize-winner Hendrik Lorentz and Willem de Sitter
of Leiden University. After the war ended, Einstein maintained his relationship with
Leiden University, accepting a contract as an Extraordinary Professor; for ten years,
from 1920 to 1930, he travelled to Holland regularly to lecture.[78]

In 1917, several astronomers accepted Einstein 's 1911 challenge from Prague. The
Mount Wilson Observatory in California, U.S., published a solar spectroscopic analysis
that showed no gravitational redshift.[79] In 1918, the Lick Observatory, also in California,
announced that it too had disproved Einstein's prediction, although its findings were not
published.[80]

Eddington's photograph of a solar eclipse, which confirmed Einstein's theory that light
"bends".
However, in May 1919, a team led by the British astronomer Arthur Stanley Eddington
claimed to have confirmed Einstein's prediction of gravitational deflection of starlight by
the Sun while photographing a solar eclipse with dual expeditions in Sobral, northern
Brazil, and Príncipe, a west African island.[75] Nobel laureate Max Born praised general
relativity as the "greatest feat of human thinking about nature";[81] fellow laureate Paul
Dirac was quoted saying it was "probably the greatest scientific discovery ever made".[82]
The international media guaranteed Einstein's global renown.

There have been claims that scrutiny of the specific photographs taken on the Eddington
expedition showed the experimental uncertainty to be comparable to the same magnitude
as the effect Eddington claimed to have demonstrated, and that a 1962 British expedition
concluded that the method was inherently unreliable.[37] The deflection of light during a
solar eclipse was confirmed by later, more accurate observations.[83] Some resented the
newcomer's fame, notably among some German physicists, who later started the
Deutsche Physik (German Physics) movement.[84][85]

Cosmology

Main article: Cosmology

In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the
universe as a whole. He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type
of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general
theory by introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive
cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere[86]

Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would

obey Mach's principle. He had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach's principle
to a certain extent in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach's
idea would not work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe, he believed that
Mach's principle would hold.

Mach's principle has generated much controversy over the years.

Einstein in his office at the University of Berlin.

Modern quantum theory

Main article: Schrödinger equation

In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in

Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the
physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.[87] This article showed that
the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's
distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced
statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was
enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was
the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein
discovered Louis de Broglie's work, and supported his ideas, which were received
skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation
for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of
mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.

Bose–Einstein statistics

Main article: Bose–Einstein condensation

In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist

Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be
understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics
applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his
translation of Bose's paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own
articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein
condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.
[88]
It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by
Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at the NIST–
JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.[89] Bose–Einstein statistics are
now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein's sketches for this
project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.[59]

Energy momentum pseudotensor

Main article: Stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor

General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify

the conserved energy and momentum. Noether's theorem allows these quantities to be
determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes
translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum
derived within general relativity by Noether's presecriptions do not make a real tensor for
this reason.

Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field
could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant
energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum
distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and
Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.

The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by
Erwin Schrödinger and others.

Unified field theory

Main article: Classical unified field theories

Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to
generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another
aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his "unified field theory" in a Scientific
American article entitled "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation".[90] Although he
continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his
research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of
the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics,
most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until
many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein's
approaches to unification. Einstein's dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity
motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where
geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.

Wormholes
Main article: Wormhole

Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was
to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in
line with the program outlined in the paper "Do Gravitational Fields play an Important
Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?". These solutions cut and pasted
Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.

If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively
charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles
could be described in this way.

Einstein–Cartan theory

Main article: Einstein–Cartan theory

In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine
connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion.
This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.

Equations of motion

Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations

The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law – the Einstein equations which
describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move
may be derived from the Einstein equations.

Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of
pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is
determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed
that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a
geodesic from general relativity itself.

This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without
angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.

Einstein's controversial beliefs in physics

In addition to his well-accepted results, some of Einstein's views are regarded as

controversial:

• In the special relativity paper (in 1905), Einstein noted that, given a specific
definition of the word "force" (a definition which he later agreed was not
advantageous), and if we choose to maintain (by convention) the equation mass x
acceleration = force, then one arrives at as the expression for the
 transverse mass of a fast moving particle. This differs from the accepted
expression today, because, as noted in the footnotes to Einstein's paper added in
the 1913 reprint, "it is more to the point to define force in such a way that the laws
of energy and momentum assume the simplest form", as was done, for example,
by Max Planck in 1906, who gave the now familiar expression for
the transverse mass. As Miller points out, this is equivalent to the transverse mass
predictions of both Einstein and Lorentz. Einstein had commented already in the
1905 paper that "With a different definition of force and acceleration, we should
naturally obtain other expressions for the masses. This shows that in comparing
different theories... we must proceed very cautiously." [91]
• Einstein published (in 1922) a qualitative theory of superconductivity based on
the vague idea of electrons shared in orbits. This paper predated modern quantum
mechanics, and today is regarded as being incorrect. The current theory of low
temperature superconductivity was only worked out in 1957, thirty years after the
establishing of modern quantum mechanics. However, even today,
superconductivity is not well understood, and alternative theories continue to be
put forward, especially to account for high-temperature superconductors.[citation
needed]

• After introducing the concept of gravitational waves in 1917, Einstein

subsequently entertained doubts about whether they could be physically realized.
In 1937 he published a paper saying that the focusing properties of geodesics in
general relativity would lead to an instability which causes plane gravitational
waves to collapse in on themselves. While this is true to a certain extent in some
limits, because gravitational instabilities can lead to a concentration of energy
density into black holes, for plane waves of the type Einstein and Rosen
considered in their paper, the instabilities are under control. Einstein retracted this
position a short time later.[citation needed]
• Einstein denied several times that black holes could form. In 1939 he published a
paper that argues that a star collapsing would spin faster and faster, spinning at
the speed of light with infinite energy well before the point where it is about to
collapse into a black hole. This paper received no citations, and the conclusions
are well understood to be wrong. Einstein's argument itself is inconclusive, since
he only shows that stable spinning objects have to spin faster and faster to stay
stable before the point where they collapse. But it is well understood today (and
was understood well by some even then) that collapse cannot happen through
stationary states the way Einstein imagined. Nevertheless, the extent to which the
models of black holes in classical general relativity correspond to physical reality
remains unclear, and in particular the implications of the central singularity
implicit in these models are still not understood. Efforts to conclusively prove the
existence of event horizons have still not been successful.[citation needed]
• Closely related to his rejection of black holes, Einstein believed that the exclusion
of singularities might restrict the class of solutions of the field equations so as to
force solutions compatible with quantum mechanics, but no such theory has ever
been found.[citation needed]
 • In the early days of quantum mechanics, Einstein tried to show that the
uncertainty principle was not valid, but by 1927 he had become convinced that it
was valid.[citation needed]
• In the EPR paper, Einstein argued that quantum mechanics cannot be a complete
realistic and local representation of phenomena, given specific definitions of
"realism", "locality", and "completeness". The modern consensus is that Einstein's
concept of realism is too restrictive.[citation needed]
• Einstein himself considered the introduction of the cosmological term in his 1917
paper founding cosmology as a "blunder".[92] The theory of general relativity
predicted an expanding or contracting universe, but Einstein wanted a universe
which is an unchanging three dimensional sphere, like the surface of a three
dimensional ball in four dimensions. He wanted this for philosophical reasons, so
as to incorporate Mach's principle in a reasonable way. He stabilized his solution
by introducing a cosmological constant, and when the universe was shown to be
expanding, he retracted the constant as a blunder. This is not really much of a
blunder – the cosmological constant is necessary within general relativity as it is
currently understood, and it is widely believed to have a nonzero value today.
• Einstein did not immediately appreciate the value of Minkowski's four-
dimensional formulation of special relativity, although within a few years he had
adopted it as the basis for his theory of gravitation.[citation needed]
• Finding it too formal, Einstein believed that Heisenberg's matrix mechanics was
incorrect. He changed his mind when Schrödinger and others demonstrated that
the formulation in terms of the Schrödinger equation, based on Einstein's wave-
particle duality was equivalent to Heisenberg's matrices.[citation needed]

Collaboration with other scientists

In addition to long time collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and
others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.

Einstein-de Haas experiment

Main article: Einstein-de Haas effect

Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons,
nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in
an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to
rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes.
This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with
electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is
responsible for magnetization.

Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics
of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a
particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these
oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number
of particles in it.

This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum

mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a
semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author,
although Einstein declined the invitation.[93]

Einstein refrigerator

Main article: Einstein refrigerator

In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented)
the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having
no moving parts and using only heat as an input.[94] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent
1,781,541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their
invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of
their patents were quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its
refrigeration technology from competition.[95]

Bohr versus Einstein

Main article: Bohr–Einstein debates

Einstein and Niels Bohr, 1925

In the 1920s, quantum mechanics developed into a more complete theory. Einstein was
unhappy with the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum theory developed by Niels Bohr
and Werner Heisenberg, both in its outcomes and its instrumentalist methodology,
Einstein being a scientific realist. In this interpretation, quantum phenomena are
inherently probabilistic, with definite states resulting only upon interaction with classical
systems. A public debate between Einstein and Bohr followed, lasting on and off for
many years (including during the Solvay Conferences). Einstein formulated thought
experiments against the Copenhagen interpretation, which were all rebutted by Bohr. In a
1926 letter to Max Born, Einstein wrote: "I, at any rate, am convinced that He [God] does
not throw dice." [96]

Einstein was never satisfied by what he perceived to be quantum theory's intrinsically

incomplete description of nature, and in 1935 he further explored the issue in
collaboration with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, noting that the theory seems to
require non-local interactions; this is known as the EPR paradox.[97] The EPR experiment
has since been performed, with results confirming quantum theory's predictions.[98]
Repercussions of the Einstein–Bohr debate have found their way into philosophical
discourse.

Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox

Main article: EPR paradox

In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a

measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along
with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle,
either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be
discovered without disturbing it in any way.

He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these
properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to
determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in
any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or
momentum.

This principle distilled the essence of Einstein's objection to quantum mechanics. As a

physical principle, it has since been shown to be incompatible with experiments.

Political views
Main article: Albert Einstein's political views
Albert Einstein, seen here with his wife Elsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including
future President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr. Vera Weizmann, Menahem
Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921.

Einstein flouted the ascendant Nazi movement and later tried to be a voice of moderation
in the tumultuous formation of the State of Israel.[99] Fred Jerome in his Einstein on Israel
and Zionism: His Provocative Ideas About the Middle East argues that Einstein was a
Cultural Zionist who supported the idea of a Jewish homeland, but opposed the
establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine “with borders, an army, and a measure of
temporal power.” Instead, he preferred a bi-national state with “continuously functioning,
mixed, administrative, economic, and social organizations.”[100][101] However Ami Isseroff
in his article Was Einstein a Zionist, argues that Einstein supported the recognition of the
State of Israel and declared it "the fulfillment of our dream" when President Harry
Truman recognized Israel in May 1948. In the presidential election of 1948, Einstein
supported Henry A. Wallace’s Progressive Party which advocated pro-Soviet and pro-
Israel foreign policy.[102][103]

Throughout the November Revolution in Germany Einstein signed an appeal for the
foundation of a nationwide liberal and democratic party,[104][105] which was published in
the Berliner Tageblatt on 16 November 1918,[106] and became a member of the German
Democratic Party.[107]

In his article Why Socialism?,[108] published in 1949 in the Monthly Review, Einstein
described a chaotic capitalist society, a source of evil to be overcome, as the "predatory
phase of human development". He came to the following conclusion:

I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils

[capitalism], namely through the establishment of a socialist economy,
accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward
social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by
society itself and are utilized in a planned fashion. A planned economy,
which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute
the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a
livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the
individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would
attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in
place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.[108]
He braved anti-communist politics and resistance to the civil rights movement in the
United States. On the floor of the US Congress, Einstein was accused by John E. Rankin
of Mississippi of being a "foreign-born agitator" who sought "to further the spread of
Communism throughout the world".[109] He also participated in the 1927 congress of the
League against Imperialism in Brussels.[110]

After World War II, as enmity between the former allies became a serious issue, Einstein
wrote, "I do not know how the third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what
they will use in the Fourth – rocks!"[111] (Einstein 1949) With Albert Schweitzer and
Bertrand Russell, Einstein lobbied to stop nuclear testing and future bombs. Days before
his death, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which led to the Pugwash
Conferences on Science and World Affairs.[112]

Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups, including the Princeton chapter of
the NAACP. When the aged W. E. B. Du Bois was accused of being a Communist spy,
Einstein volunteered as a character witness, and the case was dismissed shortly afterward.
Einstein's friendship with activist Paul Robeson, with whom he served as co-chair of the
American Crusade to End Lynching, lasted twenty years.[113]

Einstein said "Politics is for the moment, equation for the eternity."[114] He declined the
presidency of Israel in 1952.[115]

Religious views
Main article: Albert Einstein's religious views

The question of scientific determinism gave rise to questions about Einstein's position on
theological determinism, and whether or not he believed in God, or in a god. He once
said:

You may call me an agnostic... I do not share the crusading spirit of the
professional atheist whose fervor is mostly due to a painful act of
liberation from the fetters of religious indoctrination received in youth. I
prefer an attitude of humility corresponding to the weakness of our
intellectual understanding of nature and of our own being.[116]

Non-scientific legacy
While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot
and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University.
Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but
requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986[117]).
Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University's Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that
there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.[118]
Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of
Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name
and associated imagery, as agent for the university.[119][120]

In popular culture
Main article: Albert Einstein in popular culture

In the period before World War II, Einstein was so well-known in America that he would
be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain "that theory". He finally
figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers "Pardon me,
sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein."[121]

Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of
music.[122] He is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded
professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and
exaggerated. Time magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was "a cartoonist's
dream come true".[123]

Awards and honors

See also: List of things named after Albert Einstein

In 1922, Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics,[124] "for his services to
Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric
effect". This refers to his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect, "On a Heuristic
Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", which was well
supported by the experimental evidence by that time. The presentation speech began by
mentioning "his theory of relativity [which had] been the subject of lively debate in
philosophical circles [and] also has astrophysical implications which are being rigorously
examined at the present time". (Einstein 1923)

It was long reported that Einstein gave the Nobel prize money to his first wife, Mileva
Marić, in compliance with their 1919 divorce settlement. However, personal
correspondence made public in 2006[125] shows that he invested much of it in the United
States, and saw much of it wiped out in the Great Depression.

In 1929, Max Planck presented Einstein with the Max Planck medal of the German
Physical Society in Berlin, for extraordinary achievements in theoretical physics.[126]

In 1936, Einstein was awarded the Franklin Institute's Franklin Medal for his extensive
work on relativity and the photo-electric effect.[126]
The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics named 2005 the "World Year of
Physics" in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of the publication of the annus
mirabilis papers.[127]

The Albert Einstein Science Park is located on the hill Telegrafenberg in Potsdam,
Germany. The best known building in the park is the Einstein Tower which has a bronze
bust of Einstein at the entrance. The Tower is an astrophysical observatory that was built
to perform checks of Einstein's theory of General Relativity.[128]

The Albert Einstein Memorial in central Washington, D.C. is a monumental bronze statue
depicting Einstein seated with manuscript papers in hand. The statue, commissioned in
1979, is located in a grove of trees at the southwest corner of the grounds of the National
Academy of Sciences on Constitution Avenue.

The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named for him in August 1955, four months
after Einstein's death.[129][130] 2001 Einstein is an inner main belt asteroid discovered on 5
March 1973.[131]

In 1999 Time magazine named him the Person of the Century,[123][132] ahead of Mahatma
Gandhi and Franklin Roosevelt, among others. In the words of a biographer, "to the
scientifically literate and the public at large, Einstein is synonymous with genius".[133]
Also in 1999, an opinion poll of 100 leading physicists ranked Einstein the "greatest
physicist ever".[134] A Gallup poll recorded him as the fourth most admired person of the
20th century in the U.S.[135]

In 1990, his name was added to the Walhalla temple for "laudable and distinguished
Germans",[136] which is located east of Regensburg, in Bavaria, Germany.[137]

The United States Postal Service honored Einstein with a Prominent Americans series
(1965–1978) 8¢ postage stamp.

Awards named after him

The Albert Einstein Award (sometimes called the Albert Einstein Medal because it is
accompanied with a gold medal) is an award in theoretical physics, established to
recognize high achievement in the natural sciences. It was endowed by the Lewis and
Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund in honor of Albert Einstein's 70th birthday. It was first
awarded in 1951 and included a prize money of $ 15,000,[138][139] which was later reduced
to $ 5,000.[140][141] The winner is selected by a committee (the first of which consisted of
Einstein, Oppenheimer, von Neumann and Weyl[142]) of the Institute for Advanced Study,
which administers the award.[139]

The Albert Einstein Medal is an award presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern,
Switzerland. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people who have "rendered
outstanding services" in connection with Einstein.[143]
The Albert Einstein Peace Prize is given yearly by the Chicago, Illinois-based Albert
Einstein Peace Prize Foundation. Winners of the prize receive $50,000.[144]

See also
Book:Albert Einstein
Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

• The Einstein Theory of Relativity (educational film about the theory of relativity)
• German inventors and discoverers
• Heinrich Burkhardt
• Hermann Einstein
• Historical Museum of Bern (Einstein museum)
• History of gravitational theory
• Introduction to special relativity
• List of coupled cousins
• Relativity priority dispute
• Sticky bead argument
• Summation convention

Publications
The following publications by Albert Einstein are referenced in this article. A
more complete list of his publications may be found at List of scientific
publications by Albert Einstein.

• Einstein, Albert (1901), "Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen

(Conclusions Drawn from the Phenomena of Capillarity)", Annalen der Physik 4:
513, doi:10.1002/andp.19013090306
• Einstein, Albert (1905a), "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production
and Transformation of Light", Annalen der Physik 17: 132–148,
http://lorentz.phl.jhu.edu/AnnusMirabilis/AeReserveArticles/eins_lq.pdf[dead link].
This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen
der Physik 18th March.
• Einstein, Albert (1905b), A new determination of molecular dimensions. This PhD
thesis was completed 30th April and submitted 20th July.
• Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Motion – Required by the Molecular Kinetic
Theory of Heat – of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid", Annalen
der Physik 17: 549–560. This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian motion was
received 11th May.
• Einstein, Albert (1905d), "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen
der Physik 17: 891–921. This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was
received 30th June.
• Einstein, Albert (1905e), "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy
Content?", Annalen der Physik 18: 639–641. This annus mirabilis paper on mass-
energy equivalence was received 27th September.
• Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation (The Field
Equations of Gravitation)", Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften:
844–847
• Einstein, Albert (1917a), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen
Relativitätstheorie (Cosmological Considerations in the General Theory of
Relativity)", Königlich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften
• Einstein, Albert (1917b), "Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung (On the Quantum
Mechanics of Radiation)", Physikalische Zeitschrift 18: 121–128
• Einstein, Albert (11 July 1923), "Fundamental Ideas and Problems of the Theory
of Relativity", Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901–1921, Amsterdam: Elsevier
Publishing Company,
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-lecture.pdf,
retrieved 25 March 2007
• Einstein, Albert (1924), "Quantentheorie des einatomigen idealen Gases
(Quantum theory of monatomic ideal gases)", Sitzungsberichte der Preussichen
Akademie der Wissenschaften Physikalisch-Mathematische Klasse: 261–267. First
of a series of papers on this topic.
• Einstein, Albert (1926), "Die Ursache der Mäanderbildung der Flussläufe und des
sogenannten Baerschen Gesetzes", Die Naturwissenschaften 14: 223–224,
doi:10.1007/BF01510300. On Baer's law and meanders in the courses of rivers.
• Einstein, Albert; Podolsky, Boris; Rosen, Nathan (15 May 1935), "Can Quantum-
Mechanical Description of Physical Reality Be Considered Complete?", Physical
Review 47 (10): 777–780, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.47.777
• Einstein, Albert (1940), "On Science and Religion", Nature (Edinburgh: Scottish
Academic) 146: 605, doi:10.1038/146605a0, ISBN 0707304539
• Einstein, Albert et al. (4 December 1948), "To the editors", New York Times
(Melville, NY: AIP, American Inst. of Physics), ISBN 0735403597,
http://phys4.harvard.edu/~wilson/NYTimes1948.html
• Einstein, Albert (May 1949), "Why Socialism?", Monthly Review,
http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm, retrieved 16 January 2006
• Einstein, Albert (1950), "On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation", Scientific
American CLXXXII (4): 13–17
• Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House, ISBN 0-
517-00393-7
• Einstein, Albert (1969) (in German), Albert Einstein, Hedwig und Max Born:
Briefwechsel 1916–1955, Munich: Nymphenburger Verlagshandlung,
ISBN 388682005X
• Einstein, Albert (1979), Autobiographical Notes, Paul Arthur Schilpp (Centennial
ed.), Chicago: Open Court, ISBN 0-875-48352-6. The chasing a light beam
thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.
• Collected Papers: Stachel, John, Martin J. Klein, a. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, R.
Schulmann, Diana Komos Buchwald and others (Eds.) (1987–2006), The
Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 1–10, Princeton University Press Further
 information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of
the Einstein Papers Project and on the Princeton University Press Einstein Page

Notes
1. ^ Hans-Josef, Küpper (2000), Various things about Albert Einstein, einstein-
website.de, http://www.einstein-website.de/z_information/variousthings.html,
retrieved 18 July 2009
2. ^ Zahar, Élie (2001), Poincaré's Philosophy. From Conventionalism to
Phenomenology, Carus Publishing Company, p. 41, ISBN 0-8126-9435-X,
http://books.google.com/?id=jJl2JAqvoSAC, Chapter 2, p. 41
3. ^ The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921, Nobel Foundation, archived from the original
on 5 October 2008, http://www.webcitation.org/5bLXMl1V0, retrieved 6 March
2007
4. ^ a b "Einstein Biography" Nobelprize.org
5. ^ a b Paul Arthur Schilpp, editor (1951), Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist,
Volume II, New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers (Harper Torchbook
edition), pp. 730–746 His non-scientific works include: About Zionism: Speeches
and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein (1930), "Why War?" (1933, co-
authored by Sigmund Freud), The World As I See It (1934), Out of My Later
Years (1950), and a book on science for the general reader, The Evolution of
Physics (1938, co-authored by Leopold Infeld).
6. ^ WordNet for Einstein
7. ^ a b c d e f Albert Einstein – Biography, Nobel Foundation,
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1921/einstein-bio.html,
retrieved 7 March 2007
8. ^ Einstein: the life and times, By Ronald William Clark
9. ^ Rosenkranz, Ze'ev (2005), Albert Einstein – Derrière l'image, Neue Zürcher
Zeitung, p. 29, ISBN 3-03823-182-7
10. ^ Sowell, Thomas (2001), The Einstein Syndrome: Bright Children Who Talk
Late, Basic Books, pp. 89–150, ISBN 0-465-08140-1
11. ^ Schilpp (Ed.), P. A. (1979), Albert Einstein – Autobiographical Notes, Open
Court Publishing Company, pp. 8–9
12. ^ Dudley Herschbach, "Einstein as a Student", Department of Chemistry and
Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA, page 3, web:
HarvardChem-Einstein-PDF: Max Talmud visited on Thursdays for six years.
13. ^ www.chem.harvard.edu/herschbach/Einstein_Student.pdf Albert's intellectual
growth was strongly fostered at home. His mother, a talented pianist, ensured the
children's musical education. His father regularly read Schiller and Heine aloud to
the family. Uncle Jakob challenged Albert with mathematical problems, which he
solved with "a deep feeling of happiness". Most remarkable was Max Talmud, a
poor Jewish medical student from Poland, "for whom the Jewish community had
obtained free meals with the Einstein family". Talmud came on Thursday nights
for about six years, and "invested his whole person in examining everything that
engaged [Albert's] interest". Talmud had Albert read and discuss many books
with him. These included a series of twenty popular science books that convinced
 Albert "a lot in the Bible stories could not be true", and a textbook of plane
geometry that launched Albert on avid self-study of mathematics, years ahead of
the school curriculum. Talmud even had Albert read Kant; as a result Einstein
began preaching to his schoolmates about Kant, with "forcefulness"
14. ^ Einstein's greatest intellectual stimulation came from a poor student who dined
with his family once a week. It was an old Jewish custom to take in a needy
religious scholar to share the Sabbath meal; the Einsteins modified the tradition
by hosting instead a medical student on Thursdays. His name was Max Talmud,
and he began his weekly visits when he was 21 and Einstein was 10.
15. ^ Mehra, Jagdish (2001), "Albert Einstein's first paper" (PDF), The Golden Age
of Physics, World Scientific, ISBN 9810249853,
http://www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf, retrieved 4
March 2007
16. ^ Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul (1993), The Private Lives of Albert Einstein,
London: Faber and Faber, p. 21, ISBN 0-571-17170-2
17. ^ Highfield & Carter (1993, pp. 21,31,56–57)
18. ^ Albert Einstein Collected Papers, vol. 1, 1987, doc. 67.
19. ^ Troemel-Ploetz, D., "Mileva Einstein-Marić: The Woman Who Did Einstein's
Mathematics", Women's Studies Int. Forum, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 415-432, 1990.
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Today, Feb. 1989.
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21. ^ Pais, A., Einstein Lived Here, Oxford University Press, 1994, pp. 1-29.
22. ^ Holton, G., Einstein, History, and Other Passions, Harvard University Press,
1996, pp. 177-193.
23. ^ Stachel, J., Einstein from B to Z, Birkhäuser, 2002, pp. 26-38; 39-55.
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e-pg49.pdf
25. ^ This conclusion is from Einstein's correspondence with Marić. Lieserl is first
mentioned in a letter from Einstein to Marić (who was staying with her family in
or near Novi Sad at the time of Lieserl's birth) dated 4 February 1902 (Collected
papers Vol. 1, document 134).
26. ^ Albrecht Fölsing (1998). Albert Einstein: A Biography. Penguin Group. ISBN
0140237194; see section I, II,
27. ^ Highfield & Carter 1993, p. 216
28. ^ Now the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property,
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30. ^ Gallison, Question of Time.
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51. ^ a b "ISRAEL: Einstein Declines". Time magazine. 1 December 1952.
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individual alpha particles (Helium nuclei) are directly visible to the dark adapted
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87. ^ (Einstein 1917b)
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Further reading
• Fölsing, Albrecht (1997): Albert Einstein: A Biography. New York: Penguin
Viking. (Translated and abridged from the German by Ewald Osers.)
• Hoffmann, Banesh, with the collaboration of Helen Dukas (1972): Albert
Einstein: Creator and Rebel. London: Hart-Davis, MacGibbon Ltd.
• Isaacson, Walter (2007): Einstein: His Life and Universe. Simon & Schuster
Paperbacks, New York. ISBN 0743264730
• Moring, Gary (2004): The complete idiot's guide to understanding Einstein ( 1st
ed. 2000). Indianapolis IN: Alpha books (Macmillan USA). ISBN 0028631803
• Pais, Abraham (1982): Subtle is the Lord: The science and the life of Albert
Einstein. Oxford University Press. The definitive biography to date.
• Pais, Abraham (1994): Einstein Lived Here. Oxford University Press.
• Parker, Barry (2000): Einstein's Brainchild. Prometheus Books. A review of
Einstein's career and accomplishments, written for the lay public.
• Schweber, Sylvan S. (2008): Einstein and Oppenheimer: The Meaning of Genius.
Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674028289.

External links
Find more about Albert Einstein on Wikipedia's sister projects:
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 • Works by Albert Einstein (public domain in Canada)
• The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, School of Mathematics and
Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland, April 1997, http://www-
history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Einstein.html, retrieved 14 June 2009
• Why Socialism? by Albert Einstein, Monthly Review, May 1949
• Nobelprize.org Biography:Albert Einstein
• The Einstein You Never Knew - slideshow by Life magazine
• Albert Einstein--Watch Videos
• Science Odyssey People And Discoveries

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