All Assignment

BTEC
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in

Applied Science
For first teaching September 2007
Issue 2
March 2008
Specification
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in
Applied Science
Edexcel, a Pearson company, is the UK’s largest awarding body, offering academic
and vocational qualifications and testing to more than 25,000 schools, colleges,
employers and other places of learning in the UK and in over 100 countries
worldwide. Qualifications include GCSE, AS and A Level, NVQ and our BTEC suite of
vocational qualifications from entry level to BTEC Higher National Diplomas,
recognised by employers and higher education institutions worldwide.
We deliver 9.4 million exam scripts each year, with more than 90% of exam papers
marked onscreen annually. As part of Pearson, Edexcel continues to invest in cutting-
edge technology that has revolutionised the examinations and assessment system.
This includes the ability to provide detailed performance data to teachers and
students which helps to raise attainment.
This specification is Issue 2. Key changes are sidelined. We will inform centres of any
changes to this issue. The latest issue can be found on the Edexcel website:
www.edexcel.org.uk
References to third party material made in this specification are made in good faith.
Edexcel does not endorse, approve or accept responsibility for the content of
materials, which may be subject to change, or any opinions expressed therein.
(Material may include textbooks, journals, magazines and other publications and
websites.)
Authorised by Roger Beard

Prepared by Sarah Harrison
Publications Code BN018348
All the material in this publication is copyright
© Edexcel Limited 2008
Contents
Ten principles for delivering an Edexcel Level 3 BTEC

National qualification 1
What are BTEC Nationals? 3
BTEC National Award 3
BTEC National Certificate 3
BTEC National Diploma 4
National Occupational Standards (NOS) 4
Rationale of the BTEC Nationals in Applied Science 5
Scientific skills development 7
Structure of the qualification 8

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science
(Applied Biology) 8

(Applied Chemistry) 9

(Applied Physics) 10

(Environmental Science) 11

(Medical Science) 12

(Forensic Science) 13
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Laboratory

and Industrial Science) 14
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science

(Laboratory and Industrial Science) 18

Unit format 23
Units 25
Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science 27
Unit 2: Working in the Science Industry 39
Unit 3: Scientific Investigation 51
Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques 65
Unit 5: Perceptions of Science 75
Unit 6: Application of Numbers for Science Technicians 87
Unit 7: Mathematics for Science Technicians 95
Unit 8: Statistics for Science Technicians 105
Unit 9: Informatics 115
Unit 10: Using Science in the Workplace 123
Unit 11: Physiology of Human Body Systems 133
Unit 12: Physiology of Human Regulation and Reproduction 145
Unit 13: Biochemical Techniques 157
Unit 14: Energy Changes, Sources and Applications 169
Unit 15: Microbiological Techniques 181
Unit 16: Chemistry for Biology Technicians 191
Unit 17: Electrical Circuits and their Industrial Applications 203
Unit 18: Genetics and Genetic Engineering 215
Unit 19: Practical Chemical Analysis 225
Unit 20: Medical Physics Techniques 237
Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques 247
Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques 259
Unit 23: Science for Environmental Technicians 271
Unit 24: Principles of Plant and Soil Science 285
Unit 25: Electronics for Science Technicians 297
Unit 26: Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions 309
Unit 27: Chemical Periodicity and its Applications 321

Unit 28: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry 335
Unit 29: Physiological Investigations 347
Unit 30: Medical Instrumentation 357
Unit 31: Criminology 367
Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis 377
Unit 33: Forensic Photography 389
Unit 34: Criminal Psychology 401
Unit 35: Forensic Psychology 409
Unit 36: Forensic Fire Investigation 419
Unit 37: Forensic Science Informatics 429
Unit 38: Traffic Accident Investigation 441
Unit 39: Criminal Investigation Procedures 453
Unit 40: Criminal Investigation Practice 465
Unit 41: Forensic Media and Crime 477
Assessment and grading 491

Grading domains 491
Quality assurance 492

Approval 492
Risk assessment 493
Internal verification 493
External verification 493
Calculation of the qualification grade 494

Awarding a qualification grade 494
Unit points 495
Grade boundaries and UCAS points (as of 1st January 2007) 495
Programme design and delivery 496

Mode of delivery 496
Resources 497
Delivery approach 498
Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL) 498
Meeting local needs 498

Limitations on variations from standard specifications 499
Access and recruitment 499

Restrictions on learner entry 500
Access arrangements and special considerations 500
The Edexcel BTEC Qualification Framework for the

science sector 501
Further information 502
Useful publications 502
How to obtain National Occupational Standards 502
Professional development and training 503

Annexe A 505
QCA codes 505
Annexe B 507
Grading domains: Level 3 BTEC generic grading domains 507
Annexe C 511
Key skills 511
Key skills mapping — summary of opportunities suggested in each unit 512
Annexe D 517
National Occupational Standards/mapping with NVQs 517
Annexe E 521
BTEC National in Applied Science legacy (specification end date 31
August 2007)/BTEC National in Applied Science new (specification
start date 1 September 2007) — unit mapping overview 521
BTEC Nationals in Applied Science legacy (specification end date 31

August 2007)/BTEC Nationals in Applied Science new (specification
start date 1 September 2007) — unit mapping in depth 523
Annexe F 537
Wider curriculum mapping 537
Ten principles for delivering an Edexcel Level 3
BTEC National qualification
This specification contains the rules and regulations, along with the units and
associated guidance, to enable centres to design and deliver a programme of learning
for the Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science. The qualification
structures set out the permitted combination of units learners need to complete the
qualification. Each unit sets out the learning outcomes and grading criteria along
with content, advice and guidance regarding appropriate delivery and assessment
strategies. The following generic principles need to be adhered to so that a BTEC
qualification is delivered to the appropriate standard.
1 The specification: The specification gives the information needed for the
successful delivery and achievement of the units and the qualification as a whole.
The specification is of importance to the learner and the tutor alike. Individual
units can be delivered and studied in isolation but the learner and the deliverer
should have access to the full information provided to support the programme of
learning.
2 The website: Centres need to make regular use of the Edexcel website
(www.edexcel.org.uk) to ensure that they have the most up-to-date information.
In particular, the requirements for the external verification of the qualification
receive regular updates, and appropriate information for centres is posted on the
website. It is the responsibility of the centre to ensure that they are familiar with
the latest BTEC NQF Level 2/3 (including Short Courses at Levels 1–3) Handbook
and that they implement any related policy documentation which may have been
posted on the website.
3 Policy: This specification gives details of our assessment and quality assurance
procedures. It includes advice about our policy regarding access to our
qualifications, the design of programmes of study and delivery modes. Centres
must ensure that they follow the procedures and conform to the policies outlined.
4 Recruitment: Centres are required to recruit learners with integrity. A
fundamental aspect of this integrity is that centres take appropriate steps to
assess each applicant’s potential and make a professional judgement about the
applicant’s ability to be able to successfully complete the programme of study
and achieve the qualification. Centres should ensure that applicants have
appropriate information and advice about the qualifications and that the
qualification will meet their needs.
BN018348 – Specification – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science 1

– Issue 2 – March 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
5 Assessment: Centres are required to use this specification to design and deliver a
programme of learning that will enable learners to achieve the grading criteria
stipulated in the unit grading grids. The programme of learning should consist of
assignments which provide the opportunity for coverage of all grading criteria as
set out in the grading grid for each unit. Assignments must be reliable and fit for
purpose, giving learners every opportunity to generate evidence which satisfies
the grading criteria. Centres should use a variety of assessment methods,
including case studies, assignments and work-based assessments, along with
projects, performance observation and time-constrained assessments where
appropriate.
6 Assignments: Centres are encouraged to apply the grading criteria in a practical
way. They should provide, wherever possible, a realistic scenario for learners to
work with, and make maximum use of practical activities and work experience.
The creation of assignments that are fit for purpose is vital to the learner’s
achievement.
7 National Qualifications Framework (NQF): These qualifications have been
accredited to the NQF and are eligible for public funding as determined by the
DfES under Sections 96 and 97 of the Learning and Skills Act 2000. Details of the
qualification units can be seen on the QCA OpenQuals database
(www.openquals.org.uk).
8 Qualification Accreditation Numbers (QANs): The qualification titles feature in
the funding lists published annually by the DfES and on the regularly updated
website www.dfes.gov.uk/. The NQF QANs should be used by centres when they
seek public funding for their learners. The QANs are listed in Annexe A.
9 Accreditation: This specification is accredited by the Qualifications and
Curriculum Authority (QCA) until 2012 and for certification of learners until 2014.
This specification may be updated during its period of accreditation and centres
should refer to our website for the latest issue.
10 Approval: Centres that have not previously offered BTEC qualifications must
apply for, and be granted, centre approval before they can apply for approval to
offer the programme. When a centre applies for approval to offer a BTEC
qualification they will be required to enter into an ‘approvals agreement’. The
approvals agreement is a formal commitment by the head or principal of a centre
to meet all the requirements of the specification and any linked codes or
regulations.
2 BN018348 – Specification – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science

What are BTEC Nationals?
BTEC Nationals are qualifications that are designed to provide specialist work-related
qualifications in a range of sectors. They give learners the knowledge, understanding
and skills that they need to prepare them for employment. The qualifications also
provide career development opportunities for those already in work. Consequently
they can provide a course of study for full-time or part-time learners in schools,
colleges and training centres.
The family of BTEC Nationals includes Awards, Certificates and Diplomas which offer
opportunities for nested provision and flexibility of delivery.
BTEC Nationals are designed to relate to the National Occupational Standards for the
sector, where these are appropriate, and are supported by the relevant Standards
Setting Body (SSB) or Sector Skills Council (SSC). Some BTEC Nationals form the
Technical Certificate component of Apprenticeships and all attract UCAS points that
equate to similar-sized general qualifications.
On successful completion of a BTEC National qualification, learners can progress into
or within employment and/or continue their study in the same vocational area.
BTEC National Award
The 360 guided learning hours (GLH) (usually 6 units) BTEC National Award offers a
specialist qualification that focuses on particular aspects of employment within the
appropriate vocational sector. The BTEC National Award is a qualification which can
extend a learner’s programme of study and provide vocational emphasis for learners
following an Applied GCE or GCE route or a combination of both in their main
programme of study. It is broadly equivalent to one GCE. The BTEC National Award is
especially suitable for more mature learners, who wish to follow a shorter
programme of study directly related to their work experience or to an area of
employment that they wish to move into.
The BTEC National Award in Applied Science provides the underpinning knowledge
and understanding for science technicians in employment who would like to obtain a
Level 3 qualification in applied biology, applied chemistry, applied physics,
environmental science, medical science or forensic science. This qualification would
be particularly useful to technicians, such as those employed as science technicians
in the education profession. It may be attractive to learners who are unable to
commit to the study time required by the BTEC National Certificate and/or Diploma.
BTEC National Certificate
The 720 GLH (usually 12 units) BTEC National Certificate provides a specialist work-
related programme of study that covers the key knowledge and practical skills
required in the appropriate vocational sector. The BTEC National Certificate offers
flexibility and a choice of emphasis through the specialist units. It is broadly
equivalent to two GCEs.

The qualification offers an engaging programme for those who are clear about the
area of employment that they wish to enter. These learners may wish to extend their
programme through the study of a related GCE, a complementary NVQ or another
qualification. These learning programmes can be developed to allow learners to study
complementary qualifications without duplication of content.
For adult learners the BTEC National Certificate can extend their experience of work.
It is a particularly suitable qualification for those wishing to change career or move
into a particular area of employment following a career break.
The BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science provides the underpinning
knowledge, understanding and skills for science technicians in the areas of laboratory
and industrial science, forensic science service and the medical science service. It
also provides a progression route to higher education vocational qualifications such as
BTEC Higher National Certificates in Applied Sciences or a part-time degree in
Applied Biology, Clinical Science or Forensic Science and/or a Level 4 NVQ
qualification.
BTEC National Diploma
The 1080 GLH (usually 18 units) BTEC National Diploma extends the specialist work-
related focus available from the BTEC Certificate. The qualification prepares learners
for employment in the appropriate vocational sector and is suitable for those who
have decided that they wish to enter a particular area of work.
Some adult learners may wish to complete this qualification in order to enter a
specialist area of employment or progress into higher education. Other learners may
want to extend the specialism that they followed on the BTEC National Certificate
programme.
Progression from the BTEC National Diploma could be into employment where
learners might take professional body examinations or complete NVQs. Alternatively,
learners could continue to degree or other higher-education programmes in the same
vocational sector or in a related sector.
The BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science provides the knowledge, understanding
and skills for learners wishing to enter a career as a science technician in the areas of
laboratory and industrial science, medical science service or the forensic science
service. It also provides progression to higher education vocational qualifications such
as BTEC Higher National Diploma in Applied Sciences or a full-time degree in Applied
Sciences or Forensic Science. This qualification programme provides access to more
specialist units and therefore broadens and deepens the learners’ experience in
preparation for the world of work.
National Occupational Standards (NOS)
BTEC Nationals are designed to relate to the National Occupational Standards (NOS)
in the appropriate vocational sector. NOS form the basis of National Vocational
Qualifications (NVQs). BTEC Nationals do not purport to deliver occupational
competence in the sector, which should be demonstrated in a work context.
However, the qualifications provide much of the underpinning knowledge for the
NOS, as well as developing practical skills in preparation for work and possible
achievement of NVQs in due course.

Relevant aspects of the NOS are addressed in the learning outcomes and content of
the units, and these links are identified where appropriate.
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science relate to the NOS Level 3 NVQ
in Laboratory and Associated Technical Activities (LATA).
Key features of the BTEC Nationals in Applied Science
The BTEC Nationals in Applied Science have been developed in the science sector to
focus on:
• flexibility of pathway to suit learners’ needs, providing a range of applied
qualifications in biology, chemistry, physics, environmental science, laboratory
and industrial science, medical science and forensic science
• giving learners the opportunity to acquire technical and employability skills,
knowledge and understanding which are transferable and will enable individuals
to meet changing circumstances, whether these arise from a shift in their own
status or employment, or general changes in applied science practice, provision
or environment
• giving learners the opportunity to gain a nationally recognised vocationally
specific qualification to enter employment as a science technician or assistant
practitioner, or to progress to other vocational qualifications such as Edexcel
Level 5 BTEC Higher Nationals in Applied Biology, Applied Chemistry, Applied
Physics or health-related or other science-related qualifications
• providing opportunities for learners who are employed in the applied science
industry or organisations that use science to develop their underpinning
knowledge and scientific skills
• developing the knowledge, understanding and skills of learners to meet the needs
of the applied science sector
• increasing understanding of the role of the science technician or assistant
practitioner, their relationship with the scientific community and their
responsibilities towards the community and the environment
• providing opportunities for learners to focus on the development of the major key
skills and the wider key skills, such as improving their own learning and
performance and working with others, in context
• providing opportunities for learners to develop a range of skills and techniques,
personal qualities and attributes essential for successful performance in working
life.
Rationale of the BTEC Nationals in Applied Science
The BTEC Nationals in Applied Science offer vocational qualifications that focus on
applied science and reflect aspects of employment within science organisations or
organisations that use science.
These qualifications offer an approach which is different to other NQF Level 3
qualifications in science and will appeal to learners who prefer portfolio-based
assessment covering a variety of scientific investigations.

The BTEC Nationals in Applied Science have been developed in the areas of
laboratory and industrial science, forensic science, medical science, environmental
science and biological, chemical and physical science to provide a route to
employment in the science industry or within organisations that use science. These
can include roles such as:
• working as a quality control technician/analyst, where the employee works in a
production plant laboratory carrying out analytical tests using modern
instrumentation, ICT and data interpretation
• working in a hospital as a medical physics technician supporting the use of X-ray
and other imaging/scanning instruments
• working in a research laboratory in the development of new drugs. Managing
projects that include setting up apparatus, measuring and handling chemical
substances, following procedures, carrying out observations and measurements,
separating and analysing products
• working in the chemical industry, involved with testing materials
• working with the forensic science service or using their analytical skills in the
chemistry industry
• working in chemical companies developing fertilisers and other plant feeds
• working for a scientific magazine or journal. Editing and proofreading articles on
issues such as applications and implications of new science discoveries and
developments
• providing opportunities for technicians to achieve a nationally recognised Level 3
vocationally specific qualification
• providing opportunities for full-time learners to gain a nationally recognised
vocationally specific qualification to enter employment as a science technician or
progress to higher education vocational qualifications such as the Edexcel Level 5
BTEC Higher National Diploma in Applied Sciences or a full-time degree in applied
sciences, forensic science or other science-related courses
• developing the knowledge, understanding and skills of learners from a
technician’s viewpoint
• understanding how the scientific community works and how science works
• providing opportunities for learners to focus on the development of the major key
skills and the wider key skills in a science and technological context, such as
improving own learning and performance, working with others and problem
solving
• providing opportunities for learners to develop a range of skills, techniques and
attributes essential for successful performance in working life.

Scientific skills development
It should be emphasised that learners following this course need to develop their
communication and application of number skills as they progress. This can be through
presentations and discussions where they have opportunities to express their opinions
about current science issues, particularly through Unit 5: Perceptions of Science, Unit
6: Application of Numbers for Science Technicians, Unit 7: Mathematics for Science
Technicians and Unit 8: Statistics for Science Technicians. Employers also value
employees that are able to communicate effectively using electronic communication,
the correct terminology and scientific symbols.
It is important that learners develop their vocational practical skills and can follow
scientific procedures in a logical and safe manner, observe and record data
accurately (using ICT wherever possible), and present information concisely to enable
others to successfully complete the same investigation or practical experiment
safely.
It is also important that learners take on the role of being employed within the
science industry when completing assignments and activities. This can be achieved by
setting assignments and activities with a scenario that reflects tasks and projects
that employees would be undertaking in the workplace.
These qualifications offer course teams in centres an opportunity to develop their
own assignments and activities programme to take into account the needs of local
employers, the opportunities they offer and the needs of the learners.
The assessment approach allows a greater flexibility for ‘assessment for learning’,
where learners can get feedback on their progress as they provide evidence to meet
the grading criteria.
The BTEC National Award, Certificate and Diploma in Applied Science have been
designed to build on Key Stage 4 Science, and to cover ‘How Science Works’ from the
Key Stage 5 Science criteria from QCA. Learners are more likely to achieve a BTEC
National in Applied Science if they have two science-based GCSEs at grades A*–C.
Learners can progress to Edexcel Level 5 BTEC Higher Nationals or degree courses in
biology, chemistry, physics, environmental science, engineering, construction,
health- or sports-related courses depending on the endorsed title chosen.
Learners can also take Level 3 NVQs such as Health (Clinical Healthcare Skills),
Health (Allied Health Profession Support) and Laboratory and Associated Technical
Activities. The underpinning knowledge, practical and vocational scientific skills
learnt on the BTEC course will enhance and support the progression to a competency-
based course.
There are a number of issues where employees in science work together and come
together in forums (eg at the Royal Society, professional bodies, the Sector Skills
Council, Science Learning Centres and at the Association for Science Education
meetings and their annual conference) to discuss current generic issues such as
sustainable development, pollution, global warming and health and safety. This is
reflected in all the units.

Structure of the qualification
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Applied Biology)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Applied Biology)
consists of two core units plus the equivalent of four 60 guided learning hours (GLH)
specialist units (ie two 30 GLH specialist units and three 60 GLH specialist units, or
four 60 GLH specialist units) that provide for a combined total of 360 GLH for the
completed qualification.
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Applied Biology)

Unit Core units GLH Level
1 Fundamentals of Science 60 3
4 Scientific Practical Techniques 60 3
Unit Specialist units
2 Working in the Science Industry 60 3
5 Perceptions of Science 60 3
6 Application of Numbers for Science Technicians 30 2
7 Mathematics for Science Technicians 30 3
8 Statistics for Science Technicians 30 3
10 Using Science in the Workplace 60 3
11 Physiology of Human Body Systems 60 3
12 Physiology of Human Regulation and Reproduction 60 3
13 Biochemical Techniques 60 3
15 Microbiological Techniques 60 3
16 Chemistry for Biology Technicians 60 3
18 Genetics and Genetic Engineering 60 3
24 Principles of Plant and Soil Science 60 3

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Applied
Chemistry)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Applied Chemistry)
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Applied Chemistry)

19 Practical Chemical Analysis 60 3
22 Chemical Laboratory Techniques 60 3
26 Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions 60 3
27 Chemical Periodicity and its Applications 60 3
28 Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry 60 3

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Applied Physics)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Applied Physics)
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Applied Physics)

14 Energy Changes, Sources and Applications 60 3
17 Electrical Circuits and their Industrial Applications 60 3
20 Medical Physics Techniques 60 3

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Environmental
Science)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Environmental Science)
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Environmental Science)

23 Science for Environmental Technicians 60 3

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Medical Science)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Medical Science)
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Medical Science)

21 Biomedical Science Techniques 60 3

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Forensic Science)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Forensic Science)
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science (Forensic Science)

31 Criminology 60 3
32 Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis 60 3
33 Forensic Photography 60 3
34 Criminal Psychology 60 3

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Laboratory
and Industrial Science)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Laboratory and
Industrial Science) consists of six core units plus one other 30 guided learning hours
(GLH) specialist unit plus the equivalent of six 60 GLH specialist units (ie two 30 GLH
specialist units and five 60 GLH specialist units, or six 60 GLH specialist units) that
provide for a combined total of 720 GLH for the completed qualification.
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Laboratory and

Industrial Science)
3 Scientific Investigation 60 3
9 Informatics 30 3
Continued overleaf…

Unit Specialist units (continued) GLH Level
25 Electronics for Science Technicians 60 3

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Medical
Science)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Medical Science)
consists of six core units plus one other 30 guided learning hours (GLH) specialist unit
plus the equivalent of six 60 GLH specialist units (ie two 30 GLH specialist units and
five 60 GLH specialist units, or six 60 GLH specialist units) that provide for a
combined total of 720 GLH for the completed qualification.
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Medical Science)

9 Informatics 30 3
29 Physiological Investigations 60 3
30 Medical Instrumentation 60 3

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Forensic
Science)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Forensic Science)
consists of six core units plus either of the 30 guided learning hours (GLH) specialist
units plus six 60 GLH specialist units, that provide for a combined total of 720 GLH
for the completed qualification.
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Forensic Science)

31 Criminology 60 3
35 Forensic Psychology 60 3
37 Forensic Science Informatics 60 3
38 Traffic Accident Investigation 60 3

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science (Laboratory and
Industrial Science)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science (Laboratory and
Industrial Science) consists of six core units plus one other 30 guided learning hours
(GLH) specialist unit plus the equivalent of twelve 60 GLH specialist units (ie two 30
GLH specialist units and eleven 60 GLH specialist units, or twelve 60 GLH specialist
units) that provide for a combined total of 1080 GLH for the completed qualification.
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science (Laboratory and

Industrial Science)
9 Informatics 30 3


Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science (Medical
Science)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science (Medical Science)
plus the equivalent of twelve 60 GLH specialist units (ie two 30 GLH specialist units
and eleven 60 GLH specialist units, or twelve 60 GLH specialist units) that provide for
a combined total of 1080 GLH for the completed qualification.
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science (Medical Science)

9 Informatics 30 3
29 Physiological Investigations 60 3
30 Medical Instrumentation 60 3

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science (Forensic
Science)
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science (Forensic Science)
plus the equivalent of twelve 60 GLH specialist units (ie two 30 GLH specialist units
and eleven 60 GLH specialist units, or twelve 60 GLH specialist units) that provide for
a combined total of 1080 GLH for the completed qualification.
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science (Forensic Science)

9 Informatics 30 3
31 Criminology 60 3
35 Forensic Psychology 60 3
36 Forensic Fire Investigation 60 3

37 Forensic Science Informatics 60 3
38 Traffic Accident Investigation 60 3
39 Criminal Investigation Procedures 60 3
40 Criminal Investigation Practice 60 3
41 Forensic Media and Crime 60 3

Unit format
All units in Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National qualifications have a standard format. The
unit format is designed to give guidance on the requirements of the qualification for
learners, tutors, assessors and those responsible for monitoring national standards.
Each unit has the following sections.
Unit title
The unit title is accredited by QCA and this form of words will appear on the
learner’s Notification of Performance (NOP).
NQF level
This is the level of the unit within the National Qualifications Framework (NQF).
The level of the unit has been informed by the NICATs level descriptors and,
where appropriate, the NOS and/or other sector/professional benchmarks.
Guided learning hours (GLH)
In BTEC National qualifications each unit consists of 30, 60, 90 or 120 GLH.
Guided learning hours are ‘a notional measure of the substance of a unit’. GLH
include an estimate of time that might be allocated to direct teaching,
instruction and assessment, together with other structured learning time such as
directed assignments or supported individual study. It excludes learner-initiated
private study. Centres are advised to consider this definition when planning the
programme of study associated with this qualification.
Unit abstract
The unit abstract gives the reader an appreciation of the value of the unit in the
vocational setting of the qualification as well as highlighting the focus of the unit.
It gives the reader a snapshot of the aims of the unit and the key knowledge,
skills and understanding developed while studying the unit. The unit abstract also
highlights any links to the appropriate vocational sector by describing how the
unit relates to that sector.
Learning outcomes
Learning outcomes state exactly what a learner should ‘know, understand or be
able to do’ as a result of completing the unit.
Unit content
The unit content gives centres the substance to devise and plan the programme
of learning needed for the learning outcomes to be successfully achieved.
Evidence to meet the grading criteria will include relevant areas of the unit
content as described in the assessment section of the unit. Where appropriate,
this is informed by the underpinning knowledge and understanding requirements
of the related National Occupational Standards (NOS).
The unit content sets out each learning outcome with prescribed key phrases or
concepts listed in italics followed by the range of related topics. Detailed lists
provide an indicative range to support the specific topic item. Not all of the unit
content is expected to be assessed in every unit.

Grading grid
Each grading grid contains statements of the assessment criteria used to
determine the evidence that each learner must produce in order to receive a
pass, merit or distinction grade. It is important to note that the merit and
distinction grading criteria refer to a qualitative improvement in the learner’s
evidence, and not a quantitative one.
Essential guidance for tutors
This section is designed to give tutors additional guidance and amplification in
order to provide understanding and a consistent level of delivery and assessment.
It is divided into the following sections:
• Delivery — explains the content’s relationship with the learning outcomes and
offers guidance about possible approaches to delivery. This section is based on
the more usual delivery modes but is not intended to rule out alternative
approaches.
• Assessment — gives amplification about the nature and type of evidence that
learners need to produce in order to pass the unit or achieve the higher
grades. This section should be read in conjunction with the grading criteria.
• Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC
qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications — sets out links with
other units within the qualification. These links can be used to ensure that
learners make connections between units, resulting in a coherent programme
of learning. The links show opportunities for integration of learning, delivery
and assessment.
• Essential resources — identifies any specialist resources needed to allow
learners to generate the evidence required for each unit. The centre will be
asked to ensure that any requirements are in place when it seeks approval
from Edexcel to offer the qualification.
• Indicative reading for learners — provides a short list of learner resource
material that benchmarks the level of study.
Key skills
This section identifies any opportunities in the unit for learners to generate evidence
to meet the requirements of key skills units. Assessors should take care to become
familiar with the key skills specifications and evidence requirements and not to rely
solely on this section when presenting key skills evidence for moderation. Centres
should refer to the QCA website (www.qca.org.uk) for the latest version of the key
skills standards.

Units
Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science 27
Unit 2: Working in the Science Industry 39
Unit 3: Scientific Investigation 51
Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques 65
Unit 5: Perceptions of Science 75
Unit 6: Application of Numbers for Science Technicians 87
Unit 7: Mathematics for Science Technicians 95
Unit 8: Statistics for Science Technicians 105
Unit 9: Informatics 115
Unit 10: Using Science in the Workplace 123
Unit 11: Physiology of Human Body Systems 133
Unit 12: Physiology of Human Regulation and Reproduction 145
Unit 13: Biochemical Techniques 157
Unit 14: Energy Changes, Sources and Applications 169
Unit 15: Microbiological Techniques 181
Unit 16: Chemistry for Biology Technicians 191
Unit 17: Electrical Circuits and their Industrial Applications 203
Unit 18: Genetics and Genetic Engineering 215
Unit 19: Practical Chemical Analysis 225
Unit 20: Medical Physics Techniques 237
Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques 247
Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques 259
Unit 23: Science for Environmental Technicians 271
Unit 24: Principles of Plant and Soil Science 285
Unit 25: Electronics for Science Technicians 297
Unit 26: Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions 309
Unit 27: Chemical Periodicity and its Applications 321

Unit 28: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry 335
Unit 29: Physiological Investigations 347
Unit 30: Medical Instrumentation 357
Unit 31: Criminology 367
Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis 377
Unit 33: Forensic Photography 389
Unit 34: Criminal Psychology 401
Unit 35: Forensic Psychology 409
Unit 36: Forensic Fire Investigation 419
Unit 37: Forensic Science Informatics 429
Unit 38: Traffic Accident Investigation 441
Unit 39: Criminal Investigation Procedures 453
Unit 40: Criminal Investigation Practice 465
Unit 41: Forensic Media and Crime 477

UNIT 1: FUNDAMENTALS OF SCIENCE
Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60
Unit abstract
Learners wishing to pursue a career as a laboratory technician will need a general
understanding of all the main sciences including some basic practical techniques.
This unit introduces learners to fundamental scientific ideas in chemistry, biology and
physics. The unit is core to all endorsed titles.
The learning outcomes have also been designed to underpin the knowledge required
in fundamental concepts in biology, chemistry and physics. This should enable
existing or future applied science technicians to carry out work effectively in industry
and analytical services.
Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the quantities involved in chemical reactions
2 Understand structures in biological systems
3 Understand types of energy and their interconversions
4 Know the basic principles of electricity and electromagnetic radiation.

Unit content
1 Understand the quantities involved in chemical reactions
The periodic table: organisation of elements; periodicity; groups (physical and

chemical properties); relative atomic mass; atomic number
Electronic structure of atoms: Bohr’s theory
Bonding of elements: ionic bonding; covalent bonding; tetrahedral basis of
organic chemistry
Quantities in chemical reactions: balanced equations; relative molecular mass;
moles; molarities; preparation of standard solutions and titration
2 Understand structures in biological systems
Design and operation of: light microscope; electron microscope

Microscopic structures of cells: plants; animals; bacteria; prokaryote; eukaryote
Cell organelle structure and function: cell membrane; cell wall; nucleus;
nucleolus; cytoplasm; mitochondria; ribosome; endoplasmic reticulum (smooth
and rough); Golgi body; lysosome; vesicles
Cell division: mitosis
Tissues and their functions: cell differentiation; epithelial; connective; nerve;
muscular
3 Understand types of energy and their interconversions
Types of energy: mechanical (kinetic and potential); chemical; thermal;

electrical; electromagnetic; nuclear
Measurement of energy: to include all of the above types of energy; units; use of
the calorimeter
Examples of energy transfer: metabolism, potential to kinetic, generation of
electrical energy; thermal energy from fuels; nuclear energy to electrical energy;
examples of applications

4 Know the basic principles of electricity and electromagnetic radiation
Electrical terminology and units: current (ampere); direct current (dc)

alternating current (ac); potential difference (volt); resistance (ohm); power
(watts); Ohm’s law
Electrical circuits and components: series and parallel circuits (resistors and
capacitors); voltmeters; ammeters
Electromagnetic radiation: the electromagnetic spectrum; wave amplitude;
frequency; periodic time; v=fλ speed of electromagnetic waves; main regions and
their physical manifestations (ie typical wavelengths and energy contents); X-
rays; ultraviolet (uv); visible; infrared (ir); microwaves; radio wave; use of a
colorimeter

Grading grid
In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.
Grading criteria
To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 outline the key features of the periodic M1 draw conclusions based on the practicals D1 explain the use of preparing standard
table, atomic structure and chemical carried out solutions and titrations and describe how
bonding and carry out simple titrations this may be carried out differently in
and calculate accurate results industry
P2 describe, using a light microscope and M2 explain the importance of cell D2 compare different tissues with similar
electron micrographs, the structures and differentiation in the formation of functions in terms of their structure and
functions of the components of tissues in eukaryotes functions
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and
provide illustrations of types of animal
tissue
P3 describe the different types of energy M3 practically demonstrate a range of D3 evaluate the efficiencies of energy
and their interconversions energy interconversions with appropriate conversion systems
explanations of the systems investigated
P4 construct simple series and parallel M4 describe how series and parallel circuits D4 perform calculations on series and
electrical circuits and describe the operate referring to current and parallel circuits, and explain applications
properties of the main regions of the potential difference, and explain the that use electrical circuits.
electromagnetic spectrum. applications of the main regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Delivery
A visit to an industrial state-of-the-art laboratory is strongly recommended. If this is

not possible for all learners, then tutors are strongly advised to take any opportunity
to visit one themselves. This would give tutors an appreciation of the differences
between industrial laboratories and centre-based laboratories and enable them to
better deliver the unit. Such differences include the clear demarcation of ‘clean’ and
‘contaminated’ areas (not only in biological and animal laboratories, but even in
many chemistry ones), and the separate space for computers, desks etc that learners
may not be aware of.
The fundamental ideas contained in this unit should be introduced through a
programme of tuition, guided learning, practical work in the laboratory and problem
solving. The practical activities in this unit will develop technical skills and help
learners to understand science, common scientific instruments, and the use of these
instruments in a vocationally relevant context.
Any opportunity should be taken to gather data from the practical activities via
science-based technologies. Today’s science laboratories depend more and more on
the use of computerised systems. Scientists and science technicians need familiarity
with basic terminology and principles associated with those measurement systems
and their communications with computers.
Learners should be encouraged to use a standard scientific practical report format
(introduction, aims/hypothesis, materials, method, results, discussion, conclusion
and references).
This unit builds on the concepts in Key Stage 4, the GNVQ Intermediate, the Edexcel
BTEC First Diploma in Applied Science and GCSE in Applied Science.
The content of this unit should be contextualised for vocational routes. This could be
reinforced by visits to relevant industries to enable learners to relate scientific
theory to applications in relevant industrial sectors. Wherever possible the scientific
theories should be applied to the use within, for example, a research establishment,
a quality control laboratory in a fine chemical or bulk chemical industry, a medical
laboratory, or a forensic science laboratory.
Studying blood and other bodily substances is not a banned activity (unless an
employer has provided written instructions restricting the activity). A risk assessment
must be carried out. For further guidance refer to page 497.

Assessment
All the pass grade criteria must be met in order for a learner to achieve this unit.
For P1, learners must demonstrate practically the ability to prepare standard
solutions and test their accuracy by titration. The introduction must outline the
periodic table, the electronic structure of atoms and the bonding of atoms. The
learners must write balanced chemical equations from the results they generate. The
quantities in chemical reactions must also be calculated accurately. Lengthy
descriptions of the quantities in which chemical systems react are not required for
P1. Tutors should complete observation forms as evidence of learners demonstrating
required practical skills.
For P2, learners must use a light microscope in accordance with good practice to
draw and label samples of tissue types. Electron micrographs should be provided to
learners so that the cell organelles listed in the unit content can be identified and
drawn. Learners must write a brief description of the structures and functions of cell
components. Tutors should ensure that learners know the design and operation of
both the light and electron microscopes. Learners could be assessed by a variety of
means, eg a written report, PowerPoint presentation, or a poster presentation.
For P3, learners must understand different types of energy and their
interconversions. The tutor should teach all the listed types of energy, their
associated units of measurement and the interconversions listed in the unit content.
Learners should be able to explain the different types of energy and understand their
interconversions by completing appropriate practicals, under tutor supervision, or
worksheets provided by the tutor.
For P4, learners must know the basic principles of electricity and electromagnetic
radiation. Definitions of all the electrical terminologies and units given in the unit
content must be written by the learner. It is also necessary for learners to identify
clearly the main regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A diagram must be
included by learners to aid the identification of all the regions listed in the unit
content. Learners should relate the terms to simple circuits to show full
understanding. The regions of the electromagnetic spectrum listed in the unit
content must be fully described, possibly in the form of a written report or a poster.
If learners are assessed via practicals, eg making simple circuits, then tutors should
complete observation forms so that evidence generated by learners is documented.
For a merit grade, all the pass grade criteria and all the merit grade criteria must be
met.
The merit grading criteria allow learners’ skills and understanding of scientific
principles to be developed further.
For M1, learners must draw conclusions for the practical work completed on
preparing standard solutions and titrating as appropriate. Learners must ensure the
calculations for the quantities in which chemicals react are accurate. The need for a
safe working environment and risk assessments should always be maintained and
reinforced by the tutor. The conclusions given by learners must be accurate and
account for anomalous results.
For M2, learners must explain cell differentiation and its importance in the formation
of tissue types. Learners must cover all tissue types in eukaryotes.

For M3, learners must use appropriate practical methods, as provided by the tutor, to
show energy interconversions. Some centres may have limited practical apparatus
but simple calorimetry is an essential practical requirement included in the unit
content. Tutors delivering this unit can select appropriate practical methods to
enable learners to demonstrate and explain energy conversion systems. Learners
should be encouraged to take responsibility for ensuring safety and risk assessments
are completed. Tutors should record practicals carried out by learners on observation
forms as evidence of the required work being completed.
For M4, learners must describe the properties of the main regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength, frequency and energy. Learners
must be able to apply knowledge of this topic to appropriate instrumentation of
vocational relevance.
For a distinction grade, all the pass, merit and distinction grade criteria must be
met.
Distinction criteria will develop learners’ knowledge, skills and understanding
further. Tutors should ensure that calculations are well presented, and there is
correct use of scientific terminology. Learners must work independently for D1, D2,
D3 and D4.
For D1, learners must relate their practical work in the laboratory to industrial
applications and comment on how procedures and equipment may differ in industry.
For D2, learners must compare different tissues, in terms of their structure, that
have similar functions. For example, learners must compare cardiac and skeletal
muscle, or endocrine and exocrine glands, or two sense organs/receptors, clearly
describing the differences between the tissues and explaining how both tissue types
perform similar functions. This grading criterion requires a detailed review of the
information learners have given for M2 so that the cellular components of the
different tissue types can be identified and explained in terms of the functions of the
tissue types. Illustrations learners have provided for M2 would be useful in developing
greater understanding of cellular components of tissues and the relationship to the
function of the tissue types.
For D3, learners must use the practical investigations completed for M3 to write
evaluations on the efficiencies of the energy conversion systems. Each energy
conversion system investigated should be individually evaluated with appropriate
vocational examples of their applications in industry.
For D4, learners must present evidence of uses of the electromagnetic spectrum in
industry. This may be presented as a poster, leaflet or similar: a long formal report is
not required.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications
This unit is linked with all the units in this programme as it underpins the knowledge
and understanding of core scientific principles. The content in this unit will be
further developed in:
• Unit 3: Scientific Investigation
• Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques
• Unit 11: Physiology of Human Body Systems
• Unit 12: Physiology of Human Regulation and Reproduction
• Unit 13: Biochemical Techniques
• Unit 14: Energy Changes, Sources and Applications
• Unit 15: Microbiological Techniques
• Unit 16: Chemistry for Biology Technicians
• Unit 18: Genetics and Genetic Engineering
• Unit 19: Practical Chemical Analysis
• Unit 20: Medical Physics Techniques
• Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques
• Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques
• Unit 24: Principles of Plant and Soil Science
• Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis.
Essential resources
• Basic laboratory glassware and general laboratory equipment.

• Burettes.
• Light microscopes.
• Prepared microscope slides of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• Photomicrographs showing cell organelles.
• Calorimeter.
• Colorimeter.
• Basic equipment for building simple electrical circuits.

Indicative reading for learners
Textbooks
Adams S and Allday J — Advanced Physics (Oxford University Press, 2000)
ISBN 0199146802
Ciccotti F and Kelly D — Physics AS (Collins Educational, 2000) ISBN 0003277550
Fullick A — Heinemann Advanced Science: Biology (Heinemann Educational Secondary
Division, 2000) ISBN 0435570951
Fullick A and Fullick P — Chemistry: Evaluation Pack (Heinemann Educational
Secondary Division, 2000) ISBN 043557096X
Fullick P — Heinemann Advanced Science: Physics (Heinemann Educational Secondary
Division, 2000) ISBN 0435570978
ILPAC — Advanced Practical Chemistry, 2nd Edition (Independent Learning Project
for Advanced Chemistry) (Hodder Murray, 1997) ISBN 0719575079
Websites
www.bbc.co.uk/learning BBC learning
www.cellsalive.com CELLS alive
www.ici.com The ICI Company
www.nln.ac.uk National Learning Network
www.rsc.org.uk The Royal Society of Chemistry

Key skills
Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.
Application of number Level 3
When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• acquiring and interpreting N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
data from methods information from relevant sources.
appropriate to a practical
investigation, and planning
and undertaking a
programme of work to
provide relevant data from
the investigation
• using appropriate methods to N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
process primary data from stage calculations to do with:
practical work undertaken
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
• drawing and presenting N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
conclusions drawn from present your findings and justify your
processed practical methods.
investigatory data.

Communication Level 3

• taking part in group C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
discussions about a complex
abstract scientific subject,
such as the structure and
function of cellular
components or electronic
configurations of elements
and relating to their
properties
• presenting the results and C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
conclusions of an eight minutes using an image or other
investigation support material.
• reading and synthesising C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
information about a complex least two documents about the same
subject, such as one of the subject.
examples in C3.1a
Each document must be a minimum of
1000 words long.
• preparing a document about C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
a complex subject as above. each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.
Information and communication technology Level 3

• planning and carrying out a ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
search for experimental sources, and multiple search criteria in at
methods appropriate to a least one case.
scientific investigation to be
undertaken
• preparing a report of a ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
scientific investigation. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

Improving own learning and performance Level 3

• developing the plan for a LP3.1 Set targets using information from
scientific practical appropriate people and plan how these
investigation and consulting will be met.
and gaining the agreement of
their tutor
• implementing the plan and LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
modifying it in accordance using your plan to help meet targets and
with results obtained and improve your performance.
constraints and problems
encountered
• evaluating the plan at LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
frequent intervals and your achievements.
refining it in accordance with
the conclusions reached.
Problem solving Level 3

• formulating the plan with a PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
range of options for a ways of tackling it.
scientific practical
investigation
• identifying and evaluating PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
alternative approaches to the solving the problem.
investigation, and deciding
on the approach to be
adopted
• evaluating the plan PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
continuously during the review your approach to problem solving.
investigation, on the basis of
the results and conclusions
reached.

UNIT 2: WORKING IN THE SCIENCE INDUSTRY
Unit 2: Working in the Science Industry

Unit abstract
We continue to encounter many scientific challenges and at the centre of them all is
the understanding and skill of the laboratory science technicians who work in a
variety of places and scientific disciplines. The most important driving force in their
success or failure will be how their laboratory is organised.
Laboratory technicians need to have a good understanding of how each of the
specialist laboratories have individual requirements and also have generic procedures
and practices. An understanding of safety regulations and the application of
laboratory management information systems are essential. These combine to give an
appreciation of how to run an efficient, effective and safe laboratory. This unit is
crucial in underpinning the training of a science laboratory technician.
The unit starts by exploring the essential procedures and practices found in all
laboratories. This is supported by a look at specialist laboratories. They are examined
on their different individual requirements in terms of efficiency, effectiveness and
safety. This unit gives learners an appreciation of how scientific data and records are
kept in a modern laboratory information system. Finally, the unit provides an
essential insight into how laboratories are organised today in the light of up-to-date
safe working practices and safety regulations.
Learning outcomes
1 Know how procedures are followed and information passed on in the laboratory
2 Understand the design of a workplace with respect to its efficiency,
effectiveness, safety and security
3 Understand laboratory management information systems and a range of scientific
computer applications
4 Be able to demonstrate and understand safe working practices in the laboratory.

Unit content
1 Know how procedures are followed and information passed on in the

laboratory
Procedures: chemical store management; ordering procedures; calibration of

equipment eg pH meters, Pasteur pipettes; servicing equipment eg burettes and
Bunsen burners; collection/transport of substances and equipment for disposal;
use of centrifuges; instrumentation techniques eg colorimeter, electrophoresis;
desiccators and vacuum storage; handling and disposal of radioactive substances;
handling and use of glassware; handling of solvents and poisons; use of ovens;
operation of the fume cupboard
Communicating practices: lines of authority and accountability to and from other
personnel; working as a team; organisation of the laboratory (weekly, daily, etc);
routines (work schedules, briefings); reporting of results
2 Understand the design of a workplace with respect to its efficiency,

effectiveness, safety and security
Design: identify the key features necessary in a laboratory (services, furniture,

access, safety equipment, fume cupboard, storage, workspace)
Specialist laboratories: biological eg microbiological laboratories; chemical;
physical sciences; research facilities
Safety requirements: materials; radioactive substances; specialist equipment;
health and safety requirements; waste disposal; toxic and flammable substances;
storage; specific safety equipment and clothing; security
3 Understand laboratory management information systems and a range of

scientific computer applications
Scientific data storage: COSHH records; scientific data; scientific apparatus

records; waste disposal records; health and safety checks; training records;
quality assurance data; report records; specification levels; sample throughput
and managing; security, Data Protection Act
Workplace records: stock records; work schedules; servicing dates and contracts;
laboratory test data; specimen records; test records; calibration records;
validation data; standard operating procedures

4 Be able to demonstrate and understand safe working practices in the

laboratory
Definitions: risk; hazards eg harmful, toxic, flammable, oxidising agent, reaction

with water to give flammable gas
Risk assessment: need for; carried out for every practical activity; minimisation
of risk; action to be taken when incidents occur
Sources of information: CLEAPSS hazcards, manufacturer’s data sheets, MSDS;
good laboratory practice eg quality standards, UKAS BS 17025, BS EN ISO 9001
Regulations and legislation: COSHH regulations; HSE inspectors; UKAS
assessments; other relevant regulation/legislation
Safe working practices: fume cupboard storage; waste disposal; incident and
accident procedures; risk assessments; COSHH register; good housekeeping eg
safe handling of pathogens; protective equipment eg laboratory coat, protective
gloves, goggles, visor, protective shoes, protective glasses

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe procedures and practices M1 demonstrate evidence of documented D1 explain and analyse why laboratory
undertaken in a laboratory and how they procedures that you have used in the procedures and practices must be
can be communicated laboratory communicated in a laboratory
P2 identify key features in the design of a M2 design a specialist laboratory and justify D2 analyse why good laboratory design is
specialist laboratory its individual key features important for efficiency, effectiveness
and safety
P3 identify the scientific data that may be M3 describe the procedure for storing D3 explain the advantages gained by
stored and recorded in a laboratory scientific data and necessary records in a keeping data and records on a laboratory
laboratory management information management information system
system
P4 demonstrate safe working practices in a M4 explain how safe working practices in a D4 explain why working practices in a
laboratory and describe their regulation. laboratory are regulated. laboratory are regulated.

Delivery

between industrial laboratories and centre-based laboratories to enable them to
In delivering this unit it is essential that the learner be enthused, motivated and
stimulated by performing experiments and following procedures in the laboratory.
Varied and interesting experiments or exercises can teach the proper use of
laboratory equipment. Key laboratory skills can be developed in this way by
concentrating on a practical teaching approach.
The importance of health and safety regulations should be strongly stressed when
undertaking all practical teaching. The learner should be encouraged to risk assess
each practical exercise they undertake.
Reports should be written at every opportunity. The recording of all practical work
should be written in a hardback practical laboratory notebook by every learner.
The use of industrial visits should be encouraged to enlighten the learner about
laboratory organisation in a range of scientific workplaces or laboratories. This will
enforce the relevance of the unit.
Learning outcome 1 delivery could consist solely of completing and recording a
number of practical exercises. Industrial visits and guest speakers would also greatly
enhance the experience.
Learning outcome 2 should be delivered in a way that makes the learner fully aware
of how the environment in which they find themselves affects their effectiveness,
efficiency and safety. Well-designed specialist laboratories promote their own
efficiency and effectiveness for their intended use and purpose. These factors
together promote safety for everyone, and security for staff and information.
Learning outcome 3 brings together the purpose of a laboratory to produce results
from scientific investigations and procedures. It should make the learner aware that
these results have to be recorded and stored for future reference. Modern
laboratories all employ laboratory management information systems (LMIS) to record
this information, and have security systems in place to protect it.
Learning outcome 4 addresses the safe practice of performing procedures and
experiments in the laboratory. The learner should be made aware of all current
regulations.
All four learning outcomes can be delivered to the learner in creative and stimulating
assignments to promote successful learning.

Assessment
For P1, learners will be expected to describe the procedures commonly used in a
laboratory. Learners will be expected to cover the procedures listed in the unit
content, and then decide how each can be communicated. Evidence for this could
take the form of a compiled list with accompanying short notes, a leaflet or a
PowerPoint presentation.
P2 requires learners to describe key features of a laboratory in terms of the design of
a specialist laboratory. Guidance on the design of specialist laboratories is expected
to have been covered in the unit content. The criteria could be assessed by producing
a leaflet, descriptive list or PowerPoint presentation.
For P3, learners can compile lists on the scientific data that can be recorded and
stored in a laboratory. The learner should stress the need for its storage on an LMIS.
Alternatively, tutors could give the learners a prepared list of scientific data and ask
them to decide which sets of information could be stored on an LMIS and which could
be placed on a workplace record system. Due to the enormous size of material in the
unit content, tutors may confine themselves to choosing specific types of data or
records. Again, tutors must acknowledge the need for security and must give some
examples, but a catalogue-style presentation is not appropriate.
P4 requires learners to show safe working practices and their understanding of
relevant current regulation. The tutor could again write a specific worksheet for the
assignment, to which the learner would apply the unit content to match working
practices to their appropriate regulations. The opportunities for the learners to
design leaflets or produce PowerPoint presentations should be strongly encouraged.
met.
For M1, learners are required to produce evidence of their practical activities
performed in the laboratory. This should have been undertaken during the study of
the unit content of learning outcome 1 and learning outcome 4. It would normally
take the form of a written practical work in a hardback laboratory notebook.
For M2, the learners must produce a design or plan of a specialist laboratory. Written
justification should be supplied to the design of individual key features. Plans can be
placed on a CD ROM or on graph paper according to the abilities of the learner and
their ICT skills.
For M3, the learners must identify the scientific data and records necessary for
storage in an LMIS. They should justify why some information should be scientific
data and why it should be only stored as records. Evidence can take the form of an
essay or verbal presentation. Learners must also demonstrate an awareness of the
need for security and confidentiality.

M4 requires learners to submit a discussion essay, giving details and examples to

support their understanding of how safe working practices are regulated in the
laboratory.
met.
For D1, learners should make a judgment about the importance of communicating
laboratory procedures to other laboratory personnel, giving reasons and examples to
support their evaluation. This could take the form of a well-structured essay.
D2 requires learners to make an informed judgment on how a well-designed
laboratory fulfils its effectiveness, efficiency, safety and security purposes. Examples
from industrial visits may be drawn upon to demonstrate the learners’ understanding
in the form of a well-constructed essay. Tutors may wish to draw up appropriate
worksheets for learners to complete during these visits, to assist the implementation
of this task.
D3 requires the learners to justify the necessity for keeping data and records in an
LMIS. Their views should be supported by evidence. The evidence can be drawn from
the course content or industrial visits. Again, tutors can assist learners with the use
of appropriate worksheets on any industrial visit or the visit of a guest speaker. A
well-constructed essay may be necessary to achieve the criterion.
For D4, the learners must show that they understand why safe working practices are
regulated in a modern laboratory. Attention should be paid to applying the most up-
to-date regulations in all working practices in today’s scientific environments. The
learner may have to access the internet to complete this assignment. Again,
industrial visits and/or guest speakers may assist greatly in the learners’
understanding of this course content.

This unit has links to the following units:

• Unit 9: Informatics
• Unit 10: Using Science in the Workplace
• Unit 15: Microbiological Techniques
• Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques.

Essential resources
Tutors delivering this unit will ideally have had some industrial experience as a
technician or scientist. Knowledge of contemporary methods and regulations is
essential in teaching this unit.
Learners should have access to the internet, a library or a learning resource centre.
Visits to industrial laboratories would enable the learners to talk to technical staff in
a scientific environment. This is strongly encouraged.
The use of as much technical equipment as possible pertaining to the implementation
of standard laboratory practices should be sought.
Learners should have a hardback laboratory notebook to ensure all laboratory
practical work is recorded.
Textbooks
Atkinson C and Mariotte J — The Prep Room Organiser (Association for Science
Education, 2003) ISBN 0863572839
Hutchings K — Classic Chemistry Experiments (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2000)
ISBN 0854049193
Morgan S — Advanced Level Practical Work for Biology (Hodder Murray, 2002)
ISBN 0340847123

Websites
www.ase.org.uk The Association for Science Education
www.bio.org.uk The Institute of Biology
www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/safety/basicchem. Office of Health and Safety (American
htm website: has a set of scenarios that could
provoke discussion)
www.explorer.bio-rad.com Bio Rad science education
www.genetics.gsk.com/virtual.htm GlaxoSmithKline virtual tour of genetics
laboratories
www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/vlabs Howard Hughes Medical Institute virtual
laboratory tours
www.infomat.net/infomat/rd_staffroom/ CLEAPSS
rd1/database/cleapps
www.iop.org.uk The Institute of Physics
www.istonline.org.uk Institute of Science Technology,
(go to: Publications; Laboratory Technician’s Handbook by Judson PF
Handbook; Full copy of the Handbook)
www.mond.org Society of Chemical Industry
www.rsc.org The Royal Society of Chemistry
www.scienceconsortium.co.uk The Science Consortium
www.sciencelearningcentres.org.uk Science Learning Centre, London
www.sep.org.uk Science Enhancement Programme
www.york.ac.uk/org/ciec Chemical Industry Education Centre
(CIEC)

Key skills


• performing standard N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
procedures in the laboratory information from relevant sources.
and applying risk assessments
• performing good laboratory N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
practice and preparing stock stage calculations to do with:
solutions
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• performing calibration of N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
standard laboratory present your findings and justify your
equipment. methods.

• showing a PowerPoint C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
presentation as part of an eight minutes using an image or other
assignment. support material.

• researching information for ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
the grading criteria sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• presenting PowerPoint ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
presentations. text with image, text with number,
image with number.


• undertaking exercises in LP3.1 Set targets using information from
efficiency, effectiveness and appropriate people and plan how these
safety in the workplace. will be met.

• performing procedures and PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
practices in the laboratory ways of tackling it.
• checking the stock solutions PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
prepared. solving the problem.
Working with others Level 3

• undertaking practical WO3.1 Plan work with others.
procedures in the laboratory
• undertaking communication WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
exercises. progress towards your agreed objectives.

UNIT 3: SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
Unit 3: Scientific Investigation

Unit abstract
All scientists need to have good investigative skills and this unit develops these
essential skills. Working in science often means teamwork but there are many
instances of independent work. In this unit, learners will have to make the best use
of the laboratory time allocated by the tutor. Learners may be asked to carry out a
practical investigation designed by somebody else or to suggest ways of doing an
investigation themselves. The practical investigation is designed to allow learners to
show their science knowledge and practical skills. After discussion with the tutor
learners will be asked to plan, carry out and analyse the results of their investigation
and present it as a scientific report.
The topic learners choose for investigation will depend on the endorsed title they are
following. The emphasis in this unit is on the learners’ ability to formulate a relevant
hypothesis that they would be able to test experimentally, to plan and execute their
ideas and to deal with the results. Learners may need to use questionnaires but these
will only be part of their research. This is a practical unit and one project will be
used to cover all the learning outcomes, although learners may repeat their
experiment several times in order to collect accurate data.
As in an industrial laboratory, learners will be monitored by the tutor right from the
start of the procedure. Assessment will be on the final report and will take into
account how learners carry out their practical work, their awareness of health and
safety issues and how accurately and honestly they record their results.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to formulate a relevant hypothesis and plan an investigation relevant to
the area of study
2 Understand the scientific principles involved in the investigation and be able to
undertake the planned investigation
3 Be able to collect, collate and analyse the results from the investigation using
appropriate techniques and present them in an accepted format
4 Understand and interpret results from the investigation and present them in a
report in an accepted scientific format including any applications and
implications of science.

Unit content
1 Be able to formulate a relevant hypothesis and plan an investigation relevant

to the area of study
Nature of the investigation: statement of objectives and hypothesis; description

of experimental research eg laboratory, fieldwork, sports facility
Information resources: identification, location and extraction of relevant
information sources; use of recognised protocol for recording the sources eg
Harvard system; assessment of reliability and validity of information researched
Principles of design of investigations: formulation of hypothesis; details of
experimental design and controls; proposed analytical techniques to be used;
assessment of possible errors in practical work
Health and safety: risk assessment; elimination/minimisation of identified risks;
availability of physical resources
2 Understand the scientific principles involved in the investigation and be able

to undertake the planned investigation
Scientific principles: identification; application

Experimental techniques: assembly of relevant equipment and materials;
adherence to health and safety requirements; manipulative skills; appropriate use
of instruments and techniques for taking measurements; observational skills;
recording results, accuracy, integrity, precision; maintenance of working
laboratory book
3 Be able to collect, collate and analyse the results from the investigation using
appropriate techniques and present them in an accepted format
Practical data: organisation of data eg class intervals, tallying; methods of data

processing and analysis eg mean, standard deviation, student’s t-test; correct
units of experimental quantities used; assessment of experimental accuracy and
precision, accurate calculations
Validation of method and results: fitness for purpose of methods used;
repeatability; sources and magnitudes of errors in reading taken
Assessment of information sources used: relevance to investigation; use of
relevant, researched information to support/negate experimental work

4 Understand and interpret results from the investigation and present them in a
report in an accepted scientific format including any applications and
implications of science
Scientific report of the investigation: correct scientific protocol ie structure,

format; correct scientific language and terminology ie third person, past tense;
inclusion in appendix of relevant references and bibliography
Data presentation: appropriate format; appropriate degree of precision, correct
units
Scientific evaluation of findings: evaluation of results; sources of error and how
to minimise; conclusions drawn using scientific principles; experimental and
literature investigations; consideration of the hypothesis

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 state the objectives and hypothesis of M1 analyse the research information D1 appraise the different approaches
the investigation and present a working obtained and discuss how it is relevant to considered for the investigation and
plan for the experiment including health the planned experiment justify the hypothesis, experimental
and safety assessments procedures and recording methods
chosen
P2 demonstrate the required manipulative M2 explain how accuracy and precision are D2 evaluate the effectiveness of the
skills to assemble relevant equipment ensured in the investigation investigative procedures in terms of
and materials and safely carry out the accuracy and precision and suggest how
planned investigation these could be improved
P3 assemble equipment, carry out the M3 review experimental progress, modify D3 analyse the data, justifying the
planned investigation, record the results practical procedures if necessary, and statistical methods chosen and relating
and analyse the data collected justify the use of experimental the findings to scientific principles and
techniques to increase the accuracy, applications
reliability and validity of results obtained
P4 state and explain the conclusions in a M4 justify the conclusions made, drawing on D4 evaluate the outcomes of the
report using accepted scientific protocol primary and secondary research data. investigation using scientific protocols.
and language, including presentation of
relevant research resources.

Delivery

‘contaminated’ areas (not only in biological and animal laboratories but even in many
chemistry ones) and the separate space for computers, desks etc that learners may
not be aware of.
It is not intended that this unit is assessed via other units, but it may well use skills,
techniques and information from other units.
Formal input will be needed at the start of this unit so that learners are clear about
the scientific protocols associated with a science investigation. The whole unit is
based around formulating a hypothesis then planning and carrying out an
investigation, analysing the results and producing a report.
The investigation carried out by learners is not expected to be original but it should
be new to the learners. This extended science project allows learners to show their
ability to do meaningful, investigative work using standard operating procedures
expected of technicians in the workplace. Individual or group work is permissible, as
is the pooling of results, but each learner must be able to prove that all the learning
outcomes and grading criteria are covered by their own work.
Health and safety issues relating to this work must be emphasised and safe working
practices adhered to. Risk assessments, the use of COSHH and other regulations must
be followed and the learners should be supervised by qualified members of staff in
the laboratory.
Learning outcome 1 demands the ability to formulate a hypothesis and plan an
investigation. Formal input will probably be needed initially and then tutorial support
as the learners research their area of interest, set up their hypothesis and plan
practical work to test it. Tutorial guidance is essential as learners will be limited in
their choice of topic by the facilities and equipment available. The choice of topic
for investigation should be vocationally relevant and chosen specifically for this unit.
For learning outcome 2 learners should carry out the investigation linked with the
scientific principles involved. The tutor must observe each learner assembling the
equipment needed and safely carrying out the practical work. The tutor should make
it clear to learners what skills they will be assessed on, eg manipulation, observation,
dexterity, use of suitable equipment, recording of their data in a working laboratory
book, ensuring accuracy and consideration of validity of data.

Learning outcome 3 requires the learners to organise their data using conventional
methods and then use statistical analysis. Formal input will be needed in helping
them choose and use the statistical techniques (which are covered in Unit 8:
Statistics for Science Technicians). From this the learners should be validating their
methods and results and making reference to their research to support or negate
their findings. Negative results are as valid as positive ones — learners need to
explain what has happened and why. Tutor support will be needed throughout this
learning outcome, especially in choosing and applying the analytical techniques.
Consideration of statistical analysis must be done during planning to ensure data
collected is suitable for the statistical analysis required. Calculations must be carried
out accurately.
Learning outcome 4 requires a written report which follows standard scientific
protocol for reporting investigations. The end result should be in a form which any
science supervisor would accept as an account of a scientific investigation. Learners
need to include references within their text and compile a reference list and
bibliography using accepted methods. This report will be expected to include text,
graphical data, data collection charts and evidence of statistical techniques. A
conclusion should be given along with a statement saying clearly whether the
hypothesis has been supported or negated and why.
Assessment
For P1, learners must present a realistic working plan for the experiment with
sufficient detail for the tutor to follow the practical work planned. A risk assessment
should be carried out to comply with existing health and safety rules in the
laboratory. A clear objective and hypothesis must be given which is relevant to the
practical work planned. It is acceptable for learners to state their objective rather
than stating how a hypothesis will be supported or negated by their investigation.
For P2, performing the investigation is normally assessed in the laboratory. Learners
must be observed as they assemble the equipment and materials they need and carry
out the experiment safely. An expert witness such as the laboratory technician may
be used to judge the effectiveness of the assembly of the equipment and working
safely. The tutor must consider how well the practical is carried out and the accuracy
with which learners record their results (P3). If the tutor devises a list of factors to
satisfy the grading criteria, such a list must be shared with the learners well in
advance.
For P3, the results obtained from learners’ observed practical work must be analysed
and then compared with information found as a result of the research. A qualitative
approach is sufficient to meet the grading criteria but learners must show that they
have analysed their results and considered other relevant secondary data.
Calculations must be accurate and results that are clearly wrong must be checked
and corrected by the learner.

For P4 learners must draw together the results of their work, stating whether their
original objective or hypothesis has been met and explaining their conclusions. This
part of the report requires learners to write more formally using accepted scientific
language and protocols, eg passive, third party, past tense, and correct referencing
of sources. It is expected that learners will give a comprehensive bibliography and
list of references using a standard protocol such as the Harvard system. At this level
learners should realise that the bibliography is recommended reading and the
references are sources they have referred to in the text or from which they have
taken information. Tutors should look for material taken from another source to be
acknowledged as such, including websites where the URL should be given and date of
last access to the site.
met.
For M1 learners are expected to analyse their research material and relate it to the
planned experiment. Learners need to show what information has been retained, how
it is related to their investigation and possibly how it has affected their plans. Some
learners will gather an enormous amount of research material which may or may not
be relevant. The evaluation of the material needs to be documented so learners can
show their ability to analyse and evaluate information and relate it to the
experimental topic chosen. Research material must be cited using a recognised
system.
For M2, the accurate recording of data should be part of the observation process but
it can also be assessed as part of the written report when the raw data should be
included in an appendix. Methods to increase accuracy and precision should be given,
eg the apparatus may have been linked to a computer which has been programmed to
convert raw data to a graph. Part of this criterion will probably be assessed via
observation during the practical procedures. Learners will be expected to
demonstrate accuracy in their observational skills, eg reading liquid levels by showing
awareness of the meniscus, positioning themselves correctly to read the level in a
burette/measuring cylinder, etc. Recording the results in an appropriate format is
required including noting approximations, decimal place accuracy, etc. For example,
learners must justify why an approximation was used, why only two decimal places
were recorded, etc. Learners must make it obvious that they have considered how to
ensure that the data collected is accurate and precise. This can be demonstrated in
the plan, the execution or the report of the investigation.
For M3, at least one appropriate statistical technique should be applied to the data
collected and the method involved should be recorded even if a computer
programme did the calculations. The outcomes of the analysis need to be related to
the research data found.
For M4, learners must bring together the results of their work by justifying the
conclusions they have drawn. In doing so they should be in a position to support (or
discard) their original hypothesis and justify their opinion based on their data and the
researched material.

met.
For D1, once the topic and hypothesis have been decided learners must plan the
experiment. Learners need to show they have considered in detail more than one
approach and the problems they raised. Having settled on their plan they should be
able to justify their choice of procedures.
For D2, the tutor must observe learners performing the planned investigation. Should
learners modify their practical procedure while not being observed, any alterations
need to be documented so verification is possible. The review of the experimental
procedure and its progress may end in a decision to start again, modify something,
repeat the whole procedure or even carry on as originally intended. Whichever,
learners must record their review procedures and explain and justify their decisions.
For D3, learners may use only one statistical technique but this choice needs to be
justified. Justification must include reasons why other statistical techniques were
rejected. The statistical techniques chosen must be appropriate and accurately
applied. The results from the statistical application must be analysed and assessed in
terms of how they meet the original hypothesis. Additionally, the appropriateness of
the statistical technique used must be assessed.
D4 requires learners to review the information obtained from their practical work and
research, decide on its validity and decide whether the original hypothesis has been
validated. Learners must evaluate alternative experimental approaches, the
modification or rewriting of their hypothesis and the strengths and weaknesses if
alternative approaches were used. They must evaluate the validity and usefulness of
their researched data and how their experimental data compare with published
information. It is expected that correct scientific protocols are observed throughout
the project.

This unit may be linked with many other units in the programme but it is intended
that the investigation performed is chosen specifically for this unit. The unit is
designed so the investigation can be carried out in the centre or workplace
laboratory and it should be observed as part of the assessment process.
It is not intended that this unit is assessed via other units but it may use skills,
techniques and information gained from other units.
The development and use of skills for identifying, accessing and using information
from a variety of sources is needed to achieve the learning outcomes. Practical skills
will be developed and assessed that are vocationally relevant to this unit and others.
Other skills involving numeracy and data handling, information communication
technology, planning, reporting and communicating are developed for use in this and
other units.

Essential resources
To deliver this unit, laboratory space equipped for work at Level 3 standard is
required, or field equipment if appropriate. The facilities needed should include
access to equipment which will enable learners to carry out an experiment of their
choosing. The choice of experiment will be negotiated with the tutor but it must be
practically based, normally in the laboratory. It could cover any of the content of the
units learners are studying as part of this qualification, or a combination of them.
Therefore the centre will be expected to have the normal range of equipment and
materials to carry out advanced level practical work in physics, chemistry and
biology.
Research facilities should include access to computers, CD ROMs and suitable texts.
The learners should have available science and mathematics packages to help them
present their data in the most appropriate way.
Suitably experienced and qualified staff will be needed to supervise the practical
work and the assessments carried out in the laboratory. Similarly, suitable staff will
be required for the assessment of the scientific report using standard scientific
protocol.
Textbooks
Coyne G S — The Laboratory Companion: A Practical Guide to Materials, Equipment
and Technique (John Wiley & Sons, 2005) ISBN 0471780863
Dean J R et al — Practical Skills in Chemistry (Prentice Hall, 2001) ISBN 013028002X
Dean J R et al — Practical Skills in Forensic Science (Prentice Hall, 2005)
ISBN 0131144006
Derenzo S E — Practical Interfacing in the Laboratory: Using a PC for
Instrumentation, Data Analysis and Control (Cambridge University Press, 2003)
ISBN 0521815274
Hutchings K — Classic Chemistry Experiments (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2000)
ISBN 0854049193
Jones A et al — Practical Skills in Biology, 3rd Edition (Prentice Hall, 2002)
ISBN 013045141X
Lintern M — Laboratory Skills for Science and Medicine: An Introduction (Radcliffe
Medical Press, 2006) ISBN 1846190169
ISBN 0340847123
Prichard E and Lawn R — Practical Laboratory Skills Training Guide: Measurement of
pH (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 0854044736
Volume (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 085404468X
Reed R et al — Practical Skills in Biomolecular Science (Prentice Hall, 2003)
ISBN 0130451428

Journals
Nature
New Scientist
Website
www.chemistry-react.org/go/Topic/ ideas for practical investigations
Default_4.html

Key skills


• planning to carry out an N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
investigation information from relevant sources.
• recording data and carrying N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
out calculations including stage calculations to do with:
statistical analysis
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• explaining their experimental N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
work and its conclusions. present your findings and justify your
methods.

• carrying out research to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
support experimental least two documents about the same
findings subject.
1000 words long.
• writing up a report of their C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
investigation. each one giving different information
words long.


• carrying out a search for ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
experimental methods and sources, and multiple search criteria in at
information for their least one case.
investigation
• recording their data and ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
using computer packages for derive new information.
graphical and statistical
techniques
• writing up their experimental ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
report. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

• discussing with supervisors LP3.1 Set targets using information from
their plans for the appropriate people and plan how these
investigation, health and will be met.
safety checks and the
equipment to be used
• analysing and appraising the LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
plans developed and using your plan to help meet targets and
modifying them as they improve your performance.
proceed
• carrying out their practical LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
investigation and recording your achievements.
observations.


• deciding on their PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
investigation and which ways of tackling it.
method to choose
• discussing their investigation PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
and experimental method solving the problem.
• analysing results and writing PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
up the report. review your approach to problem solving.

• conferring with supervisors WO3.1 Plan work with others.
and laboratory technicians
about their investigation
• agreeing work plans with WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
their supervisor including progress towards your agreed objectives.
equipment requirements
• discussing their investigation WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
with tutors and validity of of improving collaborative work in future.
pooling results with
colleagues for greater
accuracy.

UNIT 4: SCIENTIFIC PRACTICAL TECHNIQUES
Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques

Unit abstract
The ability to sample and test substances and materials is important in many
branches of industry, in research work and in forensic science. In order to do this,
learners need to be able to select and use appropriate instruments for the work being
carried out. In this unit they will gain experience of a range of instruments and their
use.
As a result of scientific advances new drugs have revolutionised health care, and new
forensic techniques have led to accurate and swift conviction of criminals and solved
crimes from the past. In sport, new materials developed by scientists have enabled
athletes to break world records, going faster, higher and further than ever before.
Practical techniques are the basis of many other science-related industries, including
environment, conservation, animal health and breeding, food manufacturing,
engineering and aerospace.
In all of these areas the ability to work safely and accurately and to appreciate the
properties of materials is important. When scientists undertake investigations they
may only need to know what substances are present, but it is also necessary to find
the quantities of the substances. For example, an investigation of a pollution incident
may need to identify the cause of the pollution. If the scientist is checking the purity
of a pharmaceutical product then accurate content measurements are needed.
Learners will gain experience of both these types of analytical method.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to use appropriate methods to produce two chemical substances
2 Be able to use sampling techniques
3 Be able to use analytical methods
4 Be able to select and use appropriate instruments for scientific investigations.

Unit content
1 Be able to use appropriate methods to produce two chemical substances
Preparative techniques: produce samples of two chemical substances, ie an

organic chemical compound
Separation techniques: eg precipitation, crystallisation, filtration, distillation,
solvent extraction, chromatography, electrophoresis, centrifugation, cell or tissue
disruption
Estimation of purity: measurement of melting point and boiling point;
chromatography eg paper, thin layer, gas liquid; spectroscopy eg ultraviolet,
infrared; appropriate reference data
2 Be able to use sampling techniques
Sampling: importance of sampling; techniques for solids, liquids, gases;

importance of sample collection; labelling; storage to ensure valid results
Safety procedures: risks; hazards; risk assessment; sources of information;
application of health and safety
3 Be able to use analytical methods
Analysis: quantitative methodology; preparation and use of standard solutions;

qualitative methodology; test for cations eg sodium, potassium, copper, calcium,
barium; test for anions eg chloride, sulphate, carbonate
Safety procedures: risks; hazards; risk assessment; sources of information;
application of health and safety
4 Be able to select and use appropriate instruments for scientific investigations
Selection of instruments: measure scientific parameters; appropriate choice of

instruments; assembly of instruments, safety, calibration, consideration of the
required accuracy
Measurement: techniques for measuring material properties eg conductivity,
tensile strength, compressive strength, elasticity
Use of a variety of basic instruments: microscope, pH meter, balance,
colorimeter; collect, process and record data and qualitative information from
the instruments

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 produce samples of at least two M1 measure the yield and purity in the D1 explain how the highest yield and best
compounds and estimate their purity preparations carried out and describe purity could be achieved in the
the factors that influence them preparations carried out
P2 apply sampling techniques while working M2 describe the importance of sampling in a D2 explain potential sources of error in
safely specific industrial context sampling and describe how to deal with
errors
P3 carry out analytical techniques and M3 explain the importance and legal D3 explain the importance of working
report the results accurately responsibilities of working safely accurately and how accuracy can be
ensured in the techniques used
P4 select and use appropriate instruments M4 explain the choice of instruments in the D4 evaluate the variables in operation of
to test substances or materials. practical exercises. instruments used and how they could be
optimised.

Delivery

The role of the technician in the science industry or related industries is largely
defined by standard operating procedures. The technician is required to use these
procedures to produce material, select instruments or analytical methods to obtain
results to pre-determined specifications. They must follow these procedures
consistently and accurately to meet the objectives of the organisation. This unit is
designed to facilitate the development of consistent and accurate practical skills
appropriate to the learners’ employment or interests.
The learning outcomes of this unit require learners to carry out selected procedures
to pre-determined orders of accuracy. Learners should be introduced to the selected
techniques and practise them through formative practical work before presentation
for assessment. The delivery should be based on a well-structured programme of
practical exercises to develop the necessary skills. The procedures selected will be
influenced by those in common use in the related vocational area and the resources
available to the centre.
Health and safety must be a recurring theme throughout the delivery and assessment
of this unit. Learners must understand how reasonable precautions can prevent
hazards becoming risks. All practical briefs must include risk analyses consistent with
COSHH regulations. These must be emphasised during introduction of each practical
exercise and the learners required to take all identified measures during their work.
Learners are not ‘competent persons’ under the COSHH regulations; they should not,
therefore, be expected to carry out full risk analyses unsupervised for practical work
to be undertaken.
The practical exercises used to deliver the learning outcomes will be determined by
the specialisation of the learners. The following approaches might be appropriate.
• Use of aseptic techniques to culture microorganisms, estimation of bacterial cell
counts using haemocytometer, use of staining techniques to identify products.
• Qualitative tests for representative samples of biochemical materials (reducing
sugars, non-reducing sugars, starches, proteins, lipids).
• Quantitative determination using electrophoresis and/or chromatography, with
appropriate methods of location and estimation.
• Setting up and using the light microscope to examine and characterise cellular
and tissue samples.

• Preparation of inorganic and organic compounds, purification by distillation,

recrystallisation or solvent extraction, estimation of purity by melting point or
boiling point or spectroscopically.
• Qualitative analyses of inorganic or organic materials (single compounds or
mixtures) using standard chemical tests, titrimetric, chromatography or
spectroscopic methods and using appropriate sampling methods.
• An acid-base titration followed by crystallisation and fermentation.
• Selection and calibration of instruments for testing or measuring: viscometer,
refractometer, tensometer, multimeter, tensile and compressive testing
apparatus, oscilloscope etc.
• Analysis of soil or water samples or another substance found in the natural
environment.
Assessment
The effectiveness of the science technician in industry is measured by completion of

set work within timescales and to specified quality standards. The assessment of this
unit should reflect workplace practices as closely as possible.
The focus of assessment should be on learners carrying out the required tasks, rather
than concentration on a final written report. The tutor should use appropriate
methods to observe the learners’ performance of practical activities and to record
them for verification purposes.
Learners should produce results within an acceptable tolerance to achieve the
criteria for the pass grade. Set tolerance should be demanding of the practical skills
but achievable by the competent learner. Tolerances should reflect values expected
in employment but should recognise that an employed technician might engage in
only one or a small number of laboratory techniques. Results that are clearly wrong
must not be accepted.
If the learners are in employment, use of evidence produced in the workplace may be
admissible for this unit. If evidence from employment is to be used, tutors must
make firm and written arrangements for assessment. In particular, the assessment
should not concentrate solely on written reports of methods used. Evidence of
assessment of process must be fully documented and made available for verification,
whether it is carried out in the centre or off-site.
Safety requirements should be applied to all activities. The most important pass
requirement for all learners is to work safely and accurately.
For P1, P2, P3 and P4 learners must use the methods provided to produce results
within specification. The learners should be assessed by observation while performing
the set tasks and on results obtained. The acceptable tolerances must be applied
rigorously; learners who are outside the allowed limits must be required to repeat
the work until the required standards are met.

For M1, M2, M3 and M4 learners must show an appreciation of the principles of the
methods used and why they are appropriate to the selected activities. The learners’
evidence may be in the form of responses to structured questions designed to focus
the learners’ attention on the required information. However, such questions must
not be so prescriptive as to make the generation of correct responses undemanding.
The merit learner must show an understanding of the precautions in each method to
reduce risk from the hazards present.
D1, D2, D3 and D4 require learners to show sufficient understanding of the
techniques used to evaluate their performance. Learners must identify how
techniques can be optimised and the accuracy of the results maximised. Learners
must show considerable independence when generating evidence. It is not
appropriate to base the evidence for distinction on answers to structured questions.

Most units in the Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science have a practical
component and therefore this unit can be linked to many. Practical investigations
may assume that the learners possess specific practical skills — if learners do not, the
identified skills may be developed and assessed through this unit.
Programme teams may plan to integrate the delivery and/or assessment of practical
techniques partially or totally within other units. This is a valid method of
programme planning, but it must not lead to any dilution of the development of
practical skills that are the basis of this unit.
The practical techniques developed in this unit may find application in Unit 3:
Scientific Investigation, which involves the planning of an investigation, including
selection of methods. This selection may be informed by the learners’ experience of
practical work during study of this unit.
Essential resources
The resources required are determined by the learners’ specialist studies. The
practical methods selected for study should be representative of those in current use
in the appropriate vocational area. All learners will need access to appropriate
laboratory facilities and information communication technology resources.
Non-employed learners will benefit from visits to appropriate industrial facilities to
see practical techniques in operation in the context of the industry.

Textbooks
Coyne G S — The Laboratory Companion: A Practical Guide to Materials, Equipment
and Technique (John Wiley & Sons, 2005) ISBN 0471780863
Dean J R et al — Practical Skills in Chemistry (Prentice Hall, 2001) ISBN 013028002X
ISBN 0131144006
Derenzo S E — Practical Interfacing in the Laboratory: Using a PC for
Instrumentation, Data Analysis and Control (Cambridge University Press,
2003) ISBN 0521815274
Jones A et al — Practical Skills in Biology, 3rd Edition (Prentice Hall, 2002)
ISBN 013045141X
Lintern M — Laboratory Skills for Science and Medicine: An Introduction (Radcliffe
Medical Press, 2006) ISBN 1846190169
pH (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 0854044736
Volume (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 085404468X
Reed R et al — Practical Skills in Biomolecular Science (Prentice Hall, 2003)
ISBN 0130451428
Journals
Nature
New Scientist

Key skills


• measuring the yield and N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
purity of compounds stage calculations to do with:
produced.
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.

• presenting their work to an C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
audience of their peers and eight minutes using an image or other
tutors using slides or other support material.
visual aids
• reading scientific journals C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
and textbooks on the least two documents about the same
practical techniques used in subject.
science
1000 words long.
• writing an essay or producing C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
a PowerPoint presentation on each one giving different information
scientific practical about complex subjects.
techniques used to balance
purity and yield against cost.
words long.


• planning experiments WO3.1 Plan work with others.
together to produce
compounds
• identifying ways of improving WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
teamwork. of improving collaborative work in future.

UNIT 5: PERCEPTIONS OF SCIENCE
Unit 5: Perceptions of Science

Unit abstract
This unit allows learners to explore the role of science in a wider context. How much
influence does science have on society, people and politics? What influences science?
In this unit learners can use their science training and knowledge to explore the
pressures on the science community. Similarly, they can investigate whether science
can influence people and politicians.
Is it fair that scientists get the blame when their discoveries are misused? Should
scientists withhold their knowledge in case the media get hold of it and release scare
stories or misinterpret their work?
Although learners will need to do some initial research on the media, politics and
society, the main thrust of this unit is the analysis of case studies. Learners will be
putting forward reasoned arguments about some of the more controversial current
science topics. Learners are free to choose their topics of study, provided they are
relevant to the endorsed title they have followed during this course, and the tutor
will be available for discussion and guidance in making these choices.
The aim of this unit is to show knowledge of science and an understanding of its
interaction with people, society as a whole and the media in particular. Learners can
express their own opinions about the science topics of their choice but the final
conclusions they present must be supported by fact and well reasoned. This is an
opportunity for learners to show that they can express their opinions constructively.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the development of scientific knowledge
2 Understand the public perception of science, as influenced by the media
3 Be able to identify the ethical and moral issues associated with scientific
advances
4 Understand the relationship between science, commerce and politics.

Unit content
1 Understand the development of scientific knowledge
Development of theories: ideas; testing; evidence; hypothesis, predications,

theory; illustrative examples eg particulate theory of matter, quantum theory,
evolution
Collection and analysis of data: methods of collection; use of controls, placebos,
blinds, double-blinds; concordant data; repetition of experiments; validity;
reliability; informed consent; ethics committees
Value and limitations of science: characteristics of a scientific question;
processes determining the solution; scientific theory (hypotheses); cannot prove a
negative
Uncertainties: ideas develop over time; ideas acknowledged and validated by the
scientific community; peer-review
2 Understand the public perception of science, as influenced by the media
Media: eg formats; target audience; originators; influences; owners; hidden

agenda; style of writing; science detail and accuracy; level of language used eg
technical, scientific, layman; effect of science reporting on different groups in
society
Perceptions of science: eg science documentaries, science docu–fiction; film and
television series; science ‘scare’ stories eg MMR vaccine; exploiting public fears
eg rapid spread of viruses, implications of cloning, DNA collection for government
database
Concerns about science: control of experimental work; safeguards for scientific
research; control of research funds; allocation of public money; media
representation eg by non-science journalists; accuracy of science reporting;
control of scientists’ ideas; control of media output
Constraints on the media: legal eg court orders, civil law, legal procedures,
criminal law, slander and libel; other eg government watchdogs, self-regulating
bodies eg Press Complaints Commission
Science reporting: specialist journals; popular science journals eg New Scientist,
Astronomy Now; newspaper articles; internet; style of writing, target audience,
science detail and accuracy, level of language used eg technical, scientific,
layman; effect of science reporting on different groups in society

3 Be able to identify the ethical and moral issues associated with scientific
advances
Scientific advances: benefits; drawbacks; risks; contemporary scientific or

technological advances eg artificial intelligence, drug treatments, stem cell
research, technology, miniaturisation of electrical components; development of
space exploration programmes; chemical weapons; genetic manipulation eg GM
crops; analysis of body fluids and materials at crime scenes; siting of radio masts
Ethical and moral issues: eg animals and humans as organ donors; transplants and
self-inflicted illnesses eg smoking and lung cancer; genetic manipulation,
screening eg to avoid inherited conditions; experimenting on animals eg drug
trials, long space journeys; use of scientific data obtained by dubious means eg
illegal experiments, wartime Nazi experiments, DNA sampling at crime scenes
4 Understand the relationship between science, commerce and politics
Society and politics: eg social groups in society, their influence and association
with popular science; political groups, their influence on science issues; pressure
groups, their influence on society eg animal rights, civil rights concerned with eg
DNA databases, artificial reproduction, intelligent design; voluntary or statutory
pressure groups; international pressures
Commerce and finance: eg financial supporters of research, public funding,
private funding, vested interest; allocation of funds eg cost effectiveness of new
scientific developments in medicine eg expensive drug regimes, incentives
offered to doctors for prescribing; funding restraints on prescription drugs;
postcode lottery of drug availability; financial rewards for donating organs;
limited research resources and the cost eg of international space stations,
interplanetary explorations; development and control of science discoveries later
used for non-peaceful purposes eg chemical weapons, atomic (nuclear) bombs

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the development of one M1 differentiate between those questions D1 explain the necessity for peer-review
scientific theory, highlighting the that science is currently addressing, and why sometimes there is resistance to
processes involved those that science cannot yet answer new scientific theories
and those that science will never be able
to answer, giving two examples of each
P2 list public concerns about science M2 explain whether concerns raised about D2 analyse whether the media makes a
highlighted in the media and describe science in the media are justified by positive contribution to the public’s
two recent cases analysing two recent cases perception of science
P3 list scientific or technological M3 explain the progress made by one D3 analyse the ethical and/or moral
developments which have raised ethical contemporary scientific or technological arguments associated with two scientific
or moral issues and describe the issues advance and analyse the effect on or technological developments and
associated with two developments society as it was developed substantiate your own conclusion
P4 describe five different groups and/or M4 explain that financial support influences D4 explain how science can be put to uses
organisations that have a political scientific research. other than those originally intended and
agenda and their influence on science. how this affects either society or
society’s perception of science.

Delivery
In this unit tutors will need to provide factual and stimulus material and use case
studies to prepare learners for discussion.
The use of specialist speakers is essential to provide the backdrop needed for this
unit. It is intended that after the factual input the learners will use their tutors as
facilitators but essentially the learners should be ‘self-driven’.
The learners should negotiate, via individual action planning with their tutor, how
they will meet the learning outcomes and grading criteria. The facilitators should be
periodically reviewing each action plan to make sure the goals and target dates set
are being met. Close monitoring of the learners is necessary to prevent loss of
momentum and to ensure the focus is kept on the material to be covered.
In this unit the tutors, facilitators or mentors do not all need to be science
specialists. Learners may benefit from having some input from staff from other
disciplines. However, it is important that the learners are able to consider science
objectively and have the opportunity to develop a balanced view.
Learning outcome 1 is an opportunity for learners to explore the nature of science:
what is a scientific question and what is not; and why some questions are scientific
and why some are not. This is best done through informed discussion. Learners should
appreciate that, while there are scientific methods, processes and conventions,
science ‘facts’ are ultimately arrived at by consensus. It is not expected that learners
explore the depths of the philosophy of science, but they should show an
appreciation of the nature of science: that there is no one scientific method, but
that scientists do follow general protocols to ensure validity and reliability of
information. Learners should understand the ever-changing situation of scientific
knowledge as theories are reviewed and improved to give a more realistic reflection
of our world and how it works. They could also explore why there are some areas of
knowledge that could be subject to scientific investigation but which are not.
Learners can do their own research to define ‘the nature of science’. This should
cause much discussion, which should be strongly encouraged.
Learning outcome 2 requires the learners to understand how their perception of
science fits in with the public perception. Additionally, they must consider the way
science concerns are reported by the media. Some guidance should be given by the
tutors to ensure learners look at all branches of science and technology and a variety
of media formats. Learners should be given the opportunity to consider how the
general and specialist media report a science story. They may then choose, after
consultation, to consider some topics in line with their particular interests.

Learning outcome 3 allows any scientific advances to be considered from any branch
of science or technology. Equally, any moral or ethical issues associated with these
advances can be studied. Initially, input from tutors will be needed to get the
learners to consider a wide range of advances and the subsequent issues that arise.
Subsequently, learners should receive mentoring by the tutors via action planning and
tutorials but learners should essentially be ‘self-driven’. Monitoring is essential to
ensure the research and discussions enable the learning outcome to be met. Tutors
should ensure learners consider both sides of an argument and are able to articulate
and substantiate their own position.
Learning outcome 4 introduces learners to the funding issues of scientific research
along with other pressures, such as those from voluntary and political groups.
Learners should be encouraged to research these and must present a balanced view
of these groups. A range of visiting speakers presenting differing views would greatly
enhance the learning experience. Media reports and documentaries are a good source
of stimulus material, especially regarding financial aspects (eg ‘postcode-lottery’ for
healthcare). Learners should also be encouraged to look at historical developments
and uncontentious ‘spin-offs’ from contentious research. If learners are to have a
successful meaningful debate, they must be well prepared with their arguments and
supporting evidence.
Assessment
For P1, learners have the opportunity to investigate how science works and must
describe the development of a scientific theory. Learners must understand that this
is a dynamic process, without specific procedures. Competing theories exist in many
areas of science. Learners can take a historical angle if they wish, and describe how
from several competing theories one has come to prominence. This is not expected
to be an in-depth study or a long complicated piece of work. Learners could present
their work verbally, but evidence of research and/or presentation must be
maintained for verification purposes.
For P2, some of the topics chosen may be emotive and personal opinions will
probably feature largely in the public perceptions put forward. This is inevitable but
learners must provide evidence to support the perceptions outlined. The list of public
concerns should be tackled in the same way.
For P3, analysis of the effect and the ethical and moral issues highlighted will give
learners the chance to express their informed opinions based on the facts and views
they have researched. This criterion lends itself to a verbal presentation or discussion
supported by research and presentation notes. The learners must provide evidence
that can be verified, so presentations must be recorded or notes retained (eg
preparatory notes, print out of PowerPoint presentation) for this purpose.
For P4, learners should be encouraged to carry out their own web-based research,
along with contacting any particular groups in which they are interested. It is
important that learners present a balanced report or presentation, explaining the
purposes and views of these groups. Learners must be able to present arguments
against the purpose of certain groups, where arguments exist in order to present a
balanced case.

met.
For M1, learners must be able to differentiate a scientific question from a non-
scientific question (such as a philosophical question) and be able to explain what
makes them different. Learners must understand the questions that science can
address and be able to explain why there are some questions that science cannot
address.
For M2, providing at least two examples are analysed, learners have the freedom to
choose any topical science issues which have affected the public perception of
science. The analysis may include concerns raised about science in the media. The
tutor must be clear when judging learners’ work that perceptions and concerns have
been clearly dealt with. The tutor may feel that case studies are a useful part of the
assessment process as well as allowing the learners to choose examples for analysis.
For M3, the emphasis is not on the development process but the attitudes that were
shown as a result of the scientific advancement. Any area(s) of science or technology
can be used providing they give enough material for learners to compare and contrast
the attitudes that resulted. Choosing topics which gave rise to positive and negative
responses is to be encouraged.
For M4, learners need to understand that all science needs funding. Much of this
comes in various forms from the government, but a large proportion comes from
public funding and learners must demonstrate an understanding of how this may
influence the direction and possibly even the outcomes and presentation of scientific
research.
met.
For D1, learners need to be aware of a range of professional journals and understand
that this is how scientific developments are communicated to the scientific world.
They must understand the process a scientific paper is subject to in order for it to be
published, and be able to explain the peer-review process. Drawing on their
understanding of the development of scientific theories, they must then explain using
examples, why a new theory is often greeted with scepticism and takes time to
become accepted.
For D2, after researching and reviewing the evidence, learners are required to give
their considered opinion about the influence the media has on the public’s
perception of science. As this could be daunting to start with, the tutor could give a
couple of case studies and then allow learners to choose some examples of their own
to finish the assignment. Learners must show their ability to analyse information and
then synthesise the relevant material to give a coherent commentary on the
influences stated. The emphasis is on the validity of the way the media raises
concerns about scientific developments. Learners may be familiar with the more lurid
headlines associated with some science developments, which on closer inspection,
may not be quite as they have been represented. Learners need to study these
portrayals and then comment critically on the presentations made by the media.

For D3, the choice of a reported controversial science development can be made by
learners or the tutor but it needs to be evaluated critically by comparing two
different sources of information. The sources can be newspapers, scientific journals
or websites but they need to be sufficiently different in approach and target
readership to make the evaluation worthwhile. The reports need to be analysed for
accuracy, clarity, scientific content and facts versus opinions. Issues such as animal
experimentation, and the development of chemical weapons are likely to arise, but
the learners should be encouraged to look further afield. Evidence of information
collected and analysed must be included in any presentation and its use in making
judgements needs to be demonstrated.
For D4, there are many examples of useful everyday products resulting from research
in entirely different areas, eg military or space programmes. Some scientific research
has been put to very destructive uses: learners must explain an example of this and
discuss its effects or perceptions. Learners are encouraged to carry out their own
research into an area that interests them and represent their findings, which could
take the form of a written or verbal report, a poster or information leaflet.

This unit has links with units in all of the endorsed titles in the BTEC Nationals in
Applied Science.
Essential resources
The delivery of this unit requires access by the learners to library and internet data
but does not require laboratory space. Relevant journals and daily newspapers,
weeklies and periodicals should be available. Access to political material and to
television channels via cable and satellite are also needed, eg channels with 24-hour
news, political shows and other interests.
Specialist input from colleagues and/or guest speakers who have knowledge of the
media, law, politics, sociology and philosophy (ethical and moral issues) is highly
recommended to provide the wider background needed for this unit.
Some learners may require access to recording equipment as they can choose to
present some of their material via audio/visual recordings.
As this unit covers such a wide variety of subjects, the following are suggestions of
books which may give a flavour of the kind of material that could come up for
discussion. As it is likely that several tutors will input into this unit from different
subject disciplines, other texts and websites may be preferred and suggested by each
subject specialist.

Textbooks
Best J — Damned Lies and Statistics: Untangling Numbers from the Media, Politicians
and Activists (University of California Press, 2001) ISBN 0520219783
Brignell J — The Epidemiologist: Have They Got Scares for You! (Brignell Associates,
2004) ISBN 0953910822
Curran J — Mass Media and Society (Hodder Arnold, 2005) ISBN 0340884991
Goliszek A — In the Name of Science: A History of Secret Programs, Medical Research
and Human Experimentation (St Martin’s Press, 2003) ISBN 0312303564
Jackson A R W and Jackson J — Forensic Science (Prentice Hall, 2004)
ISBN 0130432512
Jewkes Y — Media and Crime: A Critical Introduction (Sage Publications Ltd, 2004)
ISBN 0761947655
Michaels P J — Meltdown: The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by
Scientists, Politicians and the Media (Cato Institute US, 2005) ISBN 1930865791
Moreno J D — Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans (Routledge Inc, 2000)
ISBN 0415928354
Mur C — Animal Experimentation (Greenhaven Press, 2004) ISBN 073772000X
O’Sullivan T et al — Studying the Media (Hodder Arnold, 2003) ISBN 0340807652
Spitz V — Doctors from Hell: The Horrific Account of Nazi Experiments on Humans
(Sentient Publications, 2005) ISBN 1591810329
Websites
www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/safety/ Office of Health and Safety (American
basicchem.htm website: has a set of scenarios that could
provoke discussion)
www.chemsoc.org Royal Society of Chemistry’s chemical
science network
www.indiana.edu Indiana University
www.kosmoi.com/Science/Method Science, Nature, Technology
www.project2061.org Advancing Science, Serving Society —
Project 2061

Key skills


• contributing to any C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
discussions in this unit such
as the relationship between
the media and science
• making a presentation about C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
public perceptions and eight minutes using an image or other
concerns regarding science support material.
information to find reasons least two documents about the same
and motives for pressure subject.
groups
1000 words long.
• writing up information from C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
researches carried out each one giving different information
involving facts and opinions. about complex subjects.
words long.


• researching scientific ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
advances, comparing and sources, and multiple search criteria in at
contrasting attitudes and least one case.
evaluating their usefulness
• researching science ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
developments and developing derive new information.
the material to use in
discussing moral and ethical
issues
• presenting information for ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
any of the above researches. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

• developing plans and setting LP3.1 Set targets using information from
targets with tutors and appropriate people and plan how these
colleagues to carry out will be met.
researches effectively
• monitoring progress using LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
their plan and making using your plan to help meet targets and
modifications. improve your performance.

• identifying the material PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
needed for an assignment ways of tackling it.
and how to find it
• meeting supervisors and PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
colleagues to discuss the solving the problem.
affect of the media and
politics on science
• reviewing the material PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
collected to see if it is review your approach to problem solving.
sufficient to meet the
requirements of the problem
set.

UNIT 6: APPLICATION OF NUMBERS FOR SCIENCE TECHNICIANS
Unit 6: Application of Numbers for

Science Technicians
Unit abstract
Science technicians and those working in science-related areas need to be able to
handle numbers. Calculators are effective tools as they take the hard work out of
using numbers, but there are drawbacks. Learners need to know whether the answer
that flashes up on the calculator screen is correct. Mistakes can be made when
inputting figures or pressing the wrong button. Unless learners have some
understanding of what is going on they cannot check their work properly.
The aim of this unit is not to turn learners into mathematicians, but to make them
comfortable with handling numbers and using numbers in a scientific setting.
Learners may have forgotten any mathematics that they have learned in the past so
parts of this unit will help them to remember. Other sections will introduce them to
some new topics. Throughout this unit learners will use a scientific calculator and be
able to input data confidently and access the pre-programmed buttons which will
help them do more complicated calculations.
Whatever job learners have in science, it will invariably involve numbers and their
manipulation. Mathematics is a wonderful tool once you have overcome any
hesitation about being able to use it. For instance, science technicians are often
asked to make up solutions and to do this they must be able to calculate the
quantities required. This unit will give learners the confidence to tackle the
mathematics for this and other science-related tasks.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to use mathematical tools to process scientific data
2 Be able to classify, measure and record scientific data.

Unit content
1 Be able to use mathematical tools to process scientific data
Mathematical tools: SI units (length, mass, volume, conversions); numbers

(decimal places, significant figures, ratios, proportions, percentages, fractions);
area and volume (calculations, units and notations); calculators (standard
function buttons)
Indices: in preparation of solutions eg 105, 105 x 102 = 107; negative indices in
serial dilutions; index notation for squares and cubes eg p2 ∝ a3 where p = orbital
period of a planet and a = radius of its orbit
Formulae and equations: simple linear equations; formulae; re-arrange formulae
Plotting and interpretation of graphs: linear graphs eg Charles’ law, V=IR,
gradient of a straight line through the origin, ie when x = 0 then y = 0 using
AB
formulae, eg or y=mx; conversion graphs eg Celsius to Fahrenheit, miles per
BC
hour to kilometres per hour; non-linear graphs eg gas law; interpret graphs eg
rate of reaction, bacterial growth, activation energies
2 Be able to classify, measure and record scientific data
Classifying data: continuous data eg rate of production over time, population

count of invertebrates or plants; discrete data eg shoe size, electron energies in
an atom (s, p, d); raw and derived data eg measure time taken to complete a
series of 400m circuit runs and measure the mean time taken
Measuring data: mean; median; mode; definitions; collect and use data correctly
eg rate of respiration and physical activity, enzyme activity, Hooke’s law —
extension of a spring, rate of catalytic reaction against temperature
Recording and displaying data: appropriate format eg spreadsheets, data charts;
appropriate presentation eg bar charts, histograms, pie charts, scattergrams,
linear graphs eg Hooke’s law
Errors and accuracy: accuracy of data collected relating to type of equipment
used to collect data, its suitability for purpose eg a ruler and a micrometer,
measuring cylinder and burette; errors, random, systematic, relative, absolute;
use of ± to represent absolute error; use of estimation as a guide to accuracy eg
product estimations in chemical reactions, ratio predictions in Mendelian
inheritance

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 carry out mathematical procedures M1 explain how the use of some operations D1 explain the use of negative indices in the
involving units, numbers, areas, can give skewed information and how stages of making serial dilutions
volumes, indices, formulae and errors may occur
equations in a practical laboratory
situation
P2 plot and interpret linear and non-linear M2 explain why different graphs are used to D2 evaluate the usefulness of graphs in
graphs from primary and secondary present scientific data and how errors displaying the results of scientific
experimental data may occur experiments
P3 record and display scientific data M3 justify the levels of accuracy in the use D3 evaluate the appropriateness of the
appropriately, indicating any errors. of particular types of data collection methods used to record and display data.
methods in laboratory experiments.

Delivery
This unit can be delivered in conjunction with any of the practical units in order to
contextualise the mathematical concepts and generate meaningful data for analysis.
In delivering this unit tutors will have the opportunity to emphasise the uses of
mathematical procedures and techniques. This unit’s intention is not to create
mathematicians. It is to enable science technicians to comfortably and effectively
use mathematical skills as and when needed.
To this end it is expected that the grading criteria will be applied in laboratory
situations. The grading criteria cannot be met through learners carrying out pages of
mathematical exercises either via computer packages, self-tutoring booklets or from
material set for work at home or in the classroom.
The whole emphasis in this unit is to apply mathematics in a science laboratory
setting.
Learning outcome 1 reminds learners of work done before entering this course. It is
intended to overcome the fears that some learners may bring with them about using
and understanding mathematics. Other learners may be mathematically competent
but a little rusty about how to do some areas of mathematics. The mathematics done
by the learners here should enable them to carry out any practical procedures and
correctly use the mathematics required. Formal input will be needed from tutors and
time allowed for the learners to practise their mathematics skills before using them
in the laboratory. A repetition of examination mathematics courses is not appropriate
here. The emphasis is on understanding basic mathematical concepts in a vocational
setting.
Learning outcome 2 is intended to enable learners to use mathematics as a tool in
science. Some formal input will be required, and graphical packages and other
teaching methods will help the learners appreciate the use of mathematical tools.
Getting the learners to use these mathematical tools in the laboratory will make it
more relevant for the reluctant learner of mathematics. The learners may need time
to practice some of the material in this learning outcome. Learners should
understand and be able to use the appropriate method to present results. For
example, use of a bar chart to present the number of stable isotopes of the
elements, and a pie chart to show the number of animals kept for human
consumption in the UK.
Assessment
All the pass criteria must be met in order for a learner to achieve this unit.
P1 expects the learner to show use of the basic mathematical concepts listed,
through doing practical work in a laboratory setting. In doing this work the use of
calculators is expected and the mathematical calculations must be accurate. The
work must be clearly set out so it can be followed by the assessor.

The data for use in P2 comes either from the learner’s own experimental work or
from secondary scientific data. The learners are being assessed on their ability to
plot and interpret information, so at least part of the presentation will be graphical.
P3 — the emphasis here is on choosing the appropriate methods of recording and
displaying material. The learner must also carry out the procedures. Indicating errors
requires, at this level, a list rather than a quantitative approach.
met.
For M1, the learner must show some understanding of what happens if, for example,
decimal places and significant figures are inappropriately used. They should also be
able to show the effect the use of calculators can have on accuracy.
For M2, the learner is expected to show they understand both linear and non-linear
graphs. They must show in their presentation which type of data can be used in each
graph, and demonstrate their ability to plot such data for both types of graph.
Learners might include other graphical methods but they must include linear and
non-linear graphs as a minimum.
For M3, learners are required to demonstrate their knowledge of mathematics in a
practical situation. They need to show an understanding of how information is
collected in laboratory experiments. They must apply this knowledge to assessing the
accuracy of collection methods. This will lead to justifying their decisions in terms of
accuracy. The presentation used needs to be logically set out and based on practical
experience.
met.
For D1, learners must show they understand the usefulness of indices in science
calculations. At this level their evaluation should include using indices both in manual
manipulations and when using a calculator.
The evaluation for D2 is based on reviewing different types of graphs. Learners must
also understand the limitations of the different graph types in order to decide which
one best displays certain data. The presentation will need to include examples of
these graphs based on primary of secondary science data.
For D3, learners must review the types of data collected before discussing how to
record and display them. They must show examples of recording data and examples
of how they can be displayed. Finally, they must review their material and form
conclusions as part of the evaluation process.


This unit has links to:

• Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science
• Unit 7: Mathematics for Science Technicians
• Unit 8: Statistics for Science Technicians
• Unit 29: Physiological Investigations
• Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis
• Unit 33: Forensic Photography.
Essential resources
Using mathematical tools is an essential part of any science technician’s work. To

deliver this unit the centre will need to provide laboratory space equipped for
Level 2 work. Learners will need the facilities to carry out practical work so the
technical expertise required at this level can be practised and demonstrated. This
will include carrying out practical experiments that allow for the application of the
mathematical skills covered in this unit.
Access to scientific calculators, computers, CD ROMs and the internet is also
essential. The computers need to have packages used in plotting graphs etc, and
access to mathematical tutorial packages would be an advantage.
Ideally, input from technicians and scientists working in a range of laboratory
situations would help to make the unit vocationally relevant. Work placements may
help put mathematical skills into a scientific context. Suitably experienced staff will
be needed as this unit is to be delivered with the emphasis on mathematics as a
scientific tool.
Hogan P, Job B, Baker D and Morley D — Key Maths GCSE: Edexcel Summary and
Practise Higher (Nelson Thornes, 2002) ISBN 074876772X
Metcalf P — GCSE Edexcel Maths (Revision Guide) (Collins, 2006) ISBN 0007213611
Parsons R — GCSE Modular Maths: Edexcel Higher Revision Guide (Coordination Group
Publications, 2004) ISBN 1841460931
Pledger K (editor) — Edexcel GCSE Maths: Higher Student Book (Heinemann
Educational Secondary Division, 2006) ISBN 0435534092
Journals
Mathematical Association
Mathematical Gazette
Mathematics in Schools

Websites
www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize BBC GCSE Bitesize
www.bbc.co.uk/skillwise BBC Skillswise
www.digitalbrain.com Digitalbrain
www.education.bham.ac.uk/subjects/maths/links University of Birmingham selection
of mathematics education sites
www.gcseguide.co.uk GCSE guide
www.gcsevise.com Gcsevise
www.mathstutor.com Mathstutor

Key skills


• planning a laboratory N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
experiment that will produce information from relevant sources.
raw numerical data
• manipulating raw data using N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
mathematical methods to stage calculations to do with:
produce secondary data
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• plotting results in graphs and N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
drawing conclusions from the present your findings and justify your
graphical data. methods.

• investigating a scientific PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
question where numeracy is ways of tackling it.
involved and determining
which mathematical methods
could help answer it
• planning and performing the PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
most appropriate solving the problem.
mathematical method
• using mathematical methods PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
to verify the conclusions review your approach to problem solving.
made and identifying areas
where the techniques used
could be improved.

UNIT 7: MATHEMATICS FOR SCIENCE TECHNICIANS
Unit 7: Mathematics for Science

Technicians
Unit abstract
Science technicians and anyone working in science-related areas need to be able to
handle numbers. In Unit 6: Application of Numbers for Science Technicians the
objective is to make learners comfortable with handling numbers in a scientific
setting. This unit will enable learners to explore the use of some other mathematical
tools that are basic to biology, chemistry and physics.
Science technicians may be required to perform an experiment, collect, collate and
present a set of data. To do this they need to be able to do the experiment and
decide which data-recording techniques are best (table or graph?) and how to analyse
them (which statistical test to use). Technicians could be asked to check a piece of
apparatus to make sure it is giving reasonable results. They might have to look at a
graphical printout and work out the rate of change from the graph.
This unit will give learners the skills and confidence to do all of this. On completing
this unit, learners will not be mathematicians but they should have the skills to deal
with the mathematics-related topics that appear in biology, chemistry and physics
calculations. Learners will be expected to use any relevant computer programs,
especially spreadsheets, and access more of the function buttons on scientific
calculators. Mathematics is a powerful tool and, by the end of the unit, learners
should be able to confidently solve problems using their mathematical skills.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to use and apply algebraic manipulation and data handling techniques to
solve scientific problems
2 Be able to use and apply graphical, geometrical and trigonometrical techniques to
solve scientific problems.

Unit content
1 Be able to use and apply algebraic manipulation and data handling techniques
to solve scientific problems
Number: direct and inverse proportions; percentage change; using calculators to

1
find and use: Xn, eg dioptres in optics, x eg length of pendulum and its
x
period, ex eg population growths, log10x eg decibels and pH values, logex eg
bacterial counts with time; correct use of SI units
Errors in calculations: absolute; relative; compound errors; estimations and
approximations
Formulae and equations: symbols (=, <, ≤, ≥, >); rearrangement of equations eg
general gas law, equations of motion; substitution of numbers into equations;
V2
linear equations eg V=IR, E=mc2; quadratic equations, eg W =
R
Indices: laws for multiplication, division, powers
Logarithms: definition; relationship to index notation eg pH values and decibels
Classifying data: discrete; continuous data
Mutually exclusive and independent events: addition and multiplication rules;
conditional probability eg lottery, poker cards, Mendelian inheritance
Normal distribution: area under normal curves; standardised normal; probabilities
eg lifetimes of individual atoms in radioactive element to find half-life
Statistical tests: standard deviation; variance; student’s t-test eg Hooke’s
constant from measurement of two different springs

2 Be able to use and apply graphical, geometrical and trigonometrical

techniques to solve scientific problems
Trigonometric ratios: sine, cosine, tangent; use of calculator for trigonometric

problems eg surveying, height of trees
Trigonometric functions: nature of oscillatory functions; graphs of sinusoidal
functions eg pure notes and their pressure variations, altitude of sun in sky when
due south; time constants eg time taken to bring incubator, oven or steriliser up
to temperature
Geometry: represent angles and shapes in 2D and 3D structures; symmetry of 2D
and 3D shapes eg isomers of glucose (left and right handed molecules)
Linear graphs: translate information between graphical, numerical and algebraic
forms eg gas law, Ohm’s law; plot two variables from primary or secondary data;
determine the gradient and intercept of a linear graph eg distance vs time graph
to give velocity, calculate rates of change eg catalytic reactions, enzyme
reactions
Non-linear graphs: use of fitted curve to predict values eg variations of pressure
in Earth’s atmosphere with height above sea level, Boyle’s law, activation
energies; gradient of tangent to a curve is rate of change; significance of area
between a curve and x-axis eg velocity vs time graph — area under curve is
distance; logarithmic plots to test exponential and power law variations eg half-
life of radioactive atoms, population growth

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 demonstrate the ability to carry out M1 explain, using calculations as examples, D1 evaluate, using given examples, the need
mathematical procedures as a result of how indices and logarithms can simplify to use various methods to determine the
practical laboratory work mathematical procedures when dealing size and influence of errors on final
with very large or small numbers calculations and conclusions
P2 demonstrate the classification of data M2 explain, by giving at least two examples D2 analyse and justify at least two
and the correct application of a student involving probability, mutually exclusive statistical procedures you have used in
t-test to data from a laboratory and independent events, the addition biology, physics or chemistry
experiment and multiplication rules and conditional experiments
probabilities
P3 demonstrate the ability to plot a linear M3 explain, using three or more examples, D3 evaluate using laboratory-based data the
and non-linear graph using scientific data how 2D and 3D structures and their advantages of presenting such data in
and calculate the rate of change by the symmetry can be understood and graphical, numerical or algebraic form.
most appropriate method. represented diagrammatically.

Delivery
contextualise mathematical concepts and generate meaningful data for analysis.
Tutors will have the opportunity to emphasise the uses of mathematical procedures
and techniques by building on the skills and knowledge that were developed in
Unit 6: Application of Numbers for Science Technicians. As well as consolidating the
learners’ knowledge, this unit should enable them to further their mathematical
abilities in the context of biology, physics and chemistry.
To this end the grading criteria should be applied in laboratory situations. The
grading criteria cannot be met through carrying out pages of mathematical exercises,
via computer packages, self-tutoring booklets or from material set for homework or
in the classroom. This unit is intended to help the learners understand and use the
mathematical skills and knowledge required in biology, chemistry and physics
experiments.
Therefore the whole emphasis in this unit is on applying mathematics in a science
laboratory setting, using scientific calculators and computer programs such as
Microsoft Excel. It is essential that science tutors are consulted about suitable data
to use if this unit is taught by a non-scientist. It is assumed that calculators and
computer programmes such as spreadsheets (but not any high level program
language) will be used throughout this unit.
Learning outcome 1 tackles data handling techniques and algebraic manipulation, ie
the rearrangement and solution of equations, and the use of trigonometric ratios. An
understanding of the mathematical concepts in a vocational setting is required but
the emphasis is on the use and application of these concepts. The tutor should
approach this learning outcome from the point of view of giving learners
mathematical skills they can use in the science laboratory. Hence a repetition of
parts of, for example, a GCE mathematics examination is not appropriate.
The use of logarithms has been kept to a minimum, primarily because calculations
involving very large or small numbers are easily done using the function keys on a
calculator. Logs are approached in this unit as part of indices and their inclusions in
pH values etc.
Using material from a variety of sources is acceptable but the assessment procedures
should always be in a vocational context.
Learning outcome 2 looks at the graphical, geometrical and trigonometrical
techniques needed to solve scientific problems in the laboratory. Again, the use of
examination modules to teach and assess this learning outcome is not appropriate.
There will be useful material in such examination sources but the emphasis should be
on the application of mathematical skills in a vocational setting. Therefore, the tutor
should use primary and secondary science data as a teaching and assessment source.

Assessment
P1 expects the learner to carry out the mathematical procedures listed through doing
practical work in a laboratory setting. Calculators are expected to be used and the
calculations must be accurate. Stages in the calculations need to be shown so the
tutor can see the learners’ thought processes. This is to avoid the use of calculators
where the learner has little or no understanding of the processes involved in the
calculations and cannot therefore see where answers are not creditable.
The data used in P2 can be primary or secondary providing they are derived from a
relevant biology, chemistry or physics experiment. The learner must show how this
data can be classified. Although there is a variety of statistical tests available, the
student’s t-test has been identified as being applicable to physics and chemistry. It
can be used in this criterion either from data classified in the first part of the
assessment or from other scientific data.
For P3, the primary or secondary data used must be correctly plotted. Different sets
of data can be used for each type of graph and the rate of change must be calculated
from one of the graphs. Most learners will probably calculate the rate of change from
the linear graph, but a calculation from either type of graph is acceptable providing
the answer is correct.
met.
For M1, learners must explain how logs and indices make calculations involving very
large or small numbers easier and less prone to errors. It is the use and application of
logs and indices being assessed here, not the mathematical theorems that support
them. Learners must show they know how and why to correctly use logs and indices
in situations where very large or small numbers could also be tackled by more
numerical means.
For M2, learners must show their ability to use the listed activities and must show an
understanding of probability and its rules. This criterion is an extension of statistical
techniques and looks specifically at probability. The choice of examples given can be
from physics or chemistry (or both) and use either primary or secondary data.
For M3, learners must demonstrate their understanding and ability to show 2D and 3D
structures. A lot of molecular chemistry, especially organic, lends itself to
assessment topics here. It is acceptable for learners to demonstrate practically the
3D structures using molecular models and then represent them in paper-based
diagrams.
met.
For D1, learners must evaluate methods used to recognise that errors are often an
intrinsic part of any set of measurements (whether taken manually or using a
machine). The learner must show an awareness of the errors and which methods can
be used to determine their size and influence. Having done this, learners are
required to evaluate the various methods in order to demonstrate an appreciation of
the suitability of the method chosen to calculate the importance of an error.

For D2, learners need to show how at least two different statistical techniques have
been used and then analyse how the two procedures help in interpreting
experimental results. Learners must then justify the choices made.
For D3, the laboratory data can be primary or secondary but it should be presentable
it in numerous ways. This is in order for learners to evaluate the advantages of the
different methods. It is acceptable to use several sets of data from different
experiments where only one type of presentation is possible or desirable, providing
the learner can evaluate the presentation method chosen for that set of data.

Whenever possible the problem(s) to be solved should be drawn from experiments set
up for this unit, or drawn from other relevant units depending on the endorsed title
chosen.
This unit is applicable to all the units with a physics or chemistry content, such as:
• Unit 17: Electrical Circuits and their Industrial Applications
• Unit 25: Electronics for Science Technicians
• Unit 26: Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions
• Unit 27: Chemical Periodicity and its Applications
• Unit 28: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry
• Unit 30: Medical Instrumentation
• Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis.
It might also be used by other units involved in data collection and analysis:
• Unit 29: Physiological Investigations.
Essential resources
Using the mathematical concepts in this unit is part of a physics or chemistry

technician’s work so laboratory space equipped to Level 3 standard is required. This
means the learners have the facilities to carry out practical work and apply their
mathematical skills to the results obtained.
Access to scientific calculators, computers, CD ROMs and the internet is essential.
The computers should have packages used in statistics, graph plotting (eg Microsoft
Excel) and learners should have access to mathematical tutorial packages.
Suitably experienced and qualified staff with a background in both mathematics and
science would be ideal as tutors on the course. All tutors, whatever their
background, should make sure the mathematics is presented and used in a
vocationally relevant way.

Textbooks
Attwood G et al — Heinemann Modular Maths Edexcel Revise for Core Maths 1
(Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2005) ISBN 043551122X
Attwood G et al — Heinemann Modular Maths Edexcel Revise for Core Maths 2
(Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2005) ISBN 0435511238
Clark J — Calculations in AS/A Level Chemistry (Longman, 2000) ISBN 0582411270
Emanuel R and Wood J — AS Core Maths for Edexcel (Longman, 2004)
ISBN 0582842379
MacPherson A et al — Heinemann Modular Maths Edexcel Revise for Core Maths 3
Pledger K — Heinemann Modular Maths for Edexcel AS and A-Level: Core Book 4

Key skills


• planning practical work to N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
collect data and searching information from relevant sources.
for secondary data
• calculating rates of change N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
from non-linear graphs stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• analysing primary or N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
secondary data, and present your findings and justify your
presenting results methods.
appropriately.

• researching secondary data ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
and statistical techniques sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• using programmes to input ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
data and plot graphs. derive new information.


• devising different methods to PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
tackle a problem ways of tackling it.
• planning and carrying out an PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
experiment to tackle a solving the problem.
problem
• drawing conclusions and PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
analysing outcomes. review your approach to problem solving.

UNIT 8: STATISTICS FOR SCIENCE TECHNICIANS
Unit 8: Statistics for Science Technicians

Unit abstract
Science is founded upon observation and measurement, so any scientific work
involves obtaining, processing and interpreting these measurements. For a worker in
a scientific environment this will be a constant and important part of their duties.
Frequently, interpretation of measurements also requires an indication of confidence
in the results. Mathematical and statistical techniques should be used accurately and
efficiently to process the information. An important aid to this is the appropriate use
of ICT methods such as software or specialised calculators.
This unit enables learners to explore and develop their techniques and skills in
practical statistics. To that end this unit focuses particularly on practical applications
to realistic scientific problems.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to use basic statistics and probability to solve scientific problems
2 Be able to take samples, manipulate and interpret data to solve scientific
problems.

Unit content
1 Be able to use basic statistics and probability to solve scientific problems
Recording data: frequency distribution eg table showing number of flowers

counted on each of 50 plants; contingency tables eg viability of batches of seeds
Location of data: scientific applications of the mean, median and mode
Spread of data: quartiles; interquartile range eg distribution of mass for a sample
of 200 carrots for frozen food company; standard deviation in scientific
situations; sets of data and their spreads eg birth weight of female babies born in
the south-west of England, diameters of ball bearings, measurements of period of
a pendulum
Probability of events: independent events; addition and multiplication rules eg
probability of winning lottery twice; eg conditional probability, mutually
exclusive events
Sampling: random sampling (quadrant in field sampling); eg population and
sample (Gallup or Mori poll); standard error of the mean (the uncertainty in the
average value of a set of measurements eg the calorific value of oil)
Normal distribution: area under normal curve; standardised normal distribution;
determination of probabilities eg heights of men in regiment of soldiers
2 Be able to take samples, manipulate and interpret data to solve scientific

problems
Chi-squared test: goodness of fit; contingency table analysis eg genetics examples

Graphs: application of the gradient eg voltage vs current to determine resistance;
intercept of the straight line eg temperature vs resistance to determine
resistance at 0°C
Calculations in science: accuracy and precision eg scientific calculators and
software; types of error (random, systematic, gross)
Indices: laws for multiplication, division and powers
Exponentials: growth and decay; applications to science eg reaction kinetics,
radioactivity, cooling, bacterial growth
Linear functions: interpolation and extrapolation; fitting a straight line to
scientific data using linear regression; prediction of values using the equation
obtained; check the validity of fit using correlation coefficient eg extension of a
spring for different applied weights

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 use two different statistical techniques M1 explain and justify the selection of the D1 justify and explain the sampling process
two statistical techniques chosen and deductions made in the statistical
analysis
P2 process data from a scientific problem M2 estimate the sources and sizes of the D2 evaluate the techniques used and the
using an equation and a graph to display errors and accuracy of the solution conclusions reached to solve the
the results and provide a valid conclusion scientific problem
P3 use the chi-squared test to support a M3 analyse the results of the chi-squared D3 evaluate the use of the chi-squared test
scientific hypothesis. test to make valid conclusions to support in making probability judgements.
the scientific hypothesis.

Delivery
contextualise the mathematical concepts and generate meaningful data for analysis.
This unit is not intended to be purely mathematical, but rather to develop the skills
needed by science technicians in the context of real laboratory situations. In this unit
learners should produce evidence where they have applied the mathematical and
statistical techniques to real scientific problems. This should be the teaching
approach to this unit.
Learners should be introduced to and guided through all the topics in this unit. They
should progress from simple examples to real scientific problems. It is important that
learners are always aware of the need to assess errors and accuracy in their scientific
investigations.
Learning outcome 1 should introduce the learners to statistics as a more
sophisticated mathematical tool. A reasonable complexity of process is expected.
The normal distribution will need to be delivered as a procedural technique, although
learners should understand the meaning of the results. These statistical techniques
should be exemplified through real laboratory problems.
Learning outcome 2 introduces the importance of sampling and techniques for
carrying this out reliably. The chi-squared test is introduced as a powerful tool for
testing a proposal (eg the randomness of random numbers, or fairness of dice) and
for analysing a contingency table.
Assessment
It is essential that this unit is delivered in close relationship with practical science. It
is therefore appropriate that learners write up their investigatory work as scientific
reports. These should be their own work and not merely copied out, for example,
from method sheets.
For all the pass criteria it is also important that all numerical values should have the
appropriate units of measurement quoted correctly.
For P1, learners must use appropriate methods to take a random sample from a real
scientific situation. The sampling process must be clearly shown. The other data
source may be either primary or secondary. There should be at least two statistical
techniques used in the comparison or analysis of the data. All formulae should be
quoted and used appropriately. The presentation should be clear and logically
organised.
For P2, learners must use a real scientific experiment, perhaps taken from another
unit, to manipulate complex equations and use graphs to determine some scientific
properties. Learners are required to use calculators or other software. Learners must
clearly set out a plan and a conclusion.

For P3, learners must state their hypothesis and understand what they are testing.
The results must be correct and presented appropriately.
met.
For M1, learners must understand the relevance of the various statistical techniques
that exist. They must explain and clearly justify their choices and how they are
appropriate for the task in hand. Their explanations must involve comparison of
techniques.
For M2, learners are required to show a clear indication of errors, including their
source and an estimate of their magnitude, and a resulting estimate of the accuracy.
More analysis is required than for the pass criteria, including explaining the results
and their relevance to the problem. The analysis should produce valid conclusions
interpreted in the context of the problem.
met.
For D1, learners must include a review of the methods of sampling with their benefits
and drawbacks, as well as evaluation of the sampling process used in the experiment.
It must also cover the idea of standard error of the mean. The conclusions made in
the statistical experiment must also be evaluated.
For D2, learners must assess the plan and the experimental techniques used, and the
mathematical techniques and graphical work chosen. This must include evaluation of
the accuracy and appropriateness of the graphs. There must also be an evaluation of
the conclusions drawn.

Wherever possible, the problem(s) to be solved should be drawn from all the other
units relevant to the endorsed title chosen.
This unit is applicable to many units but there are specific links to the following:
• Unit 26: Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions.
Essential resources
This unit aims to develop learners’ skills in mathematics and statistics in the context
of practical science. It is therefore important that the learners have access to
facilities to carry out practical scientific work for demonstration and practice. There
are several mathematics packages that would be useful for teaching purposes (eg
Autograph).

In real-life situations, scientific calculators and computers are normally used. It is

important therefore that learners have access to these calculators and software, such
as Microsoft Excel, as well as to the internet.
Links to scientific organisations, their technicians and scientists would extend the
vocational relevance for the learners and provide a valuable experience and
resource. This unit has mathematical content at Level 3 standard and suitably
experienced staff are needed to deliver it.
Textbooks
Attwood G, Dyer G and Skipworth G — Revise for Statistics: No. 1 (Heinemann
Modular Mathematics for Edexcel AS & A Level Statistics) (Heinemann Educational
Secondary Division, 2001) ISBN 0435511165
School Mathematics Project — Statistics 1 for Edexcel (SMP AS/A2 Mathematics for
Edexcel) (Cambridge University Press, 2004) ISBN 0521605350
School Mathematics Project — Statistics 2 for Edexcel (SMP AS/A2 Mathematics for
Edexcel) (Cambridge University Press, 2005) ISBN 0521605393
Journals
Journal of Applied Statistics
Statistical Methods in Medical Research ISSN 09622802
Statistical Modelling: An International Journal ISSN 1471082X
Websites
www.blackwellpublishing.com/subjects/PB Blackwell Statistics
www.rss.org.uk Royal Statistical Society

Key skills


• planning an investigation to N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
obtain quantitative results information from relevant sources.
for a scientific question
• processing and manipulating N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
their quantitative results stage calculations to do with:
using appropriate statistical
a amounts or sizes
methods
d using formulae.
• presenting their processed N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
data in the most appropriate present your findings and justify your
way and drawing conclusions methods.
to the scientific question
from trends shown by the
data.


• researching the most ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
appropriate statistical sources, and multiple search criteria in at
method to process different least one case.
types of data from a range of
sources, eg electronic
journals, websites
• using statistical programmes ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
to process raw data to derive new information.
produce secondary data, eg
using a graph software
package to plot the y values
obtained for a set of x values
and using the programme to
calculate the gradient
• using a software package to ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
produce a graph with a title, text with image, text with number,
correctly labelled axes and image with number.
units.


• consulting their tutor and LP3.1 Set targets using information from
together identifying areas of appropriate people and plan how these
weakness and devising will be met.
activities and/or strategies
to improve knowledge,
understanding and
performance
• following their personal LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
strategy plan ensuring the using your plan to help meet targets and
targets set are realistic but improve your performance.
will stretch their knowledge,
understanding and
performance in order to
achieve their highest
potential
• gauging their progress by the LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
feedback received from the your achievements.
tutor for set assignments
carried out, where each
assignment requires
increasingly complex and
diverse use of statistical
methods and/or applications.


• identifying a scientific PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
question which the ways of tackling it.
application of statistics
would help to answer, and
determining which are the
most appropriate statistical
methods to use
• planning and carrying out a PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
statistical method solving the problem.
• using the chi-squared test to PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
support or negate their review your approach to problem solving.
findings, and considering
what improvements could be
made to their plan.

• working with their peers and WO3.1 Plan work with others.
sharing ideas to tackle set
assignments
• co-operating and working WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
well together, and taking progress towards your agreed objectives.
responsibility for their own
task to collectively complete
a set assignment
• identifying areas of weakness WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
in their collaborative efforts of improving collaborative work in future.
and devising ways of
improving the quality of work
the group of learners
produces.

UNIT 9: INFORMATICS
Unit 9: Informatics
Unit abstract
Informatics is the scientific study of information and information processing. The
massive advances in science and technology over the past few decades has generated
an unprecedented amount of data. This expansion of information has resulted in the
need for more and more sophisticated databases to store, organise and index the
data, and for specialised tools to view and analyse it.
Learners will study the aims and methods of informatics, data storage and the
applications of informatics. They will also have the opportunity to learn about the
processes of data collection, warehousing and analysis.
Informatics in its broadest sense covers information theory (identifying patterns and
trends using mathematics), information science (collection, classification,
manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information) and computer
science (the study of the electronic storage, processing, and communication of
information). Informatics can refer to a particular discipline, such as, medical
informatics or bioinformatics.
Learning outcomes
1 Know the aims, methods, data sources and applications of informatics
2 Understand the processes of data collection, warehousing and analysis.

UNIT 9: INFORMATICS
Unit content
1 Know the aims, methods, data sources and applications of informatics
Aims: to understand how systems work; modelling systems; increasing

understanding of basic scientific processes
Methods: representation; storage; organisation; manipulation; distribution and
maintenance of data
Sources of data: eg amino acid sequences, protein structures
Applications: hypothesising; predicting; modelling; developing predictive methods
to model function
2 Understand the processes of data collection, warehousing and analysis
Computational biology: computer procedures; process of data interpretation and

analysis; use of specialised tools to view and analyse data
Data collection: new approaches to data collection; quality standards for new
data sets eg human genome project; using search engines, role of the worldwide
web
Data warehousing/databases: data capture; file formats; typical records within
files; ease of access to stored data; design of data formats and databases
Data analysis: use of software techniques for finding patterns and regularities in
data sets; queries for finding specific information in databases

UNIT 9: INFORMATICS
Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 review the aims and applications of M1 describe a range of methods used in D1 explain the need to be able to extract
informatics informatics specific, relevant data
P2 build and populate a database. M2 write and run queries to obtain specified D2 relate new types of data to types of
information from a database. databases required.

UNIT 9: INFORMATICS
Delivery
This unit can be delivered in conjunction with any of the mathematical units eg
Unit 6: Application of Numbers for Science Technicians, Unit 7: Mathematics for
Science Technicians or Unit 8: Statistics for Science Technicians or with any of the
practical units in order to contextualise the learning and generate meaningful data.
Learning outcome 1 lends itself to some discussion on the use of and need for
informatics, especially in terms of moral, social and ethical issues, eg curing diseases
or producing sufficient food to feed the world. Learners would benefit from closely
guided support in exploring the methods used in informatics. There is a wealth of
information on the internet. Learners need to understand how databases are used
and gain some awareness of the vast amount of information that must be
manipulated.
For learning outcome 2 the development of appropriate computer skills, especially in
the correct use of software, should be encouraged whenever possible. Where
appropriate, analysis of experimentally-derived data should also be attempted. A
case study approach could be used to unify a number of themes and contextualise
the learning. The use of computer teaching programs and CD ROMs would enable
learners to do some independent study.
Assessment
To enable learners to generate the required evidence, the unit should be adapted to
suit the resources within a centre and the endorsed title being followed by the
learner. Evidence could be provided by use of experimentally-derived data in case
studies and interpretation exercises. Literature searches and reviews would also be
appropriate.
For P1, learners must demonstrate their understanding of the need for and uses of
informatics. This may be part of a written report.
For P2, learners must build their own dataset using Microsoft Access or similar
software. They must consider the aim of the dataset when designing and formatting
fields, and they must populate it with relevant data. This can be combined with
other units in order to perform meaningful analyses.
met.
For M1, learners need to explore the methods used to maintain and manipulate
information.
For M2, learners must interrogate the database to answer specific questions. The
questions can be set by the tutor or the learner. Ideally, the learners should consider
the type of questions that the database needs to answer when designing the
database.

UNIT 9: INFORMATICS
met.
For D1, learners can draw on group discussions to explain the needs of many science-
based organisations to manipulate large databases to answer specific science-based
questions. This may be through casestudies, as learners must give examples relevant
to the endorsed title they are following.
For D2, learners need to show an understanding of the vast array of data and data
types that have been generated in recent years and how different databases have
been developed to manage and manipulate this data. This should be a piece of
written work.

This unit has links with:

• Unit 6: Application of Numbers for Science Technicians
• all practical units.
Essential resources
Learners will need access to appropriate computer facilities, software, tutorial

support and library resources. The use of computer teaching programmes and CD ROM
simulations of experiments should be encouraged.
Textbooks
Gibas C and Jambeck P — Developing Bioinformatics Computer Skills (O’Reilly, 2001)
ISBN 1565926641
Jagota A K — Data Analysis and Classification for Bioinformatics (Bioinformatics By
the Bay, 2000) ISBN 0970029705
Radford T — Frontiers: Science and Technology: Bk. 3 (Atlantic Books, 2003)
ISBN 1843540177

UNIT 9: INFORMATICS
Key skills


• searching databases for N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
protein structures information from relevant sources.
• using software techniques to N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
find patterns in data sets. present your findings and justify your
methods.

• discussing the needs and uses C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
of informatics in terms of the
moral, social and ethical
issues involved
• presenting a database that C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
they have built and eight minutes using an image or other
populated support material.
• reading and digesting C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
information from least two documents about the same
bioinformatics textbooks and subject.
computer teaching
programmes
1000 words long.
• writing an essay on the C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
different methods used in each one giving different information
informatics. about complex subjects.
words long.

UNIT 9: INFORMATICS

• searching databases for ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
amino acid sequences of sources, and multiple search criteria in at
particular genes least one case.
• using software techniques to ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
find trends in data sets. derive new information.

• working with their tutor to LP3.1 Set targets using information from
improve their knowledge and appropriate people and plan how these
understanding of informatics will be met.
• adhering to their study plan LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
using your plan to help meet targets and
improve your performance.
• producing work of improving LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
quality for their portfolio of your achievements.
evidence.

• collaborating with others to WO3.1 Plan work with others.
use software packages to
analyse experimentally-
derived data
• working together as a team WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
to achieve a common goal progress towards your agreed objectives.
• identifying areas of their WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
teamwork which could be of improving collaborative work in future.
improved.

UNIT 10: USING SCIENCE IN THE WORKPLACE
Unit 10: Using Science in the Workplace

Unit abstract
This unit will help learners understand the working practices used by organisations
while carrying out their day-to-day business. It also aims to put the scientist or
technician in context as an important part of the team. This unit looks at the roles
and responsibilities of the employee and the employer and the constraints, both
statutory and voluntary, that are imposed on the organisation.
If a learner is already employed in a scientific workplace they will ideally use their
own employer for the practical activity, taking into account any sensitive issues. If
learners are not employed in science they will undertake this investigation as an
individual or as part of a group.
Before starting it is important that the organisation to be studied is researched to
ensure that the relevant information is available. Owing to the wide variety of
organisations that may be studied, the content has been designed to be
contextualised to suit the learner’s situation or experience.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the scientific principles used by a science-based organisation to
produce a product or provide a service
2 Understand the role of the science technician
3 Be able to carry out relevant scientific practical work
4 Know the constraints under which the organisation must operate.

Unit content
1 Understand the scientific principles used by a science-based organisation to

produce a product or provide a service
The organisation: aims; nature of the business; size of the organisation

Products or services: types supplied; their use; type of customer; benefits to the
customer
Processes and principles: processes used in production of the product or delivery
of the service; scientific principles employed; equipment used; roles and
responsibilities of scientists, technicians
Health and safety: legislation applicable to the organisation eg COSHH regulations
Information communication technology (ICT): eg Laboratory Management
Information Systems (LMIS)
2 Understand the role of the science technician
The scientist/technician: role in the organisation; safety requirements; standard

operating procedures
Training and development: role of Association of Science Education (ASE),
National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs), Independent Operational Test (IOT);
rewards; incentives
Workload: flexible working
Communication: lines of authority and accountability to and from other
personnel, external suppliers, external servicing staff, lay people; types of
communication; relationships with supervisor, scientists, peer group; scientific
terminology
3 Be able to carry out relevant scientific practical work
Practical work: a scaled down practical representing a large scale industrial

process used by the organisation
Equipment: equipment used in the industrial context and laboratory
representation
Industrial and laboratory scale processes: differences; similarities

4 Know the constraints under which the organisation must operate
Local impact: environmental; forms of pollution; constraints under which the

organisation operates; consequences of non-compliance
Statutory controls: employment law; health and safety; environmental legislation
Voluntary controls: eg British Standards ISO 9000, ISO14001; Investors in People;
customer; third-party auditing
Issues of public concern: ethical and moral issues; environmental; pollution

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 outline the structures and processes used M1 analyse the processes used by the D1 assess the influence of legislation on the
by the organisation to produce a product organisation to produce a product or processes used to produce a product or
or perform a service, and identify any perform a service perform a service
health and safety issues
P2 describe the role and responsibilities of M2 outline typical career development D2 analyse the different career paths
the scientist/technician in the and/or progression for a science through the organisation of personnel
organisation technician in the organisation entering at different levels
P3 plan and carry out a practical M3 analyse the results of the investigation D3 explain how and why the industrial scale
investigation in the laboratory to and explain their contribution to the differs from the laboratory scale
represent a larger scale industrial organisation
process that is carried out by the
organisation
P4 describe the statutory and voluntary M4 analyse systems used by the organisation D4 comment objectively on any issues of
constraints that may apply to the to ensure adherence to the controls. public concern that may arise from the
organisation (and identify the work of the organisation.
consequences of non-compliance to both
the employer and employee).

Delivery

This unit requires the learner to be able to research a selected organisation. It is
therefore imperative that the organisation chosen has enough relevant and up-to-
date information freely available. It is also important that a relevant practical can be
carried out by the learner in the laboratory.
Work experience or visits are useful but not essential for the successful completion of
the unit. Much of the information required can be obtained from company websites.
Many utility organisations have specific education sections. The learner will need
basic information about how a business is organised and run. This may be delivered as
short lectures giving sufficient background for the learner to be able to appreciate
the information obtained during their own investigation. Consideration of the setting
up and running of a business is not appropriate for this unit.
The emphasis should be placed on the use of science in the organisation to produce a
scientific product or provide a scientific service. The place of the scientist and
technical staff in the organisation should be referred to whenever possible.
Delivery should focus on how principles of science are applied and how the product or
service is of use to the customer, rather than on how the business is run.
The safety of the employee, the public and the environment will be studied by
investigating the statutory and voluntary controls imposed on the organisation.
Legislation such as health and safety for the employees will be studied, as will
quality standards affecting the effectiveness and efficiency of the organisation in the
eyes of employees and the public, including current and potential customers. The
impact of these controls will affect the success of the organisation or the demand for
its products.
Assessment
This unit requires the learners to plan, carry out and report on an investigation
appropriate to the learning outcomes of the role of science technician. A range of
types of technician employment will be appropriate to developing and delivering
their evidence. A series of standard exercises set and controlled by the tutor will not
meet the requirements of this unit.

The topics for investigation can be set by the tutor or selected by the learner, but
must involve the contextualisation of the role of the technician appropriate to the
learner’s programme of study. The learning outcomes may be met by individual or
group investigations. In the latter case, tutors must document each learner’s
contribution to the investigation and provide appropriate authentication of the
evidence presented.
Much of the evidence for this unit will be generated by investigative work. The
quality of each learner’s work will only be partially reflected in the final portfolio. It
is important that the tutor observes all phases of the work and records each learner’s
performance. These records should be included in the learner’s evidence as
authentication of performance and to support the grade recommended for the work.
The tutor’s judgement must reflect the overall quality of the work, and should not be
overly influenced by the media through which it is reported.
All grades require the learner to undertake some initial planning before starting
assignment work. This requires the learner to consider carefully what is involved in
the work, and how they are to approach the constituent tasks.
For learning outcome 2, case studies would be an appropriate way for learners to
present their work. For the distinction grade learners would need to compare two
different entry routes, eg graduate and non-graduate.

This unit follows on from Unit 2: Science and the World of Work in the Edexcel
Level 2 BTEC First Diploma in Applied Science.
The practical work for this unit may be completed in a more suitable practical unit.
This assignment presents opportunities to demonstrate key skills at Level 3.
The unit provides underpinning knowledge for the Laboratory and Associated
Technical Activities NVQs at Levels 2 and 3.
Essential resources
The internet is the core resource needed for researching specific company websites,
regulatory bodies, CLEAPSS, BSI and others depending on the organisation chosen.
Items from the current news media should be integrated as and when they occur.
Relevant television programmes may also be used to illustrate topics of interest.
Use of any resource should be checked for permission and copyright.

Textbooks
Atkinson C and Mariotte J — The Prep Room Organiser (Association for Science
ISBN 0340847123
Articles from newspapers, television or radio transcripts or other scientific/business
journals may also be useful.
Websites
www.ase.org.uk The Association for Science Education
www.bio.org.uk The Institute of Biology
www.glaxowellcome.co.uk Glaxo Wellcome
www.iop.org.uk The Institute of Physics
www.mond.org Society of Chemical Industry
www.rsc.org The Royal Society of Chemistry
www.scienceconsortium.co.uk The Science Consortium
www.sep.org.uk Science Enhancement Programme
www.york.ac.uk/org/ciec Chemical Industry Education Centre (CIEC)

Key skills


• planning a practical N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
• producing results from the N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
practical investigation stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• analysing the results to N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
support a hypothesis. present your findings and justify your
methods.

• talking about different types C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
of company or organisation
• conveying the results of their C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
research to the group using a eight minutes using an image or other
poster or PowerPoint support material.
• researching the company or C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
organisation using different least two documents about the same
websites or journals subject.
1000 words long.
• writing up their findings and C3.3 Write two different types of documents
the report of the practical each one giving different information
work. about complex subjects. One document
must be at least 1000 words long.


• researching using ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
organisation, company or sources, and multiple search criteria in at
regulating body websites least one case.
• producing factual and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
practical reports. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

• planning the practical LP3.1 Set targets using information from
investigation appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.
• working as a group for the LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
practical investigation using your plan to help meet targets and
• logging progress of LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
assignment work. your achievements.

• investigating the organisation PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
and a relevant practical that ways of tackling it.
could be carried out
• planning the practical PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
investigation solving the problem.
• assessing the result of the PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
practical investigation. review your approach to problem solving.


• planning a group practical WO3.1 Plan work with others.
investigation
• working as a group in the WO3.2 Work to develop co-operation and check
practical investigation progress towards your agreed objectives.
• completing the practical WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
work and assessing the of improving collaborative work in future.
learning outcomes.

UNIT 11: PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN BODY SYSTEMS
Unit 11: Physiology of Human Body

Systems
Unit abstract
We all appear to be fascinated by how our bodies work. This unit will give learners an
insight into how the human body works (human physiology). Unit 1: Fundamentals of
Science will help support learners if they choose to enter employment in areas such
as sport science, beauty therapy or health.
Practical work and research will help learners relate the material in this unit to the
functioning of the human body. Learners will then be in a position to use this
information to understand the basic systems that make up a healthy human body.
Learners will also study what happens when things go wrong with the body.
Learners will look at the building blocks (cells, tissues and organs) that make up the
systems in the body, and study digestion, respiration and circulation. The emphasis
will be on understanding the interrelationships between these systems and how they
contribute to the working of the whole human body.
Learners will investigate how the various human physiology systems work by doing
experiments and using apparatus. The practicals may involve taking measurements to
investigate respiration and cardiovascular rates, or the passage of materials around
the body or through membranes. Learners will be expected to analyse the results and
draw conclusions just as a laboratory technician might do.
By the end of the unit learners will have developed their practical skills and
increased their knowledge and understanding of human physiology systems. Learners
will need this knowledge to progress to Unit 12: Physiology of Human Regulation and
Reproduction, when they will study how all these systems are interrelated and
coordinated to provide stable conditions for the body to function effectively.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand how structure and function are related in living human cells
2 Understand how the energy requirements of the human body relate to the
functioning of the digestive system and be able to carry out blood sugar
measurements
3 Understand the role of transport systems in the human body and be able to carry
out cardiovascular measurements
4 Understand the structure and functioning of the respiratory system and be able to
measure respiratory functions.

Unit content
1 Understand how structure and function are related in living human cells
Human cells: structure seen through light microscope and images from electron
microscope eg plasma membrane, cytoplasm, organelles (nucleus, ribosomes,
endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, centrioles and centrosomes), flagella and
cilia; cell products eg melanin, lipids, glycogen; use of slides, illustrations and
electron micrographs; structure in relation to function eg transport across
membranes (principles of diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active
transport, endocytosis and exocytosis; functions of organelles; specialist cells; the
cell cycle (mitosis)
Tissues: differentiation of cells to form tissues eg epithelial (glandular, lining,
covering); connective eg vascular, cartilage, bone, areolar, adipose, elastic,
reticular, collagenous; muscle (smooth, skeletal, cardiac); nerve tissues (neurons,
neuroglia); structure in relation to function
Organs: organisation of tissues to form organs; summary of structure; role of the
body’s organ systems eg integumentary — skin and associated organs, circulatory,
lymphatic, urinary, nervous, endocrine, skeletal, muscular, reproductive;
identification of some abnormalities eg heart, failure of ductus areriosus or
closure of foramen ovale after birth, diverticulitis infected sac like pouches in the
colon
2 Understand how the energy requirements of the human body relate to the
functioning of the digestive system and be able to carry out blood sugar
measurements
Structure of the digestive system: mouth; pharynx; oesophagus; stomach;

pancreas; liver; gall bladder; small intestine; large intestine; details of cell
structure in relation to their functions for the stomach, pancreas, liver, small and
large intestines
Functions of the digestive system: ingestion; mechanical digestion; chemical
digestion; absorption; egestion; practical investigation of chemical digestion
Essential dietary nutrients: carbohydrates; lipids; proteins; vitamins; minerals;
fibre; water; eg chemical structure of nutrients and their role in metabolism to
provide structural or regulatory molecules; role of minerals and vitamins in the
enzyme system
Metabolism and energy: definition of metabolism; examples of anabolism and
catabolism with regard to carbohydrates, proteins and lipids; the body’s energy
requirements; glucose and cellular respiration; practical methods used to
measure blood glucose, presence of organic molecules eg iodine test, Benedict’s
test, Biuret test, grease spot test, fat emulsion test; presence of inorganic ions
using flame tests eg potassium, sodium, chloride

3 Understand the role of transport systems in the human body and be able to
carry out cardiovascular measurements
Structure of the cardiovascular system: blood eg erythrocytes, leucocytes,

plasma; heart (chambers, vessels including coronary, valves); cardiac cycle; blood
vessels (arteries, veins, arterioles, venules, capillaries); blood pressure, blood
flow eg major circulatory routes, systemic, cerebral, hepatic, pulmonary; use of
laboratory techniques in the examination of blood components
Functions of the cardiovascular system: transport eg gases, nutrients, waste
products, hormones, heat; defence eg blood clotting mechanisms, phagocytes,
macrophages, B and T lymphocytes, thrombocytes; regulation of temperature,
pH, water content of cells; measurement of the function of the cardiovascular
system in a range of situations
Structure of the lymphatic system: lymphatic vessels; lymph organs eg spleen,
thymus gland, tonsils; lymph; only gross structure required
Functions of the lymphatic system: drainage of tissue fluid and formation of
lymph; outline of defensive role
Structure of the urinary system: kidneys (nephron structure, blood supply);
ureters; bladder; urethra
Functions of the urinary system: filtration; absorption; constituents of urine
(normal and abnormal); urine production; eg urine storage and release by
bladder; regulation of urine volume and composition; laboratory tests carried out
by pathology laboratories
4 Understand the structure and functioning of the respiratory system and be

able to measure respiratory functions
Structure of the respiratory system: mouth; nasal cavities; pharynx; larynx;

trachea; bronchi; bronchioles; alveoli; capillary network
Functions of the respiratory system: breathing (inspiration, expiration);
respiration — gaseous exchange eg pulmonary, pulmonary volumes, pulmonary
capacities; interpretation of spirometer readings; measurement of the functions
of the respiratory system in a range of conditions

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 identify tissue types from sections M1 explain how function is related to D1 explain changes seen in tissue owing to
and/or photographs and be able to structure for the main systems in the disease
identify abnormalities in the tissues body
P2 take measurements of blood sugar M2 identify how the main food groups are D2 interpret data relating to the digestive
levels, interpret the results and relate obtained and how they are dealt with, system and the role of essential dietary
them to the function of the digestive including chemical equations and nutrients
system relating the structure of the digestive
system to function
P3 take measurements related to the M3 explain the requirement for a transport D3 explain how the digestive, cardiovascular
cardiovascular system, interpret the system in the body and how this is and respiratory systems are interrelated
result and relate them to the function of achieved
the cardiovascular system
P4 take measurements related to the M4 explain how measurements related to D4 analyse and draw conclusions from data
respiratory system, interpret the results the respiratory system may change under relating to the respiratory system.
and relate them to the function of the different conditions including disease.
respiratory system.

Delivery

This unit presents the opportunity to use a wide range of delivery techniques. These
include lectures, discussions, seminars, site visits, guest visitors, laboratory work,
internet research, use of library resources and suitable workplace experience. The
aim should be to stimulate and educate the learners so they will be motivated to
pursue their interest in the workings of the human body in a variety of ways, eg in
higher education, the workplace, or further vocational training.
Work placements should be monitored regularly to ensure the learners are benefiting
from the experience. Prior to any placement the learner and workplace supervisor
should be aware of the requirements of the unit and how the placement can
contribute to the evidence required to achieve the grading criteria. Learners may
have the opportunity, for example, to carry out an assay in the work placement
which, if suitably observed and recorded, could contribute towards the requirements
of this unit and others. Tutors need to be aware of the integration of some subject
matter with other units within the qualification.
Health and safety issues relating to laboratory work in the centre or workplace must
be emphasised. Risk assessments, the use of COSHH and other regulations in place in
any laboratories must be adhered to. The requirements of carrying out any
experiments using human and animal material must be followed.
Learning outcome 1 covers the basic building blocks for the rest of the unit. A
combination of practical work, formal lectures and learner-research will be the most
likely mode of delivery. Laboratory work using microscopes, prepared slides and
photomicrographs, and research on CD ROMs and the internet will provide a varied
set of resources to cover this learning outcome. The work on organs and some of
their abnormalities could be covered by learner research, using the internet or
discussion with medical practitioners.
Learning outcome 2 should be practically based in a laboratory. This learning
outcome is concerned with the energy requirements of the body and the structure
and functions listed should be taught with that concept in mind. It is not intended
that structures and functions should be a list of one matched against the other. This
learning outcome requires learners to be able to link the body’s energy requirements
with input (nutrients) and the chemical processes undertaken to satisfy these needs.
Although formal lectures will form part of the delivery of this unit, practical
investigations are essential in helping learners understand the chemical reactions
that take place.

In learning outcomes 3 and 4, laboratory work again underpins the understanding of

the transport and respiratory systems in the body. The use of microscopes, CD ROMs
and other research material can all contribute to meeting these learning outcomes.
Visits to pathology laboratories to see how blood and urine samples are dealt with
would be a good way of covering a practical area of work. Measurements of
cardiovascular and respiratory functions are essential. The use of such monitoring
equipment in some gyms and medical laboratories is worth arranging as part of a
series of visits. Expert visitors could add to the relevance of the work, especially as
the interest in fitness is increasing and will continue to do so.
Assessment
For P1, learners must identify the structure of the major cells, tissues and organs in
the human body. The evidence for this could take the form of drawings and diagrams
made in the laboratory and then annotated with notes from research. The use of
appropriate software packages to give a series of pictorial presentations, annotated
with research notes, would be another way of presenting evidence.
For P2, learners must take accurate measurements proficiently. They must
understand the results they obtain in terms of the functioning of the digestive system
in order to recognise whether a test result is abnormal.
For P3 and P4, learners must be able to use their knowledge of the function of the
cardiovascular system (P3) and the respiratory system (P4) to be able to correctly
interpret test results.
met.
For M1, learners must relate the structure of the main body systems to their
function. Evidence could be in a variety of presentations. Using appropriate software,
a presentation involving annotated diagrams would cover the detail required. From
their research learners will be able to discuss how molecules produced as a result of
physical and chemical digestion are used in the human body. The evidence for this
arises initially from the practical work carried out. Descriptions of practical methods
are not required: it is the analysis of results and the subsequent conclusions that are
important here. Learners must look at their results and relate them to the theory of
body systems.
For M2, learners must outline the main structures and functions of the human
digestive system, and give a clear description showing where the major food groups
are processed. For instance, ‘The gall bladder is a muscular sac situated on the wall
of the liver. One layer of the gall bladder wall is smooth muscle and reacts to
hormone stimulation, ejecting bile into the small intestines where the bile breaks up
large fat globules.’ Learners will also include the major food groups with the dietary
requirements. They may also use the functions of the digestive system to state how
the energy requirements of the body are obtained. Here learners may include their
practical work on the chemical processes in the digestive system and they should
show their understanding of glucose and cellular respiration. Learners must provide
chemical equations for the digestion of the main food groups and explain how the

body is adapted to use these molecules. Learners must identify macro- and
micronutrients, and they must explain their role in maintaining the health and
function of the body. Learners need not discuss deficiencies in nutrition, but they
should not be discouraged from displaying an awareness of this.
For M3, learners must give careful consideration to all the factors involved in a
human transport system and then show how the body deals with the requirements.
For example, how does the body deal with the constant leakage of fluid from the
cells? Which part of the transport system ensures this intracellular fluid is returned?
Evidence could be presented in an annotated diagrammatic form using appropriate
software.
For M4, learners must demonstrate their understanding of the effects of external
factors on the respiratory system, such as exercise and temperature. They must also
know how diseases affect the respiratory system and how malfunctions can be
detected in respiratory measurements.
met.
For D1, learners must be able to recognise healthy and diseased tissue and explain
possible causes for the state of the tissue, relating disease to malfunction of tissues.
For D2, learners must clearly identify the source of the data and any anomalies in the
data should be discussed. Learners are required to include the usual dietary
components but others may be included, especially if they discuss the effect of
alternative diets. The grading criteria allows learners to demonstrate their skills of
evaluation. Details of ‘diets’ associated with weight control should not be part of this
work.
For D3, learners must provide individual pieces of evidence for moderation purposes
(such as a write-up of a class discussion). Analytical skills are required to link the
functions of three body systems. Homeostasis may be mentioned but it is dealt with
in detail in another unit. The emphasis here is on identifying the functions of each
system and showing how they are interrelated. Again, this work lends itself to
annotated diagrams with explanatory text rather than a long essay.
For D4, learners must take their own experimental data and interpret their results
against published data. They must display the ability to identify crucial factors,
analyse them and then reach a conclusion which they can justify using the primary
and secondary data identified. Experiment details are not required unless they are a
factor in differences between the data discussed. The emphasis is on the assessment
and discussion of information from a variety of sources. The method of presentation
may include the use of software packages to present charts and graphs and perhaps
diagrammatical representations of some conclusions.


This unit links with all the other biology-related units in the qualification. It has
particular links with:
• Unit 12: Physiology of Human Regulation and Reproduction.
This unit can also be linked to AS/A2 Biology and Human Biology.
Essential resources
To deliver this unit the centre will need to provide laboratory space equipped for
work at Level 3 standard. Learners will need the facilities to carry out practical
work, in particular the equipment associated with investigations into how the human
body systems function. This includes experiments associated with respiratory
functions, cardiovascular measurements, chemical digestion and blood sugar levels.
Access to anatomical models, microscopic sections, slides and photomicrographs will
also be needed. It is expected that laboratory time will be a major aspect in the
delivery of this unit, hence the need for suitable laboratory accommodation.
Ideally, industry visits such as to a range of laboratories will help the learners
understand the vocational relevance of their studies. The input of guest visitors
working in different aspects of human biology research would also enhance the
learners’ appreciation of the subject. The input from medical and nurse
practitioners, laboratory technicians, dieticians and other related areas of work
would also be of benefit to the learners.
Research facilities including access to suitable texts, computers and CD ROMs are
essential. Suitably experienced and competent staff will be needed to assess the
science skills and knowledge demonstrated by the learners.
There is a vast array of human biology material available in terms of books, journals,
CD ROMs and websites. The materials available change rapidly and both tutors and
learners will have their own favourite websites so none are given here. The same
applies to computer packages and CD ROMs where new versions are constantly
produced. There are some standard textbooks and a few are listed below, but many
more are available as a search of the web will show. Scientific journals and
magazines are often rather specialised and aimed at the medical profession although
many are now available online and are a useful reference source.

Textbooks
Adds J et al — Respiration and Co-ordination (Nelson Advanced Science: Biology
Series) (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2005) ISBN 0748774890
Boyle M et al — Human Biology (Collins Advanced Science Series) (Collins Educational,
2002) ISBN 0007135998
Fullick A — Body Systems and Health (Life Science In-Depth) (Heinemann, 2006)
ISBN 1403475199
Johnson M D — Human Biology: Concepts & Current/Issues with Interactive Physiology
for Human Biology CD-ROM, 3rd Edition (Benjamin Cummings, 2005) ISBN 0805354344
Parkinson P — ‘A’ Level Human Biology: Advanced Subsidiary (AS) Human Biology
(2000) ISBN 1853568961
Parkinson P — ‘A’ Level Human Biology: Advanced GCE (A2) Human Biology (2000)
ISBN 185356897X
Pickering W R — A-level Advanced Human Biology Through Diagrams (Oxford
University press, 2001) ISBN 0199141967
Simpkins J and Williams J I — Advanced Human Biology (Collins Educational, 1987)
ISBN 000322290X
Tortora G J — Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (John Wiley & Sons, 2005)
ISBN 0471718718
Website
www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg342.pdf Health and Safety Executive guidance for
employers and employees on blood-borne
viruses in the workplace

Key skills


• planning practical activities N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
and researching relevant information from relevant sources.
information to use in
analysing the results
• carrying out measurements N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
as part of their practical stage calculations to do with:
work on respiration,
a amounts or sizes
digestion and circulation
d using formulae.
• writing up the results of their N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
experimental work. present your findings and justify your
methods.


• presenting researched C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
material as part of an eight minutes using an image or other
assignment support material.
• carrying out research to use C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
in explaining results gained least two documents about the same
from investigations subject.
1000 words long.
• writing up practical reports C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
and evaluating, analysing and each one giving different information
interpreting researched data. about complex subjects.
words long.

• carrying out research to use ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
primary and secondary data sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• using data obtained from ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
their investigations derive new information.
• writing up the results of their ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
investigations and research. text with image, text with number,
image with number.


• consulting with supervisors to LP3.1 Set targets using information from
plan practical investigations appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.
• planning how they will LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
undertake their assignments using your plan to help meet targets and
including practical work improve your performance.
• reviewing the progress of LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
their practical work. your achievements.

• planning their practical PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
investigations ways of tackling it.
• discussing their plans with PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
their supervisor and carrying solving the problem.
out the agreed practical work
• evaluating the planned PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
investigations/research. review your approach to problem solving.

UNIT 12: PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN REGULATION AND REPRODUCTION
Unit 12: Physiology of Human Regulation

and Reproduction
Unit abstract
The fascinating way the human body works is further explored in this unit. Learners
will use the experience they gained from studying Unit 11: Physiology of Human Body
Systems, to help understand some even more intriguing systems that the human body
has.
Learners will now look at how humans reproduce through studying their reproductive
system. They will look at the set of systems that regulate bodily fluids, coordinate
body movement and processes, and those which regulate the body’s internal
environment.
Homeostasis is the process that maintains the body’s internal environment within
optimal limits so that the body can function as effectively as possible. All the systems
learners will have studied interrelate to maintain this internal environment within
certain physiological limits. A rise in body temperature of 4°C or more can have
serious and even fatal results. Similarly, if glucose levels become too far from the
norm then the body as a whole can be affected. The retention or loss of too much
fluid will also have significant adverse effects on the workings of the human body.
This is why homeostasis is so important and the monitoring of it through various tests
is a major part of a medical technician’s laboratory work. Learners will be shown and
might carry out some of these tests. They will develop an understanding of how
human body systems are interlinked and do not function in isolation.
At the end of this unit learners will have a sufficient knowledge of human physiology
to undertake further study at a higher level, or use it in employment situations such
as sport fitness or health and beauty.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the structures associated with the human reproductive system and be
able to relate them to their functions
2 Understand the importance of regulating body fluids in the human body
3 Know how the systems involved in the coordination of the human body work
4 Understand the regulatory systems of the human body.

Unit content
1 Understand the structures associated with the human reproductive system and
be able to relate them to their functions
Structure of the reproductive system: in males (testes, epididymis, scrotum, vas

deferens, penis, accessory glands); in females (ovary, oviduct, uterus, vagina,
external genitalia, mammary glands); cellular structure of male and female
organs (testes, ovary, oviduct, uterus)
Functions of the reproductive system: production of gametes (gametogenesis);
hormonal regulation of sperm production in the male; hormonal regulation of the
female ovarian and menstrual cycles; fertilisation; pregnancy and birth; lactation;
environmental influences on embryonic development
Fertility: tests; methods used to increase the chances of parenthood (IVF,
surrogacy); techniques used to control, enhance and decrease fertility; role of
the technician in such procedures eg use of cryogenics for storage, motility of
sperms, sperm counts, monitoring of hormone levels, pregnancy testing
2 Understand the importance of regulating body fluids in the human body
Body fluids: intracellular and extracellular fluid; fluid balance; movement of body
fluids eg osmosis, diffusion; electrolytes and their functions; regulation of
electrolytes
Acid-base balance: importance of maintenance of hydrogen ion concentration of
body fluids; buffer systems eg carbonic acid, protein, phosphate, pH
Exercise and body fluid control: sources of fluid for the body; effect of exercise
on body fluid requirements; dehydration; rehydration; fluid and electrolytic
requirements at different levels of athletic fitness; measurements of body fluid
requirements

3 Know how the systems involved in the coordination of the human body work
Organisation of the nervous system: central nervous system (main features of the
brain and spinal cord); peripheral nervous system (afferent and efferent
pathways); autonomic system (sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways);
structure of neurones, sense organs, effector organs; measurement of nervous
responses in a range of conditions
Functions of the nervous system: initiation and transmission of the nerve impulse;
synapses and synaptic transmission; sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent)
impulses; reflex arc; somatic and autonomic (sympathetic and parasympathetic)
control; coordination role of nervous system; interpretation of graphical displays
of a nerve impulse and EEG recordings
Organisation of the endocrine system: pituitary gland; hypothalamus; thyroid and
parathyroid gland; pancreas; adrenal medulla; adrenal cortex; gonads and
placenta; pineal; gastrointestinal tract
Functions of the endocrine system: characteristics of hormones; names and
actions of principal hormones produced by each gland; hormone responses to
extremes of stress and alarm eg fight and flight; malfunctioning of endocrine
system and possible correction eg goitre, Cushing’s syndrome, diabetes mellitus,
pituitary dwarfism; description of the measurement of endocrine function
4 Understand the regulatory systems of the human body
Principles of homeostasis: definition of homeostasis; principles of homeostatic

control systems; significance of maintaining an optimum internal environment for
cell function; role of negative and positive feedback mechanism
Homeostatic systems: endocrine control and feedback; significance of
homeostatic regulation by hormones compared with nervous system regulation;
relation of digestive system to cellular homeostasis; regulation of blood glucose
(insulin, glucagon, adrenaline, glucocorticoids); regulation of body fluids;
significance of maintaining fluid, electrolyte and pH balance; measurements used
in determining imbalances in homeostatic mechanisms
Common disorders associated with homeostasis: under- and over-production of
hormones eg pituitary dwarfism, diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus;
osteoporosis (under-production of oestrogens); gigantism (over-production of
human growth hormone); hypoglycaemia (over-production of insulin due to a
tumour); exophthalmic goitre (over production of thyroid hormones)

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 identify the functions of the main sex M1 explain the role of the technician in pre- D1 interpret data relating to sex hormone
hormones in human reproduction fertility tests and the effects of female levels in relation to reproductive
fertility treatment on ovulation patterns physiology
P2 explain how the balance of electrolytes M2 explain the importance of maintaining D2 explain the effect of exercise on body
and fluids is maintained in the human acid-base levels fluid requirements and how the body
body adjusts for different levels of exercise
and fitness
P3 describe the functions of the nervous M3 explain the roles of the nervous and D3 explain the interrelationship between
and endocrine systems including the endocrine systems in the maintenance of the nervous and endocrine systems
transmission of nerve impulses and homeostasis
hormone action
P4 describe common hormonal disorders M4 explain positive and negative feedback in D4 assess the implications for the human
that affect homeostasis, including the homeostasis using examples from the body when there are malfunctions in the
effect on the human body. human body. homeostatic mechanisms.

Delivery

Tutors delivering this unit have the opportunity to use a wide range of techniques.
These include lectures, discussions, seminars, site visits, guest speakers, laboratory
work, internet research, use of library resources and suitable workplace experience.
The aim should be to stimulate and educate the learners so they will be in a position
to understand how complex the human body is. This understanding enables learners
to see the range of job opportunities available at every level, and the range of
courses that higher education can offer.
Work placements, if used, should be monitored regularly to ensure the learners are
benefiting from the experience. Prior to any placement, the learner and workplace
supervisor must be aware of the requirements of the unit and how the placement can
contribute to the evidence required to achieve the grading criteria. Learners may
have the opportunity, for example, to carry out an assay of endocrine levels in the
work placement. If suitably observed and recorded, this could contribute towards the
requirements of this unit and others. Tutors must be aware of the integration of
some subject matter with other units within the qualification.
Health and safety issues relating to laboratory work in the centre or workplace must
be emphasised. Risk assessments, and the use of COSHH and other regulations must
be adhered to. The requirements of carrying out any experiments using human
subjects must be followed.
Learning outcome 1 covers the human reproductive systems and the wider subject
area of fertility. This learning outcome will probably involve formal lectures and
learner-research and access to CD ROMs, photomicrographs and other material to
help the learner to understand the complexities of the reproductive systems. Ideally,
a visit to a fertility clinic or laboratory would be a way of gathering information, but
the chances are slim so alternative ways of gathering material are needed. A guest
speaker such as a fertility technician, nurse or doctor would be useful here.
Documentaries and case studies could provide additional sources of material.
Laboratory work should form a major part in the delivery of learning outcome 2.
There are many established experiments regarding fluid movements, and acid-base
balance. Similarly, exercise and body fluid control measurements are frequently
referred to in sport science manuals enabling the learners to carry out experiments.

Although formal lectures will form part of the delivery of this unit, practical
investigations are essential in helping learners understand this learning outcome.
Laboratory work is possible in order to measure nerve responses under different
conditions for learning outcome 3. Access to EEG recordings and other graphical
material showing nerve impulse transmission will help learners cope with a rather
theoretical area of work. Input from tutors and possibly guest speakers will be
needed and some areas can be covered by independent research.
Learning outcome 4 is the pivotal learning outcome of this unit. It brings together all
the systems looked at and requires a good grasp of how human body systems are
interlinked. This learning outcome is probably best covered by formal input from the
tutor and guest speakers if available. Once learners have grasped the basis of the
homeostatic mechanism then individual or group research can add more detail. The
use of flow diagrams, which can be built using appropriate software packages, helps
learners understand a constantly changing set of systems. Research on endocrine
levels and how they are monitored will probably only be found in specialist journals
or online medical sites, and learners may need tutorial help with the material. Case
studies provided by the tutor will be useful here.
Assessment
For P1, learners should be encouraged to use a variety of presentation methods.
Learners should avoid lengthy descriptions, especially lists of hormones and
contraceptive devices. Learners must identify the main hormones and describe their
function.
For P2, learners may have to be guided initially. They must think about what
electrolytes are, their functions in the body and how balances are maintained.
Learners should be encouraged to use text and visual representations, for example,
flow charts can make the process more dynamic.
For P3, it is not sufficient for learners to list the functions of the nervous and
endocrine systems. The emphasis here is on considering the functions in terms of
nerve impulses and the actions of hormones. A clear but succinct description is
required, showing how nerve impulses and the chemical messengers that represent
the endocrine products are part of a control system in the body.
For P4, learners must give a clear account of the main systems involved in
homeostasis and how they work. Learners must demonstrate through the clarity of
their account, whether pictorial or descriptive, that they understand it is a
regulatory system essential for the maintenance of a steady state in the body. The
list of common disorders must be linked with the relevant hormones associated with
a homeostatic disorder. It is not intended that vast lists are compiled.
met.

The evidence for M1 will probably arise from research especially on websites.
Learners must provide details about the pre-fertility tests carried out (on both males
and females). Learners are not required to give details of costs, level of services
(private or NHS): it is the science of the procedures which is important. The learners
must include the positive and negative effects hormone treatment can have. Most
learners will probably produce a written account but annotated diagrams are
essential in describing ovulation and hormone treatment.
For M2, learners must explain what the acid-base mechanism is and demonstrate that
they understand how it functions to maintain normal stability. They must give details
about the rises and falls in acid-base levels as part of normal body functions. Only an
overview, not great depth, is required.
For M3, learners may present their work in a variety of ways, but the tutor must
ensure that learners have understood the role of nerves and hormones in the
maintenance of a steady internal environment.
For M4, learners must explain positive and negative homeostatic feedback. Annotated
diagrams are an ideal way of presenting some of this material.
met.
For D1, much graphical data is available from various sources and learners are
required to interpret this research. Learners must show their ability to analyse the
data, interpret it and relate it to the physiology of reproduction. Some details are
essential here because of the interrelationship of so many sex hormones, and the
learners must refer to males and females. Diagrams will be an integral part of the
presentation, especially in demonstrating which hormones are targeting which organs
and tissues.
For D2, learners must identify situations where body fluid levels could be affected,
eg extremes of temperature. They need to explain how the homeostatic mechanism
functions to maintain an internally stable environment. Finally, they must review all
the information and decide how effective the body is at dealing with such extremes.
The consequences of not dealing with these extremes should be mentioned.
For D3, learners must show they understand the whole homeostatic process — the
hormone and nervous systems and how they interact with each other. As a minimum,
the speed of effectiveness of hormones and nerves should be highlighted. Leading on
from this, learners must describe the possible homeostatic malfunctions and what
these do to the body. Learners must consider the internal regulatory mechanisms.
Learners must show their ability to assess the implications of a malfunction rather
than a lengthy description.
For D4, learners need not give detailed descriptions of treatment. Learners are
required to show the effect of the disorders and the main methods used to rectify
the situation, eg removal of part of a gland to reduce hormone secretion, use of
tablets/injections to increase production.


This unit links with all the other biology-related units. It has particular links with the
following:
• Unit 16: Chemistry for Biology Technicians.
This unit can also be linked to AS/A2 Biology and Human Biology.
Essential resources
To deliver this unit the centre will need to provide laboratory space equipped for
work at Level 3 standard. Learners will need the facilities to carry out practical
work, in particular the equipment associated with investigations into how the
coordinating systems function. This includes being able to carry out experiments
associated with the movement of fluids (osmosis, diffusion), and the measurement of
nerve responses and stimuli.
Access to anatomical models, microscopic sections/slides/photomicrographs will also
be needed. It is expected that laboratory time will be a major aspect in the delivery
of this unit, hence the need for suitable laboratory accommodation.
Ideally, visits to relevant work areas such as a range of laboratories will help the
learners understand the vocational relevance of their studies. The input of guest
speakers working in different aspects of human biology research would also enhance
the learners’ appreciation of the subject. The input from medical and nurse
practitioners, laboratory technicians, and other related areas of work would also be
of benefit to the learners.
Research facilities including access to suitable texts, computers and CD ROMs are
essential. These resources are particularly important in some sections where
experimental data such as EEG recordings are only available as secondary data.
Suitably experienced and competent staff will be needed to assess the science skills
and knowledge demonstrated by the learners.
There is a vast array of human biology material available in terms of books, journals,
CD ROMs and websites. The materials available change rapidly and both tutors and
learners will have their own favourite websites so none are given here. The same
applies to computer packages and CD ROMs where new versions are constantly
produced. There are some standard textbooks and a few have been listed below, but
many more are available, as a search of websites such as www.amazon.co.uk will
show. Scientific journals and magazines are often rather specialised and aimed at the
medical profession although many are now available online and are a useful
reference source.

Textbooks
Adds J et al — Respiration and Co-ordination (Nelson Advanced Science: Biology
Series) (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2005) ISBN 0748774890
Boyle M et al — Human Biology (Collins Advanced Science Series) (Collins Educational,
2002) ISBN 0007135998
Johnson M D — Human Biology: Concepts and Current Issues, 3rd Edition (Benjamin
Cummings, 2005) ISBN 0805354344
Pickering W R — A-level Advanced Human Biology Through Diagrams (Oxford
University Press, 2001) ISBN 0199141967
Simpkins J and Williams J I — Advanced Human Biology (Collins Educational, 1987)
ISBN 000322290X
ISBN 0471718718
Website

Key skills


• planning their research N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
activities and/or practical information from relevant sources.
investigations and using
several sources to find
relevant information
• processing data from primary N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
and secondary sources stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• interpreting data from N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
primary and secondary present your findings and justify your
sources. methods.


• working in groups to gather C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
information for any of the
grading criteria listed
• working on an assignment C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
where a presentation could eight minutes using an image or other
be part of the assessment support material.
• preparing and writing up an C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
assignment that may involve least two documents about the same
practical work subject.
1000 words long.
• working on an assignment C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
and writing up a practical each one giving different information
report. about complex subjects.
words long.

• carrying out research for ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
background information and sources, and multiple search criteria in at
secondary data least one case.
• collating primary and ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
secondary data derive new information.
• presenting their reports for a ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
theory or practical text with image, text with number,
investigation. image with number.


• working with tutors and LP3.1 Set targets using information from
colleagues to plan their appropriate people and plan how these
research and practical will be met.
investigations
• implementing their working LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
plan to meet the deadlines using your plan to help meet targets and
set improve your performance.
• reviewing their plans and LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
producing results and your achievements.
conclusions.

UNIT 13: BIOCHEMICAL TECHNIQUES
Unit 13: Biochemical Techniques

Unit abstract
When you look at an oak tree, a field of corn or even a dog, you are seeing living
organisms that only function and live by means of a series of interrelated chemical
reactions. Biochemistry is a study of these chemical processes, without which life on
Earth could not exist.
Since it encompasses all life forms, biochemistry applies to a wide range of other
disciplines including medicine, nutrition and food science, genetics, agriculture and
veterinary science. For example, a biochemist might be involved in research into new
drugs or a study of the interaction of herbicides with plants. Biochemistry overlaps
with many other areas of study such as pharmacology, physiology, microbiology and
clinical chemistry.
In this unit learners will study some of the biological molecules in living organisms
and the relationship between their structures and characterisation in the laboratory.
A significant part of this unit is concerned with the chemical processes involved in
cellular energy production. A more detailed treatment is provided of the properties
of enzymes and how these catalysts can be studied in the laboratory, as well as some
reference to their use in industry.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the structural characteristics that are used to classify biological
molecules
2 Know how 3D structural features account for the principal biochemical properties
of enzymes
3 Understand the metabolic pathways involved in energy production in glucose and
fatty acid metabolism, and know how these pathways are controlled
4 Understand the process of protein synthesis.

Unit content
1 Understand the structural characteristics that are used to classify biological

molecules
Biological molecules: carbohydrates; lipids eg triglyceride; proteins; nucleic acids

(DNA, RNA, mRNA, tRNA)
Structural characteristics: functional groups in monomer units (not nucleic acids);
polymeric nature of biological macromolecules; multiple polymeric structures
from a limited number of monomers; 3D structures of biological macromolecules
Laboratory techniques: one example of commonly used laboratory technique for
carbohydrates, proteins and lipids eg thin layer chromatography, gel permeation
chromatography, electrophoresis, gas-liquid chromatography
2 Know how 3D structural features account for the principal biochemical

properties of enzymes
Structural features: concept of peptide backbone and variable side chains

depending on amino acid involved; type of intramolecular bond related to amino
acid side chain (S-S link, H-bond, hydrophobic bond); 3D globular structure; active
site; denaturisation (caused by extremes in temperature, acids and bases)
Principal biochemical properties: specificity; catalytic activity; effect on
catalytic rate of pH, temperature, substrate concentration, inhibitors,
denaturisation; role of co-factors and co-enzymes
Laboratory techniques: investigation of any two factors affecting enzyme activity
eg vary pH, temperature
Commercial applications: enzymes in diagnostic testing and industry eg brewing

3 Understand the metabolic pathways involved in energy production in glucose

and fatty acid metabolism, and know how these pathways are controlled
Metabolic pathways: schematic outline diagrams of fatty acid and glucose

catabolism; citric acid (TCA) cycle; electron transport chain and oxidative
phosphorylation showing their interrelationships and the cellular locations;
aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis (muscle and yeast cells)
Energy production: cellular role of ATP and its production in the above pathways
Regulation: feedback regulation; negative feedback as a control method in
glycolysis (ATP, AMP, citrate and hydrogen ions); Pasteur effect
4 Understand the process of protein synthesis
Stages: transcription; translation; amino acid activation

Genetic code: triplet codes; codon; anticodon; degenerate code
Industrial applications: synthetic enzymes

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 demonstrate and explain laboratory M1 interpret data from experiments D1 evaluate the techniques used in
techniques that can be used to separate designed to separate biological separating biological molecules
mixtures of biological molecules molecules
(carbohydrates, proteins, lipids)
P2 use laboratory methods to investigate M2 explain how rates of enzymatic reactions D2 analyse industry-related factors that
two factors that affect the enzymatic are affected by changes in temperature need to be considered in order to
rate of reaction optimise enzyme efficiency
P3 distinguish between aerobic and M3 identify and compare the sites and D3 evaluate the regulation of glycolysis in
anaerobic glucose degradation and fatty amount of ATP production and terms of energy requirements in cells
acid catabolism consumption during aerobic and
anaerobic breakdown of glucose in cells
P4 describe how genetic information can be M4 explain the role of RNA during the D4 relate the structures of the different
stored in a sequence of nitrogenous biosynthesis of proteins in cells. types of RNA to their roles in the
bases in DNA. biosynthesis of proteins in cells and their
use in industry.

Delivery

Throughout this unit, tutors should develop the key aspects of the learning outcomes
with the minimal use of detailed chemical structures. In learning outcomes 1 and 2
(relating to enzyme properties) learners should support theoretical aspects with
practical investigations.
The main focus of learning outcome 1 is for learners to understand the diverse,
polymeric nature and shapes of biological macromolecules. For each class of
biological molecules listed, learners should demonstrate structural diversity arising
from differing combinations and sequences of a limited number of monomers. Some
knowledge of the chemical structure of the functional groups of the monomers is
required: this gives a better understanding of the overall polymeric structure and
their associated biological properties. For example, with carbohydrates the aim is to
provide sufficient knowledge of the functional groups of monosaccharides to
understand that a storage carbohydrate consists of a highly branched polymeric
structure, with some bonds that are readily hydrolysed to give a number of easily
oxidised (degraded) monomer units. Tutors should outline the structural
characteristics of a selected group of biological molecules (eg proteins). This could
be supplemented with a practical study of a separation technique and an explanation
of the relationship between behaviour and structural characteristics. For the groups
of biological molecules not investigated practically, experimental data could be
provided.
The aim of learning outcome 2 is to explain the relationship between peptide
structure (primary protein structure) and shape, dictated by the types of side chain
intramolecular bonds arising from the amino acid side chains. This should be
extended to the concept of a globular molecule with an active (catalytic) site lined
with side chains that would have an affinity for certain types of substrate molecules
(specificity). The remaining list of properties could be developed from this, including
denaturisation and loss of catalytic activity. The commercial use of enzymes should
be mentioned, and this would link to the function of enzymes in living organisms and
learning outcome 3.

The listed metabolic pathways in learning outcome 3 should be presented in

diagrammatic form. Learners should show their interrelationships and highlight only
those stages where there are common intermediates and list control or ATP (NADH)
producing enzymes. Anaerobic glycolysis should be considered in both yeast and
muscle cells, emphasising the different end products and the effect of their build-up
on continued glycolysis. The general principles of both positive and negative
feedback should be considered but only negative feedback should be studied in
detail.
In learning outcome 4, reference should be made to the suitability of DNA as a
molecule for storing genetic information (from learning outcome 1).
Diagrammatically or in note form, learners should show the differences between DNA
and the various types of RNA. Learners should then consider the role of these
different molecules in each stage of protein synthesis.
Assessment
For P1, learners must investigate and report, using a laboratory technique, one
method of separation for one of the groups of biological molecules. They must
describe separation methods for the remaining two groups.
For P2, learners must understand the general structure and shape of an enzyme. In
particular, the role of amino acid side chains in stabilising the shape should be
covered. Learners must also outline the role of amino acids in the active site and in
determining specificity. Two factors that affect reaction rate, eg temperature and
substrate concentration, should be selected from the list, investigated practically
and reported.
For P3, learners could produce a diagrammatic representation of the
interrelationships between the listed pathways, although other evidence is
acceptable. Learners must consider both aerobic and anaerobic glycolysis. The
diagrams should be annotated with the names of compounds that are common
intermediates between the pathways, or that represent the first step in a pathway
where there is a change in the number of carbon atoms of the intermediates.
For P4, learners must understand the structure of DNA. They must emphasise the role
of nitrogen base pairing and sequence in relation to the storage of information.
met.
For M1, learners require an understanding of the complex nature of biological
molecules (outline structure, and shape where appropriate) and how structural
diversity can arise from a relatively limited number of monomer units. Detailed
chemical structures are not required: only those functional groups directly related to
biological properties should be considered. Results from all separation technique
exercises (including those not investigated practically) should be interpreted
correctly.

For M2, learners must explain how enzymatic rates are affected by temperature.
They must account for the concepts of optimum temperature and loss of activity due
to denaturisation. Learners must demonstrate a clear understanding of the effect of
temperature on the stabilising amino acid side chains in proteins and the consequent
loss of shape. Observations from the laboratory investigations of enzyme rates should
be correctly interpreted in terms of basic enzyme structure.
For M3, learners must identify sites of energy production (ATP, NADH, FADH2) in the
listed metabolic pathways (not fatty acid degradation). They must include the role of
electron transport in recycling NADH and other reduced co-enzymes with the
production of ATP.
For M4, learners must explain the characteristics of different types of RNA, and the
stages at which each is involved in protein biosynthesis.
met.
Distinction grade criteria require learners to demonstrate the ability to apply
biochemical principles in the interpretation of information. In so doing they must be
largely unaided and must integrate information of various types and from various
sources. For example, they could find and discuss relevant examples to illustrate
their conclusions.
For D1, learners must consider the results from all separation technique exercises.
They must interpret these in terms of the structural features of the molecules being
separated, and the underlying principles of the separation technique. For instance,
for separation of proteins by gel permeation chromatography, the mesh-like structure
of the stationary phase and the molecular shape and size of the protein should be
considered.
For D2, learners must review the factors involved in determining enzyme structure
and the effects on these caused by changes in pH, temperature, substrate
concentration and presence of inhibitors. They must also consider co-factors in terms
of changes in rates of reaction. The optimum efficiency of the enzyme must be
related to other industrial considerations, such as cost.
For D3, learners must identify the sites of regulation of glycolysis in response to
changing concentrations of ATP, ADP, hydrogen ions and citrate. They must evaluate
the importance of each in terms of energy requirements in cells. The effect of the
build up of lactic acid (and its removal) during anaerobic glycolysis in muscle cells
should be included.
For D4, learners must relate the structural characteristics and functions of differing
types of RNA to their role in protein biosynthesis and their use in industry.

This unit links with the following optional units:

• Unit 28: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry.

Essential resources
This unit has an element of practical work where the use of a suitably equipped
laboratory will be required.
Textbooks
Alberts B et al — Essential Cell Biology (Garland Science, 2003) ISBN 0815334818
Boyle M and Senior K — Biology (Collins Advanced Science Series) (Collins Educational,
2002) ISBN 0007136005
Hames D and Hooper N — Instant Notes in Biochemistry (Instant Notes Series) (Bios
Scientific Publishers, 2005) ISBN 0415367786
Purves W K — Life: The Science of Biology Volume 1 The Cell and Heredity (WH
Freeman & Co Ltd, 2001) ISBN 0716738732
Salway J G — Metabolism at a Glance, 3rd Edition (Blackwell Publishing, 2003)
ISBN 1405107162
Website
www.nature.com Nature

Key skills


• carrying out any practical N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
• manipulating data from the N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
enzyme activity practical stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• commenting on error analysis N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
and drawing conclusions from present your findings and justify your
the enzyme activity methods.
practical.


• discussing aspects of 3D C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
structures of biological
macromolecules or discussing
advantages and
disadvantages of separation
of biological molecules
• reporting on any subject- C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
based topic or results of a eight minutes using an image or other
practical investigation support material.
• producing a report on a C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
practical investigation of each one giving different information
enzymes’ properties and about complex subjects.
writing a paper explaining
the structural features of an
words long.
enzyme.

• searching for examples of the ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
use of enzymes in diagnostic sources, and multiple search criteria in at
testing and industry least one case.
• using software to produce ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
graphs and tables from derive new information.
experimental data
• writing reports of practical ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
investigations. text with image, text with number,
image with number.


• exploring methods of PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
separating mixtures of ways of tackling it.
biological molecules
• carrying out a practical PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
investigation of a separation solving the problem.
process
• evaluating the results from a PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
practical investigation. review your approach to problem solving.

• planning to investigate WO3.1 Plan work with others.
aspects of glycolysis and its
regulation
• carrying out an investigation WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
as a group into glycolysis and progress towards your agreed objectives.
its regulation
• looking at ways of improving WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
their investigation on of improving collaborative work in future.
glycolysis and its regulation.

UNIT 14: ENERGY CHANGES, SOURCES AND APPLICATIONS
Unit 14: Energy Changes, Sources and

Applications
Unit abstract
This unit gives learners an understanding of the fundamental concepts of energy and
how energy is measured, with consideration of ‘useful’ energy and ‘wasted’ energy.
Energy changes can cause a rise or fall in temperature or changes of state: learners
will study more about temperature and how it relates to energy changes, as well as
the relationship with volume and pressure. This unit allows learners to develop an
understanding of the need for portable energy sources in a laboratory environment,
and recognise the importance of tailoring the energy source to the application. They
will also learn about energy transfer mechanisms and how they are used in industrial
applications.
Learning outcomes
1 Know the fundamental concepts associated with energy and its measurement
2 Be able to demonstrate and relate changes of temperature or physical state to
changes in internal energy
3 Understand the differences between energy transfer mechanisms and the
relationships between them
4 Understand the properties of electrical energy sources.

Unit content
1 Know the fundamental concepts associated with energy and its measurement
Definitions: work as force x distance moved in direction of force (W=Fd); energy

in terms of work; kinetic energy (KE = ½ mv2); gravitational potential energy
(PEg = mgh); elastic potential energy (PEe = ½ kx2); power as the rate of transfer
of energy
Concepts: principle of the conservation of energy; recognition of energy types as
forms of potential or kinetic energies; useful energy, wasted energy and
efficiency
Quantities and units: energy (joule); power (watt, kilowatt)
2 Be able to demonstrate and relate changes of temperature or physical state to

changes in internal energy
Temperature: degree of hotness; temperature scales (Kelvin, Celsius) and fixed

points (absolute zero); thermal expansion
Energy changes: transfer of energy can cause a rise or fall in temperature or
changes of state; calculations eg specific heat capacity (Q = mcΔt), specific
latent heat (Q = mL); fusion; vaporisation; condensation; applications
Gases: effect of changing temperature, pressure and volume of a gas;
experimental evidence for a gas law eg Charles’ law, Boyle’s law, pressure law;
the ideal gas law; kinetic theory dealt with qualitatively; applications
3 Understand the differences between thermal energy transfer mechanisms and

the relationships between them
Energy transfer mechanisms: conduction (transfer of kinetic energy between

atoms, electrons or molecules); thermal conductivity of solids, liquids and gases;
convection (bulk motion of liquids); radiation (absorption, emission and relation
to surface properties); Stefan’s law of radiation ( W = eσAT 4 ); temperature
Q ⎛ T − T2 ⎞
gradient, ie = kA⎜ 1 ⎟ ; applications
t ⎝ L ⎠
Relationships: eg differences between forced and natural convection

4 Understand the properties of electrical energy sources
Structure and operating principles of common primary and secondary cells:

characteristics, merits and limitations for particular applications; capacity and
behaviour under load; ampere-hours, milliampere-hours; disposal hazards;
applications
Fuel cells: eg simple cell, the leclanche dry cell and the lead-acid cell, zinc-air
fuel cells (ZAFC), proton exchange membrane or solid polymer, direct methanol
fuel cells, recent developments, their prospects and limitations
Solar cells: recent developments; their prospects and limitations

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the fundamental concepts M1 perform calculations involving changes of D1 explain the behaviour and response of
associated with energy using industrial state for industrial processes industrial systems in terms of latent
examples heat, specific heat capacity,
temperature changes and the gas laws
P2 report on the outcomes of an M2 calculate pressure, volume and D2 explain gas pressure and how it affects
investigation of one gas law and relate temperature changes for gases in given industrial processes
them to industrial processes industrial processes
P3 investigate and describe the processes of M3 calculate energy flow using industrial D3 explain the differences between heat
conduction, convection and radiation examples for given thermal transfer mechanisms in solids, liquids,
and their industrial applications conductivities and temperature gases and combinations of substances, in
gradients, and also for given emissivities terms of molecular motion, bulk motion
and surface properties in industrial
processes
P4 describe the difference between primary M4 give examples of primary and secondary D4 evaluate the use of primary and
and secondary cells. cells and describe their characteristics, secondary cells for portable applications.
merits and limitations, in industrial
applications.

Delivery
This unit covers much of the foundation work relating to energy, energy changes and
transfer mechanisms to complement advanced scientific studies. The learners will
have been introduced to the concept of energy as part of Unit 1: Fundamentals of
Science. This unit aims to develop the quantitative aspects and qualitative
understanding.
Practical investigation will form the backbone of the delivery strategy. Learners
should carry out measurements and see effects for themselves, rather than passive
note-taking and bookwork. Learners are not expected to carry out a series of
standard practicals and should develop their own investigations. For example,
investigating the effectiveness of double glazing on reducing the rate at which
thermal energy is lost. It is important that all the work for this unit is related to
industrial applications of energy, highlighting differences in lab-based investigations
compared with industry. Consideration should be given to implications for industry,
eg high pressure requires thickened pipes.
During delivery of this unit, tutors should adopt the sequence in the content section.
This sequence starts by linking the concept of energy to physical work. Learners
should recognise that energy is the capacity to do work. All the common energy
labels, such as electrical energy, chemical energy and solar energy, are referring to
kinetic or potential energies. These are energies due to the motion or state of
physical objects. Two concrete examples of potential energy are indicated in the unit
content but tutors should make the learners aware of other forms of potential
energy. It would be valuable for learners to carry out a practical investigation of PE
to KE conversion (or KE to PE, or PE to PE, etc). This could be done on a simple level,
by finding the height reached by a projectile fired by a spring, for example.
It is important for learners to see that temperature is related to the internal energy
of a substance. It is not necessary for learners to do a detailed or quantitative study
of distributions of quanta in a hot solid. They should recognise that the kinetic energy
of the atoms or molecules is related to the temperature. Tutors should focus on how
industrial processes make use of this concept.
Learners should carry out simple experiments to measure the specific heat or latent
heat of a substance. The aim is for learners to experience techniques used to
measure physical quantities, rather than to learn a standard experimental technique.
Learners could, for example, use a data logger to record the temperature, at regular
intervals, of a container of crushed ice heated by an electric immersion heater. This
experiment allows the determination of values for specific heat capacity and latent
heat fusion of water. There is a very simple experiment for determining the latent
heat of vaporisation of water. Water is boiled with the kettle on a balance so that
change in mass can be noted. The power of the kettle is known, so the latent heat
can be calculated from the electrical energy transferred during the time it takes for
a measured mass loss. The industrial applications and implications must again be the
focus here.

The treatment of thermal conductivity could be linked to insulation of buildings or

the effectiveness of double glazing. It is useful for the learners to see the heat flow
equation as ‘push = flow x resistance’. In this case the ‘push’ is indicated by the
temperature difference, the flow is the energy flow and the resistance is the inverse
of the conductance (note: conductance = conductivity area/length). Learners should
comment on the effects of surface layers and the industrial applications.
This is a good time to draw out the parallels in different flow systems, ie flow of
fluid, flow of charge and flow of heat. This point need not be laboured, but it is
useful for learners to draw parallels across different systems, as it will help their
understanding of science. Forced convection produces a faster cooling rate than
natural convection. Learners’ experience should tell them this. At this level, learners
should be aware of the five-fourths power law for cooling by natural convection and
the linear law for cooling in a steady draught. Quantitative questions requiring the
recall of those laws is not necessary. When dealing with thermal radiation, learners
should understand what is meant by a black body radiator, be able to complete
calculations using Stefan’s law and be able to explain the industrial applications and
implications.
The treatment of energy sources is restricted to those used to power portable
equipment. Learners need to understand the basic principles, so they should study
the simple cell, the leclanche dry cell and the lead-acid cell. They should consult
catalogues of cell suppliers and get to know the range of cell types currently
available. They should know how they differ from those studied in terms of energy
capacity, convenience, load performance, suitability for particular applications, etc.
Fuel cells are being developed as energy sources for vehicles and other devices.
Learners should know how fuel cells differ from conventional cells.
They should also investigate the energy per square metre delivered by sunlight, so
they understand the potential benefits and limitations of using solar panels to power
remote instrumentation.
Assessment
This unit requires learners to build up a portfolio of laboratory investigations, reports
and calculations. The majority of the pass criteria can be achieved through practical
activity.
For P1, learners must describe the fundamental concepts of energy, in the context of
industrial applications. They must be able to define each term, and know the
associated unit of measure, as listed in the unit content.
For P2, learners must investigate a gas law. Experiments are available interactively
on the web, but learners should perform at least one in a real laboratory. The
Charles’ law tube is a fairly inexpensive piece of equipment containing a small
amount of mercury. A risk assessment must be carried out.
For P3, learners must investigate conduction, convection and radiation. They could
do this through cooling experiments, and this would be a useful opportunity for
learners to use data loggers. Learners need to highlight and explain differences in
their investigations compared with those used in industry.

For P4, learners must describe the characteristics of primary cells and secondary
cells and then highlight the differences between these two types of cells including
their uses.
met.
All calculations must be carried out correctly and the correct units must be used.
For M1, learners must do accurate calculations involving changes of state of
substances used in industrial process.
For M2, learners must perform calculations to determine the changes in pressure,
volume and temperature for gases used in industrial processes, as given by the tutor.
For M3, learners must calculate energy flow for given thermal conductivities and
temperature gradients, in an industrial application. They could involve the more
practical applications of thermal conductivity in the insulation of buildings, eg heat
energy lost through single and double glazed windows.
The data for industrial calculations that use Stephan’s law will need to be provided
by the tutor.
For M4, learners must describe the characteristics of primary and secondary cells
used for industrial applications. They must also comment on the merits and
limitations of the primary and secondary cells, and the implications of these for their
industrial applications.
met.
For D1 and D2, learners must apply the principles, in the unit content, to at least one
industrial system.
For D3, learners must explain the heat transfer mechanisms in solids, liquids, gases
and combinations of substances. In doing so, they must describe molecular motion,
bulk motion and surface properties, and highlight the differences of each in solids,
liquids and gases. Learners must use examples contextualised to industrial processes.
For D4, learners must evaluate the use of primary and secondary cells for mobile
electronic units. They could compare two portable devices which use primary and
secondary cells, eg MP3 players, torches.

This unit links with:

• Unit 25: Electronics for Science Technicians.

Essential resources
Learners need access to appropriate laboratory facilities and ICT equipment. They
should also have access to a range of Level 2 and Level 3 physics books.
Textbooks
Breithaupt J — New Understanding Physics for Advanced Level: Core Book AND Course
Study Guide (New Understanding Physics) (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2000)
ISBN 0748743162
Ellse M and Honeywill C — Electricity and Thermal Physics (Nelson Advanced Science:
Physics) (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2005) ISBN 074877663X
Johnson K et al — Advanced Physics for You (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2000)
ISBN 074875296X
Milward et al — Revise AS Physics for Salters Horners (Heinemann Educational
Milward et al — Revise A2 Physics for Salters Horners (Heinemann Educational
Websites
http://physics.indiana.edu/~brabson/p310/ A sheet on selective surfaces
selectivesurfaces.html
www.ase.org.uk The Association for Science
Education
www.efunda.com/formulae/heat_transfer/ Efunda engineering fundamentals
home/overview.cfm
www.fuelcells.org The Online Fuel Cell Information
Resource
www.iop.org Institute of Physics
www.jersey.uoregon.edu/vlab/Piston/index.html Ideal gas law experimental
instructions
www.mpoweruk.com/secondary.htm MPower

Key skills


• investigating methods of heat N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
transfer information from relevant sources.
• using formulae to calculate N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
work done, power, specific stage calculations to do with:
heat capacity, specific latent
a amounts or sizes
heat, thermal conductivity
and emissivities b scales or proportion
d using formulae.
• constructing cooling curves N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
for heat transfer and present your findings and justify your
generating conclusions from methods.
experimental results.


• discussing factors affecting C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
rate of cooling
• presenting experimental data C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
from specific heat eight minutes using an image or other
investigations support material.
• reading journals and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
synthesising information least two documents about the same
about the ideal gas law subject.
1000 words long.
• presenting an evaluation of C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
the differences between heat each one giving different information
transfer mechanisms in about complex subjects.
solids, liquids, gases and
combinations of substances,
words long.
in terms of molecular motion
and surface properties.

• researching information from ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
books and internet sources sources, and multiple search criteria in at
on methods of heat transfer least one case.
• displaying results in ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
appropriate format derive new information.
• producing PowerPoint ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
presentations on findings of text with image, text with number,
investigations. image with number.


• planning how assignment LP3.1 Set targets using information from
tasks will be achieved appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.
• demonstrating responsibility LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
in executing a work schedule using your plan to help meet targets and
• reflecting on their LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
performance and areas for your achievements.
improvement.

• making hypotheses about PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
factors affecting rate of ways of tackling it.
cooling and planning
experiments to explore them
• undertaking an investigation PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
into mechanisms of heat solving the problem.
transfer
• evaluating whether the PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
results support the initial review your approach to problem solving.
hypothesis.

• carrying out a group WO3.1 Plan work with others.
investigation
• discussing what is to be WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
achieved, setting objectives progress towards your agreed objectives.
and discussing progress at
intervals
• reflecting on what has been WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
achieved, problems of improving collaborative work in future.
experienced and strategies
for avoiding such problems in
the future.

UNIT 15: MICROBIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES
Unit 15: Microbiological Techniques

Unit abstract
Microorganisms are essential for the world around us. They provide us with the
biochemical tools for a host of enormously important biotechnological processes;
from ancient practices such as brewing and baking to the cutting-edge techniques
involved in genetic engineering.
Unfortunately, some microorganisms also kill millions of us every year. Their
continued evolution produces new epidemics that biomedical scientists must attempt
to combat with antibiotics, antiseptics and improved preventative measures.
The vast majority of microbial species have not even been identified yet. As-yet-
undiscovered species may contain priceless molecular technology that could be
applied to an almost limitless range of fields.
Clearly, there is a lot of work for microbiologists to do. Their work is at the heart of
developments in genetic manipulation, pharmaceutical research and manufacture,
medical diagnostics, chemical industries, food and drink production and forensics, to
name a few. Microbiology skills are in ever-increasing demand as the benefits and
threats from these simplest forms of life become better understood.
This unit will introduce learners to the key concepts and techniques of microbiology,
and provide them with the knowledge and skills to be able to work safely and
competently in a microbiology laboratory. It is a highly practical unit involving the
handling of live organisms, and learners will need to develop good aseptic techniques
and risk assessment skills. Although the cultures used will be of very low risk,
learners should always approach any microorganism with the respect and safety
precautions one would afford a serious pathogen. It is also important that learners
understand the reasons behind these procedures and are able to apply these ideas to
new situations.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to identify the organelles found in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and
describe their structure and function
2 Be able to use aseptic techniques to culture a range of microorganisms
3 Understand the factors that encourage and limit growth of microorganisms
4 Be able to classify and identify microorganisms.

Unit content
1 Be able to identify the organelles found in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

and describe their structure and function
Eukaryotic: nucleus; Golgi apparatus and secretory vesicles; rough and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum; cell membrane; nuclear envelope; ribosomes;
mitochondria; chloroplasts; centrioles; cilia; flagella
Prokaryotic: nucleoid; ribosomes; cell wall; capsule; mesosome; cilia; flagella
Functions: energy conversion; synthesis of biological molecules; transport of
substances; motility
Identification: key characteristics of bacteria, viruses and fungi; electron
microscopy (scanning, transmission, advantages, disadvantages); light microscopy
(advantages, disadvantages)
2 Be able to use aseptic techniques to culture a range of microorganisms
Microorganisms: bacteria; viruses; fungi

Growth requirements: eg nutrients; gaseous environment; temperature; pH
Techniques: preparing sterile growth media; aseptic inoculation of liquid media;
streaking plates; spreading lawns of bacteria; serial dilution; viral plaque counts;
haemocytometer counts
3 Understand the factors that encourage and limit growth of microorganisms
Limiting factors: temperature; pH; nutrients; aerobic or anaerobic conditions;

antibiotics; disinfection; sterilisation
Contexts: biotechnological eg fermentation; continuous lines; plant tissue
culture; biomedical eg prevention of MRSA; human tissue growth
4 Be able to classify and identify microorganisms
Classification: key characteristics of the main subgroups of bacteria, viruses and

fungi
Identification: Gram-staining; colony morphology; microscopic observation;
selective growth media
Separation: colony characteristics; membrane filtration; streak plating

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 outline the characteristic features of M1 relate structure to function of cell D1 describe how several structures within a
bacteria, viruses and fungi and use light structures of prokaryotes and eukaryotes cell can work together to perform a
microscopy to identify, measure and complex operation
count microorganisms
P2 conduct and report on practical M2 explain the principles underlying D2 evaluate growth conditions, describing
activities cultivating and counting techniques, with particular regard to how best conditions are found and
microorganisms using aseptic techniques ensuring precision and aseptic technique managed, including consideration of cost
implications
P3 conduct and report practical M3 calculate and compare growth rates of D3 draw valid conclusions from growth rate
investigations of factors that encourage one or more types of microorganism calculations and suggest how this
and limit the growth of microorganisms under varying conditions knowledge might be applied in either a
biotechnological or biomedical context
P4 identify the main groups of M4 relate techniques for identification of D4 describe and explain the advantages and
microorganisms, describe their principal microorganisms to their structure. disadvantages of identification
taxonomic characteristics, and state one techniques in a specific application.
commercial application or disease for
each.

Delivery

A strong emphasis on health and safety is essential from the beginning.
Learners should practise all of the basic processes of microbiology, including
preparatory processes such as the preparation of media, and the safe disposal of
materials and cultures.
For learning outcome 1, learners should be able to prepare simple non-permanent
slides, set up a microscope and use it to locate and achieve reasonable resolution at
low and high power. They should be able to use oil immersion lenses and calibrate
eyepiece graticules, and use them to measure microscopic objects. Electron
micrographs should be used to assess learners’ ability to correctly identify cell ultra-
structure. This can be done quickly and easily either through filling in blank labels, or
requesting learners to label images electronically.
Learners should become competent in the use of light microscopes and basic
preparation techniques, such as Gram-staining. They should also understand how
samples are prepared for examination under electron microscopes in order for them
to interpret images obtained from scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) and
transmission electron microscopes (TEMs). There are a great many very useful
websites with excellent electron microscope images, some of which are listed later in
this unit.
For learning outcome 2, an induction into the importance of aseptic technique and
risk assessment is necessary before any practical handling of microorganisms. The
learners could carry out simple aseptic activities, such as the transfer of a solution
from one container to another, above a sheet of white paper using a fluorescent dye
instead of a live culture. Learners can then examine the paper for spills. With live
cultures, non-pathogenic organisms should always be used.
Learners should be taught a range of techniques and skills for learning outcome 2,
from which they could select appropriate procedures and carry out their
investigations for learning outcome 3. These techniques should include (as a
minimum):
• preparing culture media and pouring plates aseptically
• sterilisation and disinfection techniques

• aseptic plating methods on solid media, to include at least streak dilution plate,
spread plate, viral plaque growth
• aseptic serial dilution of cultures in liquid media
• assaying antibiotic or disinfectant inhibition of microbial growth
• direct counting using haemocytometers
• identification techniques, to include at least Gram-staining, colony morphology,
selective growth media (eg media containing antibiotics).
For learning outcome 3, wherever possible, activities should be given a relevant
industrial context. For example, learners could be asked to find optimum growth
conditions for the culturing of microorganisms which is notionally to be genetically
modified for use in an industrial process. Identification techniques can be compared
with a view to producing a medical diagnosis in the shortest possible time. A planning
aspect can usefully be incorporated into this learning outcome. For example, learners
can be helped to plan their activities. This could include the advanced preparation of
suitable quantities of sterile growth media and other materials. During investigations,
learners could work closely with (and perform many of the functions of) the
laboratory technicians normally responsible for these activities.
For learning outcome 4, microbial taxonomy can be demonstrated through the use of
card games, in which organisms are ‘sorted’ by learners into appropriate groups.
Learners can even develop their own cards, in the style of ‘Top Trumps’, which
encourages them to look for similarities and differences between species.
Assessment
Owing to the highly practical nature of this unit, records of learners’ practical
activities must form a substantial part of its assessment. Since there is a strong
emphasis on practical skills, there should be a record of tutor observation of the key
techniques listed in the preceding section.
For P1, learners must know the characteristic features of bacteria, viruses and fungi,
in order to be able to identify, measure and count micoorganisms as seen under a
light microscope.
For P2, learners must cultivate and count microorganisms. Again, they may wish to
present their work via a presentation, or they can be assessed while performing these
tasks.
For P3, learners must carry out an investigation looking at the growth factors of
microorganisms. They must include a risk assessment, which must be checked and
independently risk-assessed by a tutor before implementation. The investigation
must be set in a biotechnological or biomedical context, to give learners the
opportunity to apply their findings to a relevant scenario for D3.
For P4, learners must identify the main groups of microorganisms. They could
produce a poster or leaflet. They may wish to concentrate on disease-causing
organisms or commercially useful organisms, depending on their interest.
met.

For M1, learners must explain the function of cells, in terms of its specialist
structure, of prokaryotes and eukaryotes. This may be done diagrammatically or in a
written report, or a combination of both.
For M2, learners must explain the principles underlying microbiological techniques.
They must understand the importance of ensuring precision when performing these
techniques. This could be a consideration of percentage error, especially for
techniques such as serial dilution.
For M3, learners must include their calculations in the report, and comment on the
best conditions for growth of microorganisms.
For M4, learners must relate the techniques used to identify microorganisms, to their
structure. For example, they could relate Gram-staining to cell wall structure.
met.
For D1, learners must explain how internal structures link together for the cell to
operate. For example, they could consider how the nucleus, rough endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus and vesicles are involved in production and secretion of
an antibody. This may be a written report, or learners may wish to present their work
as a verbal presentation.
For D2, learners must show consideration of industrial applications and commercial
considerations for growth conditions. Learners could present their findings as if
tendering for a project to a potential employer.
For D3, learners must draw valid conclusions from their calculations of growth rate.
They must also comment on how these data might be applied in an industrial
context.
For D4, learners must describe and explain the advantages and disadvantages of the
techniques used to identify microorganisms in a specific application. They could
consider to what taxonomic level an organism is identified, or how quickly results are
produced and how that might be important in an industrial or medical context.

This unit links well with:

• Unit 6: Application of Numbers for Science Technicians
• Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques.
Essential resources
This unit requires a well-equipped and well-supported laboratory with bench surfaces
suitable for topical sterilisation. Use of laminar flow cabinets is desirable though not
essential. Pre-irradiated plastic petri dishes and pipettes, autoclave, media, an
incubator, microbiological loops, spreaders and culture bottles will all be required.
Micropipettes and autoclavable tips are recommended.

Standard laboratory quality microscopes will be needed. These should allow oil
immersion use for prokaryotic cells.
Access to the internet and a range of suitable Level 3 texts is also expected.
Textbooks
Adds J, Larkcom E and Miller R — Microorganisms and Biotechnology (Nelson Thornes
Ltd, 1998) ISBN 0174482698
Taylor J — Microorganisms and Biotechnology (Bath Advanced Science Series) (Nelson
Thornes Ltd, 2001) ISBN 0174482558
Tortora G J, Funke B R and Case C L — Microbiology: An Introduction (Benjamin
Cummings, 2005) ISBN 0805377522
Journals
Biological Science Review
Microbiology Today
New Scientist
Websites
www.cellsalive.com/index ‘Cells Alive’ by Quill Graphics
www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/ Maricopa Online Biology
BioBookTOC textbook
www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/virtual/virtual ‘Molecular Expressions’ Virtual
Microscopy
www.microscopyu.com/moviegallery/pondscum/index Nikon Microscopy Digital Movie
Gallery
www.sgm.ac.uk Society of General Microbiology

Key skills


• planning investigations for N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
learning outcome 3 information from relevant sources.
• estimating microbial N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
population density using stage calculations to do with:
haemocytometer counts
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• drawing conclusions from N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
investigations for learning present your findings and justify your
outcome 3. methods.

• researching microbial ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
taxonomy or cell ultra- sources, and multiple search criteria in at
structure using the internet least one case.
• collating results of internet ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
research into poster, text with image, text with number,
website, PowerPoint image with number.
presentation or display cards.


• planning investigation for LP3.1 Set targets using information from
learning outcome 3 appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.
• carrying out and evaluating LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
investigation for learning your achievements.
outcome 3.

• planning investigation for PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
learning outcome 3 ways of tackling it.
• planning and implementing PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
investigation for learning solving the problem.
outcome 3
• evaluating investigation for PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
learning outcome 3. review your approach to problem solving.

UNIT 16: CHEMISTRY FOR BIOLOGY TECHNICIANS
Unit 16: Chemistry for Biology

Technicians
Unit abstract
Biology technicians may perform an enormous range of tasks including looking after a
variety of animals, plants and other organisms, and preparing tissue slides in human
anatomy departments or pathology laboratories. They carry out microbiological
testing on water or pathology specimens, make vaccines, grow cell cultures, work in
infection control, investigate blood smears, and carry out biochemical tests and DNA
analysis.
Biological knowledge continues to increase exponentially. Thirty to forty years ago,
many textbooks would simply describe processes and explain that the underlying
mechanisms were not fully understood. This has changed dramatically.
Biological processes work because of the underlying chemical processes. Whatever
role in science learners may have or come to have, they will need some
understanding of chemistry. If learners understand units of concentration, they will
feel more confident that they are making up a solution or diluting it correctly. If
learners understand the nature of chemical bonding, they will know why certain
solvents are used in processing tissue samples. Knowing more about chemical
formulae allows learners to identify the correct chemicals to use. Understanding
about rates of reaction and equilibrium allows learners to see why standard
laboratory protocols may have timed steps.
These biological processes are complex and require a good understanding of
chemistry. This unit covers some of the basic chemical concepts to allow learners to
begin to understand and explain biological processes.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to relate enthalpy changes to the bonding in a range of substances
2 Understand how rates of reaction are affected by varying the conditions
3 Understand chemical equilibrium
4 Know the structure and properties of organic molecules.

Unit content
1 Be able to relate enthalpy changes to the bonding in a range of substances
Bonding: ionic; covalent; hydrophilic and hydrophobic eg molecules, ions;

electronegativity; dipoles; hydrogen bonds; Van der Waals forces; intermolecular;
intramolecular
Substances: salts; salt solutions; water; organic molecules; solids; liquids; gases;
emulsions
Influence of bonding on physical properties: solubility; melting point; boiling
point
Enthalpy and enthalpy change: system and surroundings; units of enthalpy
change; standard enthalpy change eg sign convention; exothermic and
endothermic reactions; reaction profiles; activation energy; Hess’s law; enthalpy
change in certain reactions and processes eg respiration, photosynthesis,
dissolution; Henderson-Hasselbalch equation
2 Understand how rates of reaction are affected by varying the conditions
Description of reaction rate: definition of reaction order; units of rate (mol dm-3
s-1); rate constant
Factors influencing rates: collision theory; eg number of collisions per unit time;
effect of changing concentration; effect of changing particle size; surface area;
reaction profiles, activation energy, spread of energies among particles in a
sample; temperature; catalysts; enzymes as catalysts
Quantitative chemistry: calculations based on mass, mass of one mole and
number of moles; calculations based on number of moles, volume and
concentration; dilution; units (mol, dm3, cm3, mol dm-3, g, g mol-1) of
calculations; data from Beer-Lambert law applications or titration; gas pressure;
concept of partial pressure; units of pressure (Pa, kPa, bar)
3 Understand chemical equilibrium
Chemical equilibrium: reversible processes; principles of equilibrium; equilibrium

constants
Examples: proton concentrations in aqueous solution; concentrations on either
side of a membrane; redox processes
Proton concentrations: pH; eg Kw; strength of acids and bases; Ka, pKa;
calculations of pH from Ka, and Ka from pH; conjugate acid and base; effect of pH
on amino acids; buffer solutions (definition in terms of response to addition of
small quantities of H+ or OH-, chemical composition, biological importance)

Concentrations either side of a membrane: definition of diffusion in terms of

migration of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration or in terms of movement of water (in the case of a semi-permeable
membrane) from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution to attain
equilibrium; osmosis; membrane potential; diffusion of gases
Redox process: oxidation; reduction eg displacement reaction of metals; half-cell
reactions; standard electrode potentials, E0; standard conditions; sign convention;
examples involving simple ions in solution eg Fe2+ ⇌ Fe3+ + e-
4 Know the structure and properties of organic molecules
Functional groups: nomenclature International Union of Pure and Applied

Chemistry (IUPAC) and classes of compounds; alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, alkyl
halides, carboxylic acids, aldehydes, ketones, esters, amines, amides; recognition
of functional groups in complex molecules
Structure: tetrahedral carbon; planar carbon to carbon double bonds; isomerism
(structural eg chain, positional, functional group), geometric, optical (chiral
carbon, importance in natural systems); IUPAC nomenclature; structure of sugars
(linear and cyclic); aldehyde and keto sugars
Properties: similarity of alcohols to water; solubility of alkanes and alcohols;
influence of hydrogen bonding on solubility; solubility of sugars; simple reactions
of organic compounds (addition reactions for alkenes, oxidation of alcohols to
aldehydes and ketones, oxidation of aldehydes to acids, carboxylic acids as acids,
esterification, amines as bases, formation of amides)

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the enthalpy changes associated M1 explain physical properties of pure D1 analyse the influence of
with the formation and breakage of substances and solutions in terms of electronegativity and size on the bonding
chemical bonds bonding and intermolecular forces and intermolecular forces in pure
substances and solutions
P2 describe the effect on the rates of M2 explain variation in rates of reaction as a D2 analyse the quality of data on enthalpy
reactions of changes in concentration, function of concentration, particle size changes and rates of reaction obtained
particle size, temperature and presence and temperature experimentally
of a catalyst
P3 account for the results of an experiment M3 explain how varying the conditions will D3 determine reaction rate equations for
on osmosis in terms of diffusion and the shift equilibrium three reactions, the rate constants and
drive towards establishment of orders of reaction
equilibrium
P4 construct structural formulae for named M4 relate the reactions of organic molecules D4 research and explain an example of the
examples of a range of classes of simple to the properties of their functional dependence of enzyme activity on pH in
organic compounds and identify groups. terms of the chemical formula of the
structural, geometric and optical isomers enzyme and the nature of the binding
from models. site and substrate.

Delivery

The learning outcomes should be delivered through a programme of tuition,
facilitated learning and practical assignment work.
This unit sets out some of the basic chemistry used by living organisms. Living
organisms are mainly composed of water. The effects of hydrogen bonding on the
properties of water underpins the behaviour of cells and biological control
mechanisms.
In learning outcome 1, the learner should become familiar with theories of bonding,
allowing an understanding of the behaviour of water and solutes to be developed.
The concept of polarity is central to understanding solubility. Enthalpy changes
should be discussed in terms of bonds made and broken, and in terms of the energy
required to overcome physical attractive forces or the energy released when physical
attraction takes place. There is no requirement for detailed calculations based on
Hess’s law, although this may be appropriate for some learners.
For learning outcome 2, it is important for learners to carry out experimental
investigations on the factors affecting rate of reaction. They should also be able to
make and test predictions based on changes in concentration, particle size,
temperature and the use of a catalyst. Although it is important for learners to
understand that enzymes are biological catalysts, it is not necessary to describe
details of a range of reactions catalysed by enzymes. This will be covered elsewhere.
Biological technicians frequently have to make up solutions and perform dilutions. It
is important for the learner to understand how concentration is calculated. Learners
must be able to calculate the mass of substance needed to make a given volume at a
given concentration of solution. This should be linked as much as possible to practical
work. Gas pressure is relevant to the uptake of gases in the blood.
For learning outcome 3, the concept of strength of acids and bases should be
investigated practically, as should the behaviour of buffer solutions. The learner is
likely to have investigated diffusion practically in other classes or on other courses.
Practical work on diffusion may be carried out to allow a clearer understanding of the
drive towards equilibrium.

The concept of electron transfer is easily investigated through the reactions of

metals and metal ion solutions. Redox systems involving ions, such as manganate (VII)
MnO4- which is reduced to another water soluble ion, Mn2+, should be explored. This
allows extension to biological species which may be in solution, as appropriate to the
needs of the learner.
The learner should understand that the size of E0 and its sign is related to the size of
the equilibrium constant. Positive means the equilibrium constant is greater than 1
(effectively more products than reactants at equilibrium) and negative means
equilibrium constant is less than 1 (effectively more reactants than products at
equilibrium). High positive value means reaction effectively goes to completion.
For learning outcome 4, learners should know that there are many classes of organic
compound, and should understand the concept of a functional group. They should be
aware of those listed in the content. It is important that learners are made aware
that more than one functional group may be present in a molecule of biological
significance. Since certain aspects of biological activity depend on isomerism, it is
important that the learner should be able to recognise different types of isomers.
Physical properties such as solubility should be explored. Learners should practically
investigate the oxidation of alcohols, aldehydes and esterification. The biological
significance of reactions should be explained (eg oxidation of reducing sugars, fats as
examples of esters, formation of amide linkages in proteins).
Assessment
The pass criteria are met mainly through practical activities.
For P1, learners must describe the changes in enthalpy that occur in a system, when
chemical bonds are broken and when they are made. They could carry out an
experiment, such as measurement of the enthalpy of solution or combustion of
substances.
For P2, learners are required to obtain results from practical experiments on the
effect of changes of concentration, particle size, temperature and presence of a
catalyst. They must formulate a simple explanation in terms of particles having
differing numbers of collisions per unit time, and having sufficient energy to react.
Learners must appreciate that particles in a given experimental sample do not all
have the same kinetic energy. In cases where it is difficult to carry out practical
experiments, learners should be given sufficient information to be able to extract the
data needed to demonstrate the required relationship.
For P3, learners would benefit from carrying out a simple experiment, for example,
on loss and uptake of water by vegetable pieces in sugar solutions of different
concentrations. They should explain results in terms of diffusion. Where learners are
familiar with osmosis experiments, P3 could be achieved simply by explanation of
data.
For P4, learners could demonstrate a basic understanding of the IUPAC system of
nomenclature for organic compounds by writing full structural formula for a few
classes of compounds, such as alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones
carboxylic acids and amines. Learners should be presented with models of organic
compounds and be able to identify isomers.

M1 and D1 involve interpretation of more data. The data can be found by the learner
or presented to the learner. Note that analysis of the quality of experimental data on
enthalpy changes is included in D2.
For M2, learners must present data that are clear and unambiguous. The associations
between rate and condition varied should be clearly explained.
For D2, learners must explore and discuss the reliability and sources of error on data
from experiments on rates of reaction and on enthalpy changes.
M3 and D3 would be best investigated experimentally: different learners or groups
could change different conditions and report back to the class. Each learner must
then, individually, explain how the changes affected the equilibrium in each
investigation.
For M4 learners can access secondary data to explain how functional groups affect
the behaviour of organic molecules.
For D4, learners must understand the mode of action of a particular enzyme in terms
of substrate and binding site. They must also be able to explain how pH affects the
chemical nature of the enzyme and hence, the nature of the binding site and the
extent of catalytic activity.

This unit has links with Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science in which learners look at the
structure of atoms, simple bonding theories, constructing formulae and equations
and carrying out straightforward quantitative calculations.
The learning outcomes in this unit can be integrated and delivered with other units.
Concepts in this unit are built on in the following specialist units:
and other chemistry units such as:
Practical work for this unit could also be used in the delivery of:

This unit builds on concepts covered in the Key Stage 4 mandatory criteria. The unit
has strong links with the content of the 2006 GCSE Science core and the following
BTEC First units:
• Unit 1: Scientific Principles
• Unit 3: Chemistry Applications
• Unit 5: Biological Systems.
Content in the unit is related to GCE in Biology syllabi.
Essential resources
All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities and library and
information technology resources. Library access to a range of general chemistry and
biology/human biology books at Level 3 standard is expected.
Textbooks
Chapman C — Basic Chemistry for Biology (William C Brown, 1998) ISBN 0697360873
Fry M and Page E — Catch Up Chemistry: For the Life and Medical Sciences (Scion
Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1904842100
Rockett B and Sutton R — Chemistry for Biologists at Advanced Level (John Murray,
1996) ISBN 0719571464
Sackheim G I — An Introduction to Chemistry for Biology Students (Benjamin
Cummings, 2001) ISBN 0805330755
Website
www.chemguide.co.uk chemguide

Key skills


• planning a rate investigation, N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
eg titrimetry or colorimetry information from relevant sources.
• calculating masses and N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
volumes required to make stage calculations to do with:
solutions
a amounts or sizes
• determining required b scales or proportion
dilutions
• comparing the quality of
their own experimental data d using formulae.
with data obtained by other
learners, by calculating
statistical quantities such as
mean, median, mode,
standard deviation, range
• using formulae such as the
equation of the straight line
from a calibration graph and
the formula for standard
deviation
• constructing flowcharts for N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
planning exercises present your findings and justify your
methods.
• constructing histograms of
results based on appropriate
class intervals
• constructing calibration
graphs for colorimetry
• constructing graphs related
to rate of reaction
• generating conclusions from


• discussing factors affecting C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
rate of reaction
• discussing planning of an
analysis
• discussing chemical
properties
• presenting experimental data C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
from a rate of reaction eight minutes using an image or other
• presenting research on
properties of compounds
• reading material and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
synthesising information least two documents about the same
about intermolecular forces, subject.
organic compounds, enzyme
activity and osmosis
1000 words long.
• presenting information C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
researched from books and each one giving different information
internet sources on reactions about complex subjects.
of organic compounds,
enzymes or intermolecular
words long.
forces
• describing an experiment.


on intermolecular forces, least one case.
reactions of organic
compounds, analysis and
rates of reaction
• selecting data or text
• displaying results in an ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
• entering information from
books
• exploring information from
the internet
presentations on selected text with image, text with number,
topics image with number.
• presenting details of
investigations
• presenting reports of
internet research.

tasks will be performed appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.
improvement.


• making hypotheses about PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
factors affecting rate of ways of tackling it.
reaction and making initial
plans of the sort of
experiments needed to
explore them
• undertaking a rates of PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
reaction investigation solving the problem.
• evaluating whether the PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
results agree with the initial review your approach to problem solving.
hypothesis.

• carrying out a group WO3.1 Plan work with others.
investigation
• working in pairs as part of
the group investigation
• discussing what is to be WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
achieved and setting progress towards your agreed objectives.
objectives
• discussing progress at
intervals
the future.

UNIT 17: ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND THEIR INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Unit 17: Electrical Circuits and their

Industrial Applications
Unit abstract
Electricity is without doubt an essential form of energy in use in the world today.
Since the early days of pioneering electrical experiments, the variations in the way
electricity is used and its bewildering array of applications have increased at a
staggering rate. Despite the complexities of modern electronic devices, fundamental
electrical principles still form the basis of sustained electrical and electronic
development in industry and research.
Science technicians working in industry, education, health or modern research
laboratories must frequently demonstrate a clear understanding of electrical
concepts and feel confident in the use of instruments and measuring devices. This
unit will provide learners with the knowledge and skills necessary to undertake
essential tasks related to electrical circuits and their components.
This unit covers electrical and electronic components, the nature of current,
electrical charge, terms used and relationships of electrical quantities. It deals with
the units of electrical measurements, the operation of other general circuit
components, and classification of materials for use in the electrical industry.
Construction and use of electrical circuits is developed by means of practical study.
Learners will assemble series and parallel circuits, and look at their practical uses.
They will take measurements of essential quantities in general circuits and more
advanced types which use various electronic components. Aspects of mains
electricity, the use of circuit safety devices, and health and safety issues for both ac
and dc current are also explored. Learners will look at the main transducer types and
measurement devices in use in most laboratories and technical work places. They will
become familiar with electronic displays and the operation of instruments and other
electronic components and their suitability for purpose.
Learning outcomes
1 Know fundamental electrical terms, quantities and relationships
2 Be able to assemble series and parallel circuits and carry out essential electrical
measurements
3 Understand the differences between ac and dc circuits and their health and
safety aspects
4 Know the uses and characteristics of both transducer types and fundamental
measurement devices.

Unit content
1 Know fundamental electrical terms, quantities and relationships
Terminology and units: current (ampere); potential difference (volt); electrical

charge (coulomb); resistance (ohm); conductance (seimen); electrical power
(watt); definition of current in terms of rate of flow of mobile charge carriers;
EMF as measure of ratio of energy supplied per unit charge; conductance and
resistance in relation to density of mobile charge carriers
Electrical relationships: energy supplied W = VIt; use of Ohm’s law V = IR;
Kirchoff’s laws; power P = IV, P = I2R; charge Q = It;
1 ρl
conductance G = ; resistivity R =
R A
Capacitors: charge stored by capacitors Q = CV in operation as a reservoir; use of
capacitors as a filter in ac circuits; units of capacitance (Farad and sub-units);
charging and discharging; calculations of capacitances
1 1 1
(CT = C1 + C2 … for parallel capacitors, = + … for series capacitors)
CT C1 C2
Electrical properties of materials: eg conductivity and resistivity, insulators and
conductors, Ohmic and non-Ohmic conductors, use of semiconductors
2 Be able to assemble series and parallel circuits and carry out essential
electrical measurements
Circuit characteristics: correct assembly of series and parallel resistive circuits

using up to three resistors in series, parallel and series — parallel combination;
calculation of resistance and conductance
1 1 1
(RT = R1 + R2 … for series circuits, = + for parallel circuits and
RT R1 R2
similarly for conductance); use of ammeters and voltmeters (digital and analogue
types for simple comparison); nature of voltage drop across components as the
energy dissipated per unit charge by a resistor (where the energy dissipated is
transferred from electricity into heat); potential divider circuits and potential
divider calculation; internal resistance and EMF with use of E = I (R + r)

3 Understand the differences between ac and dc circuits and their health and
safety aspects
Mains electricity: domestic ring main circuit; nature of ac voltage as changing

polarity with instantaneous values varying sinusoidally eg mains frequency; root
mean square (rms); peak and peak-to-peak voltages; earthing; fuses; significance
of double insulation; residual current and earth leakage circuit breakers (rccb and
elcb)
Human physiology and electricity: typical resistance values for current pathways
in the body; skin resistance and changes of environment eg moisture levels of the
skin, contact with the ground; heart responses to electric shock; safe levels of dc
voltage
Industrial applications: dc current eg transport (trams, railways), lifting gear,
electrolysis; ac current eg induction furnace
4 Know the uses and characteristics of both transducer types and fundamental
measurement devices
Passive transducers: definition as devices which change the electrical

characteristics within a circuit by the influence of external physical sources
(sensors); eg light dependant resistor (LDR) and their practical uses eg light-
meters, automatic cameras, alarm systems; thermistors; reed switch; strain
gauge; Wheatstone bridge arrangement and potential divider circuits
Active transducers: production of EMF by conversion of energy from external
physical source; eg operation and structure of a thermocouple; piezoelectric
devices and fundamental principles; understanding of the need for signal
amplification for these devices
Measurement devices: uses of oscilloscopes for voltage measurement and ac/dc
display; multimeters and range of measurements; data logging devices as those
which sense and store information from physical sources for use with visual/audio
display and processing eg pH meters, temperature sensors, moisture sensors, light
sensors

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe fundamental electrical terms, M1 show, by calculation, the use of D1 analyse, by calculation and graphical
quantities and relationships electrical quantities and relationships representation, fundamental electrical
relationships and quantities
P2 assemble series and parallel electrical M2 calculate current, potential differences D2 assess the calculations of quantities in
circuits and carry out essential electrical and resistances in series and parallel series and parallel circuits in terms of
measurements circuits and compare to measured values accuracy and circuit operation
P3 outline the essential differences M3 explain the operations of electrical D3 evaluate the effectiveness of electrical
between ac and dc circuits and their safety devices in use and practices or safety devices and safety practices and
health and safety aspects strategies used to minimise risk suggest valid improvements
P4 describe the main uses and M4 detail the mode of operation and D4 analyse the suitability of one
characteristics of both transducer types function of one transducer and measurement device for a given purpose.
and fundamental measurement devices. measurement device.

Delivery
Learners should be given the opportunity to study this unit using a hands-on approach
and as much access to practical laboratory equipment as possible. Construction of
simple circuits and regular circuit measurement should be incorporated. Competency
in practical circuit building and understanding of how and where to measure voltage,
current and resistance should be developed quickly and pose no problems throughout
the unit.
Tutors should take advantage of advances made in the production and uses of modern
circuit components and measuring devices, and ensure easy access to the most
essential. Delivery can include discussion, presentations, formal lectures, workplace
visits, practical circuit activities, research and guest invitations of industrial
speakers. A varied structure is highly recommended and should help to stimulate and
enthuse learners.
Learning outcomes 1 and 2 are very closely linked allowing tutors to demonstrate
particular electrical relationships using practical activity. Use of voltmeters and
ammeters can be extensive and continued practice in practical application will help
to reinforce understanding of these relationships. Emphasis should be placed on
calculations using Ohm’s law, using up to three resistors in a variety of configurations
in series and parallel circuits. Learners should become familiar with electrical
materials and their uses. Knowledge of conductors, insulators and dimensional
characteristics of electrical conductors should be introduced with the relationship
ρl
R= .
A
Understanding the operation of capacitors and capacitance in circuits is needed
because of their extensive application in electronic devices such as sensors, timers,
etc. Tutors can demonstrate the charging and discharging of capacitors by choosing
suitably sized components connected in a simple circuit across a low voltage filament
lamp. The exponential rise and fall characteristics can then be discussed with
possible display on a CRO and an appreciation of the link with capacitor sizes. Energy
stored and remaining after supply disconnection can be briefly addressed as a safety
issue, for example, in television servicing and repair.
The differences between series and parallel circuits should be explored practically
and learners should develop a clear understanding of the nature of current ‘flow’ in
these circuits. The splitting and adding of current in parallel circuits and voltage
dropped across resistances can be explained following introduction to Kirchoff’s laws,
but further analysis of these is not necessary.
Understanding the ideas of ‘conservation of charge’ and ‘conservation of energy’ in
electrical circuits may be sufficient and the tutor can address potential difference
using a simple voltage (pd)/circuit position model.

The distinction between conductors and semiconductors can be made by heating

various suitable components using an external source within a circuit. This shows that
in a conductor, the resistance increases linearly with increase in temperature. In a
semiconductor, the resistance falls exponentially with increase in temperature.
Knowledge of the passage of current, exact composition and ‘doping’ of
semiconductors is not necessary, but simple reference to these might help to explain
why semiconductors are used.
Learning outcome 3 focuses on differences between ac and dc. Tutors should explain
RMS values and dc equivalence, peak voltages and the nature of ac as a sinusoidal
waveform. General understanding of wave period and frequency can be included for
learners to recognise the significance of mains ac frequency.
Tutors should discuss the systems put into place to reduce risk from mains electricity.
These will include: earthing, fuses, double insulation, residual current circuit
breakers, and earth leakage circuit breakers. If possible, circuits may be
demonstrated to show the conditions that cause the safety device to operate — but
care must be taken and a full risk assessment carried out. A demonstration of fuse
blowing can be set up using a 12V supply, 5A fuse line and rheostat set at maximum.
Some local electrical distributors may be prepared to visit your establishment and
provide a more elaborate or dramatic demonstration.
The physiological effects can be studied in tandem with other related units in the
program, such as Unit 11: Physiology of Human Body Systems. This unit can explain
the conditions that allow the body to conduct electricity, including sweating and
contact with the ground or moisture. Elementary safety precautions can be
introduced by use of suitable videos or DVDs — possibly inspiring learners to make
their own filmed documentary on electrical safety. Brief mention can be made of the
use of medical equipment that monitors heartbeat, or defibrillators designed to
readjust the heart phase following cardiac arrest. Different effects on the heart of ac
and dc should be emphasised. Tutors should also explain that circuit resistance (and
body resistance), current and time are the important elements that determine the
extent of electric shock.
Learning outcome 4 should be delivered using the practical techniques used
throughout the unit. It is essential that learners have direct experience of measuring
devices, in particular multimeters, oscilloscopes and data logging devices. The
emphasis should be placed on usage rather than academic understanding of the
equipment’s workings. Various circuits can be constructed to show the uses of
components within a potential divider network and variations of resistances recorded
by multimeter. These will include thermistors and LDRs. The Wheatstone bridge
arrangement of resistors can be demonstrated to indicate the way in which sensitivity
of the transducers in these circuits can be increased. Complex calculations need not
be carried out. The knowledge gained from learning outcomes 1 and 2 can be
reinforced by viewing the Wheatstone bridge arrangement and the balancing of
potential difference involved.
Transducers in general should be explained in terms of accepted electrical and
physical characteristics. The confusion of ‘passive’ or ‘active’ depending on text used
can be eliminated by attention to usage rather than energy conversion. Generally,
real transducers (eg thermocouple, piezoelectric) produce their own EMF. LDRs,
thermistors and strain gauges do not and can be more properly referred to as sensors.

Oscilloscopes and uses for voltage measurement of ac and dc waveform displays can
be well demonstrated. Emphasise the large impedance a CRO has which makes it
suitable as a voltmeter. Additional characteristics of a CRO need not be addressed,
but brief mention could be made of its use to study non-electrical effects which are
converted to voltages by transducers.
As often as possible, learners should use data logging devices taking information from
physical changes. This should familiarise them with data collection, processing and
display. There is no need to explain particular functions in detail — learners should
appreciate their usefulness as measurement devices.
Assessment
For P1, learners must comprehensively list all the electrical terms studied in the
contents section, giving a brief description of each. This may be done by simply
designing a definition catalogue or poster. Practical work can be incorporated to
provide evidence of electrical quantities and some relationships. However, it is
unlikely that all electrical relationships can be demonstrated in this way. Further
written descriptions of these may be necessary.
On completion of this unit, learners should be able to obtain measurements of
voltage, current and resistance in series and parallel circuits. For P2, learners must
provide evidence of practical electrical circuit construction and measurements. They
must show competence in circuit construction and measurement, using up to three
resistors in a variety of configurations, and draw circuits clearly. There is no specific
number of circuits required, but tutors should ensure that they are varied and
constructed by the learners.
For P3, learners could show the characteristics of ac and dc by production of a large
poster, which could be developed as part of a classroom display. There is no need for
the poster to present detailed sections concerning ac and dc, but the essential
elements must be displayed. Information concerning standard methods of circuit
protection must be shown. The effects of both ac and dc on the body can be
illustrated by artistic work or a simple report. Alternatively, a video presentation or
classroom ‘lecture’ can be produced which would help learners to incorporate the
academics of this topic and develop presentation skills.
For P4, learners must provide general descriptions of various transducers commonly
in operation. The uses to which these devices are put can be clearly contextualised
and evidence for this section could be from a work placement. This criterion can also
be linked with circuit measurement for P2 and the uses of measurement devices
could be suitably demonstrated. If placements are used, the exact uses of devices
can be written as a brief technical glossary.
met.

For M1, learners must demonstrate the ability to use correct electrical relationships
and calculate values of electrical quantities. Tutors can provide formulae sheets
which can incorporate many or all examples of standard suitable calculations which
can be performed by the learners and assessed. Care must be taken to eliminate an
arbitrary pass score based on a test exercise, by encouraging learners to thoroughly
research the formulae and provide guidance on the use of scientific calculations.
Putting example questions in context is recommended.
For M2, learners can use the values obtained in the evidence provided for P2 and
make accurate circuit calculations using data. In addition, learners should be able to
predict values of current, voltage and resistance at various points in circuits by
calculation. These predicted values can then be compared to measured values
obtained. Both series and parallel circuit construction must be used as evidence.
For M3, learners must give detailed explanations of how specific safety devices
reduce risk from electricity. Each device studied must be described with the aid of
clearly labelled diagrams and precise explanatory notes on how the device is
activated within its circuit. Information should also be included as to how
organisations maintain health and safety in relation to hazards posed by use of
electrical equipment. General workplace procedures and guidelines should be
sufficient, but learners can be prompted to highlight one effect of electricity on the
body and describe preventative measures. Learners might best meet this criterion by
presenting their evidence in the form of a health and safety information booklet or
continuation of a video presentation for P3.
For M4, learners are required to choose one transducer and one measurement device
from those studied, and fully explain their operation and characteristics. This
assesses the learners’ ability to research information correctly. Learners can also
make use of various order catalogues from equipment manufacturers. Learners can
produce circuit diagrams of the transducer chosen and provide a full explanation of
its functions, referring to levels of potential difference, current and resistance.
Practical circuit investigation of the device can also provide this evidence, but values
obtained must be verified by the tutor or research text. Suitable transducers are
thermocouples, thermistors and LDRs. Similarly, learners must provide a study of a
measurement device. This must include detailed diagrams of its position within a
measurement system (a block diagram may be suitable if sufficiently annotated) and
the purpose to which it is best suited. Multimeters, for example, have a range of uses
within electrical circuits with a number of adjustable settings. A large poster, with
enough attention to detail, can provide enough evidence to meet the criterion for
this task.
met.
For D1, learners must provide a detailed analysis of a more complex circuit. A
suitable circuit should be provided from a range of texts, or learners can choose a
circuit on which they can provide an in-depth analysis. However, they must perform
unaided calculations of essential electrical quantities using studied relationships in
order to meet this criterion. As many graphical representations for electrical
relationships should be produced as necessary (eg resistance, power, charge). These
should be used to explain relationships within the circuit operation.

For D2, learners must use data gathered from circuit construction and calculations in
M2 to fully assess the comparison made of measured and calculated values. Learners
can provide a report or general account of the operation of a suitable circuit and the
measured and calculated values obtained. Any discrepancies between these values
can be explained by example calculations and circuit understanding. Internal
resistance, for example, can be a factor in many cases, or even circuit wiring and
connections. Equipment used for measurement can be analysed in this section and
some aspects of operation may be used as part of evidence for D4.
For D3, learners must show an ability to critically analyse electrical safety devices
and safety practices to help reduce or eliminate specific risks. The style of critique is
unimportant but the emphasis must be on the overall quality and depth of material
provided. The report must show a clear understanding of the electrical safety
devices’ operation, improvements of electrical devices used and the validity of the
practices put in place by organisations to deal with risk.
For D4, learners must produce an analytical account of the suitability of a chosen
measurement device. This must be a device from those studied. Learners’ evidence
can take the form of, for example, a written report or a video production. The uses
of transducers and their importance are not a specific requirement. Learners must
explain the need to use transducers as a means to provide essential information for
the measurement. In addition, learners may wish to compare specified digital devices
and their analogue counterparts in an attempt to determine the suitability of
measurement devices and the difficulties involved in some recording activities.


• Unit 30: Medical Instrumentation.
Essential resources
• Electrical circuit boards or equivalent.

• Full range of essential electronic and electrical components (including resistors
and capacitors).
• Power supplies (12V dc), low voltage and mains ac.
• Measurement devices:
- voltmeters and ammeters
- multimeters
- high impedance oscilloscopes (single or dual trace)
- signal generator
- microphones and suitable speakers.
• Videos on safety and electrical transmission.

• Access to local medical establishments.

• Data logging devices (eg Phillips range).
• Various conductive wires.
• Access to ICT facility.
• Rheostats and variable resistor packs.
Tutors should be well qualified in electrical or similar disciplines and fully conversant
with components and electrical measurement.
Textbooks
ISBN 0748743162
Duncan T — Electronics for Today and Tomorrow (Hodder Murray, 1997)
ISBN 0719574137
Ellse M and Honeywill C — Electricity and Thermal Physics (Nelson Advanced Science:
Physics) (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2005) ISBN 074877663X
Johnson K et al — Advanced Physics for You (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2000)
ISBN 074875296X
Milward et al — Revise AS Physics for Salters Horners (Heinemann Educational
Milward et al — Revise A2 Physics for Salters Horners (Heinemann Educational
Journal
New Scientist
Websites
www.iee.org.uk Electrical Engineers
www.nationalgrid.com National Grid
www.physicsweb.org.uk The Institute of Physics
www.studentconsult.com Students’ research site

Key skills


• carrying out essential circuit N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
assembly information from relevant sources.
• measuring electrical N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
quantities and using values to stage calculations to do with:
predict circuit behaviour
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• using measured values to N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
explain electrical present your findings and justify your
relationships. methods.

• engaging in practical circuit C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
assembly and measurement
of electrical quantities
• compiling research C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
concerning transducers and least two documents about the same
measurement devices. subject.
1000 words long.


• researching transducers and ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
other devices sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• presenting an electrical ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
health and safety document text with image, text with number,
or video production. image with number.

• constructing and assessing PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
circuit operation and ways of tackling it.
measurement
• changing component values PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
and types for circuit analysis solving the problem.
• assembling electrical circuits PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
and developing a report on review your approach to problem solving.
circuit operation and
effectiveness.

UNIT 18: GENETICS AND GENETIC ENGINEERING
Unit 18: Genetics and Genetic

Engineering
Unit abstract
To study genetics is to study the basis of life itself. This unit is designed to show how
chemicals make up living organisms, and how the mechanisms for DNA replication
(copying) lead to complex patterns of inheritance and evolution.
With the massive developments in DNA technology over the last 20 years, geneticists
can do far more than explain. We now have the tools and the knowledge to
manipulate the blueprints to create ‘novel’ organisms, and current research is
moving towards gene therapies that may be able to correct genetic diseases such as
cystic fibrosis.
In this unit, learners will develop an understanding of the techniques at the heart of
modern genetics — extracting DNA, DNA fingerprinting, transforming cells and
amplifying DNA using the polymerase chain reaction.
The cutting edge of genetics is moving forward at an extraordinary rate, leaving in its
wake an enormous potential for applications. Genetics can no longer be considered a
discipline in its own right: it has an impact in a huge range of other fields and
industries. Geneticists can be found in many fields of forensic work, in epidemiology,
in screening for diseases and in searching for cures. The ever-growing biotechnology
industry depends heavily on the work of geneticists to provide them with both new
products and the means to mass-produce them. Agriculture is finding applications of
genetics in the form of modified crops and the development of defences against pests
and disease. Environmental applications allow us to map migration of species and
populations, and to identify animals illegally taken from the wild.
Scientists must also recognise the broader implications of their work. Learners are
required to examine the impact of selected examples of genetic technology on
industry, society and the ethical values of individuals and organisations.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the processes of cell division and the principles of classical genetics
2 Be able to apply basic techniques of DNA technology
3 Know how gene expression can be controlled
4 Know how genetic engineering can be applied and the possible commercial, social
and ethical impact of these applications.

Unit content
1 Understand the processes of cell division and the principles of classical

genetics
Cell division: stages of mitosis and meiosis, chiasmata, centrioles, chromosome

structure, cytokinesis (in animal cell)
Principles of classical genetics: Mendel’s laws of inheritance, principle of
independent assortment, interpretation of phenotypic ratios from practical
investigation
Structure and function of the human chromosome: genes; chromatids;
centromere; homologous chromosomes; diploid/haploid numbers; gene and
chromosome mutation; normal/abnormal karyotypes
Demonstrate: root tip squash to demonstrate mitosis; simple breeding experiment
to demonstrate monohybrid inheritance
2 Be able to apply basic techniques of DNA technology
DNA extraction: as chromosomes or plasmids

Gel electrophoresis of DNA fragments: use of restriction enzymes; principles of
electrophoresis
Transformation of cells: use of vectors; use of marker genes; screening to
identify transformed cells
Amplification of DNA: polymerase chain reaction
3 Know how gene expression can be controlled
Simple medical genetics: monohybrid inheritance eg cystic fibrosis, Huntington’s

chorea; incomplete dominance eg sickle cell anaemia; multiple alleles;
co-dominance (inheritance of blood groups); sex determination; sex-linkage
eg haemophilia; pedigree analysis and counselling
Gene induction: operons in prokaryotes
4 Know how genetic engineering can be applied and the possible commercial,
social and ethical impact of these applications
Examples of genetic engineering: GM crops; gene therapy

Commercial impact: possible market
Social impact: group of people affected, possible benefits or risks
Ethical impact: environmental consequences, moral dilemmas, responses from
religious organisations and political parties

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 identify the stages of meiosis and mitosis M1 explain how the behaviour of D1 explain how mutations lead to
and carry out a practical investigation chromosomes during meiosis leads to evolutionary change and analyse the
into patterns of dihybrid inheritance variation and correctly apply principles correlation between observed pattern of
of classical genetics to account for the dihybrid inheritance and the pattern
pattern of dihybrid inheritance shown in expected
practical investigation
P2 describe the basic techniques of DNA M2 for each of the basic techniques of DNA D2 for each of the basic techniques in DNA
technology technology, explain the reasons for key technology, suggest practical limitations
steps and, where appropriate, suggest how
these may be overcome
P3 conduct and report on a practical M3 explain how expression of a prokaryotic D3 explain the use of prokaryotes in
investigation into the control of gene is controlled preference to eukaryotes in gene
expression of a prokaryotic gene technology
P4 describe two different examples of M4 explain the commercial, social and D4 evaluate application of genetic
current applications of genetic ethical concerns regarding selected engineering in terms of potential
engineering and in the production of examples of genetic engineering. benefits and drawbacks.
crops and medicines.

Delivery

This unit is intended to have a strong practical element, and learners are expected to
be able to carry out practical work in both Mendelian and molecular genetics.
For learning outcome 1, which involves the study of inheritance, it would be
preferable for learners to complement practical activities with electronic
simulations. Inheritance in Drosophila melanogaster can be investigated using quite
affordable kits form suppliers such as Philip Harris, and do not require any specialist
equipment beyond an incubator. If that is deemed impractical, enough data to allow
a chi-squared analysis can be gathered from counts using sources such as corn cob
sets. Chi-squared analysis can be carried out using an Excel spreadsheet if desired.
Electronic simulations can be found on CD ROM or by online subscriptions to facilities
such as Virtual FlyLab.
Learners are expected to be able to use microscopes competently, and should have
the opportunity to carry out a practical examination of at least one form of cell
division. Mitosis in a garlic or onion tip would be a straightforward practical, with the
locust testis squash for the more adventurous. They need to collect data on the
observed frequency of each stage in order to be able to attempt D1, so tutors should
have prepared slides available to ensure all learners are able to gather data.
For learning outcome 2, the basic techniques of DNA technology are now quite easy
to demonstrate in simplified form in the laboratory. Protocols for DNA or plasmid
extraction, gel electrophoresis, cell transformation and β-galactosidase induction can
be obtained from sources such as the National Centre for Biotechnology Education at
the University of Reading, and Bio-Rad. These protocols are designed to be affordable
within the resources of schools and colleges. The polymerase chain reaction can be
carried out manually using water baths. While this is a laborious process, it gives the
learners a clearer picture of the steps involved in the process than a PCR machine
does.
Learning outcome 3 requires learners to follow clear protocols, but there is still the
opportunity to contextualise. Tutors should explain how these steps are put together
in the industrial and research worlds to facilitate processes such as the manufacture
of human insulin by genetically modified bacteria. Learners should use current and,
where possible, topical examples of genetic engineering, giving a good opportunity to
sample reactions of interested groups.

For learning outcome 4, learners should discuss relevant genetic engineering topics,
and give presentations of their opinions supported by evidence. Tutors should ensure
that the selected topics allow the opportunity for learners to consider commercial,
social and ethical implications.
Assessment
Assessment should be based on learners’ portfolio of practical activities and their

understanding of the underpinning science.
For P1, learners must identify the stages of meiosis and mitosis. They must also
perform a practical investigation into patterns of dihybrid inheritance. Their
investigations could involve use of a root tip squash, Drosophila or E.coli to observe
β–galactosidase induction.
For P2, learners must produce a portfolio of basic DNA technology. These reports
must be based on the learners’ own activities.
For P3, learners must carry out research into different examples of genetic
engineering and present their findings to each other. Learners should be given
guidance on the approximate length of presentation, the use of images and the
correct acknowledgment of resources.
For P4, learners must describe two examples of genetic engineering. One must be an
example from crop production, and the other must be a medicine. Learners may wish
to present their work as a poster or information leaflet.
met.
For M1, learners could use their investigation for P1 to explain the behaviour of
chromosomes and classical genetics. This should take the format of a formal report,
but learners should be encouraged to use visuals (eg diagrams, photographs) where
possible.
For M2, learners must expand their portfolio produced for P2, to show their
understanding of the processes involved in DNA technology.
For M3, learners must explain the mechanisms that control gene expression in
prokaryotes. Learners could do this by, for example, explaining promoter and
operator regions of lac operon, transcription and translation.
For M4, learners could expand their work for P4 to explain the commercial, social and
ethical concerns of genetic engineering and medicine production. They could
emphasise one aspect for each application, but must ensure that they do cover all
three concerns. For example, the commercial and social aspects of crop production,
and the ethical aspects of medicine production.
met.
For D1, learners must carry out and correctly interpret the chi-squared test. It is
acceptable for them to use an Excel spreadsheet, but they must show a correct
understanding of the resulting chi-squared value and draw appropriate conclusions
from it.

For D2, learners could discuss, for example, limitations to the purity of extracted
DNA, difficulties in differentiating between bands of DNA in electrophoresis,
problems in finding an effective vector for many types of cell, and availability of
suitable RNA primers for PCR.
For D3, learners must explain the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes in
order to explain the preference for the use of the former in gene technology. This
may form part of their work for P3 and M3. Alternatively, they may wish to present
this as a separate piece of work, such as a poster or information leaflet.
For D4, learners must consider the commercial, social and ethical implications and
present a case either for or against an example of genetic engineering. The tutor
does not need to assess their decision, but the quality of evidence and argument.

This unit links well with:

• Unit 15: Microbiological Techniques.
Essential resources
Access to normal school or college laboratory facilities is expected. This should

include all usual glassware, water baths, pipettes, microscopes etc. Resources for the
aseptic handling and disposal of bacteria will also be necessary. The laboratory
should have bench surfaces suitable for topical sterilisation. Use of laminar flow
cabinets is desirable but not essential. Pre-irradiated plastic petri dishes and
pipettes, autoclave, media, microbiological loops, spreaders, culture bottles etc will
all be required. Micropipettes and autoclavable tips are recommended. An incubator
will be required for incubation of bacteria and Drosophila.
Since most of the DNA manipulation techniques are either designed to be performed
using basic equipment or come in kit form, they have relatively few essential
requirements. Micropipettes are useful, although simple forms are provided with
many kits, and quantitative observation (desirable, though not essential; qualitative
is acceptable) of β-galactosidase induction requires a colorimeter.
Learners are expected to have access to a library containing Level 3 biology texts, as
well as journals and newspapers in paper or electronic form. They should also have
access to the internet.

Textbooks
Adds J, Larkcom E and Miller R — Molecules and Cells (Nelson Advanced Science:
Biology Series) (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2003) ISBN 074877484X
Adds J, Larkcom E and Miller R — Genetics, Evolution and Biodiversity (Nelson
Advanced Science: Biology Series) (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2004) ISBN 0748774920
Giddings G, Jones N and Karp A — The Essentials of Genetics (Hodder Murray, 2001)
ISBN 0719586119
Journals
Biological Science Review
New Scientist
Scientific American
Websites
www.abpischools.org.uk/resources/poster- Association of the British
series/geneng/geanim.asp Pharmaceutical Industry animation
of genetic engineering
series/pcr/pcranim.asp Pharmaceutical Industry animation
of PCR
series/genome/tryseq.asp Pharmaceutical Industry animation
of DNA sequencing
www.biologylab.awlonline.com/flylab_login Virtual FlyLab
www.dnai.org/index DNA interactive (by Cold Spring
Harbour Laboratory)
www.dnalc.org/ddnalc/resources/animations Gene Almanac DNA animations (by
Cold Spring Harbour Laboratory)
www.dnalc.org/ddnalc/resources/shockwave/ DNA detective (by Cold Spring
dnadetectives Harbour laboratory)
www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/menu National Centre for Biotechnology
Education
www.vcell.ndsu.nodak.edu/~christjo/vcell/ Virtual Cell Animations (including
animationSite/index transcription, translation and lac
operon)

Key skills


• carrying out a practical N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
investigation into patterns of information from relevant sources.
dihybrid inheritance
• carrying out chi-squared N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
calculations stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• drawing conclusions from chi- N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
squared calculations and present your findings and justify your
evaluating investigation into methods.
dihybrid inheritance.


• explaining the commercial, C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
social and ethical concerns
over selected examples of
genetic engineering
• doing a presentation of their C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
experimental findings on the eight minutes using an image or other
control of gene expression in support material.
prokaryotes
• reading about the C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
commercial, social and least two documents about the same
ethical concerns over genetic subject.
engineering
1000 words long.
• writing an evaluation on the C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
potential benefits and each one giving different information
drawbacks of genetic about complex subjects.
engineering.
words long.

• researching presentations on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
applications of genetics sources, and multiple search criteria in at
engineering least one case.
• making a presentation on ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
applications of genetic text with image, text with number,
engineering. image with number.

UNIT 19: PRACTICAL CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Unit 19: Practical Chemical Analysis

Unit abstract
The nutritional information panel on a box of baby formula lists information for more
than 15 chemical components, including the quantities per 100g of protein, fat,
calcium and vitamin A. These values were determined using analytical chemistry
techniques and represent just a small area where aspects of analytical chemistry
contribute to our lives. For all major sporting events a team of analytical chemists is
active behind the scenes, analysing a variety of body fluids for microscopic traces of
illegal substances.
Chemical analysis has many applications in manufacturing, particularly in product
quality control, monitoring of production processes and drug development processes
in the pharmaceutical industry. It is also a key component in health care (in the
diagnosis of disease), forensic science (analysing substances found at crime scenes),
and public health (testing drugs, food, air quality, water quality and monitoring
industrial waste).
The analytical process encompasses a range of skills including sampling techniques,
separation and isolation of components, estimating error limits, data manipulation
and interpretation and communication of results. Increasingly, analytical procedures
utilise complex electronic equipment and computer-aided interpretation of results.
In this unit spectroscopic and chromatographic methods are investigated, together
with aspects of volumetric analysis necessary to produce calibrated sample and
reference solutions. The analytical process is contextualised by exploring the range
and application of analytical procedures within a commercial or industrial analytical
laboratory.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to prepare and standardise solutions of specified concentrations
2 Understand the design and operating principles of selected spectroscopic
instruments and be able to use spectroscopic methods to analyse chemical
substances
3 Understand the principles of chromatographic separation of components and be
able to use chromatographic methods to separate and analyse chemical
substances
4 Understand how an industrial or commercial laboratory operates.

Unit content
1 Be able to prepare and standardise solutions of specified concentrations
Molarity: calculations involving molar quantities; calculation of concentration

including use of dilution factors necessary to produce a range of standard
solutions from a given stock solution of known concentration
Standard solutions: preparation of solutions of fixed concentration; appropriate
titrations to determine concentration or standardise given solutions; dilution of
stock solutions to give a series of related standard solutions
2 Understand the design and operating principles of selected spectroscopic

instruments and be able to use spectroscopic methods to analyse chemical
substances
Spectroscopic instruments: eg ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy, infrared

spectroscopy, 1H NMR spectroscopy, atomic spectroscopy, mass spectrometry;
block diagrams showing key components; basic principles of operation eg energy
sources, optics, magnets, detectors
Spectroscopic techniques: eg infrared spectroscopy, absorption bands and
correlation charts, identification of organic functional groups, origin and uses of
the fingerprint region; ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy, Beer-Lambert law,
measurement of absorbance, construction of calibration curves, measurement of
concentration, determination of molar absorption coefficients; atomic
spectroscopy, applications of absorption and emission spectroscopy, criteria for
method selection, use in quantitative analysis, calibration curves and internal
standards; 1H NMR spectroscopy, conditions for NMR activity, examples of other
NMR active nuclei in addition to H, TMS as internal standard, correlation charts,
integration traces, spin-spin splitting, identification of simple organic compounds
from 1H NMR spectra; mass spectrometry, measurement of relative molecular
mass, simple fragmentation patterns

3 Understand the principles of chromatographic separation of components and

be able to use chromatographic methods to separate and analyse chemical
substances
Chromatographic principles: stationary and mobile phases; adsorption (liquid-

solid) chromatography; liquid-liquid chromatography; gas-liquid chromatography
(GLC); ion exchange chromatography; Rf values; visualisation/detection of
fractions; quantitative and qualitative uses; basic instrumentation (where
appropriate)
Chromatographic methods: eg practical applications of chromatographic
separations eg paper, column, thin layer, GLC, high performance liquid
chromatography (HPLC), ion exchange, molecular exclusion (gel permeation)
chromatography
Chemical substances: simple mixtures eg glucose-maltose mixture, seven food
dye mixture dissolved in water (Erythrosin, Brilliant Black BN, Fast Red E,
Naphthol Red S, Yellow Orange S, Ponceau 4R and Tartrazine)
4 Understand how an industrial or commercial laboratory operates
Laboratory type: any multifunctional laboratory eg hospital clinical chemistry,

government public health, industrial quality control laboratory
Processes: range of analytical procedures; data recording and manipulation; data
presentation; quality assurance; security; accreditation; documentation of
standard operating procedures

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 calculate amounts and use volumetric M1 perform calculations and use volumetric D1 evaluate the reliability of the
methods to prepare a range of solutions techniques to determine concentrations calculations and techniques used to
of known concentration of solutions determine concentrations of solutions
P2 use and explain the principles of M2 interpret spectroscopic data from D2 collate spectroscopic and other data
operation of selected spectroscopic individual sources from a variety of techniques to identify
techniques to accurately measure unknown compounds
unknown concentrations
P3 use and explain the principles of M3 explain the results of separation D3 use either GLC or HPLC data to measure
operation of selected chromatographic including any possible sources of error components of a mixture and compare
techniques to accurately separate simple the results of the two techniques
mixtures
P4 describe the range of analytical M4 select two analytical procedures, D4 select two analytical procedures,
procedures and data recording methods describe the format of the data for the evaluate the practical analyses
in an industrial or commercial analytical end user and explain how the raw data is undertaken and explain how the
laboratory. transformed into this format. accuracy of the results is quality
assured.

Delivery

This should be a mainly practical unit and the appropriate laboratory facilities and
equipment are essential. It is expected that learners will have hands-on experience
of as many techniques as possible, including at least two of the instrumental methods
listed in learning outcome 2 and either GLC or HPLC. Where this is not possible,
learners will have to use secondary data, rather than generating data themselves.
Wherever possible, assessment should involve practical work. Throughout the unit
experimental reports should be used to confirm the use of practical techniques.
These should provide clear descriptions of techniques, justification for choice of
technique, accurate recording and presentation of results, correct manipulation of
data and appropriate analyses, discussion of results and limitations of techniques.
Safety aspects should be paramount throughout the unit.
Not all centres will have access to the entire range of spectroscopic equipment, so
sample spectra and analyses may need to be supplied for interpretation purposes.
The main focus of learning outcome 1 is to ensure that learners are confident with
calculations and manipulation of data relating to molar quantities and
concentrations. They should be competent in the volumetric techniques necessary to
accurately prepare a range of stock solutions for calibration curves, and to determine
concentrations of unknown solutions by titration.
In learning outcome 2 the object is to enable learners to understand all the listed
techniques without over-burdening them with excessive theoretical detail. Where
possible, block diagrams should be used to explain operating details and principles of
techniques. Emphasis should be placed on the appropriate selection of techniques,
accuracy of use within defined limits, manipulation of data to suit an end-user and
the ability to bring together a variety of spectra data to confirm the identity of
unknown compounds. As a minimum, learners should have hands-on experience of at
least two of the techniques of ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy
or atomic spectroscopy.

A similar approach should be taken for learning outcome 3, this time relating to
chromatographic techniques. The various types of stationary and mobile phases
should be covered and related to the differing listed chromatographic procedures.
Again, tutors should give learners a basic explanation of all the listed
chromatographic techniques with a minimum of theoretical complexity. As with
learning outcome 2, a practical approach is expected wherever possible. As a
minimum, learners should have hands-on experience of TLC and paper
chromatography, two non-instrumental column processes and either GLC or HPLC.
The quantitative use of chromatography and appropriate internal and external
standards should be covered.
Learning outcome 4 should allow learners to appreciate how a multifunctional
analytical laboratory operates, preferably by means of a group visit. If this is not
possible, a literature search or case study relating to the work of a hospital clinical
chemistry or other suitable analytical laboratory should be undertaken. Prior to the
visit, the range of analytical procedures undertaken by the laboratory should be
considered, including any necessary safety and security considerations. Two
procedures should be selected by an individual learner for detailed study. Emphasis
should be placed on data measurement, safety and security aspects, how the data is
transformed and presented for the end-user, and how the results are quality assured.
These topics should then be investigated during the visit.
Assessment
For P1, learners must perform accurate calculations to determine the number of
grams of a substance necessary to make up a specified volume of a solution of given
concentration. They must also show the ability to use volumetric techniques to
prepare stock solutions, and from these a range of related calibrated solutions by
dilution. Calculations and final results must be accurate. Accuracy is very important
to employers. Learners should practise and repeat techniques until they have a
reasonably accurate result to present for assessment.
For P2, learners must demonstrate a basic understanding of the principles of
operation of the spectroscopic techniques covered in this unit. They could produce
annotated block diagrams and/or simple descriptions and statements. They must
demonstrate safe and competent use of the techniques, but may require
considerable guidance.
For P3, learners must demonstrate a basic understanding of the principles of
operation of selected chromatographic techniques. They could produce either
annotated block diagrams and/or simple descriptions and statements. They must use
chromatographic procedures safely and competently but may require considerable
guidance and not always produce results where a separation is fully effected.
For P4, learners must describe the range of analytical procedures, relating to their
areas of study in learning outcomes 2 and 3, which are practiced in an analytical
laboratory. They must consider the practical techniques used by the analyst and how
these might differ from their own experiences in the laboratory. They should also
comment on the data recording methods for each of the analytical procedures
covered.

met.
For M1, learners must independently perform correct and error-free calculations for
preparing stock solutions. They must be able to prepare stock solutions repeatedly
within stated acceptable limits of accuracy. Learners must also be able to
standardise a given solution using titrimetry by following a given procedure. They
must perform related calculations with minimum assistance. Reports must be
detailed and mainly error free.
For M2, learners must be able to use spectroscopic techniques to measure the
concentrations of unknown solutions within stated acceptable limits of accuracy,
although some guidance from the tutor may be necessary. They must be capable of
interpreting spectroscopic data, eg identification of functional groups using infrared,
recognition of fragmentation patterns from mass spectrometry, and identification of
molecular fragments from NMR.
For M3, learners must be able to confidently use chromatographic procedures to
separate simple mixtures without guidance. The results must show clear separations.
In reporting, learners must demonstrate knowledge of the effects of varying the
stationary and mobile phases.
For M4, learners must select two appropriate analytical procedures and describe for
each the form in which the raw data is initially produced, eg absorbance
measurements, parts per million, etc. The final form in which the data is produced
for the end-user must be considered, eg print out in concentration units, bar charts,
graphical display, out of range results highlighted, etc. The reasons for a particular
type of presentation must be explained, and some comment offered on the
transformations that have been undertaken to produce this type of output, eg steps
necessary to convert an absorbance reading for an unknown solution into a
concentration reading for an end-user.
met.
For D1, learners must be capable of working consistently within specified accuracy
limits and be able to independently perform all necessary calculations and tasks. All
sections of reports must be detailed with no deficient areas.
For D2, learners must be capable of working independently in all areas. They must be
able to collate data from a variety of spectroscopic sources (eg uv/visible, NMR,
infrared, mass spectrometry) to identify a simple unknown organic compound.
Similarly for a given simple organic compound they should be able to predict the type
of spectroscopic data that would be necessary to confirm identity, eg infrared bands,
mass spectrometry fragment patterns, NMR chemical shifts and coupling patterns, or
integration traces. Accounts of compound identification should be accompanied by
clear explanation and reason.
For D3, learners must be able to independently select and use chromatographic
techniques. Reports must be detailed with no deficient areas. Learners must also,
with limited guidance, be able to use either GLC or HPLC to separate and determine
the concentration of the components of a mixture using suitable internal/external
reference standards as appropriate.

For D4, learners must produce a full evaluation of two analytical procedures, eg
appropriateness of the technique, sensitivity of techniques, possible error sources,
error limits, security issues, etc. They must explain in detail the methods used in the
laboratory to assure the quality of the results.


Essential resources
This is essentially a practical unit and access to a well-equipped analytical laboratory

is essential. Learners will not be able to pass this unit without some hands-on
experience. The absolute minimum requirement, in terms of analytical
instrumentation, is that learners should have hands-on experience of two techniques
from uv/visible spectroscopy, atomic spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, mass
spectrometry or 1H NMR spectroscopy and either HPLC or GLC. Where it is not
possible to provide hands-on experience centres should use data from libraries of
spectra and/or literature on experimental sources.

Textbooks
Barker J — Mass Spectrometry (Analytical Chemistry by Open Learning Series) (John
Wiley & Sons, 1998) ISBN 0471967629
Dean J R (editor) — Atomic Absorption and Plasma Spectroscopy (Analytical
Chemistry by Open Learning Series) (John Wiley & Sons, 2000) ISBN 0471972541
Downard K — Mass Spectrometry: A Foundation Course (Royal Society of Chemistry,
2004) ISBN 0854046097
Fowlis I A — Gas Chromatography (Analytical Chemistry by Open Learning Series)
(John Wiley & Sons, 1995) ISBN 0471954683
Hanai T — HPLC: A Practical Guide (RSC Chromatography Monographs) (Royal Society
of Chemistry, 1999) ISBN 0854045155
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context: Laboratory Manual and Student Guide
(Chemistry in Context) (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2001) ISBN 0174483074
Lajunen L H and Peramaki P — Spectrochemical Analysis by Atomic Absorption and
Emission, 2nd Edition (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2005) ISBN 0854046240
Levinson R — More Modern Chemical Techniques (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2002)
ISBN 0854049290
Lindsay S — High Performance Liquid Chromatography (Analytical Chemistry by Open
Learning Series) (John Wiley & Sons, 1992) ISBN 0471931152
Sewell P A and Clarke B — Chromatographic Separations (Analytical Chemistry by
Open Learning Series) (John Wiley & Sons, 1987) ISBN 0471913715
Stuart B H — Modern Infrared Spectroscopy (Analytical Chemistry by Open Learning
Series) (John Wiley & Sons, 1995) ISBN 0471959170
Thomas M J K — Ultraviolet and Visible Spectroscopy (Analytical Chemistry by Open
Learning Series) (John Wiley & Sons, 1996) ISBN 0471967432
CD ROMs
Practical Chemistry for Schools & Colleges (Royal Society of Chemistry)
Spectroscopy for Schools & Colleges (Royal Society of Chemistry)
Websites
www.bbc.co.uk/science BBC
www.chemsoc.org The RSC’s Chemical Science Network

Key skills


• following a laboratory N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
protocol involving use of information from relevant sources.
numbers
• calculating amounts of N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
material for preparing stage calculations to do with:
solutions of known
a amounts or sizes
concentration
d using formulae.
• producing a written or verbal N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
report on the use of a present your findings and justify your
spectroscopic technique to methods.
measure a solution of
unknown concentration.

• discussing and collating C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.

spectroscopic and other data
to identify unknown
compounds
• describing the operating C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
principles of an instrument. eight minutes using an image or other
support material.


• researching analytical ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
procedures in a public health sources, and multiple search criteria in at
laboratory least one case.
• using software to produce ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
graphs and tables from derive new information.
experimental data
• writing reports of practical ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
investigations. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

• planning the PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
chromatographic separation ways of tackling it.
of a given mixture of
compounds
• carrying out the practical PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
investigation solving the problem.
• evaluating the results of the PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
chromatographic separation. review your approach to problem solving.

• planning an investigation on WO3.1 Plan work with others.
the range of procedures and
data-recording methods in a
commercial laboratory
• carrying out an investigation WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
on the range of procedures progress towards your agreed objectives.
and data-recording methods
in a commercial laboratory
• identifying ways to improve WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
their investigation on the of improving collaborative work in future.
range of procedures and
data-recording methods in a
commercial laboratory.

UNIT 20: MEDICAL PHYSICS TECHNIQUES
Unit 20: Medical Physics Techniques

Unit abstract
Diagnostic medicine has come a long way since the time when the best diagnosis
occurred during the post-mortem examination. Surgery today is faster, less invasive
and more effective than ever — thanks in part to improvements in medical imaging
technology. Imaging gives the doctor a clearer understanding of the patient’s
condition so treatment can be planned more effectively and therapy delivered more
precisely.
The future prospects are even more exciting. Medical imaging is extending human
vision into the very nature of disease; at the cellular level it will permit diagnosis
before symptoms even appear. Surgery in the future will be bloodless, painless and
non-invasive. It will be powered by medical imaging systems that focus on the disease
and use energy to destroy the target, but preserve healthy tissue. Researchers are
testing the use of high-intensity ultrasound to destroy tumours identified and
targeted while the patient lies in a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner.
One day soon, patients will be all alone in the operating theatre, a germ-free
environment where surgery is conducted remotely by robotic arms inside advanced
MRI machines.
This unit introduces learners to some of the established practices in medical physics
imaging. It aims to deliver the underpinning knowledge of several of the fundamental
techniques and provide a basic introduction to the more complicated theory of
magnetic resonance imaging.
Learning outcomes
1 Know atomic structure and the physical principles of ionising radiation and
ultrasound
2 Understand the use, production and detection of radiopharmaceuticals for
diagnostic imaging
3 Understand the basic principles of magnetic resonance imaging
4 Understand the importance of radiation safety to the treatment of malignant
disease with radiotherapy.

Unit content
1 Know atomic structure and the physical principles of ionising radiation and
ultrasound
Radioactivity: industrial applications; atomic structure; characteristics of alpha,

beta (β+ and β-) and gamma radiations; random nature of radioactive decay, half-
life t 1 , decay constant λ and activity A = A0 e − λt , A = λN
2
X-rays: industrial applications eg production of X-rays from a target; X-ray

spectrum and effect of tube voltage, tube current, target material and filtration;
interaction of X-rays with matter; attenuation, inverse square law, absorption and
ln 2
scattering, intensity I = I 0 e − μx and half value thickness x 1 =
2
μ
Ultrasound: industrial applications; production of ultrasound and basic principles
⎡
of, eg pulse echo technique, reflection ⎢α =
( z 2 − z1 ) ⎤
2
⎥ and refraction,
⎣ (z 2 + z1 )2 ⎦
interaction with tissue, scattering and absorption; intensity measurement in
decibels; specific acoustic impedance; sonar principle and ultrasonic scanning
ie A-scan, B-scan and M-scan; Doppler effect; measurement of blood flow using
Doppler ultrasound
2 Understand the use, production and detection of radiopharmaceuticals for

diagnostic imaging
Radionuclides: industrial applications eg radionuclides; radionuclide generators

and preparation of radiopharmaceuticals; the need for quality control, sterility
and apyrogenicity; advantages and disadvantages of radionuclide imaging
The gamma camera: operating principles of main components; function as a
detector
3 Understand the basic principles of magnetic resonance imaging
Nuclear magnetic resonance: industrial applications; proton spin, energy levels

and precession; resonance; overview of process ie block diagram; factors
influencing signal intensity; relaxation, contrast and resolution
Instrumentation and equipment: eg magnets, gradient field coils, radio frequency
coils
MRI applications and safety: eg abnormal body water, joints, abdomen, head and
spine; instruments and equipment, implants, patient tolerance and quenching

4 Understand the importance of radiation safety to the treatment of malignant

disease with radiotherapy
Effect of X-rays: effect on cells and tissue in relation to malignant disease;

absorbed and effective doses
Radiotherapy: eg megavoltage and superficial therapy; beam characteristics,
multiple and rotational beams, wedges and compensators; linear accelerator;
industrial applications
Radiation safety: major effects of ionising radiation on the body; outline of the
need for legislative requirements and dose limits; use of film badges and
thermoluminescent dosimeters; procedures for reducing radiation hazards

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe atomic structure, radioactivity, M1 explain the random nature of decay and D1 analyse the effect of the operation and
and the production of X-rays and how it relates to half-life design of the tube/head on a typical X-
ultrasound ray spectrum
P2 describe the production and detection of M2 compare the desirable biological D2 evaluate the choice of
radiopharmaceuticals and the operating properties and radiological properties of radiopharmaceuticals for a range of
principles of the gamma camera radionuclides used for imaging clinical imaging requirements
P3 outline the process of magnetic M3 explain the factors influencing signal D3 compare and evaluate the appearance of
resonance imaging, and the intensity in MRI bone and soft tissue in an MRI scan and a
instrumentation and equipment used conventional X-ray
P4 explain the principles and effects of M4 explain how excessive exposure to D4 evaluate a range of therapy techniques,
radiation therapy and the equipment radiation can cause harm. types of radiation available and the
used. equipment used.

Delivery
Each learning outcome has a significant amount of underpinning knowledge, and is

best delivered by starting with the industrial applications. The practical opportunities
are limited in this unit but work should be developed, where possible, to support
learning outcome 1. It is unlikely that centres will have the facilities for learners to
carry out practical work for the remaining learning outcomes. Therefore, tutors
should use video recordings, computer simulations, visits to hospital medical physics
departments and guest speakers. Lectures, group work and directed reading would
also be appropriate in this unit.
If learners will be working in hospital departments it may be possible for additional
practical investigations to be undertaken in the workplace. The more inventive the
methods of assessment, the better.
If the tutor can convey the necessary enthusiasm for what is a remarkable area of
science and actively work to engage learners through different methods of delivery,
it should be a rewarding experience for all concerned. It is suggested that each area
of medical imaging be followed through the criteria. For example, nuclear medicine
begins with basic principles in learning outcome 1, techniques examined in learning
outcome 2, and safety addressed in learning outcome 4.
This is a complex subject and care should be taken not to exceed the level of the
course, especially with the section on MRI which should only be dealt with
qualitatively.
Learners should be made aware that our world is radioactive and has been since it
was formed. Every day, we ingest and inhale radionuclides in our air and food and the
water, but the safety procedures and sterility required when dealing with
radionuclides for medical uses should be stressed.
Assessment
The assessment of P1, M1 and D1 could be aided by the learner having practical
experience of radioactive sources. As the cost of keeping these sources and the
safety issues concerned can be prohibitive, tutors should make use of one of the
excellent virtual experiments available on the web. In addition for D1, learners must
explain the types of spectrum before the effects of voltage, current, target material
and filters are examined.
For P2, learners could produce a poster or similar graphic assignment. For M2 and D2,
learners must carry out some background research on the subject of
radiopharmaceuticals, and summarise the information. The criteria are structured for
independent learning and M2 and D2 are clearly differentiated tasks.

For P3, learners must outline the process of MRI and have an understanding of the
equipment used. They could produce two simple block diagrams of the process and
equipment in a PowerPoint presentation. For M3, learners must explain the factors
influencing signal intensity in MRI. They could do this by writing a brief report. For
D3, learners must compare the appearance of bone and soft tissue in an MRI scan
with that produced by X-ray.
For P4 and D4, learners could write a report on radiotherapy. For M4, learners must
explain how excessive exposure to radiation can cause harm. They could do this by
making a safety leaflet.

This unit is linked to:

Essential resources
All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities and ICT resources.
Library access to a range of physics books at Level 3 standard is expected.
Textbooks
ISBN 0748743162
Duncan T — Advanced Physics, 5th Edition (Hodder Murray, 2000) ISBN 0719576695
Ellse M and Honeywill C — Mechanics and Radioactivity (Nelson Thornes, 2003)
ISBN 0748776605
Pope J — Medical Physics: Imaging (Heinemann Advanced Science) (Heinemann
Educational Secondary Division, 1999) ISBN 0435570943
Websites
www.goingfora.com/radiology/index.html The Royal College of Radiologists
www.health.howstuffworks.com/x-ray2.htm How Stuff Works
www.tre.ngfl.gov.uk Teacher Resource Exchange
www.uhrad.com/ctarc.htm Body Teaching Files

Key skills


• using formulae in calculation N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
of reflection of ultrasound stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• generating conclusions from N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
results of calculations. present your findings and justify your
methods.


• discussing the suitability of C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
radiopharmaceuticals for
applications
• producing and detecting C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
ultrasound eight minutes using an image or other
support material.
• reading material and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
synthesising information on least two documents about the same
radionuclides subject.
1000 words long.
• producing a safety leaflet for C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
radiotherapy each one giving different information
• reporting on radionuclides
and identifying the quality One document must be at least 1000
control mechanisms words long.
necessary in the preparation
of a radiopharmaceutical
with a comparison of the
desirable biological and
radiological properties of
radionuclides used for
imaging.


on methods of heat transfer least one case.
• selecting data or text
• displaying results in ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
• entering information from
internet sources
presentations on selected text with image, text with number,
topics image with number.
• presenting details of
investigations
• presenting reports of
internet research.

will be met.
improvement.

UNIT 21: BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE TECHNIQUES
Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques

Unit abstract
Biomedical science is a fascinating field that primarily looks at the basic molecular
structure of the human body, the mechanisms by which the body functions, how the
body is able to deal with ‘invaders’ and what happens during attack by invaders and
other disease processes. Understanding normal bodily functions makes it easier to
understand abnormalities. Through exploring the molecular composition of the
human body and the mechanisms by which cells divide, learners can appreciate the
complexity of life.
This unit introduces learners to microbiology and explores the major groups of
organisms of medical importance. It also explains the ways in which they are spread
throughout the population. Mechanisms used to control such organisms inside and
outside of the body will be examined, including immunological methods of defence.
This unit then develops learners’ understanding of topics such as cellular pathology,
clinical chemistry, haematology and transfusion science.
Practical applications will be used throughout this unit to reinforce theoretical
aspects of biomedical science. Learners will be expected to complete the practical
requirement of this unit in order to develop important skills necessary for working in
various applied science workplaces — particularly those in the health sector.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the structure and characteristics of major groups of organisms of
medical importance
2 Understand how the body defends itself against infection
3 Know how the principles of blood transfusion science relate to the study of
haematology
4 Understand cell pathology and the working of groups of cells (tissues and organs)
in clinical biochemistry.

Unit content
1 Understand the structure and characteristics of major groups of organisms of

medical importance
Structure and characteristics of the major groups of organisms of medical

importance: bacteria (circular DNA, cell membrane, cell wall, capsule, flagella,
pilli, cocci, bacilli, Gram stain); viruses (obligate intracellular parasites, DNA or
RNA nucleic acid, capsid, capsomere, envelope, spikes, use of photomicrographs
to view structure); fungi
Concepts of parasitism: symbiosis; commensalisms; pathogenicity
Sources of infection: human reservoirs; animal reservoirs; non-living reservoirs
Routes of transmission: contact; vehicle; vectors
Routes of entry into the body: orifices; droplets; body fluids
Antimicrobials: asepsis; disinfection; sterilisation; antibiotics; antiviral agents;
antifungal agents
Demonstrate: preparation and observation of heat fixed smears of Gram-positive
and Gram-negative bacterial samples; determination of antibiotic sensitivity;
practically demonstrate asepsis and disinfection
2 Understand how the body defends itself against infection
Non-specific defences: barriers (skin, mucous membranes, tears, commensals);

non-specific cellular defences (phagocytes, inflammation)
Specific defences: humoral immunity; cell-mediated immunity
Cells of the immune system and their functions: leucocytes; lymphocytes (B-
lymphocytes/cells, T-lymphocytes/cells, large granular lymphocytes); phagocytes
(mononuclear phagocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils); auxiliary cells (basophils,
mast cells, platelets); others (tissue cells)
Process of immune responses: antigen recognition; reaction to eradicate antigen
Mechanism of inflammation: increased blood supply; increased capillary
permeability; immune cell migration to site

3 Know how the principles of blood transfusion science relate to the study of
haematology
Components of blood: erythrocytes, leucocytes, thrombocytes, structure and

functions, origins
Diagnostic techniques: eg blood smears, red blood cell count, reticulocyte count,
mean corpuscular volume; analysis for iron deficiency, coagulation, platelet
counts, tests for abnormal haemoglobin, blood volumes
Erythrocytes: associated diseases eg anaemia, thalassaemia, megaloblastic
anaemia, aplastic anaemia, vitamin B12 deficiency, foliate deficiency, sickle cell
anaemia
Leucocytes/white blood cells: antibody production; immunoglobulins;
B-lymphocytes, T-lymphocytes, their role in immunity; disorders associated with
leucocytes eg lymphocytosis, infectious mononucleosis, AIDS
Platelets: use in treatment of diseases eg haemophilia
Haemostasis and thrombosis: definitions; significance to the human body
Associated blood diseases: bone marrow failure; leukaemias; lymphomas
eg Hodgkins, non-Hodgkins disease
Transfusions: production of blood products; red cell compatability; pre-
transfusion and transfusion procedures including screening; clinical use of blood
products eg in surgery, intensive care, haemophilia, anaemia, obstetrics,
haemolytic disease of newborn infants, myasthemia gravis, neuromuscular
diseases, Kawasaki disease
Transmissable infections by transfusion: eg hepatitis, cytomegalovirus (CMV),
human parvovirus (B19), malaria, Chagas’ diseases; screening of blood products
4 Understand cell pathology and the working of groups of cells (tissues and
organs) in clinical biochemistry
Clinical biochemistry: uses eg assist diagnosis, confirm diagnosis, screen for

latent disease, evaluate prognosis, monitor disease progress
Biochemistry systems: input eg nutrition, drugs, digestion; control systems
eg genetic, endocrinology, water and electrolytic metabolism, control of calcium
and carbohydrates; processing eg enzymes, metabolic errors; storage and
temperature; eg acid-base balance, blood gases, plasma proteins, lipid and
lipoproteins; defence eg immunoglobulins; output, kidney and liver functions
Cell pathology: cell injury, reversible and irreversible; causes of cell injury; cell
ageing; neoplasia in identifying underlying disease eg cancer cells in sputum,
urine, fluids in chest and abdomen; identification of skin lesions eg melanocytic
lesions, inflammatory lesions eg Lupus, allergic drug reactions; types of cell
collection used for analysis eg pap smear (cervical cancer or any surface cells,
aspiration (use of fine needle to remove cells)

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 demonstrate and describe the structure M1 explain the sources of infection, routes D1 assess the effectiveness of antimicrobials
and characteristics of major groups of of transmission and entry into the human
organisms of medical importance body of microorganisms of medical
importance
P2 understand how the body defends itself M2 explain how the cells of the immune D2 compare and contrast the effectiveness
against infection system allow an immune response to be and efficiency of non-specific defences
evoked and maintained with specific defences
P3 list three diagnostic techniques used in M3 explain the clinical uses of three D3 explain why blood products are screened
blood analysis and describe what different blood products used in and discuss the effectiveness of the
abnormality each technique could transfusions process for one transmissible disease
identify
P4 define cell pathology and describe, M4 explain, using examples, how a D4 discuss the link between a biochemistry
giving examples, its use in identifying knowledge of cell pathology and system and the disease caused when it
underlying diseases. biochemistry can help in following the malfunctions.
course of a disease.

Delivery

The fundamental concepts of this unit should be delivered through tuition, guided
learning, practical work and learner-centred activities. This should include exercises
in data interpretation and problem solving.
Wherever possible, the theoretical aspects of this unit should be related to the
learners’ work-based training and experiences. The medical relevance of the unit
content should be emphasised to make these topics applicable to the vocational
background of the learners.
It is not intended that learners should have detailed knowledge of the contents of
learning outcomes 3 and 4. The intention is to make the learners aware of the range
of systems and procedures involved in understanding how the human body functions
normally, and the procedures that identify abnormalities.
Learners should be encouraged to develop skills in primary and secondary research.
There is some overlap between topics in learning outcomes 2, 3 and 4 but this is
indicated so repetition can be avoided. The tutor should make sure this overlap is
pointed out and used to show the links between sections.
Distinction criteria will develop learners’ knowledge and understanding further.
Tutors should ensure that learners use scientific terminology correctly and
consistently. Wherever possible, learners should be encouraged to work
independently for D1 and D2.
Assessment
For P1, learners must carry out smears of Gram-positive and Gram-negative samples
and describe the structure and characteristics of the range of organisms stated in the
content. This may be presented as a poster, leaflet or similar, provided that the
science is clearly communicated.

For P2, learners must identify the mechanisms by which the human body can defend
itself against infection. Learners could produce a written assignment, verbal
presentation or a poster. The tutor must ensure that the learners generate evidence
that clearly identifies non-specific defences and specific defences.
For P3, learners require knowledge of a number of diagnostic techniques used in
blood analysis. Learners must show how these diagnostic techniques identify a
specific abnormality. It is accepted that learners may not have practical experience
of carrying out the diagnostic techniques, but they should observe them whenever
possible.
For P4, learners must show their understanding of the importance of cell pathology as
a diagnostic tool. Learners must use their own experience of this area of work
whenever possible.
met.
For M1, learners must explain sources of infection, routes of transmission of
microorganisms, and entry of microorganisms into the human body. They must ensure
that the following key terms are explained: human reservoirs, animal reservoirs, non-
living reservoirs, contact transmission, vehicle transmission, vector transmission,
entry via oral cavity, entry via droplet, and entry via body fluids.
For M2, learners must explain how the cells of the immune system evoke and
maintain an immune response. It may be necessary for the tutor to provide a scenario
that outlines a specific disorder, and learners explain the immunological principles
involved.
For M3, learners must explain the role of blood products used in treatment. Three
blood products must be used in the explanation, and depending on the learner’s work
area, personal experiences of blood use can be included here.
For M4, learners must explain the link between biochemistry and cell functions.
Again, depending on the learner’s work area, it might be necessary to give a scenario
detailing a disease, for the learners to show how biochemistry and cell pathology
work together in tracking the progress of the disease.
met.
For D1, learners must provide an assessment of the effectiveness of antimicrobial
agents. Learners must complete practical activities on the determination of
antibiotic sensitivity, demonstration of asepsis and disinfection using various
chemical media (eg bleach, disinfectants, antibacterial spray, sterilising solutions).
After completing this practical work, learners must write a scientific practical report.
The results generated should allow learners to assess the effectiveness of
antimicrobial agents.
For D2, learners must compare and contrast the effectiveness and efficiency of non-
specific immune defences with specific immune defences. Learners must present
their ideas logically and clearly. All non-specific and specific defences listed in the
unit content must be considered.

For D3, learners must consider the safety of the products used in blood transfusions.
They must discuss, in general terms, the screening procedures used and then
evaluate the effectiveness of the screening process in relation to one transmissible
disease.
For D4, learners must understand the biochemistry of a normal functioning cell, then
take an example of where the system goes wrong and examine the consequences, eg
blood clotting and haemophilia. Hodgkins disease could be an example: learners can
discuss the normal functions of the lymph nodes to show what happens when
uncontrolled cell division causes a malignant tumour of the lymph glands.

This unit is linked with:

Essential resources
• Basic laboratory glassware and general laboratory equipment.

• Iodine test reagents.
• Benedict’s test reagents.
• Biuret test reagents.
• Grease spot test equipment.
• Fat emulsion test equipment.
• Flame test equipment.
• Allium species seedlings for performing root tip squash.
• Appropriate plant species or insect species to perform simple monohybrid
inheritance.
• Light microscopes with oil immersion objective lens.
• Prepared microscope slides of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• Photomicrographs showing cell organelles.
• Electron micrographs of viruses showing cellular components.
• Prepared microscope slides of fungi spores.

• Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial cultures.

• Gram stain practical apparatus.
• Microscope slides and cover slips.
• Antibiotic sensitivity testing kit.
• Nutrient agar.
• Petri dishes.
• Sterile swabs and apparatus for aseptic techniques.
• Inoculating loops.
The medical libraries in hospital centres are available to hospital staff and contain a
complete range of specialist journals. Hospital departments often have their own
small library of reference material which is also worth consulting.
Textbooks
Crocker J C — Molecular Biology in Cellular Pathology (John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2003)
ISBN 0470844752
Hoffbrand V and Mehta A B — Haematology at a Glance (Blackwell Publishing, 2005)
ISBN 1405126663
Luxton R — Clinical Biochemistry (Scion Publishing, 2005) ISBN 0750628782
Murphy M F et al — Practical Transfusion Medicine (Blackwell Science, 2000)
ISBN 0632051140
National Blood Service — Guidelines for the Blood Transfusion Services in the United
Kingdom, 7th Edition (The Stationery Office, 2005) ISBN 0117033715
Provan D et al — Oxford Handbook of Clinical Haematology (Oxford University Press,
2004) ISBN 0198526520
ISBN 0471718718
Tortora G J, Funke B R and Case C L — Microbiology: An Introduction (Benjamin
Cummings, 2005) ISBN 0805377522
Journals
Biomedical Scientist
Journal of Epidemiology
New Scientist
Nursing Times
Website
www.bbc.co.uk BBC

Key skills


• acquiring and interpreting N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
data from methods information from relevant sources.
appropriate to a practical
investigation, and planning
and undertaking a
programme of work to
provide relevant data from
the investigation
• using appropriate methods to N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
process primary data from stage calculations to do with:
practical work undertaken
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• drawing and presenting N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
conclusions drawn from present your findings and justify your
processed practical methods.
investigatory data.


discussions about a complex,
abstract scientific subject
such as the structure and
function of biological
molecules, Mendelian
inheritance or the structure
and characteristics of
microorganisms of medical
importance
investigation about a support material.
complex subject
• researching a complex C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
subject least two documents about the same
subject.
1000 words long.
a complex subject as above. each one giving different information
words long.

search for experimental sources, and multiple search criteria in at
methods appropriate to a least one case.
scientific investigation to be
undertaken
• exploring, developing, ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
exchanging and deriving derive new information.
information for the above
purposes
• presenting the information ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
appropriately. text with image, text with number,
image with number.


• developing the plan for a LP3.1 Set targets using information from
scientific practical appropriate people and plan how these
the tutor
encountered

• formulating a plan with a PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
range of options for a ways of tackling it.
scientific practical
investigation
alternative methods of solving the problem.
approach to the
adopted
produced.

UNIT 22: CHEMICAL LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques

Unit abstract
Whether it is in enforcing environmental standards and targets, finding new
medicines to combat cancer, designing new materials to replace worn-out knee joints
or helping to detect and convict criminals, workers with good chemical laboratory
skills are vital. This unit is designed to enable learners to acquire and develop a
range of highly sought-after practical skills.
Chemists make new substances by chemical reactions. In purifying and analysing
these products, it is essential to work safely, carefully and accurately. Chemists must
also be able to interpret and follow instructions and communicate what they have
done and found out. Chemists working in industry use many techniques that involve
very expensive apparatus. During this unit learners will find out about some of this
equipment, and possibly get the chance to use it. However, all chemists started with
basic equipment. In using this equipment carefully and safely, learners will develop
manipulative skills and find that more sophisticated apparatus requires a similar
approach.
During this unit, learners will develop confidence in handling chemicals safely and
the ability to set up equipment, monitor and control the reactions that they use to
produce compounds. Learners will use a variety of analytical techniques to assess the
quality of their products. As they become more experienced, they will refine their
practical skills to achieve greater percentage yields and higher purity more quickly.
Learners should also improve the reliability of their analytical measurements and
observations.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to prepare compounds
2 Be able to isolate and purify compounds
3 Be able to analyse compounds
4 Be able to carry out calculations of percentage yield and percentage purity.

Unit content
1 Be able to prepare compounds
Preparation: one inorganic compound; one organic compound; one substance

extracted from a natural or synthetic material eg a sample of calcium carbonate
by re-precipitation from limestone or chalk, salicylic acid from willow bark or oil
of wintergreen, extraction of plasticisers from PVC clingfilm by reflux with
cyclohexane
Yield: theoretical yield; actual yield; percentage yield
Techniques: procedures for safe dispensing of chemicals eg use of reagent bottles
and Winchesters for eg concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids, acidified
potassium dichromate (VI)
Procedures for the avoidance of contamination of reagents: eg efflorescent or
deliquescent solids, cleanliness of apparatus such as teat pipettes
Procedures for mixing chemicals safely: eg concentrated sulphuric acid, addition
of any reactant likely to cause significant exothermic change; maintaining
homogeneity (manual and magnetic stirrer)
2 Be able to isolate and purify compounds
Heating and boiling under reflux: appropriate use of different heating methods
eg Bunsen burner, heating mantle, water bath, steam bath, thermostatically
controlled water bath; anti-bumping granules
Procedures for the control and monitoring of reactions: temperature; pH; thin
layer chromatography
Procedures for safe disposal of substances: eg concentrated sulphuric acid,
hydrocarbon solvents, other flammable solvents, sharps and broken glassware
Isolation and purification: eg solvent extraction, evaporation, filtration (gravity
and reduced pressure), distillation (simple and fractional), paper and thin layer
chromatography

3 Be able to analyse compounds
Qualitative analysis of inorganic substances: tests for anions, eg Cl-, Br-, I-, CO32-,
NO3-, SO42-, SO32-; tests for cations, eg Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Al3+, Zn2+, Fe2+,
Fe3+, Cu2+, Ni2+
Qualitative analysis of organic substances: tests for eg alkenes, primary and
secondary alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amines, identification
of aldehydes and ketones from melting points of derivatives
Quantitative analysis — volumetric: preparation of solutions of known
concentrations; appropriate titrations to analyse commercially available
substances eg acid/base, iodine/sodium thiosulphate, redox) for eg vinegar,
aspirin, bleach, brass, iron supplement tablets
Qualitative analysis — recording H+ concentration: use of pH meter, basic
operating principles and calibration; use of colorimeter
4 Be able to carry out calculations of percentage yield and percentage purity
Percentage purity: use of equation, % purity = mass of pure substance present in

sample/mass of sample
Molar quantities: the mole; relative molecular mass; calculations using equation,
moles = mass/relative molecular mass
Molar solutions: concentrations of solutions in moles per decimetre3 (molarity);
calculations using: number of moles in given solution = molarity (mol dm-3) x
volume (cm3)/1000; determination of concentration of unknown solutions using:
xM1V1 = yM2V2, where M and V represent the molarities and volumes of solutions
used in titrations and x and y are appropriate quantities obtained from the
balanced chemical equations

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 prepare and report on one organic and M1 select appropriate apparatus and D1 evaluate the impact of the sources of
one inorganic substance techniques to prepare inorganic and error, and propose modifications to the
organic compounds procedure designed to minimise their
impact
P2 isolate and report on one substance from M2 explain the principles of each stage in D2 analyse the choice of techniques and
a natural material and one from a the isolation of one substance apparatus used to carry out a separation
synthetic material
P3 carry out and report volumetric analysis M3 explain the chemical principles D3 evaluate the effectiveness of
and instrumental analysis to identify underpinning the analytical tests used instrumental methods of analysis
cations, anions and simple organic compared with chemical tests to identify
functional groups organic compounds
P4 carry out calculations and report on M4 explain the application in industry of D4 explain the factors that affect yield and
percentage yield and percentage purity percentage yield and percentage purity. purity in the extraction carried out using
for P1, P2 and P3. appropriate scientific ideas, and suggest,
with justification, how they could be
maximised.

Delivery

This unit is designed for learners to develop a range of practical skills. The unit
should be based on vocational applications and each new topic should be introduced
by considering a relevant practical problem and looking at the techniques that are
available to address it.
Activities that provide access to merit and distinction grades, which require
understanding of how the techniques work, should arise naturally from practical
activities wherever possible. Learners should carry out their practical work with an
understanding of how the techniques they are performing might be used in industry.
Site visits or inputs from practicing scientists may help to do this. In many cases, this
will raise questions about the limitations of techniques used and how they might be
modified, or different methods used in the vocational context.
Work placements (if used) should be monitored regularly to ensure the quality of the
learning experience. Learners and supervisors must be made aware of the
requirements of this unit prior to any work-related activities, so that evidence can be
collected during routine work. For example, learners may have the opportunity to
use a rotary evaporator or Soxhlet extractor when purifying a product, and they
should be encouraged to ask for observation records and/or witness statements to be
provided as evidence. Guidance on the use of observation and witness statements is
provided on the Edexcel website.
Whichever delivery methods are used, it is important that tutors stress the necessity
of safe and careful working and accurate reporting.
Learning outcomes 1, 2 and 3 require that learners practice the techniques before
they are assessed, although ‘practical examinations’ are unlikely to be appropriate.
Formal teaching is unlikely to be an effective strategy in this context, unless it arises
naturally from procedures in which the learners are engaged. For instance, tutors will
find it much easier to discuss the principles of boiling under reflux if learners are
engaged in the activity at the time of the discussion. The importance of working to
agreed protocols could be emphasised if learners are asked to write simple protocols
for colleagues (or even the tutor) and then observe the way in which the instructions
are carried out. Learners could be encouraged to generate observation checklists so
that they can assess the safety and accuracy of their colleagues’ work. This approach
can be enhanced by asking learners to demonstrate procedures to other group
members, who are required to provide constructive feedback.

Learning outcome 4 can be introduced by use of a scenario that learners will

understand. This can be set in an economic context, when the importance of high
yield and purity become obvious. Some preliminary teaching will need to have taken
place so that learners are aware of the importance of a balanced equation and have
a functional awareness of the mole concept. Relevant information on yields is
sometimes available on the internet. For instance, an exercise to discover the
quantity of star anise required to produce 1 kg of Tamiflu could be a useful way of
introducing the major principles. The complexity of calculations of percentage purity
depends on the analytical methods used to estimate purity. Again, learners will
develop the skill of carrying out the calculations through practice.
Assessment
Learners must work safely and carefully, and follow detailed instructions to prepare
and analyse substances. All practical work should be reported in a standard format.
For P1, P2 and P3, learners must follow instructions to prepare and assess the purity
of two products. Work must be carried out safely and learners must be supervised.
They may be assisted to carry out some procedures with which they are less familiar.
This should be typical of the degree of supervision of a trainee technician working in
an industrial laboratory. Instructions may be presented in a variety of forms —
written, diagrammatic or verbal. Purity may be assessed by melting or boiling point
for organic compounds. For inorganic compounds, volumetric analysis may be
appropriate. It is expected that learners conform to the requirements of local
laboratory rules at all times.
A range of possibilities may be considered. Learners could either isolate a natural
product from a biological source, or a metal ore from a mixture of the ore and
ganque. Alternatively they could recover a pure substance from a man-made mixture
of which it is a component.
Learners must appreciate the importance of accurate recording of results. It is
essential that results are recorded fully, accurately and clearly in a suitable supplied
format.
For P4, it is essential that learners are aware that the procedures they carry out need
to be reproducible. This can only be achieved if there is agreement over the meaning
of instructions. There is no point carrying out an investigation if the results cannot be
conveyed to others, so they must be recorded accurately and according to
conventions. Equally, reports must show an attempt to state what has been learned
from the investigation. Thus, learners must comment on the purity and yield in any
synthesis, and calculations are required. Learners may be assisted to make sense of
their results to enable them to make conclusions. Where calculations are concerned,
samples can be supplied or they may be invited to enter their experimental results in
a spreadsheet. Learners may be assessed for P4 alongside P1, P2 or P3.
met.
Broadly, a learner who achieves merit will demonstrate that they can make and
explain decisions about the apparatus and techniques they will use. They will be able
to work with less guidance.

For M1, M2 and M3, learners must be able to work from an outline protocol that
describes the process to be followed, quantities and concentrations. The protocol
should not specify the apparatus or how the process is to be carried out, except in
cases where this is essential for safety reasons (eg boiling for 30 minutes under reflux
using a heating mantle). Appropriate data would include melting and boiling points,
density and solubility. All calculations must be carried out correctly.
Learners must work carefully and safely, and take steps to minimise errors and
achieve consistent results. Learners must provide qualitative explanations of errors.
They must be able to identify parallax errors in the reading of a burette, transfer
losses and failure to avoid contamination by appropriate rinsing. They are not
expected to quantify the errors.
For M4, learners must use their knowledge of percentage yields and percentage
purity to comment on industrial situations. It may not always be the most cost
effective to have a high percentage yield, for example, because of the requirement
for high pressure or high temperatures. Equally, the percentage purity required
depends on the use of the product.
met.
A learner who achieves distinction will demonstrate a deeper awareness of the
importance of chemical principles and safe working in an industrial context.
For D1, learners must make quantitative estimates of errors, based on their
experience of practical work. They could do this by measuring the inside diameter of
a pipette, estimating how close to the graduation mark the user can reasonably
adjust the meniscus, and working out what volume of solution this might be.
Alternatively, a pipette could be used to transfer water to a beaker on an
appropriately calibrated balance to make an estimate of the error empirically.
For D2, learners must explain their choice of techniques and apparatus for carrying
out a preparation and a separation. In doing so, they must demonstrate an
understanding of chemical principles such as factors affecting rate and yield. In
preparation, they may justify the choice of apparatus in terms of its fitness for
purpose in relation to the operation required. For example, a conical flask to enable
ease of swirling without loss of contents, a round-bottomed or pear-shaped flask for
its size, considering the volume of reagents it is to hold, etc. For separations, the
learner will need to refer to the data supplied and how they used it to make
decisions.
For D3, learners must research into techniques such as infrared spectrophotometry,
mass spectrometry or nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry. The learner should
demonstrate an understanding of the information these methods of analysis can
supply, the speed at which they can supply it and the quantities of materials that can
be used. They should be able to set this against the slow and inefficient process of
the sort of chemical tests that they have been able to carry out for themselves. This
could be set in a vocational context, for instance, the use of in-line testing using
infrared to achieve more rapid responses in the production of tablets in the
pharmaceutical industry, compared to more traditional methods.

For D4, learners could consider the effects of varying the sequence of processes in
the work-up stage of an organic preparation, or leaving out a step altogether.
Simulations based on the concentration of minerals in extractive industries could be
considered.

The learning outcomes associated with this unit are closely linked with:
Essential resources
Facilities required for this unit are fully equipped chemistry laboratories with fume
cupboards suitable for the teaching of chemistry at Level 3.
Textbooks
Clark J — Calculations in AS/A Level Chemistry (Longman, 2000) ISBN 0582411270
Faust C B — Modern Chemical Techniques (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 1905)
ISBN 1870343190
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context (Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0174481918
(Nelson Thornes, 2001) ISBN 0174483074
Hunt A — Advanced Level Practical Work for Chemistry (Hodder Murray, 2004)
ISBN 0340886722
Levinson R — More Modern Chemical Techniques (The Royal Society of Chemistry,
2001) ISBN 0854049290
MacDonald K — Getting the Message Across: Key Skills for Scientists, 3rd Edition (The
Royal Society of Chemistry, 2001) ISSN 14717166 page 12
Ramsden E N — Calculations for A-Level Chemistry (Nelson Thornes, 2001)
ISBN 0748758399
Useful resources for tutors
Burton G — Salters’ Advanced Chemistry: Teacher’s Guide (Heinemann Educational

Websites
www.chemsoc.org/PDF/LearnNet/rsc/ Royal Society of Chemistry — aspirin
Aspirin_full.pdf activities
www.chm.bris.ac.uk/safety/msds.htm How to read Material Safety Data
Sheets — University of Bristol — site
also contains links to major
manufacturers’ information
www.cia.org.uk/newsite Chemical Industries Association
www.creative-chemistry.org.uk/alevel/ Creative Chemistry website (A-level
practical.htm practical work)
www.physsci.heacademy.ac.uk/Publications/ Physical Sciences Educational
Journal/journ3_2.pdf Reviews
www.rsc.org Royal Society of Chemistry
www.uk.geocities.com/help_with_chemistry/ Practical techniques
index.html
www.uyseg.org/ciec_home.htm Chemical Industry Education Centre

Key skills


• calculating the results of N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
quantitative procedures stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• interpreting the results of N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
quantitative procedures. present your findings and justify your
methods.

• providing feedback to each C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
other about the quality of
their practical work
• demonstrating a technique C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
that they have carried out to eight minutes using an image or other
each other or to a different support material.
audience
• putting together information C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
from hazard data sheets least two documents about the same
about risks of their practical subject.
work
1000 words long.
• preparing reports or C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
explaining the precautions each one giving different information
that would be necessary about complex subjects.
when scaling-up procedures.
words long.


• collecting information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
hazards from manufacturers’ sources, and multiple search criteria in at
data sheets least one case.
• compiling their own risk ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
assessments. derive new information.

• evaluating their ability to LP3.1 Set targets using information from
carry out practical work. appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.

UNIT 23: SCIENCE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNICIANS
Unit 23: Science for Environmental

Technicians
Unit abstract
Understanding the environment, its dynamic character and delicate balances, is
probably more important today than ever before. This unit covers the changes in the
atmospheric conditions and the processes that have sculptured the Earth’s surface
and brought about the rise and fall of plant and animal species over millions of years.
Environmental workers need to have a good understanding of these processes in order
to closely monitor the changes that may occur as a result of environmental
imbalances. This unit looks at the atmosphere and explores our present
understanding of climate and energy transfers through the various atmospheric
levels. It deals with aspects of climate and the effect of human activity on the
atmospheric composition. Learners will explore the issues of renewable and non-
renewable energy sources. The origins and characteristics of major rock types and
soil formation, and the processes of weathering and erosion will also be explored.
Learners will develop field work skills and use scientific methods to identify rocks
and soils.
This unit introduces the fundamental biological processes essential to all plant and
animal life. It deals with organisms which adapt to a variety of conditions, and looks
specifically at photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals. Learners will
explore the importance of water and its physical and chemical properties. Industrial
management of water and related issues will also be examined, together with the
issues raised by water pollution. Learners will be able to contextualise the subject
material in this part with a study of the Environment Agency.
Learners will then discuss the issues and processes involved in the use of natural
resources in the production of energy and in manufacturing. They will consider
recycling and the industrial use of minerals and rocks. Learners will develop their
knowledge by means of useful projects on ‘green’ themes and begin to appreciate
the importance of careful waste disposal and the complexity of the issues.

Learning outcomes
1 Be able to investigate soil and rock formation and understand the processes
influencing their formation and those associated with the Earth’s atmosphere
2 Understand the processes involved with the water cycle and our management of
water
3 Understand the factors associated with plant and animal energy usage and natural
environmental balance
4 Understand the uses and management of raw materials.

Unit content
1 Be able to investigate soil and rock formation and understand the processes
influencing their formation and those associated with the Earth’s atmosphere
Composition and structure of the atmosphere: gaseous composition of

troposphere and stratosphere; layered structure of whole atmosphere;
temperature and pressure changes; the ozone layer in the stratosphere;
mesosphere and ionosphere
Solar energy and energy in the atmosphere: absorption and scattering of
radiation, reflection and albedo of surface; energy and energy transfers, first and
second laws of thermodynamics; the greenhouse effect, ozone protection in the
stratosphere, human influence on composition of atmosphere; historical
atmospheric composition and changes (early atmosphere), convection zones and
coriolis forces
Seasonal variations and weather: rotation of the earth on its axis (day and night)
and its effects; orbital path; the Earth’s tilt and variation of global climate;
ocean currents eg El Niño; air movement over land and in the atmosphere;
temperature variations of oceans and consequent air circulation; general climate
of the UK
Physical and chemical processes association with soils formation: soil properties
including texture, structure, acidity, moisture, organic content and cation
exchange; processes of soil formation, leaching, humification, podsolisation,
calcification and gleying; typical soil types, podsol, brown earth, rendzina, gley
and peat
Physical and chemical processes associated with rock formation: rock cycle;
major rock types; weathering and erosion
2 Understand the processes involved with the water cycle and our management
of water
The water cycle: processes in the water cycle; precipitation; infiltration;

interception; transpiration; evaporation; surface run-off; through-flow;
groundwater and storage; essential use of water for life
Water management: eg water supplies; demand and availability of water;
abstraction; water treatment and distribution; water table variations; aquifer
storage; water quality and control measures
Water pollution: chemical analysis; industrial pollution and problems associated
with thermal, organic and countryside management; pollution causes and effects;
pollution monitoring; work of the Environment Agency

3 Understand the factors associated with plant and animal energy usage and
natural environmental balance
Photosynthesis and energy transfer: investigative approach to factors affecting

photosynthesis rates, yield and plant production or growth; limiting factors; plant
adaptation to environmental change eg temperature, water and light levels
Respiration and energy transfer: aerobic and anaerobic respiration; absorption
and assimilation of food by animal’s energy transfers
Carbon and nitrogen cycles: balance of both cycles and importance to
environment of sustaining the balance; human activity and carbon dioxide
emissions; production of ammonia by decomposition; production of nitrogen by
denitrifying bacteria
4 Understand the uses and management of raw materials
Energy resources: non-renewable energy resources and environmental impact

eg coal, oil and gas; renewable resources eg wind, hydro-electric, waves, tidal,
solar power and biomass; development of nuclear power stations
Soils: the effect of human activity on soil formation and management
eg deforestation
Rocks: extraction of minerals and rocks for industrial use to include limestone and
rock salt
Metals, mineral and organics: eg concentration on extraction of aluminium,
forest cultivation for paper and pulp, processes used and resources necessary for
glass making, use of fossil fuels, separating of hydrocarbons by fractional
distillation, use of oil fractions for plastics (polymer) production, steel
manufacture from raw materials
Recycling and re-use of materials: products which can be recycled to form new
items eg aluminium, plastics, glass, steel, paper; re-use of materials eg textiles,
glass
Waste management: problems eg of site availability for landfill; quantitative
analysis of domestic and industrial waste

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the influences on the Earth’s M1 explain seasonal variations in the UK D1 explain the effects of energy transfers
atmosphere and carry out investigations weather within the Earth’s atmosphere
into soil and rock formation
P2 describe the water cycle and how M2 explain the problems in maintaining D2 analyse the causes and effects of water
demands for water are met in the UK adequate water supplies in the UK pollution and monitoring techniques used
P3 describe energy transfers associated with M3 explain the effects of human activity on D3 explain the importance of sustaining a
plants and animals and relate them to carbon dioxide emissions balance of carbon and nitrogen and
the carbon cycle describe how this balance can be
disrupted
P4 describe the uses of Earth’s raw M4 explain the advantages and D4 analyse the issues involved in
materials and the importance of disadvantages of renewable and non- management of industrial and domestic
recycling. renewable energy sources in relation to waste.
their environmental impact.

Delivery
Tutors must deliver this unit using a wide range of techniques to enthuse and
stimulate learners to produce work of good quality, and develop a clear
understanding of the many natural processes of the world around them.
Industrial experience in the form of visits or guest lectures can be used. Discussion,
presentation, practical assignment, research study, project development and field
work can all be used to further motivate learners and to maintain their interest.
Health and safety issues must be addressed by tutors concerning outdoor aspects of
this unit, especially when undertaking soil and water sampling. Visits to waste and
water management sites will also need careful planning, and tutors should identify
areas of concern in relation to these prior to contacting the sites.
Learning outcome 1 should be delivered in the context of providing ‘the whole
picture’ in relation to the role of the earth and the complex relationships of the land,
sea and atmosphere. Tutors need to emphasise the sun as the ultimate driving force
and the energy transfers which take place within the lower atmosphere as a direct
result.
Learners should appreciate the heat balance that occurs in the atmosphere and
understand that the earth and its atmosphere are reflecting and re-radiating the
same amount of energy as they are receiving. Consideration should be given to the
differential energy amounts received at various places on earth. This can be
demonstrated using a globe in a darkened room and a torch showing the areas
covered by the beam at equatorial and polar regions.
The climate of the UK can be used as a ‘case study’ and can follow studies of climate
which should be introduced on a global scale. Ocean currents, such as El Niño effect
and air currents can be observed by suitable video presentations. Studies of human
intervention in the natural atmospheric balance can look at the greenhouse gases and
ozone depletion in particular, and literature on these topics is vast. Learners can be
guided to produce a project on the benefits and problems faced with alternative
energy resources, either covering the comprehensive list within the context, or
within small groups focussing on one energy source per group.
Information at Level 2 standard, concerning rock types and formation can be re-
iterated and expanded upon. The processes involved in the rock cycle can be studied
together with surface erosion and deposition. Practical study can be incorporated
into this topic to good effect. Tutors should organise field trips to study these surface
processes and incorporate elementary geological identification as a means to
fulfilling criteria within an assignment. Health and safety must be considered at all
times. A visit to a limestone quarry may be organised. Most quarries will arrange
guided tours and information but an agenda prior to the visit should be discussed with
the quarry’s human resources department.
Field studies of soil types and profiles in the UK are an essential means of enhancing
knowledge and understanding gained in the lecture room.

Soil examination, including permeability investigation, can produce a range of data

which can be analysed and processed to provide essential evidence for assignment.
The effect of human activity on soil formation and retention can be studied using
case studies of regions around the world suffering the most serious effects of
deforestation, for example. Learners can provide valuable independent research
notes on such topics using a variety of sources.
Learning outcome 2 can be delivered by formal lecture, discussion and a well-
designed research programme. This section allows learning through directed site
visits to local reservoirs and water treatment works, where most of the content of
the topic can be explored and developed. Problems associated with water supply can
be linked with issues within the water cycle and the fluctuations in climate.
Continued human activity discussed in learning outcome 1 can illustrate the
interdependence of the water cycle with energy transfer.
An investigation into the work of the Environment Agency concerning water quality
monitoring and pollution control can also lead to practical experience of sample
taking and laboratory analysis, with tutor guidance and essential equipment supplied.
This aspect can also be represented by a project on industrial pollution hotspots
within the UK and a survey carried out to compare water quality data and
characteristics. Tutors may also wish to arrange a guest visit from the Environment
Agency and local water company.
Biological processes and the balance of nature are topics which can be well
developed through a series of videos and lectures in learning outcome 3. There is an
abundance of video footage available on plant adaptation and growth. Tutors should
focus on the energy transfers and ecological links between plants and animals and
can help learners to appreciate the delicate balance which exists.
Photosynthesis and growth-limiting factors can be investigated practically and then
compared with industrial crop production, for example. Both the carbon and nitrogen
cycles can be explained effectively by lecture. The balance of gases in the
atmosphere and storage of carbon can be addressed and linked to the other sections
of this unit that deal with atmosphere and rocks.
Learning outcome 4 is an opportunity for tutors to deliver an essential component of
the environmental sciences in a positive and modern way. Tutors can draw on local
government resources and data tables to inform learners of the materials used,
recycled products and wasted elements in the public and industrial sectors of modern
life. The processes of raw-material extraction and subsequent transfer into useful
products can be delivered with discussion and lecture. A visit to a local plastics
manufacturer or packaging company can provide an extra dimension to studies.
Recycling issues can best be addressed with an in-depth research project and
associated lectures on present-day recycling trends. This project will form the basis
of an assignment detailing the list of products that can be re-used or recycled, and
for which the economics of the system can be analysed. Landfill and availability of
waste sites can be studied for its local implications but can also address national and
global issues. This can be integrated into the recycling section and, again, can be
accompanied with a visit to a local authority landfill site.

Assessment
For P1, learners must identify and describe the essential principles listed in the unit
content of learning outcome 1. Initially, they may wish to investigate the effects of
water acidity on simple carbonate rocks. Learners may wish to incorporate all the
processes within a single informative poster display, or a series of pictorial
presentations with adequate notes. A project or lecture room presentation can
provide the relevant form of evidence if video is used. Alternatively, evidence could
be presented in the form of a completed report highlighting soil formation from rocks
and organic matter, physical and chemical breakdown of rocks and possible field
study of soils in an attempt to produce a classification table.
For P2, learners must show their knowledge of both physical and chemical properties
of water. This may also take the form of experimental investigation such as pH
testing or hardness, and may be assessed directly by the tutor during practical
activities. A poster of water cycle processes can be used to complete P2 criteria and
can be associated with detail of individual aspects of water properties by learners.
For P3, learners must describe the main factors associated with plant energy use,
animal biological processes and natural environmental balance. Learners must
consider the natural balance of gases between plants and animals and the
importance of plants in the production and maintenance of atmospheric gases.
For P4, learners must describe the uses of raw materials as studied in the unit
content, and provide a comprehensive list of re-usable or recyclable items. Learners
could produce a poster or report to identify a raw material, describe its properties
that can be utilised, and how its products are recycled. The importance of recycling
can be emphasised using photographs of landfill sites, fly tipping or other visual
representation of industrial and domestic waste.
met.
For M1, learners must give a detailed explanation of the UK’s seasons. This may be
presented in a poster format but learners must demonstrate their understanding of
the underlying science.
For M2, learners must produce an in-depth report or account of the problems
associated with maintaining a regular, clean water supply in the UK. Learners can
explore the issues in a number of ways, for example, research on the internet,
contact with the Environment Agency or water companies. They can present their
findings in similar ways to those for M3. Learners must focus on the reasons why
sufficient rainfall in the west of the UK is not mirrored in the east of the country, for
example, by discussing aspects of orographic rainfall. Learners can provide data on
transfer of water costs, maintenance, leakage and other important points.
For M3, learners must study and analyse the effects of human activity on global
climate and attempt to ascertain whether the effects are conclusive. Learners could
present the evidence in a report or do a presentation. They must focus on current
research, and use data from at least the last 50 years. Carbon dioxide levels and
increases in eustatic sea levels or temperatures are possible areas of study to follow.

For M4, learners must carefully itemise and explain the issues involved with
renewable and non-renewable energy resources. Linked with environmental
consideration, a table providing specific advantages and disadvantages of each can
provide enough evidence. The detail and arguments addressed must be well
researched and explained.
met.
For D1, learners must demonstrate a clear understanding of the transfer of energy
within the atmosphere and its effects. The evidence could take the form of a short
report, PowerPoint presentation, information leaflet or model.
For D2, learners must clearly identify the primary causes of water contamination in
respect to significant pollution agents and illustrate the effects these have on water,
plant and animal life and human consumption. Learners can present key pollution
issues by local observations or analytical investigation using techniques in operation
by regulating bodies. Tutors can assess directly from practical investigation certain
aspects of the analysis and should carefully consider the validity of the monitoring
techniques used. If a report is produced, a comprehensive appraisal of monitoring
techniques must be given.
For D3, learners must show a clear understanding of both the carbon and nitrogen
cycles, how they are related and how human activity affects these cycles. They must
discuss how this delicate balance is maintained and the importance of doing so. The
evidence might be best presented as a short report, although more creative formats
would be appropriate, provided the learners are able to demonstrate their scientific
understanding.
For D4, learners could carry out a case study of a known landfill site and its
associated issues. Learners can highlight the problems unique to industrial waste and
those common to domestic waste. Local authorities have to justify their recycling
programs in terms of cost effectiveness, and learners can highlight this in their
documents. Evidence can be presented as a film-style documentary or a generalised
magazine article, photographed and annotated. Learners must produce detailed
explanations of complex issues regarding waste management, and tutors should
emphasise that the final presentation needs to show comprehensive study.


• Unit 24: Principles of Plant and Soil Science.
Essential resources
• Access to local authority waste disposal and landfill sites.

• Water treatment and reservoir access by permission of local water authority.
• Industrial extractor of raw materials and manufacturer of usable products —
limestone quarry and packaging company.

• Access to forestry commission grounds with guidance provided.

• National parkland access to follow geological and soil surveys.
• Essential laboratory equipment for chemical analysis including BDH soil testing kit
and centrifuge.
• Various natural history videos of suitable quality and focus.
• Access to ICT facility.
• First-aid kit.
Tutors should be suitably qualified and have experience of environmental and
chemical studies.
Textbooks
Boeker E and Van Grondelle R — Environmental Science: Physical Principles and
Applications (John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2001) ISBN 0471495778
Jones A et al — Practical Skills in Environmental Sciences (Longman, 1999)
ISBN 058232873X
Kent M — Advanced Biology (Oxford University Press, 2000) ISBN 0199141959
Pickering W R — Advanced Biology Through Diagrams (Oxford University Press, 2001)
ISBN 0199141975
Waugh D — Geography: An Integrated Approach (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2000)
ISBN 017444706X
Waugh D — Geography — An Integrated Approach: Supplement (Nelson Thornes Ltd,
2005) ISBN 074879462X
Waugh D — The New Wider World (Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0748773762
Woodfield J — Ecosystems and Human Activity (A-level Geography Series) (Collins
Educational, 2000) ISBN 0003266524
Journal
New Scientist

Websites
www.csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/atmosphere Atmosphere
www.defra.gov.uk/environment/waste Agricultural waste
www.dti.gov.uk/energy/inform/energy-stats-overview Government statistics for
renewable energy
www.dwi.gov.uk Water quality
www.environmentagency.gov.uk Environment Agency
www.green-alliance.org.uk Green-Alliance
www.letsrecycle.com/links/eu/directives.jsp Recycling of waste
www.neweconomics.org Renewable technology
www.sustainable-development.gov.uk Government environment
policy
www.wasteguide.org.uk Waste

Key skills


• investigating soil formation N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
and characteristics information from relevant sources.
• researching product N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
manufacture from oil and stage calculations to do with:
recycling aspects
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• comparing and justifying N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
costs of production and present your findings and justify your
recycling. methods.

• evaluating effectiveness of C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
recycling
• producing a report on plant C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
and animal adaptation eight minutes using an image or other
support material.
• researching deforestation C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
least two documents about the same
subject.
1000 words long.
• highlighting waste landfill C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
problems and water each one giving different information
pollution. about complex subjects.
words long.


• researching information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
climate change. sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.

• analysing and investigating LP3.1 Set targets using information from
soil formation. appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.

• evaluating the factors that PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
affect soil formation and ways of tackling it.
planning to carry out suitable
investigations.

• investigating chemical and WO3.1 Plan work with others.
physical processes of soil
formation
• analysing landfill sites WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
progress towards your agreed objectives.
• investigating human activity WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
on global climate and of improving collaborative work in future.
evaluating the impact.

UNIT 24: PRINCIPLES OF PLANT AND SOIL SCIENCE
Unit 24: Principles of Plant and Soil

Science
Unit abstract
All land-based sectors and many applied science industries are dependent, directly or
indirectly, on plants. Plants are dependent on a medium for providing essential
elements for life such as nutrients and an anchorage. In the vast majority of cases,
this medium is soil.
Understanding plant processes is essential for learners wishing to become involved in
the land-based or applied science industries, particularly those enterprises which are
primarily plant-focused. In this unit learners will develop an understanding of plant
structures, important life processes such as photosynthesis and respiration, and plant
life cycles. Basic soil science will also be studied, with the emphasis on relationships
between the soil and plant development and nutrition.
Learners will explore the function of internal and external plant structures and their
role in plant physiology. Learners will study the processes of photosynthesis and
respiration. They will investigate plant structure and function in the context of the
plants commonly used within the relevant land-based and/or applied science
industries.
Learners will then look at how plants grow and develop. They will study plant life
cycles and reproduction. They will then learn about the structure and function of
soil, the different types of soil, their properties and the implications of these
properties for plant growth. This will be linked to plant nutrition, and learners will
consider the role of major and micronutrients in plant growth.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the function of plant structures
2 Understand the main processes of plant physiology
3 Understand plant growth and development
4 Know the principles of soil science.

Unit content
1 Understand the function of plant structures
Function of plant structures: external structures (roots, shoots, stem, leaves,

buds, flowers, fruits, seeds); internal structures (cell structure, cytoplasm,
organelles, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem tissue, phloem
tissue, cambium); specialised cells, tissues and organs (pericycle, endodermis,
lenticels, cotyledons, stolons, rhizomes, storage organs); use of plants related to
their structures
2 Understand the main processes of plant physiology
Photosynthesis: equation for photosynthesis; structure and function of

chloroplasts; function of pigments eg chlorophyll; factors influencing the rate of
photosynthesis eg temperature, humidity, light intensity, position within the
canopy, water availability; compensation points; manipulation of limiting factors
to enhance plant performance eg weed control, carbon dioxide enrichment,
climate control, irrigation, drainage; genetic modification
Respiration: definition of aerobic and anaerobic respiration; equation for aerobic
respiration; structure and function of mitochondria; factors influencing the rate
of respiration eg temperature, water availability, seasonal growth; manipulation
of respiration eg control in crop storage, controlled growing environments
Water uptake, movement and loss: osmosis; diffusion; plasmolysis; translocation;
transpiration; factors influencing rates of uptake and loss eg soil conditions,
atmospheric and plant factors
3 Understand plant growth and development
Plant growth and development: life cycle types (ephemeral, annual, biennial,
perennial); definition of monocotyledon and dicotyledon and examples of plant
species in both; process and stages of germination; types of germination eg
epigeal, hypogeal; effects of photoperiod and temperature on reproductive
growth; flower structures; pollination and fertilisation; seed production; fruit
formation; dispersal; dormancy; asexual and vegetative reproduction; apical
meristems; lateral meristems; cell division; cell expansion; formation of roots,
shoots, buds, leaves and tillers; function of major plant nutrients and deficiency
symptoms (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sulphur); function of
minor nutrients and trace elements; deficiency symptoms of minor nutrients and
trace elements eg sodium, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, boron,
cobalt; liming and the effects of pH

4 Know the principles of soil science
Soil science: types (loams, clays, silts, sands, organic soils); other types of media
eg gels, nutrient solutions; soil formation; properties of soil particles eg clay, silt,
sand; electrical charges; cation exchange capacity; water holding capacity;
aeration; stability; organic matter; pH; soil structure definition eg crumb
structure, aggregate sizes, plough pans, macropores, micropores; effects of soil
structure on plants eg rooting depth, availability of plant nutrients, drainage,
waterlogging; effects of cultivation

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 identify the major internal and external M1 explain the function of the major D1 discuss how the function of internal and
structures of selected plants and explain specialist cells, tissues and organs of external structures of plants dictates
their functions selected plants their use in a selected industry
P2 explain the main processes of plant M2 explain how water uptake can be D2 discuss the manipulation of plant
physiology affected in selected plant species in physiology to enhance plant performance
given situations in a selected industry
P3 explain the life cycles of selected plants M3 explain how plant development D3 discuss the relationships between plant
processes relate to their life cycles nutrition and development
P4 carry out physical and chemical M4 explain the relationships between plant D4 discuss the effects of the physical and
investigations to describe the nutrition and soil. chemical components of a selected soil
characteristics of selected soils. on plant nutrition.

Delivery
Tutors delivering this unit have the opportunity to use as wide a range of techniques
as possible. Lectures, discussions, seminar presentations, site visits, supervised
laboratory and field practicals, research using the internet and/or library resources
and the use of personal and/or industrial experience would all be suitable. Delivery
should stimulate, motivate, educate and enthuse learners.
Work placements should be monitored regularly to ensure the quality of the learning
experience. Learners and supervisors must be made aware of the requirements of
this unit before doing any work-related activities, so that evidence can be collected.
For example, learners may have the opportunity to use methods of modifying plant
environments. They should be encouraged to ask for observation records and/or
witness statements to be provided as evidence. Guidance on the use of observation
records and witness statements is provided on the Edexcel website.
Whichever delivery methods are used, it is essential that tutors stress the importance
of sound environmental management.
Health and safety issues relating to working with soil and plant materials must be
stressed and regularly reinforced, and risk assessments must be undertaken prior to
practical activities.
Tutors should consider integrating the delivery, private study and assessment relating
to this unit with any other relevant units and assessment instruments the learners are
taking.
Learning outcomes 1 and 2 are directly linked. These are likely to be delivered by
formal lectures, discussion, site visits, practicals, and independent learner research.
Learners will become aware of the structure, function and physiology of
appropriately selected plants. Health and safety issues must be addressed before
learners undertake any field or laboratory work. Adequate personal protective
equipment (PPE) must be provided and used following the production of suitable risk
assessments. Visiting expert speakers could add to the relevance of the subject for
the learner; for example, a plant breeder or agronomist could talk about their work,
the situations they face and the methods they use.
Learning outcome 3 covers plant life cycles, plant growth and development. Tutors
should ensure that they have access to a suitable range of plants that can be studied
at appropriate development stages. Tutors can tailor the actual species to the sector
and/or local environment. Learning outcome 3 is likely to be delivered by a
combination of formal lectures, discussion, site visits, practicals, and independent
learner research, although visits arranged principally to cover other topics will also
provide useful information.
Learning outcome 4 considers the principles of soil science and the relationship
between plant nutrition and soil science. As well as formal lectures, laboratory
experiments and field investigations are essential to deliver this learning outcome
effectively. Experiments could include determining pH, measuring infiltration rates
and determining particle size distribution. Field studies could include interpretation
of soil pits, the effects of cultivations and detecting areas of compaction. As with

other learning outcomes, centres must ensure that appropriate PPE is provided and
risk assessments undertaken before any practical work or site visits. Visiting expert
speakers, such as soil scientists or agronomists, could again be useful, and could
describe practical aspects of managing soil structure and plant nutrition.
Assessment
For P1, learners must identify the major internal and external structures of selected
plants and explain their functions. Tutors should identify the selected plants, or
agree them in discussion with the learner. Where possible, the size and complexity of
the plants should be the same for each learner to ensure the fairness of assessment.
As a minimum, learners must provide evidence for three different species of plant.
This criterion could be assessed directly by the tutor during practical activities. If
this format is used, observation records would be suitable evidence from guided
activities. These should be completed by the learners and the tutor and accompanied
by appropriate worklogs or other relevant learner notes. If assessed during a
placement, witness statements should be provided by a suitable representative and
verified by the tutor. Alternatively, evidence could take the form of a pictorial
presentation with notes (possibly using appropriate software or OHPs), an annotated
poster, leaflet, or project.
For P2, learners must explain the main processes of plant physiology. As a minimum,
learners must provide evidence relating to photosynthesis, respiration and water
uptake, movement and loss. Evidence may be linked and in the same form as for P1.
For P3, learners must explain the life cycles of selected plants. As a minimum,
learners must provide evidence that covers three species of plant with different life
strategies. These may be the same species as those used for other grading criteria.
Learners could include annotated diagrams showing the botanical features involved
at each stage. Centres should endeavour to make this criterion as relevant as possible
to the endorsed title the learners are studying. The species studied could include
weed species. Evidence for this could take the form of a pictorial presentation with
notes (possibly using appropriate software or OHPs), an annotated poster, leaflet, or
project.
For P4, learners must carry out physical and chemical investigations to describe the
characteristics of selected soils. As a minimum, learners must provide evidence for
three distinctly different soils. Evidence for this could take the form of a pictorial
presentation with notes (possibly using appropriate software or OHPs), an annotated
poster or leaflet, or a project. Alternatively, learners could provide evidence taken
from field notes and laboratory books.
met.
For M1, learners must explain the function of the major specialist cells, tissues and
organs of selected plants. Tutors should identify the selected plants, or agree them
in discussion with the learner. These may be the same plants as those used to provide
evidence for other grading criteria. Where possible, the size and complexity of the
plants should be the same for all learners to ensure the fairness of assessment. As a
minimum, learners must provide evidence for three different species of plant.

This could take the form of a pictorial presentation with notes (possibly using
appropriate software or OHPs), an annotated poster, leaflet, laboratory book or
project.
For M2, learners must explain how water uptake can be affected in selected plant
species in given situations. Tutors should identify the selected plants and the
situations, or agree them in discussion with the learners. These may be the same
plants as those used to provide evidence for other grading criteria. Where possible,
the size and complexity of the plants and the situations should be the same for each
learner to ensure the fairness of assessment. As a minimum, learners must provide
evidence for three different species of plant. Evidence may be in the same form as
for P1.
For M3, learners must explain how plant development processes relate to their life
cycles. Learners could use examples of plants at various stages of growth and
development that they have worked with during the delivery of this unit. Evidence
may be presented in the same form as for P1, and may be linked to the assessment of
P1 and P2.
For M4, learners must explain the relationships between plant nutrition and soil.
They must include both major and minor nutrients in their evidence. They must
explain the influences that soil structure and chemical composition have on plant
growth and development, the effects that plants can have on soils, for example, by
adding nutrients (legumes), organic matter, etc. Learners must also explain the
effects that nutrient deficiency and excess can have on plants. They must also
explain the relationships between the physical characteristics of soil and plant
growth, for example, for root development and anchorage. Evidence for this criterion
may be linked to that for others, eg P3 and P4. Evidence may be in the same form as
for P4.
met.
For D1, learners must discuss how the function of internal and external structures of
plants relates to their use in a selected industry. They could select an industry that
relates to their primary learning goal. Evidence may be presented in the same form
as for M1.
For D2, learners are required to discuss the manipulation of plant physiology to
enhance plant performance in a selected industry. Learners’ evidence must be
contextualised giving examples of manipulation undertaken in a selected industry.
This may be the same as that used to provide evidence for other grading criteria. For
example, learners may look at the manipulation of woodland canopies to create
clearings, the irrigation of crops or ventilation, or the use of controlled environments
for crop storage. Evidence may be presented in the same form as for P3.
For D3, learners are required to discuss the relationships between plant nutrition and
development. They may link the evidence for this criterion with that for others, such
as M3 and M4. Learners must consider all of the important stages in the life cycle of
plants, possibly citing examples that they have worked with or used as evidence for
other grading criteria. Evidence may be presented in the same form as for P3.

For D4, learners are required to discuss the effects of the physical and chemical
components of a selected soil on plant nutrition. For example, they could include the
effects of soil pH on the availability of nutrients and the effects of soil compaction
on root growth. Learners could contextualise their evidence to the industry that is
their primary learning goal. Evidence may be presented in the same form as for P3.

This unit is linked with:

• Unit 2: Working in the Science Industry
• Unit 23: Science for Environmental Technicians.
Essential resources
There are many opportunities for practical and experimental work in this unit.
Therefore there should be access to adequate field and laboratory facilities for the
investigation of plant structures, germination, photosynthesis, osmosis, transpiration,
soil textures and structures. A suitable range of plants and plant material should be
available for learners to study.
There should be access to light microscopes to study cell structures. Learners should
have access to current health and safety regulations and equipment. Links with, for
example, farmers and growers will enable access to a range of soil types and growing
regimes.
Learners should be given access to computers for research and presentation of
assignments.

Textbooks
Barnes C and Poore N — Plant Science in Action (Hodder Arnold, 1994)
ISBN 0340600993
Cutler D, Botha T and Stevenson D — Plant Anatomy: An Applied Approach (Blackwell
Publishing, 2007) ISBN 1405126795
Davies B, Eagle D and Finney B — Soil (Resource Management Series) (Farming Press,
2002) ISBN 0852365594
Graham I — Soil (Earth’s Precious Resources Series) (Heinemann Library, 2004)
ISBN 0431115540
Green N P O, Stout G W and Taylor D J — Biological Science 1 and 2, 3rd Edition
(Cambridge University Press, 1997) ISBN 0521561787
Hay R K M — Chemistry for Agriculture and Ecology (Blackwell Science, 1981)
ISBN 0632006994
Hill-Cottingham P and Hill-Cottingham D — Plant Science (Biology Advanced Studies
Series) (Blackie Schools, 1992) ISBN 0216930316
Lockhart J A R et al — Lockhart and Wiseman’s Introduction to Crop Husbandry,
7th Edition (Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, 1993) ISBN 0080420036
Raven P, Johnson G, Singer S and Losos J — Biology, 7th Edition (McGraw-Hill Higher
Ridge I — Plants (Oxford University Press, 2002) ISBN 0199255482
Roberts M, Reiss M and Monger G — Biology: Principles and Processes (Nelson Thornes
Ltd, 2004) ISBN 0174481764
Soffe R — The Agricultural Notebook, 20th Edition (Blackwell Science, 2003)
ISBN 0632058293
Stern K — Introductory Plant Biology, 9th Edition (McGraw-Hill Education, 2002)
ISBN 0071199004
Journals
Arable Farming
Crops
Crop Science
Landwards

Websites
www.agrifor.ac.uk AgriFor
www.bbsrc.ac.uk Biotechnology and Biological Sciences
Research Council
www.defra.gov.uk Department for Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs
www.hse.gov.uk Health and Safety Executive
www.images.botany.org Botanical Society of America Online
Image Collection
www.lantra.co.uk Lantra
www.rothamsted.ac.uk Rothamsted Research
www.s-cool.co.uk S-cool
www.saps.plantsci.cam.ac.uk The Science and Plants for Schools
Website
www.sebiology.org The Society for Experimental Biology

Key skills


• discussing the effects of the C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
physical and chemical
components of a selected soil
on plant nutrition.

• explaining the function of ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
the major specialist cells, sources, and multiple search criteria in at
tissues and organs of least one case.
selected plants.

UNIT 25: ELECTRONICS FOR SCIENCE TECHNICIANS
Unit 25: Electronics for Science

Technicians
Unit abstract
This unit is designed to give learners an understanding of essential circuit theory. It
will also develop their ability to select components and assemble them to produce
electronic circuits incorporating standard integrated circuits.
Initially the unit deals with the basic range of discrete electronic components
available, explaining component identification and operating parameters, and
essential circuit theory.
The concept of analogue and digital electronics is introduced, and the functions of
basic logic gates are described. While building circuits, learners will have the
opportunity to learn about test equipment and how to use it. The function and
operation of common analogue and digital integrated circuits are then covered.
Finally the unit deals with the practical skills involved in constructing electronic
circuits.
Learning outcomes
1 Know essential circuit theory and the properties, uses and schematic symbols of
circuit components
2 Be able to use test equipment to make measurements on circuits and test circuits
3 Be able to design and build circuits using integrated circuits
4 Be able to construct and test analogue and digital circuits safely.

Unit content
1 Know essential circuit theory and the properties, uses and schematic symbols
of circuit components
Basic components: resistors (colour code, power rating); capacitors (charge and
energy storage, voltage rating, colour code, type eg ceramic, electrolytic
(polarity))
Diode: characteristic curve; forward and reverse biasing; maximum forward
current; peak inverse voltage (PIV); importance of correct polarity; half-wave and
full-wave rectification; use for device protection eg relays; zener diodes
Transducers: eg thermistor, light dependent resistor (LDR), light emitting diode
LED), photo diode
Bipolar transistor: identification of leads; biasing; small signal current gain (hFE);
transistor circuits (amplifier and switch, astable)
Circuit theory: Ohm’s law; potential dividers; Kirchoff’s laws applied to series
and parallel circuits; simple RC charge/discharge circuits and the time constant
T=RC
2 Be able to use test equipment to make measurements on circuits and test

circuits
Test equipment: eg multimeter; oscilloscope; signal generator; logic probe

Measurements: potential difference (voltage) (V, mV); current (amperes) (A, mA,
uA); period (ms, s); frequency (Hz, kHz, MHz)
Testing: set up test equipment; checking connections; expected test
values/signals
3 Be able to design and build circuits using integrated circuits
Analogue circuits: operational amplifier eg use as a differential amplifier

(comparator), inverting and non-inverting amplifiers, feedback, gain; 555 timer
(astable, monostable); calculating component values
Digital integrated circuits: logic gates eg AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR; symbols;
combinational logic circuits and truth tables
Digital sequential systems: flip-flop (from NAND gates, D-type); block diagrams;
binary counters; frequency counters; decoders; seven segment displays

4 Be able to construct and test analogue and digital circuits safely
Construction: eg stripboard, printed circuit board (PCB)

Layout design: translate circuit diagram into layout diagram; logical layout of
components; correct polarity of components
Soldering techniques: anti-static handling techniques; good soldered joints;
avoiding excess solder, overheating and dry joints

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the function of electronic M1 explain the operation of analogue and D1 explain the advantages and
components digital electronic circuits disadvantages of using integrated circuits
compared with discrete components
P2 build and test analogue and digital M2 design, build and test one digital D2 compare the actual performance of the
electronic circuits from given circuit electronic circuit and one analogue circuits designed to their expected
diagrams electronic circuit performance
P3 carry out tests on electronic circuits M3 explain the function and operation of D3 justify the choice of components for the
using appropriate test equipment test equipment electronic circuit
P4 assemble components to construct one M4 identify faults in one analogue and one D4 rectify faults in one analogue and one
analogue and one digital circuit that digital circuit. digital circuit.
include integrated circuits.

Delivery
This unit is best taught from a practical point of view. Although the use of test
equipment is identified as one learning outcome, it is an integral part of all practical
work and therefore should be used where appropriate throughout the course.
Learners should refer to manufacturers’ data sheets for information on diodes,
transistors, operational amplifiers and the 555 timer.
Learners should be introduced to this unit by building and testing direct current (dc)
series and parallel circuits using resistors and a breadboard while learning about
Ohm’s law, and Kirchoff’s voltage and current laws. The multimeter should also be
introduced at this stage. Learners may then progress to simple circuits using
capacitors and do practical work to obtain charging/discharging graphs (learners are
not required to use exponential functions to describe the curves). The time constant
should be discussed at this stage.
Diodes and alternating current (ac) can then be introduced together with the
oscilloscope and signal generator. Learners are not expected to explore
semiconductor theory.
Learners can then progress to the transistor. They should be able to calculate the
values of resistors needed for the simple biasing of a transistor amplifier. After
measuring the hFE of a transistor and calculating the values of the resistors needed
to bias it, learners should build and test their transistor amplifier. If they use an ac
input signal to measure its gain, they could acquire experience of using a signal
generator and oscilloscope.
When exploring transistor switching circuits, learners should be aware that the
topical voltage between the base and emitter needs to be about 0.6V for a (silicon)
transistor to switch on. Some transducers may be introduced for use with transistor
switching circuits; other transducers may be introduced at a later stage.
Integrated circuits should be introduced next. Learners should learn how to calculate
component values for circuits that use an operational amplifier and the 555 timer.
They should build circuits using values that they have calculated and then test their
designs, comparing actual performance with expected performance.
The increasingly important role of digital technology could be discussed before basic
logic gates are introduced to learners, who should be able to predict the output of
combinational logic circuits using truth tables, and check their truth tables by
building and testing the circuits on a suitable breadboard. NAND gates may be used
to build and test a SR flip flop. This will lead to building circuits using D-type flip flop
integrated circuits.
After introducing block diagrams, learners should be able to use D-type flip flops,
decoders and seven segment displays to build simple counting circuits. A large
multistage circuit, eg a clock, could be produced if each learner contributes a
different part to the overall system.

When building circuits learners should be encouraged to use test equipment. For
example, the output of a 555 astable can be heard through a loudspeaker and seen
on an oscilloscope. Learners should be shown how to use test equipment to locate
faults in their circuits. Some circuit diagrams provided to learners could include
deliberate faults that learners can track down using test equipment and rectify
themselves.
After gaining experience in designing and building circuits, learners should construct
a circuit on stripboard or PCB and test it. Learners should take precautions when
soldering components on the board, to safeguard both themselves and circuit
components from harm. Learners might compare estable circuits using transistors
with an estable using a 555 timer chip and also consider building a transistor bistable
circuit. They could compare that with a bistable on a chip.
Assessment
For P1, learners could produce a table in which they briefly describe the function of
the electronic components listed in the content section. Their practical book must
include brief details of the tests. Measurements made must be recorded with the
correct units.
For P2, learners must build and test circuits from supplied circuit diagrams. Learners
must build and test a range of analogue and digital circuits to gain experience of
using a wide range of components. Supplied circuit diagrams could vary in complexity
so that more able learners have the opportunity to build more complex circuits.
Although it is sufficient to build a circuit that uses one 555 timer, more able learners
could build circuits using two 555 timers to produce a range of different sound
effects. Soldering components is not required in order to achieve this criterion.
Where possible, a context should be given for each circuit. Achievement of P2 may
be evidenced through a practical book that contains details of work done, including
the circuit diagram and details of tests carried out, problems that arose and how
these were solved. A witness statement from the tutor should confirm that the
learner successfully built and tested circuits in the practical books. Some
photographic evidence, showing the layout of components for some circuits, is
desirable.
For P3, learners must test some circuits that were built to achieve P2, using
appropriate test equipment. They could check that the voltage at the collector of a
common emitter amplifier is half that of the supply voltage in the absence of an
input signal, or use an oscilloscope to measure the frequency output of a 555 astable
circuit.
For P4, learners must construct one analogue and one digital electronic circuit that
works on either a stripboard or a PCB. The circuits used for this criterion could be
taken from those used to achieve P3 or from the circuits that are designed by the
learners for M2.
met.
For M1, learners could include a brief description of how each circuit works in their
practical books.

For M2, learners must design, build and test one digital electronic circuit and one
analogue electronic circuit. Learners should be given the opportunity to design
circuits of their own choice. This can be evidenced by a report that includes a
schematic circuit diagram, calculations of components used, a description of how the
circuit operates, details of how the circuit was tested, faults located and how these
were corrected. A photograph of the completed circuits is recommended. The tutor
should produce a signed statement to the effect that the learner had designed, build
and tested the circuit themselves.
For M3, learners must, having used test equipment on several circuits, explain how
test equipment functions and how it is operated to investigate circuits. This could be
achieved as a piece of written work. Learners could produce an instruction leaflet for
each piece of test equipment, or they could give a practical demonstration of the
function and operation of the equipment evidenced by a video recording or a witness
statement from the tutor.
For M4, learners must identify faults in circuits. The tutors could set up the faults for
the learners to identify. Learners must correct the faults to achieve D4.
met.
For D1, learners must understand the difference, benefits and drawbacks of an
integrated circuit as opposed to a circuit built with discrete components. This can be
done through building the circuits and explaining the advantages and disadvantages
of each in a report, leaflet or orally.
For D2, learners need to compare the actual performance of circuits that they
designed with the expected performance. For example, they could comment on
whether the gain of an inverting amplifier circuit met expectations, and whether it
would do the job for which it had been designed, or whether a temperature operated
switch activated or deactivated an output at the required temperatures. Suggestions
for improving the performance of the circuit should be included where appropriate.
For D3, learners must justify the choice of components used for the electronic
circuits they designed. This may include why a particular integrated circuit or
transistor was chosen, power ratings of resistors, working voltages of capacitors, type
of capacitor, etc.
For D4, learners must rectify faults in one analogue and one digital circuit.

This unit is linked to:


Essential resources
Learners need access to bread boards, circuit components, test equipment

(multimeter, oscilloscope, signal generator, logic probe), soldering facilities, library
facilities and the internet.
Textbooks
Bird J — Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology (Newnes, 2003)
ISBN 0750665505
Bishop O — Electronics: Circuits and Systems (Newnes, 2003) ISBN 0750658452
Duncan T — Electronics for Today and Tomorrow (Hodder Murray, 1997)
ISBN 0719574137
Floyd T L — Electronic Devices: Conventional Flow Version (Prentice Hall, 2004)
ISBN 0131140809
Websites
www.science-campus.com The Science Campus
www.tpub.com/neets Electrical Engineering Training Series by
Integrated Publishing

Key skills


• calculating component values N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
in circuits they have designed information from relevant sources.
• carrying out calculations N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
when designing and testing stage calculations to do with:
circuits
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• analysing and evaluating the N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
performance of circuits. present your findings and justify your
methods.


• explaining the function of C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
electronic components
• giving a presentation on the C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
choice of components for the eight minutes using an image or other
electronic circuit they support material.
designed
• researching circuits on the C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
internet least two documents about the same
subject.
1000 words long.
• writing a report on circuits C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
that they have designed, each one giving different information
built and tested. about complex subjects.
words long.

• collecting information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
electronic devices and sources, and multiple search criteria in at
circuits least one case.
• drawing a circuit diagram of ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
one analogue and one digital text with image, text with number,
circuit that include image with number.
integrated circuits.


• setting interim targets for LP3.1 Set targets using information from
unit assignment work appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.
• researching ideas for gaining LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
a better understanding of using your plan to help meet targets and
circuit configurations for improve your performance.
designing a circuit
• reviewing interim deadlines LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
and modifying the plan to your achievements.
respond to priorities and
availability of resources.

• producing circuit design and PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
component layouts for a ways of tackling it.
simple circuit
• building the circuit design PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
and component layout solving the problem.
• testing the circuit. PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

• planning group laboratory WO3.1 Plan work with others.
work to examine the function
of components and circuits
• carrying out group laboratory WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
work to examine the function progress towards your agreed objectives.
of components and circuits
• reviewing laboratory work, WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
discussing actual outcomes of improving collaborative work in future.
against expected outcomes,
and identifying
improvements in
experimental methods.

UNIT 26: INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Unit 26: Industrial Applications of

Chemical Reactions
Unit abstract
The chemical industry produces a vast range of chemicals, from bulk chemicals such
as sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and ammonia to medicines and chemicals used in
the electronics industry. Whatever the product, it is important to produce it in the
most economic way. This can be achieved through an understanding of the factors
that control a chemical reaction. These are the focus of study in this unit.
Energy, usually in the form of heat, may need to be supplied to a chemical reaction,
or the reaction itself may release energy. Such energy changes have economic and
safety consequences, if not controlled. These energy changes and their implications
are studied in the first part of this unit.
It is important to consider how much product a reaction will produce — they seldom,
if ever, give 100% of the desired substance. Learners will then study how far a
chemical reaction goes and the factors that affect this. Not only do we need to
consider how much of a product a reaction gives and what the energy costs are, but
we need to know how quickly it can be produced — time is money. In the final part of
this unit learners will study chemical kinetics — how quickly reactions occur and the
factors affecting this.
During this unit learners will apply the principles studied to examples of industrial
processes.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the influence of enthalpy changes on industrial chemical reactions
2 Understand the principles of chemical equilibrium as applied to industrial
chemical reactions
3 Be able to apply the principles of acid-base and redox equilibrium to industrial
chemical reactions
4 Understand rates of chemical reactions and the factors that influence them.

Unit content
1 Understand the influence of enthalpy changes on industrial chemical reactions
Enthalpy change: definition and units of enthalpy change; standard molar

enthalpy change of reaction; enthalpy change of formation, combustion,
atomisation and neutralisation; sign convention; exothermic and endothermic
reactions
Principle of conservation of energy: law of conservation of energy; Hess’s law
Experimental investigation: eg measurement of standard molar enthalpy change
for a reaction; calculation of standard molar enthalpy change for a reaction from
supplied data
Enthalpy changes in industrial processes: examples of enthalpy changes in
industrial processes; implications for process design and operating conditions
2 Understand the principles of chemical equilibrium as applied to industrial

chemical reactions
Principles of chemical equilibrium: eg reversible processes; equilibrium law, Kc;

effects of changes in concentration, pressure and temperature on equilibrium
position (Le Chatelier’s principle); effects of changes in concentration, pressure
and temperature on Kc; catalysts and equilibrium
Experimental investigation of chemical equilibrium: determination of Kc for a
reaction in aqueous solution
Chemical equilibrium in industrial processes: examples of industrial processes
involving chemical equilibria; use of pressure and temperature to drive equilibria;
reasons for operation under non-equilibrium conditions

3 Be able to apply the principles of acid-base and redox equilibrium to industrial

chemical reactions
Proton transfer in aqueous solution: pH scale and definition of pH; sources of

H3O+ and OH- ions; Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases, conjugate acids
and bases; dissociation of water, Kw and pKw; calculation of pH of strong acid and
base solutions; acid/base strength, Ka, pKa; calculation of pH from Ka; acid-base
indicators; pH titration curves; choice of indicator; buffer mixtures; calculation of
pH of buffer mixtures
Electron transfer processes: definitions of oxidation and reduction; equilibrium
nature of electron transfer, oxidising and reducing agents; half-cell (electrode)
reactions; standard electrode potentials, Eo; standard hydrogen electrode,
standard conditions; electrochemical cells, cell reactions and calculation of cell
emf; relative strengths of oxidising and reducing agents from Eo values;
electrolysis
Experimental investigations: eg measurement of pH; relationship of pH to
concentration; pH titrations; determination of Ka and pKa of a weak acid; redox
titrations; measurement of cell emf
Industrial applications of proton and electron transfer: pH control in processes
and products; extraction of metals from ores; chlor-alkali industry (electrolysis of
brine); corrosion control
4 Understand rates of chemical reactions and the factors that influence them
Rate of reaction: definition of reaction rate; effect of concentration and

temperature on rate; rate equations; order of reaction; rate constants; units of
rate constant; measurement of rate; method of initial rates and its use to
determine reaction order and rate constant; activation energy; Arrhenius
equation; definition of catalyst; influence of catalysts on rate; modes of action of
catalysts
Experimental investigations: measurement of rate and rate constant for a first
order reaction; determination of order of reaction and rate equations from
experimental data
Reaction rate in industrial processes: continuous and batch processes; process
design to maximise rate; examples of industrial catalysis

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 state definitions for standard enthalpy M1 calculate from given data standard molar D1 predict the direction of redox reactions
change, equilibrium process, pH, enthalpy change for reactions, the pH of from given standard electrode potential
standard electrode potential, rate of strong acid and base solutions, the values and assess, with examples, the
reaction, order of reaction and hydrogen ion concentration of solutions limitations of their industrial use for
activation energy and relate these to of given pH and the emf of cells and such predictions
industrial applications explain the industrial applications
P2 predict the effects of concentration, M2 calculate from given data the value of Kc D2 evaluate the effects of the conditions
pressure, temperature and use of a for reactions, explain how its value chosen for two industrial processes
catalyst on the position of equilibria and varies with temperature and explain the
relate these to industrial applications industrial applications
P3 identify acids and bases and their M3 experimentally determine pH titration D3 explain the mode of action of buffer
conjugate acids and bases and relate curves and devise how to use them to mixtures and explain their industrial use
these to industrial applications determine Ka for a weak acid and explain in a chosen group of products
the industrial applications
P4 measure the molar enthalpy change for a M4 explain the use of equilibrium principles D4 evaluate the reasons for the use of non-
reaction, determine molar in the control or prevention of corrosion. equilibrium conditions in two industrial
concentrations in acid-base and redox processes.
titrations, determine the order of a
reaction and relate these to industrial
applications.

Delivery
This unit may be delivered using a wide variety of learning situations, including
lectures, discussions, presentations, data interpretation and calculation exercises as
well as laboratory practical work and research using the internet and/or other library
resources. Throughout the delivery of this unit it is important that industrial
applications are stressed, and these could be reinforced with visits to local chemical
plants. Where this is not possible, video clips of important industrial processes could
be used. The delivery should motivate and stimulate the learners.
Learning outcome 1 may be delivered through formal lectures, discussions, laboratory
practicals and calculations involving Hess’s law. The measurement of standard molar
enthalpy change for a reaction could be for a displacement, neutralisation or
combustion reaction. The industrial importance of temperature control, the
economics of heat exchange and their influence on process and plant design should
be covered in relation to specific examples, eg Haber process, or contact process.
Learning outcomes 2 and 3 both relate to aspects of equilibrium. They may be
delivered through formal lectures, discussions, presentations, laboratory practicals,
data interpretation and calculation exercises. Learners should determine Kc for a
reaction. Ester formation or hydrolysis could be used, and learners should experience
redox titrations such as manganate(VII)/Fe2+, manganate(VII)/ethanedioate(oxalate),
and iodine/thiosulphate. Several interactive programs illustrate the effects of
changing conditions on the equilibrium position, and these would be useful to
learners. Learners should be encouraged to research the industrial importance of
chemical, acid-base and redox equilibria in specific industrial processes, such as the
Haber process, contact process, oxidation of ammonia, use of buffers in biochemical
processes, stabilisers in food and pharmaceutical products.
Learning outcome 4 can be delivered mainly through laboratory practical work and
data interpretation exercises. Learners should carry out a practical investigation of
the kinetics of a first order reaction, eg bromine and methanoic acid under pseudo
first order conditions. The influences of temperature and catalysts on reaction rates
should be emphasised. Learners should explore the economics of the choice of
conditions for an industrial process such as the Haber process, contact process, or
nitric acid manufacture. At this stage learners should bring together aspects of each
learning outcome to appreciate that compromise of choice of conditions between
those giving high equilibrium yield and those giving rapid rate of formation is often
necessary for maximum economic benefit.

Assessment
Where a criterion requires calculation of a quantity, the learners’ evidence must
clearly show the steps of the calculation accurately and with correct use of units.
For P1, learners must be able to state correctly a number of given key definitions
used throughout the unit. This could be assessed through the use of a carefully
constructed matching exercise with suitable distractors. Learners must get all
answers correct. They must be able to relate these measurements and processes to
industrial applications.
For P2, learners must correctly predict the effects of pressure, concentration and
temperature change, and the use of catalysts, on the position of chemical equilibria.
This must be approached with reference to Le Chatelier’s principle, the equilibrium
law and activation energies, and relate to how these are applied in industry.
For P3, learners must identify acids, bases, and their conjugates in acid/base
equilibria. Tutors can use a selection of acid/base equilibria equations, some of
which should be unfamiliar to the learners, and ask the learners to identify the
acid/base conjugate pairs. Learners must relate their knowledge to industrial
applications.
For P4, learners must correctly and safely carry out a number of stated key
laboratory practicals. Practical reports and laboratory observations should be used as
evidence for this criterion, with a section relating these procedures to those used in
industry.
met.
For M1, learners must demonstrate that they can calculate correctly a number of
stated quantities from given data. The examples and data chosen should require
more than trivial calculations. For instance, learners should be asked to calculate the
pH of a 0.023 mol.dm-3 solution of a strong acid rather than a 1x10-2mol.dm-3
solution.
For M2, learners must calculate the value of the equilibrium constant, Kc, for a
reaction from given data. The data given should require learners to calculate
equilibrium concentrations of all the reactants from the stoichiometric equation for
the reaction, the initial concentrations of reactants and the concentration of one
substance at equilibrium. From given data on the enthalpy change of the reaction,
learners must explain how the value of Kc varies with temperature change. This
explanation must consider the energies involved in bond making and breaking
processes in the reaction, how the increased availability of heat energy affects the
equilibrium position and then how this affects Kc.
For M3, learners need to carry out pH titrations for a strong acid/strong base, strong
acid/weak base, weak acid/strong base, and weak acid/weak base. Learners then
need to devise how to obtain the Ka value of the weak acid from these data. The
evidence presented by learners should be in the form of a laboratory practical
report.

For M4, learners must explain how the principles of redox equilibrium are used to
prevent or control corrosion. Learners must consider coatings, sacrificial anodes and
the impressed current methods. Explanations should include the use of emf and Eo
values for specific examples, where appropriate.
met.
For D1, learners must predict the direction of a redox reaction using given Eo values.
Learners are required to do this for a number of unfamiliar examples. Learners are
also required to explain why the redox reaction predicted using Eo values may not
actually occur. This needs to be illustrated with specific examples.
For D2, learners must evaluate the chosen conditions for industrial processes. The
influences of the temperatures, pressures and concentrations used on the product
yield in a variety of industrial processes must be considered and suggestions made on
how, in theory, these yields might be improved.
For D3, learners need to explain the mode of action of buffer mixtures and their use
in a group of products. Here learners must explain how a buffer mixture can have
small amounts of strong acid or base added to it and yet maintain an approximately
constant pH. The capacity of a buffer mixture must be mentioned. Learners must
research a group of products that incorporate a buffer, and explain the reasons for
its incorporation.
For D4, learners must evaluate the reasons for the use of non-equilibrium conditions
in industrial processes. This should be approached in terms of the economics of the
process and should consider rate of reaction, cost of plant, recycling of reactants,
energy requirements and energy recovery.

The learning outcomes in this unit are linked with:

This unit develops some of the topics encountered in Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science
and together with:
• Unit 28: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry
provides a coherent study of chemistry at this level.

Laboratory investigations used in this unit could be chosen to also fulfil learning
outcomes for the industrial applications of:
Laboratory investigations may be designed to provide evidence for:
The mathematical content relates to Unit 8: Statistics for Science Technicians.
Essential resources
Learners should have access to laboratory facilities equipped with pH meters,

colorimeters and potentiometers. Learners will need library facilities, including
internet access, and audio-visual facilities for viewing video clips.
Textbooks
Freemantle M H — Chemistry in Action (Thomson Learning, 1995) ISBN 1861527128
Fullick A and Fullick P — Chemistry: Evaluation Pack (Heinemann Advanced Science)
Lewis E and Berry M — AS and A Level Chemistry (Longman, 2000) ISBN 058233733X
Lewis R and Evans W — Chemistry, 3rd Edition (Palgrave Macmillan, 2006)
ISBN 0230000118
Ramsden E N — A-level Chemistry: AND Answers Key (Nelson Thornes, 2004)
ISBN 074875301X
Journals
Education in Chemistry
Royal Society of Chemistry
Magazine
Allan P — Chemistry Review, eg:
• Vol 6(4), March 1997 — Energy issues in industrial chemistry
• Vol 6(5), May 1997 — Cost issues in industrial chemistry.
Video
Industrial Chemistry for Schools and Colleges (The Royal Society of Chemistry)

Other publications
Controlling Chemical Reactions — A Case Study (The Chemical Industry Education
Centre, University of York)
Cash and Chemicals (The Chemical Industry Education Centre, University of York)
Industrial Chemical Case Studies (The Royal Society of Chemistry)
Websites
www.chemdex.org The Sheffield Chemdex
www.cia.org.uk Chemical Industries Association
www.psigate.ac.uk Physical Sciences Information Gateway

Key skills


investigation. information from relevant sources.

• considering the optimum C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
conditions for a given
industrial process
• describing a given industrial C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
process eight minutes using an image or other
support material.
• researching a given industrial C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
process least two documents about the same
subject.
1000 words long.
• presenting a report of a C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
laboratory investigation and each one giving different information
presenting a report on an about complex subjects.
industrial process.
words long.


• researching a given industrial ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
process sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• investigating a given ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
industrial process derive new information.
• reporting on a given ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
industrial process. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

• planning a practical LP3.1 Set targets using information from
will be met.
• carrying out a practical LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
investigation using your plan to help meet targets and
• reporting on a practical LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
investigation. your achievements.

• devising an experiment to PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
determine Ka for a weak acid ways of tackling it.
from pH titration curves
• performing an experiment to PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
determine Ka for a weak acid solving the problem.
from pH titration curves
• checking results obtained PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
with given data. review your approach to problem solving.


• planning a practical WO3.1 Plan work with others.
investigation on molar
enthalpy change for a
reaction
• carrying out a practical WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
investigation on molar progress towards your agreed objectives.
reaction
• reporting on a practical WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
investigation on molar of improving collaborative work in future.
reaction.

UNIT 27: CHEMICAL PERIODICITY AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Unit 27: Chemical Periodicity and its

Applications
Unit abstract
Society is increasingly reliant on the work of chemists. Any study of science would be
incomplete if it failed to recognise the importance of the chemical sector to the
economy and the variety of exciting career opportunities it provides. This unit allows
learners to explore the physical and chemical properties of elements and their
compounds in relation to the periodic table. The concepts are extended to allow
learners to explain the uses of inorganic substances in a variety of important
applications.
We are surrounded by materials made using inorganic substances. Learners will
recognise where these are being used and will begin to have an appreciation of the
underlying chemistry. Inorganic chemistry contributes to the manufacture of soaps
and detergents, fertiliser, dyes, paints, aircraft, buildings and cars, to name just a
few. It is also involved in power generation and transmission, and in building
reactors. It is used in treating drinking water and effluent.
Process workers and chemical, mechanical, structural and environmental engineers
must appreciate the properties of inorganic chemistry. Analysts use inorganic
chemistry in the food, construction, water treatment, environmental, aerospace,
metals and chemical process industries.
One of the main purposes of this unit is to give learners the opportunity to learn how
inorganic chemistry is used commercially. By working in certain industries, the
learner will be applying inorganic chemistry.
Learning outcomes
1 Know how physical and chemical properties of elements and their compounds are
indicated by the position of the element in the periodic table
2 Be able to demonstrate the physical and chemical behaviour of elements and
their compounds
3 Be able to identify, collate and process information, illustrating the physical and
chemical behaviour of elements and their compounds
4 Understand how the physical and chemical properties of substances influence
their production and uses.

Unit content
1 Know how physical and chemical properties of elements and their compounds
are indicated by the position of the element in the periodic table
Physical properties: electronic arrangement (s, p, d); first ionisation energy;

electron affinity; atomic radius; ionic radius; electronegativity; type of bonding in
the element; melting point and boiling point
Period: periods 1, 2, 3 and 4; trends
Chemical properties of elements: products and reactivity of all period 2 and 3
elements with oxygen; products and reactivity of common metals with oxygen,
water, dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric acid eg potassium, sodium,
lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, tin, lead, copper, silver,
gold; position of metals in the reactivity series in relation to position in the
periodic table; oxidation; reduction; variable oxidation states of transition metal
ions; displacement of a metal in aqueous solution by another; displacement of
one halogen in aqueous solution by another
Chemical reactions of compounds of elements: water solubility and acid/base
character of period 2 and 3 oxides; water solubility and basic character of group I
and group II and first transition series metal oxides; reactions of period 2
chlorides with water; ease of decomposition of carbonates and nitrates of metals
in relation to the reactivity series of metals; precipitation reactions; formation of
simple complexes eg with water molecules and ethylenediammine tetra acetic
acid (EDTA) as ligands; precipitation reactions
2 Be able to demonstrate the physical and chemical behaviour of elements and

their compounds
Practical work on physical properties: comparison of the thermal and electrical

conductivity of a range of metals
Practical work on chemical behaviour of elements and their compounds:
reactions of metals with oxygen, water and dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric
acid; solubility of a range of oxides from as many groups as possible;
measurement of pH of the solution of a range of oxides in aqueous solution;
displacement reactions between metals and solutions of metal salts; heating
metal carbonates; exploring the acidic/basic character of solutions of hydrogen
chloride and ammonia; reaction of solution of transition metal ions eg Co3+, with
hydroxide and ammonia; at least three types of titration eg acid/base,
complexometric, redox, precipitation

3 Be able to identify, collate and process information, illustrating the physical

and chemical behaviour of elements and their compounds
Physical and chemical behaviour: thermal and electrical conductivities of

elements; bonding in period chlorides; reactions of chlorides of period 3 elements
with water; displacement reactions of halogens; reduction of metal oxides by
hydrogen and carbon; decomposition of metal nitrates; solubility of ions in
solution to predict outcome of a precipitation reaction
4 Understand how the physical and chemical properties of substances influence

their production and uses
Production of substances: purification eg alumina from bauxite; extraction

eg iron from iron ore, titanium from its ore, aluminium from alumina, electrolysis
of brine to produce sodium hydroxide, hydrogen and chlorine; manufacture
eg ammonia, nitric acid, sulphuric acid; costs; abundance
Uses: eg acidic effluent treatment, making reactor vessels, cooling nuclear
reactors, building, construction of oil platforms, power transmission, as catalysts,
in electronics, in electroplating, in formulations such as titanium dioxide in
sunscreens, EDTA in toiletries, silica in glass, transition metal compounds in
pottery glazes; sodium chlorite in water treatment products; commercial
application of titrimetry or other analytical techniques involving inorganic
substances in an industrial context eg determination of free acid content of oils
and fats, peroxide value of fats, chloride content of salted snacks, chlorite
content of water treatment formulations, hardness of water eg ultraviolet/visible
spectroscopy, atomic absorption, gravimetry, use of ion-selective electrodes
Properties: physical; chemical reactivities

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the physical and chemical M1 investigate and explain trends in physical D1 predict and justify the positions of two
properties of elements and period 2 and chemical behaviour of elements and unidentified elements in the periodic
chlorides and the state and acid/base their compounds in relation to the table
character of three oxides in relation to position of the element in the periodic
the position of the element in the table
periodic table
P2 describe physical and chemical behaviour M2 present the results of investigations of D2 use knowledge of chemical behaviour of
of metals and their compounds the physical and chemical behaviour of metals to design a safe and detailed
metals and their compounds and draw reaction scheme for placing five
conclusions from the information unknown metals in order of decreasing
reactivity
P3 report on the physical and chemical M3 explain the properties of inorganic D3 explain how the properties of their
properties of two inorganic substances elements and their compounds compounds influence their industrial
manufacture
P4 describe one industrial process and one M4 explain why an inorganic substance is D4 relate the use of an inorganic substance
commercial analytical procedure used in a particular industrial process in an industrial process and commercial
involving an inorganic substance. and a commercial analytical procedure. analytical procedure to the positions of
its elements in the periodic table.

Delivery
Learners will look at examples of reactions, eg acid base, precipitation, oxidation

and reduction. The chemical behaviour of inorganic substances determines how they
are extracted and purified. This is investigated. Some industrial processes that make
use of inorganic reactions are explored.
Learners should carry out practical investigations of the acid/base character of a
range of oxides. They should collate data on melting point, boiling point, state of
elements at room temperature, bonding in elements and first ionisation energy of
elements. Other properties such as atomic radius, ionic radius, electron affinity, and
electronegativity could also be studied. Learners should use books and internet
sources to collect information. Learners should also collect information on the state
of the period 2 chlorides and the reaction of these chlorides with water. Learners
should be encouraged to describe trends, and to explain the trends in properties in
terms of the position of elements in the periodic table, and hence their electronic
arrangement.
Learners should be encouraged to present the material they have found in an
interesting way, using posters or PowerPoint presentation. Learners should be able to
interpret data on the chemical and physical properties of unidentified elements in
terms of the position of the elements in the periodic table. Learners should be given
the opportunity to consolidate their understanding of the properties of metals and
their compounds.
Learners should investigate and study data on electrical and thermal conductivity of
metals. They should compare the reaction of approximately seven metals. The
reaction of the metals with water, dilute acid, oxygen and solutions of metal ions
should be studied be means of practical experiments, as should the thermal
decomposition of a range of metal carbonates. Textbooks and internet sources should
be used to research the decomposition of metal nitrates and the reduction of metal
oxides by hydrogen and carbon. Learners should be able to write simple oxidation and
reduction equations. They should be able to provide a reactivity series for the metals
studied, and be able to justify the reactivity series in terms of the information
collected. Learners should also be able to write a safe, practical scheme for
determining the reactivity series for five, unidentified metals. They could be given
the opportunity to try out their scheme and refine it, but the tutor would need to
check the safety aspects of their proposals.
Ideally, learners should be given the opportunity to visit industrial sites that use
inorganic chemistry. These could be manufacturing sites, contract analytical
companies, or sites that use inorganic chemicals in routine analysis connected with a
process. Processes and reactions described could be in relation to those experienced
on visits. It is, however, possible to meet the related criteria through use of
textbooks and websites.

Learners should be encouraged to describe industrial manufacturing and purification

processes in various ways, including by using flow diagrams. Small-scale simulations
can be used in the laboratory to illustrate the industrial processes, eg electrolysis of
brine or formation of calcium sulphate from the reaction of calcium oxide with
sulphuric acid.
Learners should study industrial process where the inorganic substance is not the
product of the reaction but a reagent or catalyst. Alternatively, it could be a
manufacturing process where a metal is chosen and processed for a particular
purpose.
Many analytical procedures used industrially involve titration, albeit with an
autotitrator. Learners should be given the chance to use at least one of these in the
laboratory (eg use of titration with sodium hydroxide to find free fatty acid content
in new and used cooking oils, or use of silver nitrate titration to find the
concentration of chloride in butter). Other analytical techniques could be covered
(eg use of atomic absorption spectroscopy or visible spectroscopy to find the
concentration of chromium or nickel in a plating solution).
The learners should describe an industrial analytical procedure. They should justify
the choice of the inorganic substance in the industrial process and in the industrial
analytical technique, and explain the choice of the substance. They should also
comment on the reasons for the choice of substance in relation to the position of the
elements involved in the periodic table. For example, choice of transition metal
catalysts depends on the ability to catalyse the reaction and on the ease of
desorption of the products from the surface to the catalyst — this depends on its
position in the periodic table.
Assessment
For P1, learners must investigate physical and chemical properties of elements,
period 2 chlorides and a range of oxides. The investigation must involve some
practical work, in relation to the solubility and acid/base character of oxides. It must
involve collation of information from textbooks and internet sources. Physical
properties of elements to be investigated must include first ionisation energy, boiling
and melting point and hence state of the element at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure. For the period 2 chlorides, melting point, boiling point and
state and reaction of the chlorides with water should be investigated and described.
Information on the state and the acid/base character of the period 2 oxides, period 3
oxides, group I oxides, group II oxides and first transition series oxides should be
collected. Presentation could be in the form of tables with supporting text, as
posters or PowerPoint presentations. Graphs or charts could be inserted as
appropriate. Learners must identify trends in each property in relation to the position
of the elements in the periodic table.

For P2, learners must investigate the electrical and thermal conductivities and
melting points of a range of common metals, and the reactions of common metals
with water, oxygen and acid. They must study displacement reactions and thermal
decomposition reactions of carbonates and nitrates. For safety reasons, it is not
advisable to investigate the decomposition of nitrates practically. The investigations
must involve practical work in relation to measurement of electrical conductivity and
thermal conductivity of metals and the reactions of metals with water, acid, oxygen
and solutions of metal ions. Further investigation should involve analysis of
information from textbooks, websites and CD ROMs. Learners should state the
reactivity series for the metals studied. They should also write at least three
oxidation, reduction and redox equations for the reactions of metals with acid and
with metal ion solutions.
For P3, learners must produce a report, ideally from their own investigations, on the
properties of inorganic elements and their compounds.
For P4, learners must describe one industrial process which involves the use of an
inorganic substance. They must also describe a commercial method of analysis which
involves the use of an inorganic substance.
met.
For M1, learners must investigate and explain the trends identified in the properties
investigated for P1, of elements and their compounds in terms of position in the
periodic table and hence, electronic arrangement.
For M2, learners must organise and present each set of information collated for P2,
logically and neatly. They must draw at least one conclusion from each set of data
presented, eg the metal from the list with the highest conductivity is..., the metal
from the list which reacts most readily with water is... Generalisations must also be
made regarding reactivity of metals and their position in the periodic table.
For M3, learners must explain the behaviour of inorganic elements and their
compounds. This can be combined with P3 and presented in the same report.
For M4, learners must explain why an inorganic substance is suitable for the
particular purpose of an industrial process and a commercial analytical procedure, eg
the use of copper in the manufacture of electrical cables; use of nickel as a catalyst
in the hydrogenation of unsaturated compounds; use of aluminium oxide in cracking
of hydrocarbons; use of calcium oxide or calcium carbonate in fuel gas
desulphurisation; use of aluminium oxide as an abrasive in toothpastes; use of sodium
hydroxide in the manufacture of soaps; use of transition metal compounds as
pigments in paints. They must state the reason for carrying out the process, eg use of
titration with sodium hydroxide in determining the free fatty acid content of oils and
fats (in nuts or in manufacture of spreads or soaps); use of redox titration or of
atomic absorption or ICP analysis of chromium in a plating bath to see whether there
is still enough chromium for the bath to perform satisfactorily. For each assignment,
learners should provide evidence of consultation of books, websites, CD ROMs or an
industrial visit.
met.

For D1, learners should be presented with data on the physical and chemical
properties of at least two elements and their chlorides and oxides. The elements in
question should not belong to the list investigated. Learners must predict the likely
positions of the elements in the periodic table, and justify their predictions.
For D2, learners must provide a reaction scheme or flowchart for placing five metals
in order of decreasing reactivity. Effectively no further guidance should be given
apart from guidance on the nature of the most reactive metal because that will
inform the recommended safety precautions. Safety must be built into the scheme.
For D3, learners can describe the extraction of a metal from its ore, the purification
of a mineral (eg aluminium oxide) from its ore, or the manufacture of a substance, eg
chlorine, sodium hydroxide, nitric acid, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid or ammonia.
Learners should show evidence of having consulted textbooks, websites or CD ROMs.
There should be some justification of aspects of the process. For instance, learners
might need to explain the dependence of the purification of alumina on its
amphoteric nature; the need to extract aluminium from its ore using large amounts
of electrical energy because aluminium, being a reactive element, has stable
compounds; the extraction of chlorine from salt because of the large quantities of
salt available. The learner should justify why that element or compound can be
compared with the element or compound selected for P3 and M3, eg manufacture of
hydrogen fluoride or hydrogen bromide may be compared with manufacture of
hydrogen chloride because fluoride, bromine and chlorine are all in group VII of the
periodic table; extraction of cobalt from its or may be compared with extraction of
iron from its ore because the elements are adjacent in the first transition series. The
learner should find information on the manufacture of the other substance and then
explain any differences or similarities in the processes. To allow learners to meet this
criterion, tutors must be careful in selecting the tasks for P3 and M3. Tutors should
check that there is suitable information that can be found easily.
For D4, learners must relate the use of an inorganic element or its compound, in an
industrial process and a commercial analytic procedure, to its position in the periodic
table.

The practical work and delivery of some of the topics in this unit could be integrated
with the delivery of units such as:
This unit builds on concepts covered in the Key Stage 4 mandatory criteria. The unit
has strong links with the content of the 2006 GCSE Science core and BTEC First units:
• Unit 1: Scientific Principles
• Unit 3: Chemistry Applications.

Content in the unit is related to units in Advanced GCE in Chemistry syllabi, eg

Units 1, 3, 4, 5 and 6 of Edexcel Advanced GCE in Chemistry.
Essential resources
All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities and library and
information technology resources. Library access to a range of general chemistry
books at Level 3 standard is expected.
Textbooks
Beavon R and Jarvis A — Periodicity, Quantitative Equilibria and Functional Group
Chemistry (Nelson Advanced Science: Chemistry) (Nelson Thornes, 2003)
ISBN 0748776575
Chapman B — Transition Metals, Quantitative Kinetics and Applied Organic Chemistry
(Nelson Advanced Science: Chemistry) (Nelson Thornes, 2001) ISBN 0174482922
Chapman B, Beavon R and Jarvis A — Structure Bonding and Main Group Chemistry
(Nelson Advanced Science: Chemistry) (Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0748776559
Hubbard E (editor) — Essential Chemical Industry (Chemical Industry Education
Centre, University of York, 1995) ISBN 1853425567
Lister T — Industrial Chemistry Case Studies: Industrial Processes in the 1990s (Royal
Society of Chemistry, 1999) ISBN 0854049258
Lister T and Osborne C — Sodium Carbonate: A Versatile Material (Royal Society of
Chemistry, 2000) ISBN 085404924X
Maple J — Advanced Chemistry: An Enquiry-based Approach (John Murray, 1995)
ISBN 0719553598
Ramsden E N — A-level Chemistry: AND Answers Key (Nelson Thornes, 2004)
ISBN 074875301X
Websites
www.chemguide.co.uk chemguide
www.chemsoc.org/viselements Royal Society of Chemistry’s chemical
science network
www.uyseg.org/ciec_home.htm University of York and Chemical
Industries Association
www.webelements.com WebElements

Key skills


• planning a titrimetric N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
procedure information from relevant sources.
• calculating masses and N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
volumes required to make stage calculations to do with:
solutions
a amounts or sizes
• determining required b scales or proportion
dilutions
• comparing the quality of
their own experimental data d using formulae.
with data obtained by other
learners, by calculating
statistical quantities such as
mean, median, mode,
standard deviation and range
• using formulae such as the
formula for standard
deviation
• constructing flowcharts for N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
planning exercise present your findings and justify your
methods.
• constructing histograms of
results based on appropriate
class intervals
• constructing graphs related
to rate of reaction
• generating conclusions from


• discussing quality of C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
experimental results
• presenting research on C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
oxides, chlorides and metals eight minutes using an image or other
support material.
extraction of substances
industrial uses of substances
• carrying out research on C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
oxides, chlorides, metals, least two documents about the same
extraction of substances or subject.
uses of substances
1000 words long.
• writing about titrations, C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
oxides and chlorides, metals, each one giving different information
extraction of substances or about complex subjects.
uses of substances.
words long.


• searching books or the ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
internet for information on sources, and multiple search criteria in at
properties of inorganic least one case.
substances, extraction of
substances, industrial uses of
substances and titrimetric
procedures
• entering information from ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
books or internet sources derive new information.
• performing calculations on
experimental data
• performing statistical
analysis of results from
titrations
• constructing databases on
the properties of inorganic
substances
• writing queries for databases
on inorganic substances
• preparing PowerPoint ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
presentations text with image, text with number,
image with number.
• writing reports
• preparing reports from
databases.

will be met.
improvement.


• determining the sort of PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
information needed to satisfy ways of tackling it.
the requirements of an
assignment task
• carrying out the identified PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
stages of one way of tackling solving the problem.
the assignment task
• getting feedback from peer PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review and tutors review your approach to problem solving.
• reflecting on how the
assignment task was tackled.

• collaborating with class WO3.1 Plan work with others.
members in collecting
information for assignment
tasks
• determining group and WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
individual responsibilities progress towards your agreed objectives.
• discussing progress at
intervals
the future.

UNIT 28: INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Unit 28: Industrial Applications of Organic

Chemistry
Unit abstract
The majority of the substances we use every day are, or contain, organic compounds.
Pharmaceuticals such as aspirin and paracetamol, synthetic fibres for our clothes
such as nylon and polyesters, fuels for our transport vehicles, soaps and detergents,
dyes, flavourings, perfumes and liquid crystal display materials are just a few of the
many organic substances that are manufactured on an industrial scale for us all to
use.
In this unit, learners will develop knowledge of the key classes of organic compounds
that are industrially important and their chemistry which makes them useful to us.
The number of known organic compounds is enormous and growing. This is because
carbon, the basis of organic compounds, can form molecules consisting of chains and
rings of atoms that enable it to bond with itself and other elements. The classes of
organic compounds, their naming and their ability to form different arrangements of
the same atoms (isomerism) are studied in the first part of this unit.
The simplest of all organic compounds are the hydrocarbons. Learners will study
these and their industrially useful reactions. Learners will then look at five
commercially important groups of organic compounds. This study will include their
properties, reactions and how they can be converted into one another. This latter
aspect allows the synthesis of organic compounds with particular structures, fitting
them for specific commercial uses.
Learning outcomes
1 Know the bonding, shape, nomenclature and reaction types of organic compounds
2 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons and how these relate to bonding and structure
3 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of halogenoalkanes, amines
and alcohols and how these relate to bonding and structure
4 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of carbonyl compounds and
how these relate to bonding and structure.

Unit content
1 Know the bonding, shape, nomenclature and reaction types of organic

compounds
Structure representations and bonding: linear; structural; displayed and skeletal

formulae; 3D representations using wedge/dashed line diagrams; eg sigma and pi-
bonding in alkanes and alkenes and their relative strengths; delocalised pi-
bonding in benzene; primary, secondary and tertiary groups
Nomenclature: systematic naming of structural isomers of alkanes (saturated),
alkenes (unsaturated), substituted benzenes, halogenoalkanes, amines, alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, acid chlorides, esters and amides; e-z (cis-
/trans-) nomenclature of geometric isomers; (+), (-) nomenclature of optical
isomers
Isomerism: structural isomers; geometric e-z (cis-/trans-); isomers of alkenes;
optical isomers; enantiomers; optical rotation; racemic mixtures; importance of
molecular shape in commercial products
Reaction types: substitution; addition; elimination; addition-elimination
(condensation) oxidation; reduction
2 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of saturated and

unsaturated hydrocarbons and how these relate to bonding and structure
Alkanes: crude oil as the source of hydrocarbons; combustion of alkanes; radical

substitution (chlorination) of methane; mechanism of radical substitution;
commercial uses
Alkenes: electrophiles; electrophilic addition (H2O, HBr, Br2) to symmetrical
alkenes; direction of addition to asymmetric alkenes; stabilities of intermediate
carbocations; polymerisation; commercial uses
Aromatic compounds: electrophilic substitution (nitration only) of benzene;
commercial uses
3 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of halogenoalkanes,

amines and alcohols and how these relate to bonding and structure
Halogenoalkanes: nucleophiles; nucleophilic substitution (OH—, NH3, primary

amines) of halogenoalkanes; mechanism of nucleophilic substitution limited to
simple SN2 mechanism; elimination reactions; substitution versus elimination;
commercial uses
Amines: aromatic amines from reduction of nitro compounds; amines as bases;
formation of salts; amines as nucleophiles; commercial uses
Alcohols: oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; dehydration to
give alkenes and ethers; commercial uses

4 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of carbonyl compounds

and how these relate to bonding and structure
Aldehydes and ketones: nucleophilic addition (HCN) and addition-elimination (2,4-

dinitrophenylhydrazine) in aldehydes and ketones; oxidation of aldehydes;
reduction of aldehydes and ketones (NaBH4, LiAlH4); commercial uses
Sugars: aldehyde and ketone sugars (glucose and fructose); open chain and ring
forms of sugars; reducing and non-reducing sugars; disaccharides (sucrose) and
polysaccharides (starches and cellulose); commercial uses
Carboxylic acids and derivatives: structures of carboxylic acids, amides, acid
chlorides and esters; esterification of carboxylic acids and acid chlorides;
reduction of carboxylic acids and esters; formation of amides from carboxylic
acids and acid chlorides; structure of amino acids; formation of proteins;
commercial uses

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 name and draw appropriate M1 explain how reactions and conditions D1 evaluate the commercial importance of
representations to correctly show the may influence the molecular structure being able to change the reaction
shape of organic compounds, identifying and shape of the products conditions
the type of isomerism and possible
involvement in types of reaction as listed
in the content
P2 describe the bonding in simple M2 explain the influence of bonding on the D2 evaluate the influence of structure and
compounds in terms of sigma and pi conditions and type of selected organic bonding on the course of selected
bonding reactions organic reactions
P3 write balanced chemical equations and M3 predict the products of selected D3 write and justify the reaction
give reaction conditions for the selected industrial organic reactions mechanisms for selected industrial
industrial organic reactions listed in the organic reactions from given evidence
content
P4 describe the commercial uses and M4 evaluate the influence of molecular D4 evaluate the need to separate isomers of
reactions of the classes of organic shape on the commercial uses of organic compounds before their use.
compounds listed in the content. selected organic compounds.

Delivery
This unit offers many opportunities to approach delivery of the content through
individual and group practical work, practical demonstrations and should be
supported by lectures, discussions, presentations and research using the internet
and/or library resources.
Throughout the delivery of the unit, industrial applications and importance should be
stressed. These could be reinforced with visits to local organic or pharmaceutical
chemical plants. Where this is not possible, video clips of organic industrial processes
could be used. The delivery should educate, stimulate and motivate learners. All
learning outcomes should start with applications and lead to the chemistry through
explanation of processes.
Learning outcome 1 provides the essential foundations for the study of industrial
organic chemical reactions. Learners should use models to help them understand
structure and isomerism. Learners should be encouraged to draw diagrams of
structures and take digital photographs of models to record molecular shapes. They
could use a simple molecular modelling package such as ACD ChemSketch.
Learners could use the internet to search for information on how molecular shape
affects the use of compounds. This could include the ease of biodegradation of linear
and branched chain alkylbenzene sulphonate detergents, the effect of shape on
flavour and fragrance (eg (+) and (-)-carvone and (+) and (-)-limonene), the effect of
shape on physiological activity (eg (+) and (-)-adrenaline, thalidomide) and the
importance of e-z (cis- and trans-) retinal in the process of vision.
Learning outcome 2 applies the principles of bonding and structure to the chemistry
of the hydrocarbons. Many of the reactions of the hydrocarbons can be experienced
by learners as test tube reactions. Thus, radical substitution of an alkane can be
performed using bromine solution and a liquid alkane such as hexane, initiating the
reaction with a bright light. Electrophilic addition to alkenes can be performed using
bromine solution and a liquid alkene, eg hex-1-ene; phenylethene can be polymerised
using benzoylperoxide as the initiator (a reaction used in some plastic wood fillers).
The nitration of benzene must not be carried out in the laboratory for safety reasons,
but the nitration of methylbenzene or methyl benzoate can be used to illustrate the
reaction.
Learners could investigate the influence of molecular shape of alkanes on their
octane rating in fuels, the environmental effects of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), the
production of addition polymers, the production of ethanol and ethanoic acid via the
hydration of ethane, and the production and uses of nitro-aromatic compounds as
explosives.

Learning outcomes 3 and 4 cover the reactions and industrial applications of the
major classes of functional group compounds. Test tube reactions can be used to
illustrate the relative ease of nucleophilic substitution of chloro-, bromo-, and
iodoalkanes (using dilute silver nitrate solution) leading to discussion of the SN2
mechanism. Test tube reactions can also be used to show the reaction of amines as
bases (dissolution in dilute hydrochloric acid; solid salt formation with concentrated
hydrochloric acid), the oxidation of alcohols (with warm acidified potassium
dichromate solution), 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone formation of aldehydes and
ketones, oxidation of aldehydes (Tollens’s and Fehling’s tests), investigating reducing
sugars, and the formation of esters.
Learners could prepare 1-bromobutane from butan-1-ol, reduce benzophenone
(diphenylmethanone) with sodium borohydride, prepare an azo dye and use it to dye
cotton cloth, prepare aspirin and/or paracetamol, and make a sample of soap by
alkaline hydrolysis of olive oil. The reactivity of acid chlorides and the preparation of
nylon (nylon rope trick) could be demonstrated. Laboratory preparations and
processes should be compared with their industrial equivalents.
Industrial applications of these functional group compounds could include aromatic
amines as starting materials of dyes, alcohols as starting material for esters and as
solvents, nylon production, paracetamol, aspirin and novocaine synthesis, soap
manufacture, and cellulose acetate production.
Assessment
For P1, learners must be able to name organic compounds using IUPAC systematic
nomenclature. They must also be able to draw linear, structural and skeletal
formulae for organic compounds, showing structures in three-dimensional
representations where appropriate. These should be used to show and identify
structural, geometric and optical isomerism in compounds.
For P2, learners must be able to describe sigma and pi-bonding in simple organic
compounds. This is best achieved through the drawing of clear diagrams of the sigma
and pi molecular orbitals resulting from the overlapping of appropriate atomic
orbitals. The directional characteristics of these bonds should be shown.
For P3, learners must demonstrate the ability to write balanced equations for each of
the reactions given in the unit content, and quote typical reaction conditions for
them. In redox reactions, learners are not expected to show the oxidising or reducing
agent in the balanced equation. Instead, [O] and [H] can be used with the necessary
stoichiometry for a balanced equation.
For P4, learners must describe the commercial uses and reactions of each of the
given classes of organic compounds (hydrocarbons, halogenoalkanes, amines, alcohols
and carbonyl compounds). Learners can research the information using the internet
and/or other library resources.
met.

For M1, learners must explain how reactions and conditions might affect the
structure and shape of the products. This must include the direction of addition to
asymmetric alkenes, substitution versus elimination in halogenoalkanes, dehydration
of alcohols and nucleophilic addition to carbonyl compounds. Learners should be able
to do this with familiar and unfamiliar substances.
For M2, learners must explain how the bonding in an organic molecule affects the
reaction conditions and reaction type. Learners must be able to explain that where
molecules contain only unpolarised sigma bonds, the reactions will require high
energy conditions and will involve radical substitution. They should explain how
molecules containing simple pi-bonds will undergo addition reactions under low
energy conditions, while the stability of the benzene ring will favour electrophilic
substitution but will require more vigorous conditions and/or a catalyst; molecules
containing polarised sigma bonds will generally favour nucleophilic substitution under
fairly mild conditions, or elimination under harsher conditions.
For M3, learners must be able to predict the products of reactions where both
familiar and unfamiliar substances are involved. The object is for learners to
demonstrate an understanding of the reactions rather than to reproduce examples
they have already encountered. This should include prediction of major and minor
products in additions to asymmetric alkenes, oxidation products of alcohols and
aldehydes, reduction products of carbonyl compounds, and whether substitution or
elimination is favoured under given conditions in the reactions of halogenoalkanes
and alcohols.
For M4, learners must evaluate the influence of molecular shape on the commercial
uses of compounds. This may be a research task using the internet and/or other
library resources. Evidence produced should include the influences of structural
isomerism (linear and branched), geometric, and optical isomerism, each illustrated
with appropriate specific examples.
met.
For D1, learners must evaluate the reaction conditions that produce different isomers
for a given molecular formula. Examples chosen should include the possibility of
structural, geometric and optical isomerism but these need not all be possible for
one given molecular formula. Learners must evaluate the commercial importance of
being able to produce different isomers.
For D2, learners must evaluate the influence of structure and bonding on the course
of reactions. They must explain why alkenes undergo electrophilic addition whereas
benzene undergoes electrophilic substitution, why alkanes undergo radical reactions,
relative reactivities of halogenoalkanes towards nucleophilic substitution and relative
reactivities of carboxylic acids and acid chlorides towards esterification.
For D3, learners must write and justify appropriate mechanisms for reactions given
the reaction conditions. These must include radical substitution of alkanes,
electrophilic substitution of an arene, electrophilic addition to an alkene,
nucleophilic substitution of a halogenoalkane (SN2 mechanism only), dehydration of
alcohols and nucleophilic addition to carbonyl compounds. Learners must
demonstrate that they can write correct mechanisms for these reactions with
unfamiliar substances.

For D4, learners must evaluate the need to separate isomers of organic compounds
before they are used. In doing this, learners must consider how the isomers may be
separated and the costs involved. This must be related to the need for a single
isomer product or whether the presence of more than one isomer will significantly
affect the performance of the product. Examples of these may be found in the
perfumery, flavourings and pharmaceutical industries.

The learning outcomes associated with this unit are linked with:
• Unit 27: Chemical Periodicity and its Applications.
This unit may be useful to learners taking:
• Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques.
Essential resources
Learners should have access to laboratory facilities fitted with fume cupboards. They
will also need library facilities including internet access, and audio-visual facilities
for viewing video clips.
Textbooks
Fullick A and Fullick P — Chemistry: Evaluation Pack (Heinemann Advanced Science)
Lewis E and Berry M — AS and A Level Chemistry (Longman, 2000) ISBN 058233733X
Journals
Education in Chemistry

Magazines
Chemistry World
Websites
www.cia.org.uk Chemical Industries Association
www.psigate.ac.uk Physical Sciences Information Gateway

Key skills


investigation. information from relevant sources.

• considering the effect of C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
molecular shape on uses
• presenting the commercial C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
uses of a given class of eight minutes using an image or other
organic compounds support material.
• researching the commercial C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
uses of a given class of least two documents about the same
organic compounds subject.
1000 words long.
• producing a laboratory report C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
on the preparation of an each one giving different information
organic compound about complex subjects.
• producing a report on the One document must be at least 1000
commercial uses of a given words long.
class of organic compounds.


• researching the influence of ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
molecular shape on uses sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• using a molecular modelling ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
package to obtain molecular derive new information.
shape
• reporting on the influence of ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
molecular shape on uses, text with image, text with number,
including images of image with number.
molecular shapes.

• planning a practical LP3.1 Set targets using information from
will be met.
• carrying out a practical LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
investigation using your plan to help meet targets and
• reporting on a practical LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
investigation. your achievements.

• constructing models of e-z PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
isomers to visualise the ways of tackling it.
difference in structure
• naming and drawing PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
structures of an organic solving the problem.
compound
• checking the structures of PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
e-z isomers. review your approach to problem solving.


• planning a group practical WO3.1 Plan work with others.
investigation
• carrying out a group practical WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
investigation and progress towards your agreed objectives.
communicating progress to
each other
• evaluating the effectiveness WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
of their group work in of improving collaborative work in future.
conducting a practical
investigation, and identifying
areas of improvement.

UNIT 29: PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Unit 29: Physiological Investigations

Unit abstract
The human body is the most complex machine one will ever posses and lots of
different things can go wrong. The role of the physiological measurement technician
is to carry out a range of techniques that can be used as part of the diagnostic
process when the body is not functioning correctly. This unit will introduce learners
to the more common physiological measurement techniques.
It is essential that technicians working in the area of physiological measurements
have knowledge and understanding of the range of symptoms that need to be
investigated and how they might relate to each other. Learners will become familiar
with how to carry out techniques, and understand what a normal result is and what is
not.
The range of techniques available is always increasing so this unit focuses on some of
the most commonly used techniques. Learners will use physiological measurement
testing equipment and work with patients. Contact with patients will develop
learners’ interpersonal skills as well as their specialist skills. Learners will carry out
clinical investigations from a range of disciplines: cardiology, respiratory, cytology,
haematology, audiology and neurology. Learners will be able to relate the results of
clinical investigations to specific conditions, and understand the impact on the
patient’s life and what changes they may have to make.
Learning outcomes
1 Know a range of physiological measurement tests and the normal results expected
from healthy subjects
2 Know the profile of abnormal results from physiological measurements and relate
them to clinical conditions
3 Be able to plan for and carry out two clinical investigations
4 Be able to analyse the findings of clinical investigations.

Unit content
1 Know a range of physiological measurement tests and the normal results

expected from healthy subjects
Audiology: congenital or acquired hearing loss; conductive hearing loss; sensory

hearing loss; acoustic trauma
Cytology: cervical cancer; malignant and benign skin conditions; malignant and
benign breast tumours
Haematology: leukaemia; sickle cell anaemia; pernicious anaemia; haemophilia
Cardiology: coronary heart disease; congenital heart disease; arrhythmias
Neurophysiology: epilepsy; sleep disorders; neuropathy; myopathy; demyelination
Respiratory physiology: airflow obstruction; restrictive defects; asthma;
obstructive sleep apnoea
2 Know the profile of abnormal results from physiological measurements and

relate them to clinical conditions
Audiology: otoscopic examination; pure tone audiometry; tympanometry tuning

fork tests; speech audiometry; hearing aid issue
Cytology: histological study of a range of tissues eg cervical, skin, breast
Haematology: red cell count; platelets; white cell count, plasma proteins
Cardiology: electrocardiogram (ECG); ambulatory ECG and blood pressure; stress
ECG; echocardiography
Neurophysiology: electroencephalogram (EEG); evoked potentials (EP); nerve
conduction velocity (NCV); electromyogram (EMG)
Respiratory physiology: dynamic lung volumes; flow-volume curve; static lung
volumes; single-breath transfer factor; sleep studies

3 Be able to plan for and carry out two clinical investigations
Patient history: age; gender; height; weight; disability; health history

Communications: verbal questioning of patient; verbal answering of patient
questions; written patient details
Interpersonal skills: put patient at ease; timekeeping; politeness; empathy
Environment: appropriate; private; confidential
Equipment: safety; maintenance; calibration
Audiology: congenital or acquired hearing loss; conductive hearing loss; sensory
hearing loss; acoustic trauma
Cytology: cervical cancer; benign and malignant skin conditions; malignant and
benign breast tumours
Haematology: leukaemia; sickle cell anaemia; pernicious anaemia; haemophilia
Cardiology: coronary heart disease; congenital heart disease; arrhythmias
Neurophysiology: epilepsy; sleep disorders; neuropathy; myopathy; demyelination
Respiratory physiology: airflow obstruction; restrictive defects; asthma;
obstructive sleep apnoea
4 Be able to analyse the findings of clinical investigations
Normal results: fall within the normal range for the relevant tests eg audiology,
cytology, haemotology, cardiology, neurophysiology, respiratory physiology
Abnormal results: do not fall within the normal range for the relevant tests
eg audiology, cytology, haemotology, cardiology, neurophysiology, respiratory
physiology

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 identify common physiological M1 explain each physiological measurement D1 evaluate the reliability and accuracy of
measurement techniques and state the technique identified and the meaning of each physiological measurement
normal test results from such ‘normal variation’ technique described, including an
measurements in three different explanation of the factors that produce
disciplines variations in normal test results
P2 identify abnormal results from three M2 describe each common clinical condition D2 evaluate each clinical condition
different physiological measurement identified and discuss the significance of indicated by the abnormal results in
techniques and list the clinical each result to a patient’s condition terms of its impact upon the patient
conditions causing the abnormal results
P3 plan and successfully carry out two M3 assess the factors to be considered prior D3 evaluate your plan and comment
clinical investigations to carrying out the clinical investigations critically on the procedures involved in
and explain the procedures carried out clinical investigations
during the clinical investigations
P4 report and explain the findings of each M4 compare and discuss the significance of D4 evaluate your conclusions in terms of
of your investigations. the findings of each investigation for reliability in relation to any possible
those with normal results. condition identified.

Delivery

Ideally, learners should have access to patients and hospital testing equipment. It
would be helpful to learners if they have previously studied units covering practical
techniques in science and scientific methods.
It is important that learners understand the confidential nature of the clinical
investigations being carried out, and the importance of the interpersonal skills
needed to put their patients’ minds at rest. The correct supervision of learners is
essential for the successful completion of the unit.
The practical techniques involved in the unit will vary according to the opportunities
available to learners. Therefore, the list of possible techniques is neither prescriptive
nor exhaustive. Learners should be encouraged to study a range of techniques and
investigate new developments and research in the area of physiological measurement
techniques.
The techniques used to take physiological measurements are constantly being
updated. It is essential that learners are aware of such changes and whenever
possible use the most up-to-date physiological testing techniques. The unit delivery
would benefit from the practice of as many techniques as possible. Learners should
have the opportunity to use techniques a number of times. Learners could also share
their experiences through class discussions or presentations. It may not be possible
for learners to use all techniques or have access to all stated equipment.
Learners will carry out and be assessed on a minimum of two clinical investigations,
starting with the initial history of the subject so that the correct investigation can be
planned. Learners will plan the investigation, carry it out and prepare a full written
report. This assessment is based on real-life situations, giving learners the
opportunity to develop the skills necessary for employment in this area.

Assessment
Assessment is through real or simulated situations, and learners must carry out two
clinical investigations.
For P1, P2, P3 and P4, it is essential that learners take into account all aspects of
such investigations and not just the actual testing. Therefore, the planning, accurate
recording and presentation of results and interpretation of results is just as important
as being able to perform the test. The use of results that are not from the learner’s
own investigations is not acceptable: they must use their own results.
met.
For M1, M2, M3 and M4, learners must show their understanding of how physiological
measurement techniques work and how to interpret the data in terms of normal and
abnormal results. Some analysis of the findings of the investigations is required at
this level.
met.
For D1, D2, D3 and D4, learners must clearly demonstrate the link between results
and clinical diagnosis of certain conditions. They must also be able to make critical
judgments on the accuracy and reliability of such techniques. ‘Procedures’ are the
tests and manipulations that are carried out, eg applying electrodes. ‘Tests’ refers to
the investigative techniques, eg how the ECG captures and displays data.


• Unit 12: Physiology of Human Regulation and Reproduction.
Essential resources
This unit should ideally be delivered with access to physiological measurement

equipment and to patients within the NHS, private health care practices, armed
forces, etc.

Textbooks
Binnie C D et al — Clinical Neurophysiology: Electromyography, Nerve Conduction and
Evoked Potentials (Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, 1995) ISBN 0750611839
Colman R W et al — Hemostasis and Thrombosis (Lippincott Williams and Wilkins,
2005) ISBN 0781749964
Hill S L, Newall C and England P — Practical Handbook of Respiratory Function
Testing (Association for Respiratory Technology and Physiology, 1999)
ISBN 0953689808
Hughes J M B and Pride N B — Lung Function Tests: Physiological Principles and
Clinical Applications (W B Saunders, 1999) ISBN 0702023507
Katz J — Handbook of Clinical Audiology (Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2001)
ISBN 0683045482
Koss L G and Melamed M R — Koss’ Diagnostic Cytology and its Histopathologic Bases
(Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2005) ISBN 0781719283
Marriott H J L — Marriott’s Practical Electrocardiography (Lippincott Williams and
Wilkins, 2000) ISBN 0683307460
West J B — Pulmonary Pathophysiology: The Essentials (Lippincott Williams and
Wilkins, 2003) ISBN 0781740622
Websites
www.americanheart.org American Heart Association
www.artp.org.uk Association for Respiratory Technology and
Physiology
www.bmj.com British Medical Journal
www.innerbody.com Human Anatomy Online

Key skills


• planning two clinical N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
investigations information from relevant sources.
• carrying out calculations on N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
normal and abnormal test stage calculations to do with:
results
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
results, and justifying the present your findings and justify your
methods used. methods.


• contributing to a discussion C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
on a relevant clinical
investigation or clinical
condition
the findings of one or both eight minutes using an image or other
clinical investigations support material.
information from two least two documents about the same
extended documents on subject.
clinical investigations
1000 words long.
• writing two different C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
documents about clinical each one giving different information
conditions. about complex subjects.
words long.

• searching for relevant ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
information on clinical sources, and multiple search criteria in at
investigations least one case.
• processing the information ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
and developing new ideas derive new information.
• presenting the information in ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
a suitable format. text with image, text with number,
image with number.


• planning the clinical LP3.1 Set targets using information from
investigations including appropriate people and plan how these
timescales, and having the will be met.
plan checked with their tutor
modifying it as necessary using your plan to help meet targets and
• reviewing and evaluating the LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
plan to draw conclusions. your achievements.

• planning clinical PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
investigations ways of tackling it.
• identifying alternative PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
methods of doing a clinical solving the problem.
investigation
• evaluating the methods to PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
ensure results are achieved. review your approach to problem solving.

• working as a team to plan WO3.1 Plan work with others.
clinical investigations
• checking the plan constantly WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
to ensure all objectives are progress towards your agreed objectives.
being met
• evaluating the team work WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
involved in the clinical of improving collaborative work in future.
investigations, and agreeing
improvements.

UNIT 30: MEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION
Unit 30: Medical Instrumentation

Unit abstract
This unit will give learners a basic understanding of the principles and techniques
applied in medical instrumentation. It initially deals with the different types of
transducers, sensors and input circuits that are used in the measurement of
physiological signals.
This unit also covers electrical safety and the electrical isolation circuits that are
used to protect the patient from any electrical hazards presented by the medical
instrumentation system. It then considers the signal conditioning and processing of
the electrical signals produced by the transducers, eg amplification, analogue to
digital conversion.
Learners will then investigate the different types of display devices used in medical
instrumentation, considering advantages and disadvantages of different types.
Finally, this unit covers calibration procedures including the calibration of test
equipment and the use of digital technology to correct the deviation of real
transducers from their ideal characteristics.
The emphasis of this unit should be on the application of instrumentation in medical
science using realistic examples from the work environment.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand that transducers and sensors are used to take physiological
measurements
2 Understand processing used in medical instrumentation
3 Understand the operation of display and recording units used in medical
instrumentation circuits
4 Understand maintenance and calibration procedures for medical instrumentation
circuits.

Unit content
1 Understand that transducers and sensors are used to take physiological

measurements
Types of transducers: transducers for measuring eg pressure, temperature, gas

flow, fluid flow, electrical conductivity; used in eg ventilators, dialysis machines
Sensors: electrodes eg ECG monitors; gas measurement eg oximeters/pulse
oximeters, bloodgas analysers, oxygen sensors
Input circuits: measurement eg potential divider, Wheatstone bridge, voltage
amplifier
Electrical safety and isolation: levels of electric shock; effects on muscle
contraction, heart regulation, nervous system, electrical burns; isolation circuits
eg opto-isolators, isolating transformers, isolating amplifiers
2 Understand processing used in medical instrumentation
Conditioning/processing circuits: eg filter circuits, op-amps as comparators,

integrators and differentiators, analogue to digital conversion, sample and hold
circuits, use of stored offsets, response characteristics
3 Understand the operation of display and recording units used in medical

Displays: pen plotters; moving coil meters; different types of LED eg numerical,
bar graph; LCD; CRT
Display systems: central station monitoring systems
Recording: pen plotters, magnetic tape, digital recording systems eg computer
hard disk, flash memory
4 Understand maintenance and calibration procedures for medical

Maintenance: location of measuring systems; faults; errors; human error;

procedures; checklists
Calibration: procedures; pre-test; quality assurance
Recording: accurate; detailed; responsible personnel; data recorded eg serial
numbers of parts fitted, test equipment, patients tested; national standards

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the seven input transducers and M1 explain how transducers are used in D1 evaluate the use of different transducers
sensors used in medical instrumentation, physiological measurements, and explain to take physiological measurements,
and identify in which physiological the operation of the sensors including invasive and non-invasive
measurements they are used techniques
P2 describe the purpose of processing M2 explain the operation of processing D2 compare the use of analogue and digital
circuits used in medical instrumentation circuits processing circuits
and explain the risks from electric shock
and the operation of isolation circuits
P3 describe the types of display units used M3 explain the operation of display units D3 compare and contrast the use of display
in medical instrumentation and state used in medical instrumentation and and recording units on different medical
what is meant by central station describe a central station monitoring devices and in different clinical
monitoring systems system environments
P4 describe maintenance and calibration M4 explain the principles and the need for D4 evaluate calibration procedures,
procedures carried out on medical calibration including that of the test maintenance procedures and periods and
instrumentation systems, including equipment used. importance of documentation.
documentation of these procedures.

Delivery
All principles of transducer, circuit, display operation etc should be delivered in

context with the medical device in which they are incorporated. A range of devices
should be covered, as stated in the unit content. Practical work should be used to
deliver content wherever possible.
The risk of electric shock from patient-connected equipment should be emphasised,
along with the effects of electric shock on the human body. Manufacturers of
electrical equipment produce a range of educational literature, service and
calibration manuals which could be very useful in delivering the unit content.
Learners should understand that measuring systems are often located in mechanical
systems and that faults in these systems can produce errors in measurement, eg
blockages or leaks in flow measurement channels. Therefore, learners need to
understand the need for regular maintenance and appreciate the risk of faults being
introduced during maintenance due to human error. Learners must appreciate the
need for clear maintenance procedures and checklists to minimise these risks.
Learners should understand the principle of calibration and be able to describe
calibration procedures for transducers, measurement circuits, meters and displays in
medical instrumentation systems. They should understand the need for calibration of
test equipment and describe how equipment calibration is carried out.
Learners should also understand the need for accurate and detailed records
including: who carried out the test; serial numbers of any parts fitted; serial numbers
of all test equipment used; records of patients on whom the equipment is used; test
equipment calibration records traceable to national standards.
For learning outcome 1, laboratory practicals could be used to investigate most of
the sensors and transducers covered in this section. It is also important to take into
account the practicality of using particular sensors and their impact on the patient.
Tutors must emphasise the increased risk of electric shock that patient connected
equipment poses, including the patient condition and treatment which may impair or
disable the patient’s ability to respond to the danger.
For learning outcome 2, laboratory practicals can also be used to deliver some of the
content of this section. The emphasis should be on the function of the signal
conditioning circuits in context with the relevant medical equipment. The advantages
of digital technology to correct imperfections in transducers’ characteristics must be
emphasised.
Learning outcome 3 can be delivered using case studies to investigate different
display systems and considering their merits and limitations for their particular
applications.

Case studies are an effective way of dealing with learning outcome 4. Educational
material and manufacturers’ service manuals would be particularly useful to
illustrate the section content with specific examples. Learners should be aware of
the general principles of calibration, precision and accuracy and be able to apply this
to specific case studies of medical equipment. As part of the delivery of the
equipment records section, a simple database could be developed by the learners
using Microsoft Access.
The first three learning outcomes are based on components of medical equipment
and can be assessed by a single report on different types of medical equipment.
Learning outcome 4 could be assessed through a separate report focusing on
maintenance and calibration procedures and medical equipment management
systems.
Assessment
For P1, learners must demonstrate an understanding of the function of transducers
and their input circuits. This evidence could be based on laboratory practicals and
case studies of medical equipment.
For P2, learners need to understand the function of signal conditioning and
processing circuits in the context of a medical device, including the conversion of
analogue signals to digital signals for input to a digital control system. Evidence for
this section could also be generated with a combination of laboratory practicals and
case studies of medical equipment.
For P3, learners must describe a range of display units used on medical devices and
explain what a central station monitoring system is.
For P4, learners must know procedures of planned maintenance and records and
describe calibration procedures.
met.
For M1, learners must explain the operation of the transducers and sensors in terms
of the underlying scientific principles. They must also explain the operation of input
and isolation circuits.
For M2, learners must describe the operation of signal conditioning and processing
circuits, including analogue to digital conversion and the use of stored offset
information to correct the input from transducers.
For M3, learners must describe the construction and explain the operation of display
units including central monitoring systems.
For M4, learners must explain calibration procedures for medical devices and test
equipment.
met.

For D1, learners must evaluate the use of transducers and sensors to measure
physiological signals in terms of accuracy, range, resolution, costs, risk/discomfort to
patients, etc. Where relevant, learners should compare alternative methods of
measuring physiological signals.
For D2, learners must compare the use of analogue and digital representation of
physiological signals.
For D3, learners must evaluate the suitability of different display types for displaying
the physiological measurements in terms of response time, resolution, clarity, etc.
The learners must also compare traditional methods of recording physiological
measurements with modern digital methods.
For D4, learners must evaluate maintenance and calibration procedures in terms of
risk of introducing human errors, costs, comparison of calibrating amplifiers, etc with
simulated electrical signals or signals derived from real physiological parameters (eg
using a fixed value resistor to simulate the response of a thermistor or placing the
actual thermistor in a known temperature, eg warm water). The learner must also
describe the importance of keeping accurate records, for example, when
investigating accidents, in infection control, to facilitate tracing replacement
components in the event of manufacturers recall, to trace calibration of transducers
back to national standards, to identify any devices effected by the use of faulty test
equipment.

This unit is closely related to:

• Unit 25: Electronics for Science Technicians.
Essential resources
Learners need access to a medical library and the internet.
Textbooks
Carr J J and Brown J M — Introduction to Biomedical Equipment Technology (Prentice
Hall, 2000) ISBN 0130104922
Jennings D, Nokes L D M, Turton B C H and Flint T — Introduction to Medical
Electronics Applications (Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, 1995) ISBN 0340614579
Journal
British Medical Journal

Websites
www.americanheart.org American Heart Association
www.artp.org.uk Association for Respiratory Technology and Physiology
www.bmj.com British Medical Journal
www.innerbody.com Human Anatomy Online
www.science-campus.com The Science Campus

Key skills


• planning a practical to N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
determine the characteristic information from relevant sources.
of a transducer; recording
data from the practical
• calculating electrical N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
parameters’ analysis of stage calculations to do with:
response, compared with
a amounts or sizes
standard response;
calculating deviation from b scales or proportion
standard response c handling statistics
d using formulae.
• drawing conclusions on the N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
accuracy of transducer-based present your findings and justify your
measurements. methods.


about the role of
technologists in patient care
a medical device highlighting eight minutes using an image or other
the instrumentation systems support material.
extended documents on the subject.
specifications of the same
types of instrument
1000 words long.
• producing a calibration C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
manual for a medical device each one giving different information
and a report on different about complex subjects.
types of transducers.
words long.

• carrying out internet ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
research on medical devices sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• describing generic calibration ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
procedures from analysing derive new information.
specific procedures for
medical devices
• producing a report on ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
transducers’ signal, text with image, text with number,
processing circuits and image with number.
display units.


• planning assignment work LP3.1 Set targets using information from
and setting interim deadlines appropriate people and plan how these
for criteria will be met.
• analysing criteria to LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
determine actions required using your plan to help meet targets and
• reviewing progress and LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
independently seeking your achievements.
advice.

• considering different ways of PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
measuring physiological ways of tackling it.
signals
• describing suitable medical PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
instrumentation systems solving the problem.
• evaluating solutions and PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
making comparisons with review your approach to problem solving.
alternative methods.

• planning practical work on WO3.1 Plan work with others.
obtaining transducer
characteristics with others
• allocating individual tasks WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
within the practical and progress towards your agreed objectives.
checking each other’s
progress
• evaluating practical activity WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
and individual contributions of improving collaborative work in future.
to success.

UNIT 31: CRIMINOLOGY
Unit 31: Criminology

Unit abstract
Crime has a high profile in our society. Criminology is the study of crime. When
crimes are committed many clues are left as to the identity of the person who has
committed the crime. Much of the work involved in catching a suspect has its base in
science, and organisations involved in helping to solve crimes employ many scientists
and science technicians. This unit gives learners an introduction to criminology.
Learners will look at the different criminologies that explain crime in different ways,
and as a result will consider types of crime and criminals that rarely feature in the
media.
When the extent of crime is discussed in the media or in Parliament, there are
heated arguments about the statistical data. This unit will explore reasons why this is
the case. Learners will explore how the data are collected and why the official Home
Office statistics and the British Crime Survey data provide different pictures of the
crime situation.
CCTV cameras are all around us, especially in urban areas, and there have been high
profile political campaigns on ‘zero tolerance’ policing and the use of anti-social
behaviour orders (ASBOs). This unit will look at how these and other such crime
prevention approaches have been based on criminological explanations.
The unit will also explore how changes in criminological theory have influenced the
treatment of offenders by the courts. By looking at historical changes, learners will
be encouraged to ask whether the new policies to control crime are indeed new, and
will come to understand how such changes are related to criminology.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand competing criminological explanations of crime and how they are
applied to the study of crime
2 Know about the contested nature of crime and be able to explain how the two
main statistical measures can provide very different crime figures
3 Understand the arguments about crime control policies
4 Understand why the aims of state punishment may change over time.

Unit content
1 Understand competing criminological explanations of crime and how they are

applied to the study of crime
Criminological explanations: positivist criminology; individual positivism; genetic

and psychological explanations; emergence of realist explanations; influence of
interactionism and labelling theories; determinism and voluntarism
2 Know about the contested nature of crime and be able to explain how the two
main statistical measures can provide very different crime figures
Definitions: legal; violation of moral codes; social construct

Measurement: Home Office statistics (police discretion, reported and recorded
crime); British Crime Survey (self-reported crime); hidden crime; moral panics;
role of the media
3 Understand the arguments about crime control policies
Crime prevention measures aimed at the individual: zero tolerance; CCTV; ASBOs
Crime prevention measures aimed at the community: ‘Broken Windows’ theory;
neighbourhood watch; how policies link to criminological explanations
4 Understand why the aims of state punishment may change over time
Review of penal policy: historical survey from 19th century deterrence to

rehabilitation and back to deterrence
Influence of criminological theory on penal policy: ‘prison works’ individual
positivism rehabilitation of offenders

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe competing criminological M1 explain how explanations of criminal D1 explain how realist criminology achieved
explanations of criminal behaviour behaviour come from different dominance and how this influenced
theoretical positions explanation of criminal behaviour
P2 describe the arguments about the nature M2 explain how different definitions of D2 give reasons why crime definitions and
and extent of crime crime have influenced the nature and the extent of crime are contested
measurement of crime
P3 describe a range of policies intended to M3 explain how different crime control D3 analyse the differences between
control crime policies are claimed to work individual and social crime control
policies
P4 describe the main changes in penal M4 explain how changes in penal policy are D4 outline contemporary competing penal
policy from 1850. influenced by criminological explanations policies and evaluate the strengths of
of crime. their theoretical explanations.

Delivery
Tutors delivering this unit have the opportunity to use a wide range of techniques,
not only to provide theoretical input but also to allow learners to collect and use
both quantitative and qualitative data. Formal lectures, group discussions,
presentations, site visits, practical compilation of self-reported crime measurements
using either simulated data or data from websites, practical use of recorded crime
data from Home Office websites, input from community police officers, and research
using library resources, internet, newspapers and/or television would all be suitable.
The subject of this unit is always in the news. In their daily lives, learners will see
evidence of crime control strategies such as CCTV cameras and media reports on the
use of ASBOs. Many television programmes also highlight crime: either actual crime
(eg Crimewatch) or fictional crime (eg The Bill). Therefore the delivery of this unit
should not only educate learners (by making them aware of the fear and fascination
of crime) but also motivate them and encourage a critical approach to the populist
and common sense views of crime and ‘criminals’.
To cover learning outcome 1 the theoretical positions of positivism, realism and
interactionism should be explained. The different levels of understanding in order to
achieve grading criteria are set out in the Assessment guidance. While the
underpinning knowledge may be delivered by formal input, there are also
opportunities for debates about the competing theories which set out to explain
crime.
Learning outcome 2 lends itself to a variety of approaches, as learners need to
appreciate that the concept of crime is contested, and that the legal definition is
used by the agencies of the criminal justice system (CJS). Quantitative material is
available from government websites on both the official Home Office statistics and
the British Crime Survey data. These show very different measurements for the same
categories of crime over the same time period. Debates and presentations would be
appropriate to investigate why this is the case. The role of the media is of interest in
this learning outcome as the definition of crime as a social construct links to media
moral panics.
The focus of learning outcome 3 moves from explanations of crime and its definition
and measurement to initiatives by the state to control crime. The three aspects of
content are themselves linked to the theoretical positions set out in learning
outcome 1. They should provide the opportunity to demonstrate differences in the
aims of crime control.
Learning outcome 4 provides an insight into historical developments in the treatment
of offenders and should draw out linkages between criminological theory, policy and
penal regimes. In particular, this learning outcome should enable learners to
appreciate that criminology is not merely abstract theory but influences political
developments and the aims and operation of the CJS.

Assessment
The unit can be assessed by a variety of strategies including reports, essays,

presentations and posters.
For P1, learners must describe positivist theories in relation to genetic and
psychological explanations, realist theory and interactionist theory. This can be in
the form of a report, poster, leaflet or presentation supported by written material.
For P2, learners must describe the legal definition of crime and the social construct
definition of crime. They must use data from both Home Office official statistics on
recorded crime and British Crime Survey data on self-reported crime. A variety of
presentation methods could be used, as described for P1.
For P3, learners must present evidence of crime control strategies, ideally in their
local area. This should give coverage of measures aimed at both the individual (zero
tolerance, ASBOs) and the community (CCTV, Broken Windows). Posters or
presentations supported by written notes would be appropriate for this unit, although
other methods could also be used.
For P4, learners must describe changes in penal policy over the last century. There is
a clear timeline of different approaches. Here a report or essay format would be
suitable but this is not intended to be exclusive. Other methodologies could be used
to meet local needs.
met.
For M1, learners must describe how the range of criminological theories in the unit
content explain criminal behaviour. Learners could do this in written format and
must clearly differentiate between the determinist and voluntarist views of criminal
behaviour held by positivists and realists.
For M2, learners must explain how the legal definition of crime and the social
construct definition have influenced what is seen as crime and criminal behaviour.
They must also explain the key differences between quantitative data used in Home
Office official statistics and qualitative data used in the British Crime Survey reports.
The evidence here could be in report, essay, presentation or leaflet format, or any
combination of these methods.
For M3, learners must move on from identifying crime control methods to distinguish
between the methods aimed at the individual and those aimed at the social
environment. A poster or presentation supported by written notes would be
appropriate, but other methods are not excluded.
For M4, learners must explain why penal policy has changed over the last century and
consider why there have been radically different approaches in relation to the
debates about determinism and voluntarism in criminal behaviour. Evidence is best
presented in written format, but a poster presentation supported by explanatory
notes may also be suitable. These options are not exclusive.
met.

For D1, learners must explain the emergence and success of realist criminology in
relation to the political changes at the end of the 1970s, and give some critique of
the previously dominant positivist criminological theory. Learners should present this
as a written report in order to achieve an appropriate level of detail.
For D2, learners must clearly demonstrate the differences between the legal and
social construct definitions of crime, and link these differences to types of crime and
criminal. For the measurement of crime there should be a clear appreciation of the
link between quantitative and qualitative evidence and how this is influenced by
definitions of crime. A range of presentation methodologies could be used, and a
combination of written and visual (posters, graphs, charts) may be appropriate here.
For D3, learners must link crime control strategies to their individual or social bases
and their underpinning theoretical bases, and then explain the linkages between
theory and policy. Evidence is likely to be in written format to achieve the analysis
and explanatory aspects of this criterion.
For D4, learners must outline competing penal policies and indicate changes over the
last century, going on to explain the influence of criminological theories on the
changes in policy.

The unit links with:

• Unit 34: Criminal Psychology
• Unit 39: Criminal Investigation Procedures.
Essential resources
The unit requires learners to have access to: a library or learning resource centre,
books and journals on crime, newspapers including tabloids, and the internet (eg to
government statistical data Home Office and British Crime Survey).
Textbooks
Becker H S — Outsiders: Studies in Sociology of Deviance (Simon & Schuster Ltd,
1997) ISBN 0684836351
Kelling L and Coles C M — Fixing Broken Windows: Restoring Order and Reducing
Crime in Our Communities (Simon and Schuster Inc, 1998) ISBN 0684837382
Matthews R and Young J — Rethinking Criminology: The Realist Debate (Sage
Contemporary Criminology Series) (Sage Publications Ltd, 1992) ISBN 0803986211
Muncie J and McLaughlin E (editors) — The Problem of Crime (Sage Publications Ltd,
2001) ISBN 0761969713
Wilson J Q and Herrnstein R J — Crime Human Nature: The Definitive Study of the
Causes of Crime (Free Press, 1998) ISBN 0684852667

Journals
British Journal of Criminology 1980 volume 20: pages 136-147 Clarke RVG —
‘Situational’ Crime Prevention: Theory and Practice
British Society of Criminology
Civil Liberties Review, number 3 pages 23-35, Von Hirsch A, 1976, ‘Giving criminals
their just deserts’
Home Office Statistical Bulletin, issue 21/98, London HMSO, Mirrlees-Black et al,
1998, The 1998 British Crime Survey
Websites
www.bjc.oxfordjournals.org The British Journal of Criminology
www.brokenwindows.com/windows_theory.html Broken Windows Theory
www.civitas.org.uk The Institute for the Study of Civil
Society
www.crimestatistics.org.uk Crime Statistics for England and
Wales
www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory Criminological Theory (Florida
State University)
www.homeoffice.gov.uk The Home Office
www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/bcs1.html The British Crime Survey

Key skills


• discussing the different C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
explanations for criminal
behaviour
• presenting their findings C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
from a study on how eight minutes using an image or other
different definitions of crime support material.
have influenced the nature
and measurement of crime
• reading criminology journals C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
and newspapers about the least two documents about the same
extent of crime in society subject.
1000 words long.
• producing a report on the C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
changes in penalties for each one giving different information
criminal behaviour since about complex subjects.
1850.
words long.

• researching the nature and ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
extent of crime using the sources, and multiple search criteria in at
internet and electronic least one case.
criminology journals
• presenting statistics on the ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
extent of crime in society. text with image, text with number,
image with number.


• gathering ideas for one side WO3.1 Plan work with others.
of a debate about how realist
criminology gained
dominance, and how this
influenced explanation of
criminal behaviour
• working together to support WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
an argument for one side of a progress towards your agreed objectives.
debate
• identifying areas of weakness WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
and working on strengthening of improving collaborative work in future.
their arguments.

UNIT 32: FORENSIC EVIDENCE COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and

Analysis
Unit abstract
A forensic scientist’s major aspect of work is to examine samples of evidence from a
crime scene. This unit is a practical approach to a very important aspect of forensic
investigation. Learners will experience and develop their knowledge and skills first-
hand by taking part in a simulated crime scene investigation.
Learners have the opportunity to experience the use of some sophisticated
equipment and techniques such as spectrophotometers, chromatography,
microscopes, electronic devices, photography and imaging. In this unit learners can
practically explore much of the science that supports these techniques and learn how
they are carried out. It is important to acquire the skills involved in gathering
evidence. This unit gives learners the opportunity to practise these and to develop an
understanding of the importance of being objective in their approach to the
evidence.
The investigation of crime scene samples frequently involves the use of biology and
its applications, including, fingerprint analysis, DNA testing and tissue typing. In this
unit learners can explore the science that supports these techniques and how they
are carried out, thereby enhancing understanding and skills. This unit provides an
opportunity to learn more about some topical issues such as DNA analysis and its use
in profiling. As well as gaining the skills involved in using these scientific techniques,
the forensic scientist must also be able to present the results of the examination of
evidence. Different methods of presentation are explored — written, verbal and
visual — and learners are given the opportunity to make their own presentations in an
appropriate manner for a forensic scientist.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to gather ‘forensic’ evidence from a simulated crime scene using
appropriate methods and present the results
2 Understand the chemical techniques used in the analysis of evidence from a crime
scene
3 Understand the physical techniques used in the analysis of evidence from a crime
scene
4 Understand the biological techniques used in the analysis of evidence from a
crime scene.

Unit content
1 Be able to gather ‘forensic’ evidence from a simulated crime scene using

appropriate methods and present the results
Documentation: collecting; recording; storing and distributing data by electronic

means
Evidence: targeting and recovery of trace materials; characterisation and
comparison; marks and impressions
Health and safety: eg Health and Safety Act 1974; eg COSHH Regulations 1996;
eg Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1992; disposable
protective clothing
Preservation of scene and sampling: observation and recording of the scene;
restriction of access; search for material of potential evidential value; packaging
and labelling; storage and transmission to laboratory
Analysis and evaluation: prevention of contamination; security; records; full
documentation of procedures and methods
2 Understand the chemical techniques used in the analysis of evidence from a

crime scene
Spectrometry: instrumental techniques; mass spectrometry; infrared; ultraviolet;

colorimetry
Chromatography: separation of mixtures eg paper, column, thin layer (TLC), gas-
liquid (GLC), high performance liquid (HPLC)
Toxicology: science of poisons; detection; effects; antidotes
3 Understand the physical techniques used in the analysis of evidence from a

crime scene
Audiometry: instrumental methods of recording sound information

Photography: images of traffic; surveillance; public order offences; support team
at major incidents; high quality record of exhibits eg taking devices apart
Ballistics: interior and exterior ballistics; firearms; cartridges; calibre; discharge;
residue
Electronics: electronic imaging; enhancement techniques to improve photography
and video; television monitors; cameras; alarms
Metrology: study of weights and measures

4 Understand the biological techniques used in the analysis of evidence from a

crime scene
Analysis: paper; entomology; genetics (DNA sequencing, genetic fingerprints)

Histology: study of tissues and tissue types; fingerprints (four basic patterns);
blood group analysis
Skeleton and anthropology: physiology of bone and skeleton
Microscopy: measurement and comparative microscopy

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 carry out a forensic examination of a M1 describe fully the procedures used to D1 justify the procedures used to gather
simulated crime scene and gather gather evidence from a crime scene evidence from a crime scene and show
biological, physical and chemical how a systematic application of
evidence using appropriate methods procedures can minimise the risk of
missing forensic evidence
P2 outline the main techniques used for M2 describe fully the main techniques used D2 evaluate the techniques used in the
analysing biological, physical and in the analysis of forensic evidence analysis of forensic evidence and identify
chemical evidence the types of evidence or circumstances
in which each might be appropriate
P3 plan and carry out practical work to M3 explain and justify the techniques they D3 draw valid conclusions based upon the
analyse biological, physical and chemical have used in the analysis of the forensic evidence from their forensic examination
evidence that they have gathered evidence they have gathered of a crime scene and present the results
appropriately
P4 report the results and conclusions of a M4 defend the conclusions drawn in the D4 evaluate how the information could be
chemical, physical and biological report. communicated more clearly, including
forensic examination. aspects of probability.

Delivery

This unit is intended to develop the learners’ understanding of chemistry, biology and
physical science in respect to its applications to forensic investigations. The emphasis
should be on the scientific investigation of evidence and the techniques involved,
rather than merely evidence gathering. Recent advances in methods and applications
can be investigated by learners during the course, and could usefully be presented to
the class by those learners.
The hands-on crime scene investigation should allow learners to demonstrate
chemical, physical and biological forensic examination techniques. This deals with
the crime scene in its completeness rather than by artificially dividing up the type of
evidence collected. The assessment will follow this example.
Wherever possible the content should be reinforced with practical work and scientific
analytical techniques used to develop the learners’ skills and understanding.
Where specific acts and regulations are referred to in this unit, it is the latest
versions of these that should always be considered.
Learning outcome 1 introduces learners to the processes of evidence gathering from
a physical viewpoint, and develops the objective and rigorous skills needed for the
presentation of evidence by report, video or verbally. The practical aspects of this
should be emphasised and focused on the practical topics developed in this unit. It is
important that the learners are given every opportunity to practise the gathering of
evidence themselves in the context of chemical and physical science.
Learning outcome 2 should introduce the basics of chemistry and enable learners to
understand the chemical background and procedures used in forensic analysis. The
theoretical aspects should always be delivered along with the practical applications.
Learning outcome 3 should enable learners to understand the physical background
and procedures used in forensic analysis. The theoretical aspects should always be
delivered along with the practical applications.
Learning outcome 4 enables learners to understand the biological background and
procedures used in forensic analysis. The theoretical aspects should always be
delivered along with the practical applications.

Assessment
It is essential that this unit is delivered in close relationship with practical chemical
and physical science. As crime scene evidence should be fully and clearly
documented and presented, the assignment work produced by the learners should
also meet this high standard.
For pass criteria any numerical values should have the correct units of measurement
correctly quoted.
For P1, learners must accurately describe the major chemical, physical and biological
techniques used in the analysis of evidence. There should be sufficient detail to
cover all the main points of each type of method. Learners must show confidence
with basic chemical calculations and simple analytical techniques. Their results must
be presented accurately. There should be evidence of successful use of molecular
formulae and masses, moles and a basic acid/base titration.
For P2, learners must show a clear understanding of the techniques that may be used
by an investigator in relation to gathering evidence for a scientific investigation or a
crime scene.
For P3, learners must plan the practical work required to analyse the biological,
chemical and physics evidence that they have gathered.
For P4, learners must report the results and conclusions of a practical scientific
investigation in the appropriate manner. Learners may select their chosen method of
presentation, which should be of high quality reflecting the objective nature of
forensic or any scientific work.
met.
For M1, M2 and M3, learners must show their understanding and clear justification for
the choice of appropriate chemical, physical and biological procedures to collect
evidence. They must show the main methods used in the analysis of evidence, and
when each would be used.
For M4, learners must give a clear and logical justification for the conclusions drawn
from the evidence collected during the forensic examination. This should be given as
part of the presentation, and with the same level of objectivity and clarity as
appropriate to the presentation of investigational results in a forensic or scientific
situation.

met.
For D1, learners must objectively justify the procedures used to collect evidence
from a simulated crime scene. They must also show how the correct application of
these procedures can minimise risk of overlooking evidence.
For D2, learners must produce an evaluation of the techniques used to carry out the
investigation. They must also indicate what other types of evidence or situations
would require use of these techniques.
For D3, learners must provide a conclusion from the analysis of results, and present
the results in an appropriate format. They must support their conclusions with
evidence and reasoning. The presentation of the investigation in whatever form
chosen must be of high quality.
For D4, learners must evaluate their results. They must consider clarity of
explanations of results and conclusions, ensuring that they are not ambiguous. They
must also consider probability in terms of possible, probable, likely and how
probability can be described quantitatively.

This unit reinforces learners’ awareness of evidence collection, analysis and

evaluation as well as developing practical skills.
This unit is very closely linked to:
• Unit 36: Forensic Fire Investigation
• Unit 37: Forensic Science Informatics
• Unit 38: Traffic Accident Investigation.
Essential resources
This unit aims to develop learners’ skills in chemical and physical techniques in the
context of practical science. It is therefore important that the learners have access
to facilities to carry out practical scientific work for demonstration and practice.
It is important to introduce learners to the rigorous nature of scientific investigations
and the objective reporting of results. Learners should have ample opportunity to
practise and develop their skills in these areas.

Textbooks
ISBN 0131144006
Eckert W G — Introduction to Forensic Sciences (CRC Press Inc, 1996)
ISBN 0849381010
Moore P — The Forensics Handbook (Eye Books, 2004) ISBN 190307035X
Pepper I K — Crime Scene Investigation: Methods and Procedures (Open University
Press, 2005) ISBN 0335214908
White P C — Crime Scene to Court: The Essentials of Forensic Science (The Royal
Journals
Biological Sciences Review
Chemistry Review
Chemistry World
New Scientist
Physics Review
Websites
Access to the internet will open up many items of interest related to this unit.
www.biozone.co.uk biology resources for learners and tutors
www.chemsoc.org Royal Society of Chemistry
www.forensic.gov.uk the Forensic Science Service
www.forensic-science-society.org.uk the Forensic Science Society
www.iop.org Institute of Physics

Key skills


about chemical or physical
analysis of evidence
the results and conclusions of eight minutes using an image or other
an investigation involving the support material.
chemistry or physics of
materials using a poster or
slides
extended documents to subject.
develop complex material for
an assignment
1000 words long.
documents about chemical or each one giving different information
physical techniques used in about complex subjects.
analysing evidence.
words long.


• searching for and selecting ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
information for a sources, and multiple search criteria in at
presentation or document on least one case.
chemical or physical
techniques
• using and extending the ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
information gathered in the derive new information.
investigation to derive new
information
• making a presentation or ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
document for the reporting text with image, text with number,
of results and conclusions of image with number.
an investigation using a
poster, slides or text and
image.

• developing a plan and targets LP3.1 Set targets using information from
for an investigation with appropriate people and plan how these
consultation and agreement will be met.
from their tutor
problems encountered
conclusions reached.


• formulating a plan with PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
several options for tackling ways of tackling it.
the investigation
approach to an investigation,
deciding on the option to be
followed
investigation, reviewing the
approach on the basis of the
results and conclusions
reached.

• planning an approach to an WO3.1 Plan work with others.
investigation as a group
• monitoring and discussing WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
results from an investigation progress towards your agreed objectives.
and modifying the approach
in accordance with them
• evaluating the plan WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
continuously during the of improving collaborative work in future.
investigation with the group,
reviewing the joint approach
on the basis of the results
and conclusions.

UNIT 33: FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
Unit 33: Forensic Photography

Unit abstract
This unit introduces learners to the practices of photography, the use of photographic
evidence in forensic work and the development of a portfolio of photographic work
and its use in the criminal justice system (CJS).
This unit covers both traditional silver-based photography and the use of modern
digital imaging technology, and gives learners the opportunity to compare and
contrast the suitability of 35 mm film and digital imaging for use in the CJS.
Much of the crime scene photography is taken by camera-competent officers, such as
scene of crime officers. Anyone interested in pursuing a career in this field should
possess good photography skills.
Despite the move towards digital photography in the field of forensics, learners
should possess fundamental wet photography skills before developing digital
photography skills.
Moreover, maintaining the chain of continuity with digital photography is an
important challenge and learners should learn measures needed to meet the demands
of the CJS.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to select and use appropriate equipment and conditions to make a
photographic portfolio for forensic purposes
2 Know the theoretical principles behind the selection and use of conditions to
make a photographic portfolio for forensic purposes
3 Understand the use of photography in the CJS
4 Be able to produce a photographic portfolio for forensic purposes.

Unit content
1 Be able to select and use appropriate equipment and conditions to make a

photographic portfolio for forensic purposes
Cameras: SLR; TLR; view compact; range finder; digital

Lenses: primary; zoom; macro; catadioptric; compound; normal; fish-eye; wide
angle; convertibles; telephoto; diverging; human eye; mirror; covering power;
focal length; hood; shape
Filters: contrast; colour correction; polarising; tone modification; skylight;
ultraviolet; special effects; neutral density
Lighting: sources eg tungsten, tungsten-halogen, vapour release, ambient; colour;
contrast; direction; for macro-photography; for texture; accessories
eg light meter
Flash: manual; automatic; dedicated fill-in; guns (electronic); metering; long
peaking; practical technique; repetitive; self-regulating; sensors
Films: monochrome; colour-negative-slide; infrared; APS; processing; speed;
speed conversion; size; roll; sheet; storage
Darkroom: health and safety; film processing; contact printing and enlarging;
protocols
Other equipment: tripod; remote shutter release; measuring tape; notebook and
pen
2 Know the theoretical principles behind the selection and use of conditions to
make a photographic portfolio for forensic purposes
Aesthetic principles: colour; patterns; textures; composition; format; symmetry

Technical theory: camera (digital, non-digital, shutter speed, aperture); film
(speed, type); lighting (absorption, diffraction, dispersion, reflection, refraction,
inverse square law)

3 Understand the use of photography in the CJS
Presentation: image reduction; bleach-out; toning; tinting; mounting methods;

spotting; style of presentation, conformation with legislation
Digital imaging: scanner; computer; internet; digital imaging software
eg CorelDraw, PhotoShop, PageMaker
Film: eg analogue, digital; moving and still images
Ethics: codes of practice of professional institutes eg Royal Photographic Society;
professionalism; equal opportunities; chain of continuity; evidence preservation
Laws: civil; criminal; eg Police and Criminal Evidence (PACE) Act 1984, eg Serious
Organised Crime and Police Act 2005
4 Be able to produce a photographic portfolio for forensic purposes
Scenes: eg, burglary; murder; rape; domestic violence victims; grievous bodily
harm; actual bodily harm; road traffic accidents; burnt-out vehicles; arson;
damaged building and its furniture
Images inside and outside premises: confined spaces eg retail stores, factories,
houses, flats, cars, vehicle, person in motion; open spaces eg farms, fields
Evidence: eg fingerprints; ear prints; trace evidence on firearm; drugs; forged
documents; blood spatter; footprint casts; footprint impressions; hairs; fibres;
condoms; excreta; glass; bodily bruising; bite marks; face of victim; toolmarks;
serial numbers
Selection of conditions: depth of field; sharpness; composition to provide an
image useable as evidence; variation of conditions according to subject

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 select and use equipment and conditions M1 select and explain the equipment and D1 compare and contrast various cameras
to make a photographic record to the conditions to be used for three given on the market for forensic use
standard required for use as forensic different situations
evidence
P2 identify the theoretical principles behind M2 explain the theoretical principles behind D2 evaluate the choice of photographic
the selection and use of photographic the selection and use of photographic conditions and techniques for a forensic
conditions for forensic purposes conditions for forensic purposes investigation
P3 identify the use of 35 mm film and M3 describe the reasons for preferential use D3 analyse the advantages and
digital photography for use in the CJS of 35 mm film or digital photography for disadvantages of digital photography for
use in the CJS use in the CJS
P4 produce a forensic photographic M4 explain the role played by forensic D4 explain the content and implications of
portfolio of a crime scene to the photographic evidence and its the images in their portfolio, justifying
standard required for use as forensic significance. why they are included.
evidence.

Delivery
These include practicals, lectures, discussions, seminars, site visits, guest speakers,
darkroom work, internet research, use of library resources, suitable workplace
experience and photographic gallery visits.
The aim should be to stimulate and educate learners so they will be in a position to
understand the main concepts of 35 mm and digital photography and its uses in the
CJS. This understanding enables learners to see the range of job opportunities
available at every level, and the range of courses that higher education can offer.
Work placements, if used, should be monitored regularly to ensure learners are
benefiting from the experience. Prior to any placement, the learner and workplace
supervisor must be aware of the requirements of the unit and how the placement can
contribute to the evidence required. Learners may have the opportunity, for
example, to work in a photographic film development centre. If suitably observed
and recorded, this could contribute towards the requirements of this unit and others.
Tutors should be aware of the integration of some subject matter with other units
within the qualification. Learners will find it difficult to gain work experience with a
police force or forensic company due to the, eg Official Secrets Act 1989 restrictions.
However, this should not discourage learners from trying to obtain non-forensic
photographic work experience.
Health and safety issues relating to laboratory work, either in the centre or in the
workplace, must be emphasised. Risk assessments, the use of COSHH and other
regulations in place in any laboratories must be adhered to.
Learning outcome 1 covers the selection and use of appropriate equipment and
conditions to make a photographic portfolio for forensic purposes. This learning
outcome should involve formal lectures and learner research. Learners should have
access to 35 mm SLR or digital cameras, and other material which will help learners
undertake photographic tasks. Ideally, crime scenes should be recreated for learners
to produce their portfolio (learning outcome 4). Documentaries and case studies
could provide additional sources of material.
Learning outcome 2 covers the theoretical principles behind the selection and use of
conditions to make a photographic portfolio for forensic purposes. This should mainly
involve formal lectures and learner research. Learners should be encouraged to
evaluate their photographic practical work to understand the principles involved in
its creation.

Learning outcome 3 covers the use of 35 mm and digital photography in the field of
forensics, for use in the CJS. Learners should be encouraged to research the
application of 35 mm and digital photography in forensic settings and develop an
understanding of when each method would be most suitable. Input from tutors and
possibly specialist speakers is recommended, and some areas can be covered by
learner research. Learners should be encouraged to compare the chain of continuity
between 35 mm and digital photography.
Learning outcome 4 ties in with learning outcomes 1 and 2 and depends on the
learners’ ability to use either 35 mm or digital photography and understand the
principles involved. Learners should produce a range of photographs that include
close-up, mid-range and general overview images. They should preferably present
their photography in a presentation folder for future employers. Learners need to be
given an opportunity to access a variety of crime scenes so that they can develop
their photography skills.
Assessment
For P1, learners must, with guidance, select the appropriate camera (either 35 mm
SLR or digital SLR) and lens to produce correctly exposed and focused evidential
photographs. Learners will need to consider the lighting requirements of the scene
and select the correct flash or illumination technique. They should use a light meter
to evaluate the lighting conditions. In low light conditions learners should use a
tripod to obtain the correct exposure. If available, learners would benefit from
selecting the appropriate equipment to develop their negatives in a darkroom.
Learners could be assessed for Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis in
explaining how darkroom chemistry works and the chemical reactions involved. If
photographs are taken of fingerprints, learners should use a macro lens to obtain
sufficient ridge detail.
For P2, learners must identify how a camera works. It is important that learners can
identify how an image is created on a negative. They must appreciate how varying
the shutter speed will affect image blur, how changing aperture size will affect depth
of field and how both of these factors affect image exposure. Learners must identify
the relationship between focal length and the angle of view and image magnification.
They should identify the need to consider the film speed, and its effect on the
graininess of the image. Although it is recommended that learners are taught the
theoretical principles of light, it is not important that the learner is assessed
independently on these. Reference can be made to these in the assessment of how a
photographic image is produced.
For P3, learners must identify real-life examples where digital photography is used in
forensic situations for use in the CJS. They must provide a reason why these are used.

For P4, learners must, with guidance, produce a portfolio of photographs of a crime
scene including general overview, mid-range and close-up images to a standard
required for use as forensic evidence. The portfolio should include descriptions of the
scene including: alleged crime, victim/loser’s details, date, time, weather and
lighting conditions. It is recommended that the learner use a commercial
presentation folder to display their photographs. The quality of the final presentation
folder is crucial. Attention to fine detail and overall quality will decide whether the
learner meets this criterion.
met.
For M1, the tutor must present the learner with three different situations of a crime
scene. Learners must describe the equipment and conditions they would select for
forensic photography, and justify their reasons. This can be done verbally or by
presentation, but learners must present evidence for moderation purposes.
For M2, learners must give descriptions of the content of P2, not simply identify the
concepts.
For M3, learners must explain why either digital or 35 mm photography was chosen in
real-life examples.
For M4, learners must justify the use of forensic photography in crime investigations.
This may take the format of a short report or presentation.
met.
For D1, learners need to research the availability of cameras for forensic use, and
compare items. This may be through review of the literature. Learners are not
expected to carry out a practical comparison, although it is encouraged.
For D2, learners must give an evaluation of the content of P2, rather than identify or
describe the concepts and theories.
For D3, learners must analyse the advantages and disadvantages of digital
photography over 33 mm film for use in the CJS. This analysis will depend on the
depth of answer for M3. Learners should produce evidence for these two grading
criteria in the same report.
For D4, learners must justify why they have taken the photos they have. They must
explain what the images show and any implications that can be drawn. This may be
done as a presentation, or learners may wish to annotate their portfolios.

This unit is closely linked with Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis. It
is advisable to teach both units in the same year. This would give learners an
opportunity to photograph a variety of crime scenes for their portfolio.
Tutors are recommended to design assignments that integrate these units and
enhance the development of the use of photography in the criminal investigation.
Tutors should encourage learners to take photographs of crime scenes and evidence
for use in their portfolio.

This unit also links with:

• Unit 36: Forensic Fire Investigation
• Unit 38: Traffic Accident Investigation.
This unit is also linked with wider curriculum issues in the CJS.
Essential resources
Learners should have access to SLR, digital, and compact video cameras and
associated equipment, multigrade filters, processing chemicals, negative sleeves,
cleaning brushes, cutting and mounting equipment, finishing equipment (dyes and
brushes), vc photographic paper, negative cleaning equipment, processing tanks and
light meters.
They also need simulated crime scenes, various sources of artificial light, a fully
equipped darkroom and apparatus, and a forensic science laboratory.
Additionally, they need access to a learning resources centre equipped with
photographic books, periodicals, journals, CD ROMs, ICT facilities, scanners, printers
and software.
Textbooks
Hicks R and Schultz F — Darkroom Basics and Beyond (Collins & Brown, 2003)
ISBN 1843400480
Langford M — Basic Photography (Focal Press, 2000) ISBN 0240515927
Redsicker DR — The Practical Methodology of Forensic Photography (CRC Press Inc,
2000) ISBN 0849320046
Stone J and London B — A Short Course in Photography: An Introduction to
Photographic Technique, 6th Edition (Prentice Hall, 2005) ISBN 0131933809
Stroebel L — View Camera Technique (Focal Press, 1999) ISBN 0240803450
Stroebel L et al — Basic Photographic Materials and Processes (Focal Press, 2000)
ISBN 0240804058
Websites
www.aophoto.co.uk The Association of Photographers
www.crime-scene-investigator Forensic Photography for the Crime Scene
Technician
www.crime-scene-investigator.net/ Analysis of forensic digital photography
digitalphotography-fried
www.ephotozine.com/techniques general photography techniques, tips and
advice
www.photo.net Photo-Net
www.photonhead.com/beginners The Beginner’s Guide To Photography

Useful contacts
Affiliation of Honourable Photographers
66 Barcombe Road, Brighton, East Sussex BN1 9JR
Telephone: 01273 606 067
Email: ukphotoashp@aol.com
Association of High Speed Photography
Dera Pendine, Camarthen, Camarthenshire SA33 4UA
The Association of Photographers
81 Leonard Street, London EC2A 4QS
Telephone: 020 7739 6669
Email: aop@dircon.co.uk
The British Institute of Professional Photography
Amwell End, Ware, Hertfordshire SG12 9HN
Telephone: 01920 487 056
The British Photographic and Imaging Association
Ambassador House, Brigstock Road, Thornton Heath, Surrey CR7 7JG
Telephone: 020 8665 6181
Email: bpia@admin.co.uk
The Royal Photographic Society
Octagon Galleries, Milsom Street, Bath, Avon BA1 1DN

Key skills


• planning and interpreting N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
information from forensic information from relevant sources.
science information data
sources
from a forensic science stage calculations to do with:
information data source
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
the calculations and present your findings and justify your
presenting the findings in a methods.
report, justifying their
methods.


discussions about the use of
imaging techniques and the
presentation of photographs
for evidence
investigation into the use of support material.
imaging techniques and the
for evidence
• reading and synthesising the C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
extended documents about subject.
forensic science data
1000 words long.
• preparing a report and a C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
poster about the above each one giving different information
investigation. about complex subjects.
words long.

search for information about sources, and multiple search criteria in at
the use of imaging least one case.
techniques and the
for evidence
purposes
above to audiences. text with image, text with number,
image with number.


• developing the portfolio plan LP3.1 Set targets using information from
for the investigation and appropriate people and plan how these
consulting and gaining the will be met.
agreement of their tutor
• implementing the portfolio LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
plan and modifying it in using your plan to help meet targets and
accordance with results improve your performance.
obtained and constraints and
problems encountered
• evaluating the portfolio plan LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
at frequent intervals and your achievements.

• evaluating their portfolio PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
plan, identifying areas of ways of tackling it.
weaknesses and ways of
overcoming them
• producing a strategic plan to PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
overcome their weaknesses solving the problem.
• reviewing their work to PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
assess whether the review your approach to problem solving.
weaknesses identified are
still apparent.

• developing a plan for the WO3.1 Plan work with others.
portfolio
• carrying out the practical WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
work necessary for their progress towards your agreed objectives.
portfolio
• reviewing the practical work WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
for their portfolio. of improving collaborative work in future.

UNIT 34: CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 34: Criminal Psychology

Unit abstract
Crime and its consequences is a continuing social issue that affects everyone. But
why do some people commit crime while others do not, and what are the effects of
crime on victims and the wider community? These are the kinds of questions that are
of concern to those involved in criminal psychology, as well as those who have the
responsibility for preventing and investigating crime and dealing with those who
break the law.
This unit examines the way in which psychology helps us to understand criminal
behaviour and how it may be applied to aspects of the criminal justice system (CJS).
To begin with, learners will consider what psychology is and explore some of the
approaches used in applying it to the study of crime and criminals. Learners will
examine how different psychological perspectives have been applied to explain
criminal behaviour and aspects of victims’ and others’ perceptions of crime.
Learners will examine the research methods employed, including the ethical issues
involved, and have the opportunity to apply these research methods to aspects of
crime.
The unit also explores the influence psychological studies have had on our
understanding of behaviour in the CJS including eyewitness testimony, courtroom
behaviour, jury deliberation and the treatment of offenders.
This unit provides an introduction to the application of psychology to the issues of
crime in society. It forms the foundation for exploring forensic psychology and
criminology.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand how psychological perspectives have been used to explain criminal
behaviour
2 Be able to use research methods to undertake a psychological study into a crime
issue
3 Understand how psychology theories have been applied to different issues within
the CJS
4 Understand the influence psychological research has had on aspects of the CJS.

Unit content
1 Understand how psychological perspectives have been used to explain criminal

behaviour
Psychology and crime: psychology as the study of human behaviour; criminal,

forensic, criminological and legal psychology, differences and similarities; social
science compared with natural sciences
Psychological perspectives: biological, body types; personality theories; cognitive
approaches; social theories and factors
Psychopathology: psychopaths; mental illness eg schizophrenia; treatment;
mental health issues
2 Be able to use research methods to undertake a psychological study into a

crime issue
Experimental design: aims; hypothesis; ethical issues

Methods: experiment; survey; interview; observation; case study
Results: statistical analysis
Evaluation: interpretation of analysis; conclusions
3 Understand how psychology theories have been applied to different issues

within the CJS
Eyewitness testimony: attention; perception; memory; cognitive interview

Social influence: social identity theory; conformity; group dynamics
Treating crime: anger management; social skills training
4 Understand the influence psychological research has had on aspects of the CJS
Psychology in the courtroom: sentencing; jury decision-making

Investigative interviewing: vulnerable witnesses; confessions
Victims of crime: fear of crime; support for victims
Mental health issues: mental disorder and crime; intention and responsibility
Penal system: rehabilitation; treatment of offenders

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe how three psychological M1 compare and contrast psychological D1 evaluate the usefulness of psychological
perspectives have been used to explain perspectives used to explain criminal perspectives in explaining criminal
criminal behaviour behaviour behaviour
P2 plan and carry out a psychological study M2 explain how the results of the D2 evaluate the psychological study,
into a crime issue and produce a written psychological study contribute to the comparing the results and conclusions
report understanding of a crime issue with other reports
P3 describe how psychology theories have M3 demonstrate the application of D3 appraise the application of psychological
been applied to different issues in the psychological theories to issues in the theories to aspects of the CJS
CJS CJS
P4 describe the influence psychological M4 explain in detail how psychological D4 evaluate the influence of psychological
research has had on aspects of the CJS. research has influenced aspects of the research on aspects of the CJS.
CJS.

Delivery
This unit introduces learners to the discipline of psychology, how it is applied to the
study of criminal behaviour and responses to it. Tutors have the opportunity to use a
wide variety of techniques to motivate and stimulate learners, including lectures,
presentations, discussions, group work, research using the internet and library
resources, practicals and site visits.
As an introductory unit, it should be delivered early in the course and should be
considered as a foundation to Unit 35: Forensic Psychology. The subject also
complements issues raised and discussed in Unit 31: Criminology.
As this unit may be the first time learners have encountered psychology it will be
necessary to discuss what it is and the nature of psychology. In contrast to the
natural sciences studied in other units, learners need to understand that there can be
several, often competing, perspectives or theories about the causes of behaviour.
Criminal psychology is one label used to describe this applied area of psychology and
is sometimes used interchangeably with other labels such as forensic, police,
criminological and legal psychology. Learners should be encouraged to consider the
similarities and differences between these, particularly between criminal and
forensic psychology.
Understanding why people are antisocial or commit crime is a key aspect of criminal
psychology. Learners should examine how the major perspectives try to explain the
causes of criminal behaviour, and some of the studies that support their theories.
Learners need to consider the strengths and limitations of these approaches,
concluding that the causes of criminal behaviour are complex and that perhaps a
multi-perspective approach is more useful. Learners might research an issue and hold
a debate in which two sides present their arguments.
It is important that learners have an appreciation of the research methods used by
psychologists to explore causes of behaviour. Reading journal articles about how
studies were carried out and understanding how the results were interpreted is one
way of considering research methods. Examining research into crime issues such as
eyewitness testimony also serves to demonstrate how psychology has been applied
and has influenced the CJS. There are opportunities to test learners’ own skills at
recall. Learners might roleplay an investigator and interview a witness.
In order to demonstrate achievement of learning outcome 2, learners need to plan
and carry out a research study. This may include trying to replicate a previous study,
such as on whether gender has an impact on eyewitness testimony, or a survey where
learners design and construct a questionnaire, administer it to a sample of people,
and analyse and report the results. An issue such as the level of fear of crime in the
local community is a possible example of this approach. A basic understanding of
statistics will be required and this might be linked to Unit 8: Statistics for Science
Technicians. Ethical issues in carrying out research are important and learners have
the opportunity to consider this in designing their own studies. This work offers
opportunities for working with others to carry out research.

Reading journal articles and carrying out research are just two approaches to
understanding psychological theories and how they are applied within the CJS. A visit
to the Crown Court offers learners the opportunity to consider psychology in the
courtroom and experience first-hand how the different players involved interact in
this arena. Learners may consider what influences juries in their decision-making and
examine such issues as social influence theories, physical attraction, jury selection
and competence. Discussion of the influence this research has had on the CJS is
linked to learning outcome 4.
Learners may benefit from other visits, such as to a police station or prison.
Alternatively, speakers from agencies within the CJS or academic institutions may
offer learners an insight into their work.
Academics from universities often carry out research and may be willing to discuss
their findings. Prison psychologists can describe some of the treatment programmes
used. Organisations such as the Howard League for Penal Reform also conduct
research in criminal psychology.
Both visits and external speakers provide insight into how psychological theories have
been applied to the issues in learning outcome 3, and the influence they have had on
the CJS (learning outcome 4).
Assessment
For P1, learners must describe at least three psychological approaches to
understanding criminal behaviour. There are various perspectives in psychology that
have been used to explain criminal behaviour, and learners will need to describe
three of these to include research on criminal behaviour.
For P2, learners must design, carry out and write up a study on a crime issue. The
study must include consideration of any ethical issues. Learners or groups of learners
could design an experiment to show males and females a short video of a crime and
then test their recall abilities. They should then write a report of the study, which
should include tables and charts where appropriate.
Psychological theories have been applied to a variety of different issues in relation to
crime and criminal behaviour. For P3, learners must describe how theories have been
applied to different aspects of the CJS. This might include how theories on memory
have been applied to interviewing witnesses, or how theories have been applied to
the treatment of offenders.
Psychological theories have often influenced criminal justice policy. Changes have
been made in the way crimes are investigated by police, how victim, witnesses and
suspects are dealt with, what happens in court and the treatment of offenders. For
P4, learners must describe how psychological research has influenced one of these
aspects of the CJS.
met.
For M1, learners must compare the similarities and differences in the psychological
perspectives. This might include some of the basic assumptions behind the
perspectives and the methods used to study criminal behaviour.

For M2, learners must explain what the findings of a psychological study indicate
about the issue under investigation.
For M3, learners must show how these psychological theories have been applied. For
example, how the cognitive interview is used.
For M4, learners must explain in detail one aspect of psychological research and how
it has influenced the administration of justice.
met.
For D1, learners must evaluate how well the approaches contribute to understanding
criminal behaviour, and explain their strengths and limitations.
For D2, learners must evaluate the psychological study carried out. This should
include whether it supports previous research, strengths and limitations of the
method used, difficulties encountered, and what might have been done differently.
For D3, learners must consider how effective the theories described and
demonstrated for P3 and M3 have been when applied to crime issues.
For D4, learners must evaluate how influential psychological research has been and
whether it has been effective in improving the CJS.

This unit is linked to a number of other BTEC National in Applied Science units
including:
• Unit 31: Criminology
• Unit 35: Forensic Psychology
Essential resources
Learners need to research information when investigating areas of, and roles within,
the CJS and criminal psychology. They need access to academic journals, books and
websites. Access to organisations and practitioners, by way of visits and/or guest
speakers, and case studies will support and enhance delivery and assessment of this
unit. Psychology practicals used in other courses and available online might be
adapted to examine criminal issues.

Textbooks
Brewer K — Heinemann Themes in Psychology: Psychology and Crime (Heinemann
Educational Secondary Division, 2000) ISBN 043580653X
Coolican H — Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology (Hodder Arnold, 2004)
ISBN 0340812583
Harrower J — Applying Psychology to Crime (Hodder Arnold, 1998) ISBN 0340705566
Kapardis A — Psychology and Law: A Critical Introduction (Cambridge University
Press, 2002) ISBN 0521531616
Milne R and Bull R — Investigative Interviewing: Psychology and Practice (John Wiley
& Sons Ltd, 2007) ISBN 0470016272
Towl G J and Crighton D A — The Handbook of Psychology for Forensic Practitioners
(Routledge, 1996) ISBN 0415128889
Journals
Law and Human Behavior
Legal and Criminological Psychology
Websites
www.internetjournalofcriminology.com The Internet Journal of Criminology
www.newcriminologist.co.uk New Criminologist Online Journal
www.police.homeoffice.gov.uk The Home Office
www.psypress.co.uk Psychology Press

Key skills


• discussing different C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
psychological perspectives
and theories
• presenting the results of a C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
psychological study using eight minutes using an image or other
PowerPoint or other visual support material.
aids
• reading criminal psychology C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
journals and textbooks about least two documents about the same
psychological research and subject.
how it relates to the CJS Each document must be a minimum of
1000 words long.
• producing a summary or full C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
report on the psychological each one giving different information
study of a named type of about complex subjects.
crime. One document must be at least 1000
words long.

• searching the internet and ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
periodicals for case studies sources, and multiple search criteria in at
on criminal psychology. least one case.

• discussing ideas for planning WO3.1 Plan work with others.
a psychological study on a
crime issue.

UNIT 35: FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY
Unit 35: Forensic Psychology

Unit abstract
The aim of this unit is to explore the way in which psychology can inform decision-
making in the criminal justice system (CJS). This includes assisting the court to
determine whether a defendant is mentally fit to understand the court process or
was suffering from a mental illness, deciding on the most appropriate treatment for
offenders, and more recently the analysis of serious crimes to develop criminal
profiles of suspects.
The unit builds on Unit 34: Criminal Psychology, and examines how psychological
research has influenced our understanding of criminal behaviour. Learners will study
the history and development of psychological profiling and use the techniques to
analyse crime and produce a profile. They will also explore the way research has
influenced the development of theories that underpin these approaches.
This unit also examines the role of the forensic psychologist as an expert witness, and
the therapies used in forensic practice. Much of this unit will be delivered and
assessed through literature searches and research.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the concept of forensic psychology and how it is applied
2 Understand the contribution psychological research has made to understanding
criminal behaviour
3 Be able to apply psychological profiling theory and techniques to produce a
criminal profile
4 Know how psychology is used in forensic practice.

Unit content
1 Understand the concept of forensic psychology and how it is applied
Definition: comparison with other areas; criminal psychology; police psychology;

criminology; clinical; occupational and educational psychology
Role of forensic psychologist: expert witness; prison psychologist; criminal
profiler; researcher
2 Understand the contribution psychological research has made to

understanding criminal behaviour
Themes: quantitative and qualitative approaches; case studies; interviews;

surveys
Structure of academic papers: abstract; introduction; method; results; discussion;
references
Evaluation: methods used; interpreting results; understanding discussion and
conclusions
3 Be able to apply psychological profiling theory and techniques to produce a

criminal profile
Development of profiling: FBI approach; clinical; statistical; geographic profiling;

behavioural evidence analysis (BEA)
Theories: theory of homicide; theory of rape; typologies; circle theory; research
studies of serious crimes
Application: analysis of hypothetical crime(s) to produce a profile report
4 Know how psychology is used in forensic practice
Types of treatment: behaviour therapy; cognitive behavioural therapy; social

skills training; anger management programmes
Risk assessment: approaches to risk assessment; development and evaluation of
assessment instruments

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 define forensic psychology, explain the M1 explain the contribution of a forensic D1 draw conclusions on the effectiveness of
definitions and describe how it is applied psychologist to one aspect of the legal forensic psychology
process
P2 outline how psychological research has M2 explain how psychological research has D2 compare the psychological theories that
helped in the understanding of criminal been used to understand criminal have been used to understand one type
behaviour behaviour of criminal behaviour
P3 describe how psychological profiling M3 demonstrate how psychological profiling D3 evaluate the usefulness of psychological
theory and techniques may be used to techniques may be used to produce a profiling techniques in the investigation
produce a criminal profile criminal profile of crime
P4 outline how psychology is used in M4 understand the risks involved and carry D4 explain how psychology is used in one
forensic practice. out a risk assessment for a given aspect of forensic practice.
situation.

Delivery
This unit builds on Unit 34: Criminal Psychology, extending learners’ understanding of
how psychology has developed to inform decision-making in the CJS. Learners revisit
the definitions of forensic psychology and criminal psychology, and consider the
similarities and differences. Learners will see that where criminal psychology looks at
the behaviour of those involved in the CJS, forensic psychology is used to inform
courts’ and other tribunals’ decision-making.
Learners will need to extend their knowledge of research methods and how to read
academic journal articles critically. Learners might select a journal article about
psychological profiling, and give a presentation to other learners on how the research
was carried out, evaluating its findings.
This unit is used to explore the relatively new area of psychological profiling through
its modest history, considering the different approaches. The tension between the
FBI/clinical approaches and the more ‘scientific’ approaches is examined, as well as
the development of geographic profiling.
Learners may hold a debate on whether criminal profiling will ever replace
traditional investigative approaches, requiring two teams to research and present
their arguments for and against the motion. Case studies of serial murderers and
rapists, including documentary material, will assist in presenting this topic.
Having considered the theoretical approaches to criminal profiling, learners use these
in practical case studies, analysing data and producing a profile. This aspect may be
linked to Unit 40: Criminal Investigation Practice and the investigation of serious
crimes.
Learners examine the role of forensic psychologists, including their appearance in
court as expert witnesses. A key aspect of forensic psychological practice includes
the treatment of prisoners and mentally disordered persons. Learners may benefit
from a talk by a prison psychologist to support this work. Case studies and press
reports may be examined, as well as research exploring the process of risk
assessment of offenders.
A key concern in society is the safety of the public from dangerous offenders, and
assessing and managing the risk this group may present is a key role for forensic
practitioners. This may be an aspect that learners can explore.
Assessment
For P1, learners must provide a definition of forensic psychology and how it fits into
the legal process. Learners researching the definition will find that it varies
according to different commentators and practitioners. They will need to give
reasons for their choice of definition. Learners must include examples of some of the
different ways in which forensic psychologists work.

For P2, learners must describe how psychological research has developed our
understanding of criminal behaviour. Learners may choose to examine psychological
explanations of serial murderers, rapists or arsonists. Alternatively, they may choose
to consider explanations for such things as youth offending or stalking behaviour.
For P3, learners must describe some of the profiling theories and techniques that
have been applied to produce a criminal profile. They could describe one or more
historic cases used to assist in investigations, and the profiles produced.
Alternatively, learners may have a case study to work on and describe how one or
more theories and techniques might be applied to this case.
For P4, learners must write a clear description of some aspects of forensic practice.
This might include a description of a particular role such as a prison psychologists and
their work.
met.
For M1, learners must select a particular area of forensic psychology practice and
explain its contribution to the legal process. Learners may choose to consider the
criminal profiler and examine their contribution to the investigation process, or the
forensic psychiatrist’s contribution to the treatment of offenders. Forensic
psychology entails work for the legal system and therefore psychologists from other
applied areas may find themselves carrying out work for the courts. Learners may
explore the contribution that occupational, educational or developmental
psychologists may make.
For M2, learners must show how psychological research has helped in understanding
criminal behaviour. This may include some of the different approaches used. For
example, learners may demonstrate how some approaches have used interviews with
offenders, while others have analysed archival data.
For M3, learners must apply psychological theory and profiling techniques to a case
and produce a criminal profile aimed at assisting the investigation.
For M4, learners must consider the risks involved in carrying out forensic psychology
work and produce a risk assessment based on a case study.
met.
For D1, learners must consider and draw conclusions about the effectiveness of the
contributions psychology can make to legal decision-making. Learners will need to
research and provide evidence to support their conclusions. For example, they could
consider how useful psychological profiling is to police officers investigating serious
crimes.
For D2, learners must consider the strengths and limitations of the approaches they
have explained and demonstrated, and how useful they are in practice. The use of
case studies will be important here.
For D3, learners must consider the strengths and limitations of the techniques used
and how useful they are in supporting investigations.
For D4, learners must focus on one aspect of forensic practice and describe it in
detail. This might be a particular treatment used in prison such as anger
management, which would consider the type of offender, the theory behind it and
how it works.


This unit links with:

• Unit 34: Criminal Psychology (which should be delivered before this unit)
• Unit 39: Criminal Investigation Procedures
• Unit 40: Criminal Investigation Practice.
Essential resources
Learners need to research information when investigating areas of, and roles within,
forensic psychology. They need access to academic journals, books and the internet.
Access to organisations and practitioners, by way of visits and/or guest speakers, and
case studies will support and enhance delivery and assessment of this unit.
Documentary videos of cases could be useful in explaining profiling techniques.
Materials that illustrate the level of learning required and that are particularly
relevant. Some of these have been listed for tutors.
Textbooks
Ainsworth P — Offender Profiling and Crime Analysis (Willan Publishing, 2001)
ISBN 1903240212
Alison L — The Forensic Psychologist’s Casebook: Psychological Profiling and Criminal
Investigation (Willan Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1843921014
Bartol C R — Criminal Behavior: A Psychosocial Approach (Prentice Hall, 2004)
ISBN 0131850490
Blackburn R — The Psychology of Criminal Conduct: Theory, Research and Practice
(John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 1995) ISBN 0471961752
Canter D — Criminal Shadows (Authorlink, 2001) ISBN 1928704212
Canter D and Alison L — Profiling Rape and Murder (Ashgate, 2006) ISBN 1840144955
Coolican H — Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology (Hodder Arnold, 2004)
ISBN 0340812583
Stephenson G M — The Psychology of Criminal Justice (Blackwell Publishers, 1992)
ISBN 0631145478
Towl G J and Crighton D A — The Handbook of Psychology for Forensic Practitioners
(Routledge, 1996) ISBN 0415128889
Turvey B E — Criminal Profiling: An Introduction to Behavioral Evidence Analysis
(Academic Press Inc. (London) Ltd, 2002) ISBN 0127050418

Journals
Journal of Behavioral Profiling
Journal of Investigative Psychology
Law and Human Behavior Legal and Criminological Psychology
Websites
www.bbc.co.uk/crime BBC
www.crimeandclues.com/behavior Crime and Clues
www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds The Home Office
www.profiling.org/journal Journal of Behavioral Profiling

Key skills


• discussing how psychology is C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
used in forensic practice
• presenting the research C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
methods used in a journal eight minutes using an image or other
article about psychological support material.
profiling and evaluating its
findings
• reading articles in forensic C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
psychology journals and on least two documents about the same
related websites. subject.
1000 words long.

• interviewing a forensic ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
psychologist and searching sources, and multiple search criteria in at
the internet for the different least one case.
approaches to psychological
profiling
• producing a risk assessment ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
on the dangers of criminal derive new information.
profiling.


• discussing ideas for one side WO3.1 Plan work with others.
of a debate on whether
criminal profiling will ever
replace traditional
investigative approaches
• identifying where their WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
arguments and supporting of improving collaborative work in future.
evidence for one side of the
debate could be
strengthened and presented
better.

UNIT 36: FORENSIC FIRE INVESTIGATION
Unit 36: Forensic Fire Investigation

Unit abstract
Fire investigation is a specialist branch of forensic science. This unit explores the
ways in which investigators can examine the charred remains of a building and trace
back, through the damage, to the seat of the fire, unravelling the mystery of what
caused the incident.
An understanding of the chemistry of combustion and extinction is essential for any
fire investigator. In this unit learners will study how things burn, how they can be
extinguished and the probable route of a fire spreading through a building. Learners
will also study the relationship between building construction and design, and fire
spread and prevention.
Fire investigators do not work alone. Learners wishing to follow this branch of
forensics will need to understand how different agencies work together to extinguish
a fire, treat casualties, make the site safe, and preserve and examine the evidence.
In preparation for possible future roles as expert witnesses, learners will be expected
to produce reports on their investigations such as are presented in court.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the chemistry of combustion and extinction
2 Know how safety aspects of building construction and design relate to fire
prevention and fire investigation
3 Be able to investigate a fire and produce a report on it
4 Understand the role played by other agencies.

Unit content
1 Understand the chemistry of combustion and extinction
Combustion: flame; heat of combustion; rate of burning; flash point; fire point;
auto-ignition temperature; limits of flammability; burning polymers; toxic fumes
Extinction: fire triangle (smothering, starving, cooling); types of extinguisher
Fire behaviour: probable spread of a fire; movement of heat (conduction,
convection, radiation)
2 Know how safety aspects of building construction and design relate to fire
prevention and fire investigation
Aspects of construction and design: types of structure eg fire doors, fire walls,
venting, compartments; occupancy; fire loading and calculating fire loading; fire
safety systems
3 Be able to investigate a fire and produce a report on it
Fire scene: safety; preservation; observation; recording findings

(contemporaneous notes); plan drawing; photographs; excavation; collection,
packaging and preservation of samples; reconstruction
Witnesses: eg occupiers, fire crews, neighbours, passer-bys; interviews;
transcripts of interviews; transcripts of messages/phone calls to emergency
services
Documentation: fire reports eg FDR1, FDR2; fire safety documents; report (to
include an annotated plan of the site of the fire); presentation in court
4 Understand the role played by other agencies
Other agencies: police; scene of crime officer; forensic scientist; pathologist; gas
advisor; electricity advisor; insurance loss adjuster; Health and Safety Executive;
solicitor

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the chemistry of combustion M1 carry out experiments to demonstrate D1 assess the major causal factors involved
and extinction and list sources of ignition the chemistry of combustion and in fire and its spread, and draw
extinction, and describe sources of conclusions on how best to prevent fires
ignition
P2 outline safety aspects of building design M2 explain the methods used by an D2 evaluate how the aspects of building
and construction, explaining how they investigator to collect evidence and design and construction relate to fire
relate to fire prevention and/or information prevention and/or investigation
investigation
P3 produce a report of a simulated fire M3 explain the use of evidence obtained D3 evaluate the evidence from a simulated
investigation, including a plan drawing of through fire investigation fire investigation and describe how it
a single storey building for fire was (or could be) used, and draw
investigation purposes scientifically derived conclusions
P4 list the agencies that might be involved M4 explain the roles and interactions of the D4 evaluate the operation of the agencies
in a fire investigation and describe their agencies involved in a fire investigation. involved in a fire investigation and the
roles and how they liaise. liaison between them.

Delivery
Tutors delivering this unit have opportunities to use a wide range of techniques.
These include practicals, lectures, discussion, seminars, site visits, guest speakers,
internet research and use of library resources. The aim should be to stimulate and
educate the learners so they will be in a position to understand the main concepts in
fire investigation and the roles played by different agencies at a fire scene.
Health and safety issues relating to laboratory work in the centre must be
emphasised and the health and safety issues encountered at a fire scene discussed.
Risk assessments, the application of COSHH and other regulations that apply to
laboratories must be adhered to.
Learning outcome 1 covers the chemistry of combustion and extinction. This learning
outcome should involve formal lectures and learner research, accompanied by
experimental work carried out in the laboratory.
Learning outcome 2 covers aspects of building construction and design and how they
relate to fire prevention and investigation. This should mainly involve formal lectures
and learner research.
Learning outcome 3 covers how a fire is investigated and learners are required to
prepare a formal report of the investigation. The general principles of fire behaviour
should be discussed along with the ways in which an investigator can collect
information at a fire scene, the different forms of evidence that can be found and
how this evidence may be used in the investigation process. Documentation of fire
scenes, the collection, packaging and preservation of evidence, the chain of
continuity and report writing must also be explained. This should mainly involve
formal lectures and learner research. Learners should conduct a simulated fire
investigation and produce a report based on their findings. Learners may find it
difficult to attend the scene of a real fire due to health and safety issues, which is
why a simulated approached should be used. Local fire departments and investigators
could be approached to obtain resources such as copies of photographs and/or videos
for this investigation. Input from specialist speakers would also be useful.
Learning outcome 4 covers the role that other agencies play in a fire investigation.
This should mainly involve formal lectures and learner research. Case studies and
specialist speakers would be particularly useful.
Assessment
For P1, learners must describe the chemistry of combustion and extinction and list
common ignition sources.
For P2, learners must outline aspects of building design such as those discussed
above, and explain how they relate to fire prevention and/or investigation.

For P3, learners must conduct a simulated fire investigation, ensuring that
information is gathered in a systematic way paying attention to all relevant details. A
detailed scene examination would include descriptions of the ceilings, walls, floors,
doors, windows and staircases within a building as well as a thorough description of
the exterior of the building. Smoke, fire, heat patterns and other post-fire indicators
should be described along with any identified points of origin and ignition sources
(smouldering/flame). Sketches and plans should include a key with directional
information, measurements and scales. Positions of doors, windows, fixtures,
appliances, furniture and all relevant items should be recorded.
For P4, learners must describe the various agencies involved in a fire investigation
and how they liaise with each other.
met.
For M1, learners must demonstrate the chemistry of combustion by performing
experiments in the laboratory.
For M2, learners must explain how evidence is collected from a fire scene.
For M3, learners must consider the types of evidence that may be collected from a
fire scene. They must explain the use of such evidence and purpose in ascertaining
the cause and spread of the fire.
For M4, learners must understand and explain the role of each agency and the part
they play in investigating fire.
met.
For D1, learners need knowledge of the chemistry of combustion and extinction to
assess how fire spreads and the best way to prevent fires. In doing so learners must
demonstrate thorough knowledge and understanding of the chemistry of combustion
and fire engineering terminology.
The purpose of fire safety design in a building is to allow people to escape before
being overcome by the effects of fire. Fire safety can be achieved by using fire
engineering which is based on the principles of fire science, human behaviour and
risk management. Fire safety design features include emergency exits, systems for
detecting fires, alarms to warn people of fire, sprinkler systems to extinguish fires,
materials used in the construction of a building to slow fire growth, and construction
to limit fire spread from one area to another. A number of issues must be considered
when incorporating fire safety design in a building, including fire ignition growth and
spread, the location of people in the building and their state, how people will
become aware of a fire and what they might do, how quickly people can get out, how
a fire might develop, how smoke will be generated and could spread, how the smoke
and fire might affect people and how the building materials will respond to a fire.
For D2, learners must evaluate these aspects of building design and construction.
For D3, learners must evaluate the evidence collected from a simulated fire scene,
and describe how it could be used as part of the investigation.

The role of the fire service is to fight fires and to protect people and property from
fires. A fire investigation usually involves investigators from a number of other
agencies who all have specific roles including determination of the origin and cause
of the fire, collection of evidence for a criminal investigation, assessment of the
effectiveness of fire safety measures and estimation of loss. A team approach is
essential and the legitimate interests of each agency need to be considered.
For D4, learners must evaluate the role of each agency and the potential value of
their contributions to the success of a fire investigation.


• Unit 33: Forensic Photography
• Unit 40: Criminal Investigation Practice
• chemistry units with a content including flammable materials.
Essential resources
Learners need access to simulated fire scenes, a forensic science laboratory, a

learning resource centre equipped with fire investigation books, periodicals, journals,
ICT equipment, scanners, printers, CD ROMs, and other associated software.
Textbooks
DeHaan J D — Kirk’s Fire Investigation, 5th Edition (Prentice Hall, 2002)
ISBN 0130604585
DeHaan J D and Icove D J — Forensic Fire Scene Reconstruction (Prentice Hall, 2004)
ISBN 0130942057
Faith N — Blaze: The Forensics of Fire (St Martin’s Press, 2000) ISBN 0312261284
Noon R K — Forensic Engineering Investigation (CRC Press Inc. US, 2000)
ISBN 0849309115
Quintiere J G — Principles of Fire Behaviour (Delmar, 1997) ISBN 0827377320
Redsicker D R — Practical Fire and Arson Investigation (CRC Press Inc. US, 2007)
ISBN 0849321336

Websites
www.arson-codes.com Corporate Investigative Services provide fire
analysis consultation services
www.communities.gov.uk Communities and Local Government for a copy of
an FDR1 form
www.firesafe.org.uk Fire Safety Advice Centre
www.fireservicecollege.ac.uk The Fire Service College
www.fmglobal.com FM Global is an insurance company: Pocket Guide
to Arson and Fire Investigation
www.gardinerassociates.com Gardiner Associates is a provider of interagency
fire investigation training to police and fire
authorities
www.ife.org.uk Institution of Fire Engineers: Basic Principles of
Building Construction; Fire Technology —
Chemistry and Combustion; Principles of Fire
Investigation
www.interfire.org provides resources for fire services, fire insurers,
law enforcement and others whose duties involve
arson investigation, fire investigation safety and
fire scene training
www.thefpa.co.uk The Fire Protection Association is the UK’s
national fire safety organisation: Safety at Scenes
of Fire and Related Incidents

Key skills


sources
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
report justifying your
methods.


discussions about building
construction and design and
how they relate to fire
prevention
investigation into building support material.
construction and design and
how they relate to fire
prevention
extended documents to gain subject.
an awareness of forensic
data
1000 words long.
• preparing a report and poster C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
about the above each one giving different information
words long.

• searching for information ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
about methods that can be sources, and multiple search criteria in at
used to collect information least one case.
at a fire scene
purposes
image with number.


• developing the plan and LP3.1 Set targets using information from
targets for a research appropriate people and plan how these
their tutor
encountered

• evaluating their investigation PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
weakness and ways of
overcoming them
still apparent.

investigation
investigation
for their investigation. of improving collaborative work in future.

UNIT 37: FORENSIC SCIENCE INFORMATICS
Unit 37: Forensic Science Informatics

Unit abstract
This unit gives learners the opportunity to develop their ICT skills to produce an
integrated document for use in forensic science. Learners will use word processing,
spreadsheet, database, image editing and webpage software. They will also gain a
theoretical knowledge of the use of the laws governing and the criminal activities
associated with the internet and the worldwide web.
Learners will develop the skills needed to trace, track and monitor online presence
and activity. This unit will provide learners with the opportunity to understand how
the criminal community and forensic information technology crime investigators use
computers. This is a fast-expanding area and much new legislation has been written,
or is being considered, to cover this relatively new area of crime.
Learning outcomes
1 Be able to use computer software to produce a forensic document
2 Be able to use information communication technology to obtain and exchange
forensic information
3 Understand the use of the internet and crimes committed using the internet, and
how internet and computer misuse is policed
4 Be able to use tools to identify internet activity and describe computer sabotage
methods.

Unit content
1 Be able to use computer software to produce a forensic document
Computer systems architecture: setting up a computer system (input and output

devices, storage systems, operating systems, computer network)
Word-processing packages: toolbars; basic terminology eg format, edit, delete,
create folder, file format-save, file management, root directory, insert-file-
graphic, find tools, header and footer, border and shading, word art, drawing
tools, text box, fonts, word count, content and index; online help; grammar and
spelling; export and import documents and files; different methods of data
storage
Spreadsheet packages: screen components; toolbars; basic terminology; keying
data; selection technique; moving around in worksheets; switching between
worksheets; use of scientific function; chart wizard to different statistical
graphics; import/export data; online help
Database packages: types of data; manipulation of data; office assistant; help
menu; creating a database eg table, query, design, wizard, adding table, data
entry and edit; datasheet display; sorting and searching; forms and reports;
import and export data
Graphics packages: uses eg to produce a scene of crime involving use of scanning
photo/graphic/text; amendments; export and import; drawing tools; colours;
opening and saving file in different formats
Web page packages: HTML; opening and closing tags eg body, title, hyperlinks,
bold, italics, font size, background colour, tables; web page creation software
eg Microsoft Frontpage, Macromedia Dreamweaver, Notepad, Textpad, what you
see is what you get (WYSIWYG)
2 Be able to use information communication technology to obtain and exchange

forensic information
The internet: uses; connections eg modems; service providers

Using the internet and intranet: download files or programme; connecting to the
internet; uses and abuse of internet; the worldwide web; how the web works;
internets and extranets; protocols (TCP/IP, FTP, SMTP, POP3, HTTP)

3 Understand the use of the internet and crimes committed using the internet,
and how internet and computer misuse is policed
Laws: eg Computer Misuse Act 1990; eg Data Protection Acts (1984, 1988 and 1994
Guidelines); eg Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; eg Race Relation Acts;
eg Disability of Discrimination Act 1995; eg Sex Discrimination Act 1986;
eg Employment Act 1963, 1988, 1989; eg Companies Act 1985; common laws; laws
on torts; criminal laws eg offences against minors, public moral/decency;
warrants eg PACE Act 1984; power of goods/equipment seizure
Jurisdiction: local; European; international; internet boundaries
Investigation of computer crimes: identification of crime; agency who has
jurisdiction or multi agency approach (police, HM Revenue and Customs, Serious
Fraud Squad, MI5, Trading Standards Office); methodologies of gathering evidence
eg doctrine of documentary evidence, verbal and real evidence, copying of the
entire target computer system onto a media for examination, protection of files
by encryption software, protection of system by physical devices (locks), level of
security code
Forensic agencies aids: Police National Computer (PNC); DVLA; storage of large
data and analysis; statistical analysis; mapping; method of operandi (MO)
eg suspects, vehicle, building, national automated finger print identification
system (NAFIS), criminal record number, computer imaging
4 Be able to use tools to identify internet activity and describe computer

sabotage methods
Command prompt: commands (ping, tracert)

Hacking or cracking: profile of victims and offenders; intellectual challenge;
selling sensitive information; military secrets; commercial loss/gain; white collar
crime
Software disablers: home-made programme; programme converted for the
purpose; commercial encryption packages; self-destruct programme (start up of
computer); DOS; Unix; unformatting programme
Hardware disablers: preserve and accurate record (exhibits)
Computer sabotage: clipper chip; encryption; logic bomb; pinging; remailer;
trapdoor; Trojan horse; virus; worm; spyware
Sabotage protection: firewall; anti-virus software; pop-up blockers; anti-spyware

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 use word processing, database, M1 use commercial software to produce an D1 create a web page for use by forensic
spreadsheet and graphic editing software integrated forensic document containing scientists, including two hyperlinks
to produce a forensic document scanned images and a short graphic file
containing a minimum of 500 words, from the internet
document formatting one edited image,
imported data and an imported graph
P2 use the web to access valid information M2 describe the main UK laws of computer D2 evaluate the limitations of UK laws in
useful to a forensic case study misuse controlling computer misuse
P3 describe crimes committed using the M3 explain how the internet is policed D3 evaluate the methods used for policing
internet the internet
P4 identify the registrant’s name and M4 calculate and record the time for a D4 determine and record the route of a
address of five IP addresses using the packet of data to reach five different IP packet to reach five different IP
WHOIS database. addresses using the ping command. addresses using the tracert command.

Delivery
This unit is largely skills-based. Tutors should use an active and investigative
approach to enable learners to achieve the learning outcomes. Learners should be
encouraged to be independent and, over time, to reflect and act critically.
Tutors could use a range of techniques to deliver the unit content, including formal
lectures, discussions, seminars, internet research and use of library resources. The
aim is to stimulate and educate the learners so they will be in a position to
understand the main ways in which crime is committed using computers and the
internet, and how to track online use. This understanding enables learners to see the
range of job opportunities available, and the range of courses that higher education
can offer.
Learning outcome 1 covers the selection and use of software packages to put
together a forensic document. This learning outcome should involve formal lectures
showing learners how to use software packages to produce a portfolio of a forensic
nature. Digital photographs of recreated crime scenes would enable learners to gain
experience of editing photographs for forensic purposes. Documentaries and case
studies could be used as a basis for the forensic portfolio.
Learning outcome 2 requires the learner to use ICT equipment to obtain and
exchange forensic information. This learning outcome can be covered while the
learners are completing learning outcome 1. It is recommended that learners are
fluent with the range of internet, worldwide web and email protocols and how these
ensure the correct passage of data.
For learning outcome 3 case studies would be an interesting way to learn how
internet crimes are committed and investigated and whether the investigation was
ultimately successful. This can then be linked to stating which computer laws have
been broken in the case study.
Learning outcome 4 covers identifying internet activity and computer sabotage
methods. Learners should be taught how to search the WHOIS database and use the
ping and tracert commands. Learners will then be able to undertake tasks requiring
them to identify IP address registrants and test the response of hosts to the ping and
tracert command.

Assessment
Assessment should be based on a series of practical and theoretical assignments.

It should ideally be problem-based, enabling learners to investigate the associated
grading criteria.
For P1, learners must, with guidance, use common commercial software to produce a
forensic document. It is important that data and a graph are imported into the
document rather than added as separate sheets into the assignment. Database
activities could involve entering data relating to serial murders or other crimes.
Graphs could be related to criminal profiling, eg geographical.
For P2, learners must be able to navigate their way around the internet efficiently.
They must be able to ascertain the validity of the information they find.
For P3, learners must define the computer sabotage terms and describe the
destructive nature of the defined computer sabotage terms.
For P4, learners must gather information on the identity of IP registrants from
searching the WHOIS database. Learners could be given an opportunity to identify the
senders IP address from an email message header and determine the ISP through a
DNS WHOIS database.
met.
For M1, learners must use commercial software to produce an integrated forensic
document. They must demonstrate a higher-skill ability in compiling the forensic
document, that is more advanced in design and presentation than for P1.
For M2, learners must demonstrate awareness of the legislation covering misuse of
computers. They must describe their purpose and how they contribute to policing the
internet.
For M3, learners must give details of the policing of the internet. They must consider
why this is necessary, and how far the policing can go before it infringes upon the
freedom of the individuals. They must also consider the difficulties encountered in
policing the internet. The other agencies involved (eg web providers) should be
listed.
For M4, learners must use the ping command to test the response of a host computer,
and in the process calculate the time taken for data to reach its destination. It is
recommended that the learner use the command prompt, but firewall restrictions
may prohibit this. In this case, the website www.dnsstuff.com has a ping utility which
can be used as a substitute. These tools record packet details to and from the
www.dnsstuff.com website rather than from the learners’ PC, but it is a useful
substitute.
met.

For D1, learners must create a HTML webpage with a minimum of two hyperlinks.
This could be related to another learning outcome whereby the webpage becomes an
electronic reference page that links to websites used as sources of information.
Learners should be encouraged to produce their webpage writing actual HTML tags
rather than using commercial software such as Microsoft FrontPage.
For D2, learners must evaluate the current methods used to police the internet. The
difficulties in controlling the internet should be explored and suggestions of more
effective methods given.
For D3, learners must assess whether the current UK legislation is effective and
sufficient in controlling computer misuse. Learners are required to make conclusions
if legislation is deficient, and suggest more effective ways of controlling computer
misuse.
For D4, learners must trace the route a packet of data takes from the learner
computer to the destination IP address. It is recommended that the learner use the
command prompt, but firewall restrictions may prohibit this. In this case, the
website www.dnsstuff.com has a tracert utility which can be used as a substitute.
These tools record packet details to and from the www.dnsstuff.com website rather
than from the learners’ PC, but it is a useful substitute.

The unit has links with:

• Unit 9: Informatics
Essential resources
To complete this unit, learners will need access to computers and the internet to
access the websites shown below. Learners can edit photographs taken in Unit 33:
Forensic Photography and include them in the forensic document.
Textbooks
Beales R P — PC Systems, Installation and Maintenance (Newnes, 2003)
ISBN 0750660740
Bejtlich R et al — Real Digital Forensics: Computer Security and Incident Response
(Addison Wesley, 2005) ISBN 0321240693
Casey E — Digital Evidence and Computer Crime (Academic Press Inc. US, 2004)
ISBN 0121631044
Jones R — Internet Forensics (O’Reilly, 2005) ISBN 059610006X

Websites
www.antionline.com IT security website
www.apnet.com Academic Press
www.cops.org International Virtual Librarian Association of
Computer Investigative Specialist
www.dnsstuff.com WHOIS lookup, ping and tracert commands
www.findlaw.com Legal website
www.guidancesoftware.com Forensic website
www.htcia.org High Tech Crime Investigation Association
www.lawcrawler.com Legal website
www.oreilly.com Computer books, conferences and online
publishing
www.virtuallibrarian.com Virtual Librarian
www.warriorsofthe.net Internet website
www.whatis.com IT website

Key skills


sources
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
report justifying your
methods.


discussions about a complex
subject such as computer
fraud
investigation on how support material.
criminals use computer and
associated technologies
• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
read and synthesise least two documents about the same
information about a complex subject.
subject, such as the
examples in C3.1a
1000 words long.
one of the complex subjects each one giving different information
as above. about complex subjects.
words long.

• planning, carrying out a ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
search and selecting sources, and multiple search criteria in at
information for investigations least one case.
on the different types of
computer fraud
• exploring, developing and ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
exchanging information and derive new information.
deriving new information for
investigations on the
different types of computer
fraud
• preparing the report on one ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
of the above investigations. text with image, text with number,
image with number.


• developing the plan for an LP3.1 Set targets using information from
investigation and consulting appropriate people and plan how these
and gaining the agreement of will be met.
their tutor
encountered

• formulating the plan with PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
three options for an ways of tackling it.
investigation
approach to the
adopted
produced.

• taking part in group work WO3.1 Plan work with others.
• carrying out group work WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
progress towards your agreed objectives.
• reviewing group work. WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
of improving collaborative work in future.

UNIT 38: TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Unit 38: Traffic Accident Investigation

Unit abstract
With our increasing dependence on road transport for getting around, car crashes are
sadly a fact of life. In this unit learners will look at how and why accidents happen
and what is being done to make our roads safer for everyone.
Traffic is defined as the movement of any type of vehicle along a route at a given
time; this can of course include air traffic, railways, shipping and people. This unit
involves traffic accident investigations and looks primarily at road accidents.
Forensic scientists investigate crash sites and gather evidence. This enables them,
using the laws of physics, to piece together the sequence of an accident. From this
they are able to say how the accident happened, what caused it and whether anyone
is to blame. They may be called to give evidence in court, to act as an expert
witness, or to advise on ways of improving safety. In this unit learners will look at
road safety especially.
Learners will study and practice the techniques of evidence-gathering and accident
reconstruction as part of the investigation process. Learners will also look at the
factors (human, environmental and vehicle) that relate to traffic accidents.
The data gained from crash investigations is used to identify the factors that cause
accidents. A knowledge of these factors allows cars and roads to be designed with
safety in mind.
The unit also covers the legislation associated with road safety.
Learning outcomes
1 Know the major factors that cause car crashes and injury
2 Understand how science is used in the investigation process
3 Be able to investigate a crash scene
4 Know which legislation applies to crash investigations.

Unit content
1 Know the major factors that cause car crashes and injury
Human factors: human error; speeding; defective vision or other disability; drugs;
alcohol; tiredness; stress; driver rage; distractions; mobile phones; lack of
training and experience; attitudes to drinking; education; pedestrians; typical
injuries sustained
Environmental factors: weather conditions; traffic control; safety cameras; signs;
congestion; state of, design and use of roadways
Vehicle factors: type and condition of vehicle; braking system; steering system;
tyres (types and defects); seat belts; air bags; crumple zones; distribution of
loads; overloading; maintenance; typical damage sustained
Cost: physical injury; emergency services; community; family; repair costs for
vehicle; road and property; environmental; insurance
2 Understand how science is used in the investigation process
Physics of movement and collision: Newton’s laws of motion; conservation of

momentum; conservation of energy; kinetic energy; principles of velocity;
dynamic and static forces; coefficient of friction between road surface and tyres;
the effect of impact on vehicles, pedestrians and property
Driver’s reaction: reaction time, factors affecting it eg environmental conditions,
visibility, alcohol, drugs, alertness; hazards; cognitive psychology
Investigative techniques: accident reconstruction eg manual and computer
models; documentation; comparative methods; Naismith’s rule; vehicle damage;
personal injuries; road marks and their measurement; vehicle or human rest
position

3 Be able to investigate a crash scene
Investigative techniques: skid test; sled test; projectile analysis; interview;

accident scene preservation and records (photography, sketch plans,
measurement, casts of tyre prints); data gathering (road surface data, coefficient
of friction, skid marks, tachographs); other evidence at scene eg trace evidence;
health and safety (codes of practice, proper clothing, head and foot wear, risk
assessment, protocols)
Equipment and materials: camera; tripod; metrology instruments, manometer;
thermometer; wax crayons; tracing paper; scapulas; tweezers; tapings; crime seal
tapes; engineering tools; magnifier and microscope; roadside tests; alco-meters;
intoximeters (gas chromatography); weight and force measuring devices; artificial
light (torches); casting tools and plaster; exhibit vials, bags, packaging and labels;
scientific calculator; measurements (tape and scales); scene of crime kits; video;
dummies; trace evidence techniques eg glass refractive index measurement
(GRIM)
Investigation aids: communication aids; crime investigation aids; scientific data
manuals; vehicle manufacturer data manuals; claims forms; forensic science
reports; forensic databases
4 Know which legislation applies to crash investigations
Definitions: types of vehicle eg motor car, rail, tram, ship, aircraft; types of road
vehicle eg motor car, SGV, MGV, HGV, SPV, MPV, LPV, agricultural tractor, motor
bikes, caravans and trailers
Road traffic acts: construction and use; eg the Road Safety Act 1967 (the Barbara
Castle Act); laws of contract; criminal law; documentation (ages to drive, carry
passengers and loads); local by-laws; tachograph instruments; laws on speeding;
legal limits for alcohol in body fluids; drug laws; eg Police and Criminal Evidence
(PACE) Act 1984
Criminal justice system: reports; expert witness; giving evidence under oath;
county magistrate and higher courts

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the major factors that cause M1 assess the relationship between the D1 comment critically on the relative
road accidents major causal factors and road accidents importance of the various factors as
causes of road accidents
P2 describe how science is used in the M2 explain the scientific factors associated D2 evaluate the relationship between
investigation of car crashes with road accidents scientific factors and road accident
investigations
P3 carry out investigations using given M3 plan their own investigations using D3 draw conclusions from the practical
techniques appropriate techniques and demonstrate investigation as to the cause of the
these techniques accident and evaluate the reliability of
the evidence obtained
P4 identify the legislation that applies to M4 comment on the effectiveness of the D4 relate road traffic accidents to the
car crashes. legislation that applies to car crashes. applicable legislation.

Delivery
These include practicals, lectures, discussions, role playing, seminars, presentations,
site visits, guest speakers, internet research and use of library resources. The aim
should be to stimulate and educate the learners so they will be in a position to
understand the main concepts in accident investigation and its importance in
improving safety.
Health and safety issues relating to laboratory work at the centre or site work must
be emphasised. Personal protective equipment, risk assessments, the use of COSHH,
Approved Codes of Practice (ACoP), safety rules and the Health and Safety at Work
Act and other regulations in place in any laboratory or site must be adhered to.
Learning outcome 1 covers the knowledge of the main factors that cause car crashes
and injury. This learning outcome will probably involve formal lectures and learner
research. It could also lend itself to peer learning with group discussions, learner
presentations and role playing. Videos, DVDs, drink-driving advertisements, road and
vehicle safety information, local councils, documentaries and case studies could
provide additional sources of material.
Learning outcome 2 covers how science is used in the investigation process. This
learning outcome should involve formal lectures and learner research. It also lends
itself to some experimental project work, and some practical/model work could be
carried out in a laboratory to illustrate the science involved. Education videos and
resources could also be used.
Learning outcome 3 covers the skills needed to investigate a crash scene. This could
be achieved in a variety of ways. The aim is for learners to conduct an accident
investigation and collect a variety of evidence at the scene using appropriate
techniques. They should assess their findings and draw conclusions to the cause of
the accident, whilst evaluating the reliability of the evidence. Learners could
investigate an accident and formulate a report of their work. This learning outcome
will probably involve formal lectures and learner research. Learners could visit a
vehicle site or use a vehicle to carry out their investigation. As mentioned previously,
health and safety issues must be strictly adhered to. Documentation of the scene, the
collection, packaging and preservation and transportation of evidence must be
explained, as well as the chain of continuity and report writing. Owing to the
difficulty in obtaining a vehicle, a crash scene could be simulated with a ‘skeleton’ of
a vehicle with appropriate props. Additionally or alternatively, road measurement
data and exhibits from the scene could be assessed and processed in a laboratory
using appropriate techniques.

For especially difficult evidence, a variety of expert witness statements of this

evidence from an accident could be complied as extra information for the learner’s
case in order for them to assess their accident. Alternatively, the learners could
formulate their own statements and reports to be assessed later or in a mock court
situation through role play. Computer stimulations and videos could also be used to
show scene data. Local car pounds or local police could be approached to obtain
resources. Photographs and videos could also be obtained. Specialist guest speakers
would be particularly useful.
Learning outcome 4 covers the legislation that applies to vehicles and crash
investigations, and the crash investigator’s role in the criminal justice system. This
learning outcome should mainly involve formal lectures and learner research. It could
also involve case studies, report writing and role playing. Guest speakers would be
particularly useful.
Assessment
For P1, learners must describe the major factors that cause road accidents.
For P2, learners must describe how science is used in the investigation of car crashes.
Learners must understand the concepts of appropriate scientific principles and their
use in car crash investigations.
For P3, learners must conduct an investigation using given techniques. They must
conduct a simulated accident investigation ensuring that information is gathered in a
systematic way paying attention to all relevant details. Learners must produce a
detailed accident investigation, including notes and descriptions of the site, state of
the road, the vehicle(s), photographic documentation, measurements, sketches and
plans. Sketches and plans should include a key with directional information,
measurements and scales. Positions of vehicle(s), the surroundings, debris, victims,
trace evidence positions and damage should all be recorded. If the tutor is dealing
with a mainly laboratory-based investigation, some of these details could be worked
on using data and photographic images or using a skeleton layout scene (see delivery
notes) or computer/video reconstruction. However, learners are still required to
carry out investigations using given techniques. For example, analysing trace
evidence such as paint or larger items such as a car headlamp or tyre. At accident
scenes, many other agencies such as the emergency services attend, so teamwork
and good communication skills are paramount. The learners should exhibit such skills
at the scene.
For P4, learners must identify the legislation that applies to car crashes.
met.
For M1, learners must assess the relationship between major causal factors and road
accidents. They must comment on how these factors (whether on their own or
combined) can cause road accidents.
For M2, learners must explain, in more detail, the scientific factors associated with
road accidents. For example, the coefficient of friction of a surface, the
environmental conditions and the reaction time of the driver.

For M3, learners must plan their own investigation using appropriate techniques to
recover evidence from a crash scene, and perform these techniques. Techniques can
be varied but appropriate for the evidence to be recovered. Techniques can include
photographic evidence of tyre marks, swabbing of biological evidence and subsequent
appropriate packaging, laboratory analysis of glass or measurement of blood alcohol
with gas chromatography.
For M4, learners must evaluate the legislation that applies to car crashes. The
learners must assess why these laws have been formulated.
met.
For D1, learners must comment critically on relationships between major causal
factors and road accidents, and the relative importance of each factor in causing
road accidents. They must use their knowledge and comment on how these factors
could be avoided (if at all) or used to improve road safety.
For D2, learners must evaluate the relationships between scientific factors and how
they can be used with scientific principles in the investigation of road accidents. For
example, the speed of vehicle at impact can be calculated using known variables and
scientific principles.
For D3, learners must draw conclusions from the practical investigations as to the
cause of the accident. They must evaluate their findings and assess the reliability of
their evidence found. For instance, have the emergency services affected the
evidence in any way? This could be formulated in a report format and/or expert
witness statement. The report should be of a high standard, acceptable for court
purposes, with accurate notes, plans, photographs, diagrams, etc.
For D4, learners must relate road traffic accidents to the applicable legislation. The
learners should be able to classify accidents and the vehicles involved through the
applicable legislation. For example, an accident caused by overloading. Learners
must evaluate the role of the applicable laws and their potential value in their
contribution to preventing road traffic accidents.


• Unit 37: Forensic Science Informatics

Essential resources
Learners need access to simulated car crash scenes, a forensic science laboratory, a
learning resource centre equipped with accident investigation and forensic books,
periodicals, journals, CD ROMs, computers, scanners, printers and other associated
ICT equipment and software.
Textbooks
Cooper S and Orme M — Practical Road Traffic Law (Blackstone’s Practical Policing
Series) (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0199296839
James S H and Nordby J J (editors) — Forensic Science: An Introduction to Scientific
and Investigative Techniques (CRC Press Inc. US, 2002) ISBN 0849312469
Meloan C E and Saferstein R — Criminalistics: An Introduction to Forensic Science,
8th Edition (Prentice Hall, 2003) ISBN 0131126814
Noon R K — Forensic Engineering Investigation (CRC Press Inc. US, 2000s)
ISBN 0849309115
Van Kirk DJ — Vehicular Accident Investigation and Reconstruction (CRC Press Inc.
US, 2000) ISBN 0849320208
Websites
www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_control/d Department for Transport
ocuments/homepage/dft_home_page.hcsp
www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_rdsafety/doc Department for Transport road
uments/sectionhomepage/dft_rdsafety_page.hcsp safety
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safety_Camera_ Wikipedia definition of safety
Partnership camera partnership
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road- Wikipedia definition of road-rule
rule_enforcement_camera enforcement camera
www.orsa.org.uk/guidance/pdfs/indepth_study_ Department for Transport road
work_related_road_accidents.pdf safety research report
www.rospa.com/roadsafety The Royal Society for the
Prevention of Accidents
www.thinkroadsafety.gov.uk The THINK! Road Safety Website
www.thinkroadsafety.gov.uk/campaigns/drinkdrive/ THINK! Drink driving factsheet
drinkdrive01.htm
www.worldbank.org/transport/roads/safety.htm The World Bank
www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/DrinkingAndDriving. State University of New York
html drink driving

Road traffic laws

www.elucidate3d.co.uk/examples.htm
www.foe.co.uk/resource/press_releases/19970321103543.html
www.howstuffworks.com/breathalyzer.htm
www.hse.gov.uk/press/2004/e04094.htm
www.hse.gov.uk/research/crr_pdf/2001/crr01344.pdf
www.lawontheweb.co.uk/basics/roadtrafficcrime.htm
www.lawontheweb.co.uk/roadlaw.htm
www.pepipoo.com/Road_Traffic_Acts.htm
www.roadpeace.org
www.shu.ac.uk/schools/sci/chem/tutorials/chrom/gaschrm.htm
www.traffic-answers.com
www.umd.umich.edu/casl/natsci/slc/slconline/GC/sld003.htm

Key skills


• planning, obtaining and N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
interpreting data from information from relevant sources.
forensic science information
data sources
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
report justifying their
methods.


discussions about major
factors that cause road
accidents and how these can
be prevented to improve
safety on roads
investigation into major support material.
factors that cause road
accidents and how these can
be prevented to improve
safety on roads
extended documents subject.
1000 words long.
• preparing a report and a C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
poster about the above each one giving different information
words long.

search for information about sources, and multiple search criteria in at
methods that can be used to least one case.
collect information at an
accident scene
two purposes
image with number.


targets for a research appropriate people and plan how these
investigation, and consulting will be met.
their tutor
encountered

• evaluating their investigation PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
weakness and ways of
overcoming them
still apparent.

investigation
investigation
for their investigation. of improving collaborative work in future.

UNIT 39: CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION PROCEDURES
Unit 39: Criminal Investigation

Procedures
Unit abstract
A criminal investigation is the thorough and systematic process of using inquiry and
examination to gather facts, evidence and information in order to determine whether
a crime has been committed. Criminal investigation relies on a number of different
areas, including forensic science, anthropology, biology, psychology and sociology.
The aim of a criminal investigation is to bring someone to justice; that is, arresting,
prosecuting, and convicting perpetrators of crimes. The investigation of criminal
activity is the bedrock of maintaining law and order in society. Criminality is ever
present and constantly evolving, and unless law enforcements update their
procedures regularly then the rate of crime is likely to increase rapidly.
This unit will introduce learners to the various methodologies employed by criminal
investigators. It will focus on the investigation process and the aids to criminal
investigations, ranging from the Home Office Large Major Enquiries System (HOLMES)
to the smallest item of evidence gathered from a crime scene. Learners will examine
the criminal justice system (CJS) and the various agencies involved in the courts and
the whole legal process. Learners will also have the opportunity to discover and
describe methods of crime prevention.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the principles of basic criminal investigation
2 Know the aids and tools available to the criminal investigator
3 Understand the legal framework for criminal investigation and the relationship
with the CJS
4 Know the methods of crime prevention.

Unit content
1 Understand the principles of basic criminal investigation
Stages of the investigative process from crime scene to court: recording of crime;
initial response; preliminary and follow-up investigations; standard operating
procedures and regulation; report writing and presentation of evidence in court
eg the investigation plan; the incident room; investigating leads; researching and
analysing intelligence systems; gathering and analysing facts; identifying patterns
and links; process of elimination; ethics; use of press and media; other CJS
agencies
Role and responsibilities of the investigation team: police officers; detectives;
scenes of crime officers (SOCOs); forensic scientists; scientific support; Major
Crime Squad; Crown Prosecution Service (CPS); role of other investigative
agencies eg Serious and Organised Crime Agency, military police, Immigration
Service, HM Revenue and Customs, Environment Agency, Financial Service
Agency, Post Office Investigations, NHS counter-fraud, private insurance and
fraud industries
Types of crime investigation: definition and classification of different crimes;
level and type of criminal investigation; common criminal and civil offences;
crimes against people, property, society; basic and serious offences; simple and
complex criminal investigations; computer crime; organised crime; terrorism;
sensitive cases eg racial incidents, child abuse, domestic violence; major
incidents eg train and aeroplane hijacking
2 Know the aids and tools available to the criminal investigator
Technical aids: eg scanners, bugs, probes, cameras, electronic facial ID

composition programmes, Automatic Number Plate Recognition; operational
policing tools and systems eg National Intelligence Model (NIM), IMPACT
Programme; profiling techniques eg crime mapping, geographical profiling,
offender profiling, psychological and behavioural profiling
Surveillance techniques: eg CCTV, phone tapping, communications data
surveillance, interception of communication; traffic data surveillance; covert
operations eg directed surveillance, intrusive surveillance, surveillance logs;
levels of authorisation
Sources of information: eg Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO); models of
crime investigation; intelligence databases eg Police National Computer (PNC),
Home Office Large Major Enquiries System (HOLMES), National Automated
Fingerprint Identification System (NAFIS), National DNA database (NDNAD), Driver
and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA) database; criminal records; crime statistics;
reports eg crime, autopsy, toxicology; recorded 999 calls; written, tape and video
recorded interviews and statements; personal records eg telephone, financial;
community intelligence

Searching for evidence or persons: powers of police and levels of authorisation;

scene of crime examination and evidence recovery, equipment and protocols;
premises, vehicles and people; collection of forensic evidence and other exhibits;
suspect identification methods; PACE codes and rules of evidence and
investigation
3 Understand the legal framework for criminal investigation and the relationship
with the CJS
Law: the ‘adversarial’ system; definition of crime; elements of crime (actus reus
and mens rea); burden of proof; corpus delicti; types of evidence eg hearsay,
direct evidence, circumstantial evidence, collateral evidence; jurisdiction
Role of CJS agencies and individuals in criminal investigation: eg national and
local police forces, other law enforcement agencies; courts; tribunals; appeals;
penal system and prison service; Crown Prosecution Service (CPS); National
Probation Service; victim support; interaction with other agencies
Legislation: arrest, search and seizure procedures; reporting and recording of
crime; rules of evidence; disclosure of evidence; code of practice on data
retention; communications service provider obligations; warranty authorisation
and laws that govern police power eg Criminal Justice Act Section 9 witness
statements, Police and Criminal Evidence (PACE) Act 1984, Codes of Practice;
Prosecution of Offences Act; Criminal Procedures and Investigations Act (CPIA);
Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act; Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act
(RIPA); Criminal Procedure Rules; Human Rights Act; Data Protection Act;
Freedom of Information Act
4 Know the methods of crime prevention
Crime prevention: manual and electronic security; individual and community

methods; education and campaigns; Crime and Disorder Reduction Partnerships
(CDRPs); NACRO; neighbourhood watch; crimestoppers; environment and other
design features; situational and social crime prevention models; opportunity and
displacement theory; victim and witness support

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the roles, stages and processes M1 describe different types of crime D1 explain how criminal investigations differ
of criminal investigation investigations according to the type of crime being
investigated
P2 describe the types of aid and techniques M2 explain how different types of aids are D2 evaluate the use of different types of aid
used in criminal investigations used in criminal investigations to provide used in criminal investigations
intelligence information
P3 explain the role the CJS plays in criminal M3 explain how the different types of D3 assess the relationship between criminal
investigation legislation govern evidence collection investigation and the CJS
and the criminal investigative process
P4 describe methods available for crime M4 describe how different types of D4 analyse the positive and negative effects
prevention. situational and social crime prevention of crime prevention on crime and
techniques reduce crime. criminal investigations.

Delivery
The purpose of this unit is to develop the learners’ knowledge and understanding of
the procedures, techniques and tools used to investigate crime, and the roles and
responsibilities of the agencies and individuals involved in criminal investigation.
The material in this unit should be introduced through a programme of theory and
practical activities, tuition, guided learning and independent learner research. This
unit should be delivered wherever possible through a practical investigatory
approach, to enable learners to develop their skills and understanding of
fundamental concepts required for further development in the area of criminal
investigation practices.
Delivery strategies should reflect the nature of the investigative work involved in the
criminal investigation by setting applicable crime scenarios and case studies. This
unit is closely linked with Unit 40: Criminal Investigation Practice and should be
integrated wherever possible.
A range of teaching and learning methods may be used including:
• individual, pair and group research investigations, eg into different types of
criminal investigations and investigators
• group verbal presentations, eg reviewing aids and methods used in investigating
crime
• crime prevention case study seminars and workshops, eg reviewing current crime
prevention media campaigns, eg mini-cab rape, mobile phone crime
• class and group discussions, eg differences between situational and social crime
prevention models or ethics of surveillance techniques
• critical use of television, eg Crimewatch, The Bill, CSI, Law and Order, Silent
Witness; and crime film and documentary DVDs, eg The Bone Collector, Copycat,
Forensic Detectives
• examination and investigation of real and mock sources of information, eg witness
statements, 999 audio recordings, telephone and bank records, autopsy forms
• use of recorded radio news broadcasts for discussion and debate
• criminal investigation case studies, eg mock investigations of current crime news
• role play, eg carrying out surveillance techniques, searching a suspect
• industrial visits, eg the Old Bailey, local criminal court, local police station
• guest speakers, eg police officer from crime prevention unit of local police force.

Learning outcome 1 introduces the different types of criminal investigation, the

processes and procedures employed to investigate crime and the role and
responsibilities of the investigation team. Learners should have knowledge of the
different stages in a criminal investigation and the different types of investigation for
different types of crime. The different ACPO criminal investigation models should be
examined to focus learners’ attention on the similarities and differences of different
types of criminal investigations.
Learning outcome 2 identifies the range of aids and tools available to the criminal
investigator to provide information and facts in a criminal investigation. Utilisation of
these techniques allows investigators to determine whether a crime has been
committed and who is responsible. The learning outcome describes the technical and
scientific aids, surveillance techniques and other sources of information that
investigators often analyse and investigate to gather intelligence information.
Learners should understand the different roles of these techniques, and the different
types of information these techniques provide.
Learning outcome 3 explains the role of the CJS in crime investigation. It highlights
the acts and legislation controlling the criminal investigation, police powers, rules of
evidence, etc. It also describes the role of individuals and agencies of the CJS in the
criminal investigation process. Although formal lectures will form part of the delivery
of this unit, learners should carry out independent research to discover the different
departments and legislation.
Learning outcome 4 outlines the crime prevention methods used to reduce crime and
the theory behind these techniques. It discusses the different models of crime
prevention and the difference between individual and community measures. It
introduces a number of measures available, and related organisations. Learners
should have an understanding if the effects of prevention methods on crime and
society. Learners should investigate a range of crime prevention methods, and could
present their findings in the form of a presentation, leaflet or poster.
Assessment
A number of different strategies can be used to assess the evidence in this unit and
these should be integrated wherever possible. Assessment should be by both written
and practical means. Evidence may be in the form of assignments, production of
notes/reports on activities and in the compilation of documents. The following
activities are possible ways of generating evidence.
• An individual and/or small-group assignment where learners investigate a number
of sources of information in the context of a criminal case, from which they must
draw conclusions and interpret the evidence.
• An individual assignment where learners are provided with ACPO guidelines for
two different types of criminal investigations, from which they must answer short
and long answer questions.
• An individual and/or small-group assignment where learners produce an
information poster describing the theory, methods and effects of crime
prevention techniques.

This unit balances research and theory to apply the knowledge gained to a series of
linked learning activities. The research undertaken and the products of the activities
are the most likely sources of evidence for this unit.
Evidence is likely to be produced at results level, but opportunities exist for covering
more than one learning outcome in an assignment. Evidence of learning outcomes
may be in the form of research documentation, formal reports, verbal presentation,
observed discussions, appropriate role plays or a series of practical exercises. All
evidence produced must be carefully assessed and validated in order to ensure
compliance with the requirements of the stated learning outcomes.
For P1, learners must describe the main stages of the criminal investigation process
from crime scene to court. Learners must summarise the steps in a logical order.
They must be able to associate the roles and responsibilities of different types of
investigator with each stage of the process.
For P2, learners must describe a range of different types of aids used to investigate a
criminal case. Learners must investigate different techniques and examples of aids
and should distinguish relevant information from irrelevant information.
For P3, learners must describe the roles and responsibilities of the CJS agencies in
the criminal investigation. Learners must be familiar with a number of acts of
legislation that control the investigation and evidence, eg Police and Criminal
Evidence (PACE) Act, Criminal Procedures and Investigations Act (CPIA) and
Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (RIPA).
For P4, learners must describe a range of individual and community crime prevention
measures to reduce crime. Learners must show evidence of research into a number of
different crime prevention methods and organisations.
met.
For M1, learners must describe a range of criminal investigation processes with
greater explanation of the principles underlying the investigatory process. Learners
must have a greater understanding of the methods, requirements and aims of an
investigation. They must examine in more detail the role of the investigating team
and its responsibilities.
For M2, learners must fully describe the tools and techniques used in investigations,
and understand how they are used in a criminal investigation. Learners must also be
able to interpret information established from sources of information and other types
of aids.
For M3, learners must demonstrate a wider knowledge of the CJS agencies and the
roles they play in an investigation. Learners must also demonstrate, with examples,
an understanding of how legislation controls and limits the criminal investigation
process.
For M4, learners must apply theory to the different models of crime prevention.
Learners must be able to explain the difference between situational and social crime
prevention, and provide examples of both, describing how the techniques operate
and reduce crime.
met.

For D1, learners must recognise and differentiate between different types of criminal
investigation. For example, a basic mugging case and a complicated terrorism charge.
Learners must show knowledge of the different roles, resources and interactions
between different agencies that come with investigating different types of crime.
For D2, learners must assess the use of criminal investigation tools and techniques,
and evaluate their usefulness. Learners must review the advantages and
disadvantages of different techniques. They must discuss the appropriate use of
different aids in different types of investigation.
For D3, learners must critically assess the role of the CJS agencies in a criminal
investigation, and must draw conclusions on the effectiveness of the system,
justifying all their arguments. Learners must evaluate how the criminal investigation
is carried out by individuals within the CJS.
For D4, learners must evaluate the effectiveness of different crime prevention
techniques, quoting crime statistics as reference. They must analyse the strengths
and weaknesses of different measures. Learners are required to show knowledge of
the opportunity theory and the displacement theory.


Essential resources
Learners require library resources and access to the internet. Learners should be
encouraged to visit a police station and make personal enquiries about their work.
Visiting the courts will enable learners to witness how evidence discovered through
the criminal investigation is applied in a court case.
Textbooks
English J and English B — Police Training Manual (Contemporary Books, 2003)
ISBN 0077107314
& Sons Ltd, 2007) ISBN 0470016272
Pepper I — Crime Scene Investigation: Methods and Procedures (Open University
Press, 2004) ISBN 0335214908
Quinn F and Elliott C — Criminal Law (Longman, 2006) ISBN 1405835281

Sampson F et al — Blackstone’s Police Investigator’s Manual (Blackstone’s Police

Manuals) (Oxford University Press, 2005) ISBN 0199287597
The Home Office — Covert Surveillance: Code of Practice (The Stationery Office
Books, 2002) ISBN 0113412843
Journal
Websites
http://cbs1.gcal.ac.uk/law/jbc/papers/DLeary. The Art of Storytelling in Police
pdf Investigation
http://faculty.ncwc.edu/TOConnor/315/ Lecture notes for criminal
315lects.htm investigation
www.acpo.police.uk/asp/policies/Data/Hate% ACPO criminal investigation guide for
20Crime.pdf hate crime
www.acpo.police.uk/asp/policies/Data/volume_ ACPO Investigation of Volume Crime
crime_manual.doc Manual
www.angelfire.com/mi/cj243/index.html Criminal Investigation Online Course
www.cjsonline.gov.uk The British criminal justice system
www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section16/chapter_f.h The Crown Prosecution Service
tml Admitting Evidence Under Sections 9
And 10 Criminal Justice Act 1967
www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section20/chapter_d. Covert surveillance information
html#_Toc50351028
www.crimescene.com Crime scenes
www.homeoffice.gov.uk/security/surveillance/ The Home Office types of
types-of-surveillance surveillance
www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/toc.htm UK Law Online
www.met.police.uk/crimeprevention The Metropolitan Police crime
prevention information
www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1996/1996025.htm Criminal Procedure and Investigations
Act 1996
www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2005/20050384.htm The Criminal Procedure Rules 2005
www.police.homeoffice.gov.uk/operational- PACE codes and police powers
policing/powers-pace-codes
www.security.homeoffice.gov.uk/surveillance The Regulation of Investigatory
Powers Act (RIPA)

Key skills


• planning an investigation on N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
the different types of crime information from relevant sources.
prevention methods
• analysing the statistics of N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
crime reduction stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• evaluating crime prevention N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
methods in the reduction of present your findings and justify your
crime. methods.


• discussing the different C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
sources of information
available to the criminal
investigator
• presenting information about C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
different technical aids eight minutes using an image or other
support material.
• researching surveillance C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
techniques least two documents about the same
subject.
1000 words long.
• writing a report on the role C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
of the CJS and legislation in each one giving different information
criminal investigations. about complex subjects.
words long.

• researching the roles of ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
different members of an sources, and multiple search criteria in at
investigating team least one case.
• determining which stage in ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
the criminal investigation derive new information.
process each member
contributes to
• creating a poster detailing ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
the roles and responsibilities text with image, text with number,
of the investigating team at image with number.
each step of the process.


• preparing time plans to meet LP3.1 Set targets using information from
assignment work submission appropriate people and plan how these
deadlines will be met.
• researching information in LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
preparation for assignment using your plan to help meet targets and
work improve your performance.
• assessing feedback from LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
assignment work. your achievements.

UNIT 40: CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION PRACTICE
Unit 40: Criminal Investigation Practice

Unit abstract
We don’t live in a crime-free society. We rely on law enforcement agencies and the
criminal justice system (CJS) to help maintain law and order. Criminal investigations
are essential to identify and locate crime offenders and bring them to justice.
A criminal investigation is defined as ‘an investigation conducted by police officers
with a view to it being ascertained whether a person should be charged with an
offence, or whether a person charged with an offence is guilty of it’. The principles
and processes underlying any type of criminal investigation are the same. It is the
practical application to the specific criminal case that determines which procedures
are necessary.
This unit will build on the methodologies introduced in Unit 39: Criminal
Investigation Procedures with additional theories and practices, giving learners the
opportunity to apply these methods in practical scenarios.
Scientific principles underlie the discovery, recovery and processing of evidence
found at a crime scene, and learners will discover the importance of effective
presentation of that evidence at a trial. Learners will study these scientific principles
and apply them in a practical scenario. Some of the information required by
investigators can only be obtained by interviewing victims and witnesses to crime.
Learners will study and apply the interviewing techniques required to elicit this
information.
The presentation of this evidence in a court of law is the culmination of the criminal
investigation, and learners will discover how best to present the evidence to achieve
the desired result.
Learning outcomes
1 Understand the scientific principles underlying a criminal investigation
2 Understand the theoretical and practical techniques of criminal investigation
procedures and their application in a practical setting
3 Be able to use fundamental interviewing techniques to obtain intelligence
information
4 Understand the role of the investigator and demonstrate effective investigative
skills.

Unit content
1 Understand the scientific principles underlying a criminal investigation
Crime scene examination: types and variations of scene eg buildings, vehicles,

outdoors; identification of difficulties eg weather, temperature; first officer
attending scene; health and safety precautions; personal protective equipment
(PPE); types of forensic evidence and equipment; preservation of the scene and
evidence, preventing contamination; crime scene search techniques and methods
of exhibit collection; documentation of the scene and evidence eg photography,
note taking, sketching; modus operandi; evidence packaging, transport and
storage
Laboratory examination: processing of biological and chemical forensic evidence
eg fingerprinting, body fluids, DNA, fibres, drug analysis and environmental
profiling; investigation of physical evidence eg document and handwriting
analysis, footprint casting and tool impressions, closed circuit television (CCTV)
images, audio recordings; imaging and digital imaging techniques
2 Understand the theoretical and practical techniques of criminal investigation

procedures and their application in a practical setting
Collection and preservation: initial response; crime scene examination and

evidence recovery; eg contemporaneous notes; documentation records;
photographing scene and evidence; anti-contamination techniques; packaging,
transportation and storage; security of evidence; continual chain of evidence;
obtaining warrants, searching people and premises; PACE orders; questioning of
victims of crime, eyewitness, other witnesses, suspects and offenders
Analysis: investigating lines of enquiry; utilising appropriate resources; primary
and secondary research; sources of information eg witness statements, database
records, CCTV analysis, surveillance, informants, interviews, crime statistics;
forensic analysis of evidence eg DNA profiling, footprint casting, fingerprint
powdering; reviewing results, identifying patterns and drawing conclusions;
investigative reasoning; evaluation and interpretation of evidence in context of
the specific criminal case
Presentation: methodical; accurate; detailed; objective records; report writing,
reporting to the police, reporting to the media; court case preparation and verbal
presentation of evidence; expert witness role in court, giving evidence

3 Be able to use fundamental interviewing techniques to obtain intelligence

information
Interviewees: victim and suspect/offender statements; eyewitness testimony;

vulnerable witnesses eg elderly, young, disabled, foreign; professional experts
Interviewer: dealing with the public; preparation; location; interview conduct;
tape recording, video recording; corroborative, circumstantial, hearsay evidence
Interview techniques: types of interview and interrogation techniques;
eg interview models; non-verbal observation and communication skills; criminal
investigation interview, cognitive interview, use of open and closed questions;
inappropriate use of force; multiple choice questions; leading or misleading
questions; models of memory; false confessions; detecting deception
4 Understand the role of the investigator and demonstrate effective

investigative skills
Development of investigative skills: objectivity; unbiased; professional and

personal responsibility; self-monitoring; moral and ethical behaviour;
respectfulness
Communication: non-verbal communication; cultural/social differences; verbal
and effective listening; effective relationships; contemporaneous note taking;
written and verbal presentation skills; giving evidence in court
Investigating assessing the total situation: accurate and ethical recording of
crime; potential sources of material; collation and analysis of information;
developing and testing hypotheses; assessing evidential value; identifying links
and patterns; report writing, drawing conclusions, interpreting evidence
Practical effectiveness: responsibility; professionalism; written reports/paper and
assessment; planning; dealing with conflict and ambiguity; social and relationship
skills; ethical use of investigative powers

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the scientific principles and M1 analyse the scientific evidence and D1 evaluate the application of the scientific
demonstrate the techniques used in the interpret the results, applying scientific techniques to a criminal investigation
recovery of evidence at a crime scene principles to the recovery and analysis of and the importance of the various types
and laboratory analysis of evidence in a evidence of evidence which could be collected
criminal investigation from scenes of crime
P2 collect, analyse and present evidence as M2 explain the methodology employed in D2 discuss the limitations of the collection
if in the context of a specific criminal the collection, analysis and presentation and analysis of evidence and the
investigation of evidence evidential value of the evidence in a
specific criminal investigation
P3 apply the techniques of criminal M3 describe the techniques used for criminal D3 evaluate the criminal investigative
investigative interviewing to gather investigative interviewing, providing interviewing techniques and accuracy of
information from a witness to a crime examples of appropriate and information provided by a witness to a
inappropriate lines of questioning crime
P4 demonstrate investigative and M4 describe the role of the investigator and D4 explain how effective investigative and
communication skills in the context of a the skills needed to carry out an communication skills aid a criminal
criminal investigation. effective investigation. investigation.

Delivery
The purpose of this unit is to develop learners’ knowledge and understanding of the
practical application of the procedures, techniques and tools used to investigate
crime. It develops learners’ knowledge and skills from Unit 39: Criminal Investigation
Procedures and the material should be cross-referenced wherever possible.
The material in this unit should be introduced through a programme of theory and
practical activities, tuition, guided learning and independent learner research. This
unit should be delivered wherever possible through a practical investigatory
approach, to allow learners to develop their skills and understanding of fundamental
concepts required in the area of criminal investigation procedures and practices.
Delivery strategies should reflect the nature of the investigative work involved in the
criminal investigation by setting applicable crime scenarios and case studies.
The unit will allow the learners to take part in practical activities such as
fingerprinting, collection of exhibits, and the examination of evidence in situ and in
the laboratory. Interviewing suspects and witnesses is also an essential part of a
criminal investigation, and learners will have the opportunity to demonstrate their
interviewing abilities.
The necessary skills, both personal and team-based, can be learned and practiced to
a level that can be applied to a wide variety of circumstances. Assessment could be
by both written and practical means.
• individual, pair and group practical research investigations, eg into different
types of forensic evidence or examining the crime scene
• group verbal presentations, eg presenting findings from a crime scene
examination
• seminars and workshops, eg investigation and communication skills
• mock court sessions where learners play the role of prosecution, defence,
defendant and witness
• class and group discussions, eg considering the types of skills and qualities a
criminal investigator should possess
• criminal investigation case studies, eg mock investigations of current crime news
• role play, eg interviewing witnesses and victims, giving evidence in court
• industrial visits, eg the Old Bailey, local criminal court, local police station
• guest speakers, eg police officer from crime prevention unit of local police force.

Learning outcome 1 builds on the learners’ knowledge of the scientific aids used to
collect and analyse evidence in a criminal investigation. The processing of a crime
scene and forensic evidence is examined in further detail. Learners should gain a
deeper understanding of the issues involved, including contamination and chain of
continuity issues. Learners should gain practical experience of the techniques and
processes, as well as skills in interpreting forensic evidence. Learners should improve
the crime scene and forensic practical skills introduced in Unit 32: Forensic Evidence
Collection and Analysis.
Learning outcome 2 draws on a number of other learning outcomes in this unit and
from Unit 39: Criminal Investigation Procedures. It requires learners to carry out a
practical criminal investigation, utilising appropriate skills and aids. Learners must
consider the evidence, draw conclusions based on the evidence and present this
evidence to the police in the form of a written statement. The learners should also
be given the opportunity to present their evidence to a mock court where they will
take the role of the expert witness investigating the case. This learning outcome may
be taught in conjunction with learning outcome 1 and the grading criteria assessed
together. Alternatively, a non-scientific practical case scenario can be utilised
involving a paper and internet-based investigation.
Learning outcome 3 develops learners’ knowledge of the criminal investigation
interview discussed in Unit 39: Criminal Investigation Procedures. It introduces the
learner to the different models of criminal investigatory interview and the theory
behind the methods used. Learners could watch a number of different types of
interview being carried out, eg from video, and should gain practical experience of
both conducting interviews and being interviewed via role play. Learners themselves
could be recorded, using either audio or visual methods. This will allow them to
review their technique.
Learning outcome 4 reviews the skills that the crime investigator must possess in
order to carry out effective investigations. It highlights and summarises a number of
important investigation, communication and personal skills that have been described
in other learning outcomes in this unit and Unit 39: Criminal Investigation
Procedures. This learning outcome links closely to learning outcomes 1, 2 and 3 and
the grading criteria may be assessed together.
Assessment
A number of different assessment strategies can be used to measure the achievement

of evidence in this unit and these should be integrated wherever possible.
Assessment should be by both written and practical means. Evidence may be in the
form of assignments, production of notes or reports on activities, and the compilation
of documents. The following activities are possible ways of generating evidence.
• Small-group assignments where learners investigate a mock criminal case,
research a variety of sources of information, and use a number of different aids
and techniques in the collection and analysis of information and evidence.
• Setting out a scene of crime, eg an aggravated burglary scene, allowing for the
collection of a variety of evidence types.

• A role play that puts into practice the techniques of interviewing, where the
learners can record themselves on tape or video and assess the interview and
performance.
This unit balances research and theory to allow knowledge gained to be applied to a
series of linked learning activities. The research undertaken and the products of the
activities are the most likely sources of evidence for this unit.
Evidence is likely to be produced at results level, but opportunities exist for covering
more than one learning outcome in an assignment. Evidence of learning outcomes
may be in the form of research documentation, formal reports, verbal presentation,
observed discussions, appropriate role plays or a series of practical exercises. All
evidence produced must be carefully assessed and validated in order to ensure
compliance with the requirements of the stated learning outcomes.
For P1, learners must carry out a basic examination of a mock crime scene and
simple laboratory analysis. Learners must effectively recover evidence at the scene
using the appropriate collection methods and packaging. The evidence should then
be efficiently processed in the laboratory using the correct techniques and
equipment.
For P2, learners must carry out a mock criminal investigation utilising a number of
types of aid and maintaining a casefile. Learners must prepare their evidence to the
‘police’ in the form of a written report and a verbal presentation.
For P3, learners must carry out an investigative interview of an eyewitness to a mock
crime. Learners must determine the line of questioning prior to the interview, and
make notes during the interview. Afterwards, learners are required to write a report
of the interview and their findings, and compare the information they have gathered
to the original television mock crime.
For P4, learners must use basic investigative and communication skills in the context
of a specific criminal case.
met.
For M1, learners must understand how scientific aids enable the investigator to
suitably recover and analyse evidence. Learners must analyse the scientific evidence
and results of the analysis, drawing creative and accurate conclusions in the context
of the case. Based on the results of the practical investigation learners must
determine the effective and accurate identification of a ‘suspect’.
For M2, learners must describe fully, both in the written report and while giving
evidence in ‘court’, the techniques of collection, analysis and presentation that were
used in the mock criminal investigation.
For M3, learners must describe, in the written report, the criminal investigative
interviewing techniques that they should have used to interview the witness.
Learners must also provide examples of types of questions that should not be used in
this type of interview situation.
For M4, learners must have a clear understanding of the investigator’s responsibilities
and role.

met.
For D1, learners must establish the suitability of the scientific techniques and aids
used in a criminal investigation. Learners must appreciate the relevance and value of
different types of evidence, and assess the value of forensic science to the criminal
investigation.
For D2, learners must consider the problems and constraints encountered while
collecting and analysing evidence and information in a criminal investigation.
Learners must also assess the evidence in the mock criminal investigation,
determining the strengths and weaknesses of the case.
For D3, learners must review the criminal investigative interviewing techniques and
the advantages of these methods over others. Learners must describe psychological
theory of the ‘model of memory’ to justify the use of the cognitive interview.
For D4, learners must evaluate the necessity for a criminal investigator to possess
very good investigative and communication skills, and how a criminal investigation
can rely on these skills and the ability and competence of the investigator.


Essential resources
Learners must have access to library resources and the internet. Learners should be
encouraged to practice their photography skills prior to attempting the scenes of
crime exercise. Visiting law courts will allow the learner to witness how evidence
discovered through the criminal investigation is presented in a court case.

Textbooks
Dean J R et al — Practical Skills in Forensic Science (Practical Skills Series) (Prentice
Hall, 2005) ISBN 0131144006
Fleisher W L and Gordon N — Effective Interviewing and Interrogation Techniques
(Academic Press Inc US, 2006) ISBN 0123694906
Jackson A R W and Jackson J — Forensic Science (Prentice Hall, 2004)
ISBN 0130432512
& Sons Ltd, 2007) ISBN 0470016272
White P C — Crime Scene to Court: The Essentials of Forensic Science (The Royal
Journals
Forensic Science International
Journal of Forensic Science
Websites
http://psycprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/archive/ Interviewing Witnesses: What Works
00000498 and What Doesn’t?
http://psycprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/archive/ Enhancing the Practicality of the
00000508 Cognitive Interview in Forensic
Situations
www.a-levelpsychology.co.uk/online/ A-level psychology online Chapter 3:
as/chapter03 Cognitive Psychology: Human
Memory
www.crimeandclues.com/testimony.htm The Art and Science of Criminal
Investigation: Testimonial Evidence
www.crime-scene-investigator.net Crime Scene Investigator
www.tncrimlaw.com/forensic/fsbindx.htm Forensic Science Resources in a
Criminal Fact Investigation Index

Key skills


• planning a crime scene N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
examination information from relevant sources.
• determining the population N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
statistics for fingerprint, stage calculations to do with:
blood types or DNA profiles a amounts or sizes
d using formulae.
• establishing whether there is N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
sufficient evidence to present your findings and justify your
prosecute a suspect. methods.

• discussing the types of skills C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
and qualities a criminal
investigator should possess
• presenting the evidence C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
findings in a mock criminal eight minutes using an image or other
• researching different types C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
of interview technique least two documents about the same
subject.
1000 words long.
• writing an essay on the C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
underlying theory of the each one giving different information
interview models and their about complex subjects.
applications. One document must be at least 1000
words long.


• researching material for a ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
mock criminal investigation sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• presenting the evidence ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
findings in a mock court. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

• preparing time plans to meet LP3.1 Set targets using information from
submission deadlines for appropriate people and plan how these
assignments will be met.
• researching information in LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
preparation for assignment using your plan to help meet targets and
work improve your performance.
• assessing feedback from LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
assignments. your achievements.

UNIT 41: FORENSIC MEDIA AND CRIME
Unit 41: Forensic Media and Crime

Unit abstract
Most of the public’s knowledge about crime and criminal issues in society comes from
the media. News journalists research, gather information and present the finished
stories to us in the form of newspaper articles, radio broadcasts, documentary films,
etc.
Research has shown that the way the media portrays crime and criminals affects
society’s perception of them. We must take into account the possibility that the
information presented to us by the media is sometimes biased, and there are a
number of reasons why a news report might be inaccurate.
In the criminal context, impartial news reporting can have severe consequences. For
example, a dangerous criminal can be given the chance to re-offend if a news report
leads to a criminal case collapsing, or to a wrongful conviction if the police are
diverted from finding the truth because of biased material. By examining the
research methods used by journalists to make their stories newsworthy, we can
achieve some insight into how this may happen.
This unit introduces learners to some of the techniques used by the media, which
influence the public’s opinion on issues relating to crimes. Learners will begin to
understand how crime is reported by the media and the effects on society and law.
Learners will also be introduced to the facts, figures, fiction and stereotyping used
by the wider media. They will learn the fundamental theory and practical scientific
methods used to research crime-related issues.
Learning outcomes
1 Know the relationship that exists between crime, media, society and politics
2 Be able to apply research methods to investigate the effects of the media on
aggression and criminality
3 Know the legal and social constraints on the media
4 Understand that media bias can exist and can influence society’s attitude to
crime.

Unit content
1 Know the relationship that exists between crime, media, society and politics
Media in the UK and their users: newspapers (different types, social groupings,
political bias); radio; internet; television; film; eg HMSO publications;
professional journals; leaflets; posters; advertisements; public speeches;
meetings
The printed word: history; hypodermic syringe model; two process model; moral
panic; hidden agendas in the media; tabloids and court sentencing; exploiting
public outrage
Film: eg controversial moments in film history, analysing messages in films,
physiological and psychological effects of cinema, ultra-violence or imagined
violence, catharsis
Television: news reporting of crime; documentaries eg Panorama, Crimewatch,
Crimestoppers; television crime series eg The Bill, Law and Order; crime films
eg The Godfather, Charlie’s Angels
Society: eg concept of multi-cultural society eg minority groups, sexual
orientation; homeless; refugees
Politics: eg main and minor parties and their influence on certain media and
crime issues, large organisation with voluntary or statutory pressures,
international pressures
2 Be able to apply research methods to investigate the effects of the media on

aggression and criminality
Research planning: types of practice/procedures; primary and secondary research

Research methods: eg questionnaire, face-to-face interview, studies of official
statistics, participant and non-participant observation
Evaluation and analysis: quantitative and qualitative data; data/information from
questionnaires; interviews; crime statistics

3 Know the legal and social constraints on the media
Ethical issues: role of the journalist and the media; code of ethics; value of news
reporting
Legal constraints: eg court orders, criminal and civil law, High Courts; slander
and defamation; legal procedure; pleading and compensation
Government and other watchdogs: Press Complaints Commission; disability
commission; Commission for Racial Equality (CRE); Equal Opportunities
Commission (EOC)
Social issues: patriotism; threats; crime
4 Understand that media bias can exist and can influence society’s attitude to
crime
Media representation of crime: press representations of crime and criminality;

representation of crime in and across a range of media; reporting of different
types and causes of crime; society’s perception and fear of crime
Media bias: eg prejudice and stereotypes, media bias towards and against certain
types of crime, people of different social, ethnic, gender and sexual orientation
Types of media bias: ideology (media’s private desire to affect public opinion in a
particular direction); ‘spin’ (media’s attempt to create a memorable story); trial
by media

Grading grid
Grading criteria
P1 describe the relationship between the M1 explain the relationship between media D1 evaluate the relationship between media
media and crime and crime and crime
P2 describe research methods used by the M2 explain how the media uses research D2 evaluate the use of research methods
media methods to investigate crime used by the media to investigate crime
P3 describe the legal and social constraints M3 describe and explain three situations D3 evaluate the need for legal and social
on the media where the media have been in breach of constraints on the media
social and/or legal constraints and the
consequences of these breaches
P4 describe ways in which media M4 explain, using three examples, the ways D4 explain why the media are so influential
presentation of crime may influence in which the media demonstrates a bias. with respect to how they report and
society’s attitude towards crime. portray crime.

Delivery
The purpose of this unit is to develop learners’ knowledge and understanding of the
media and their portrayal of crime. The material contained in this unit should be
introduced through a programme of tuition, guided learning and independent learner
research.
While the sociological theory, legal and political issues can be taught by didactic
means, the remainder of the unit should be based on self-directed research, where
the tutor is a facilitator for delivery of a topic.
The learner should be encouraged to use the concept of ‘experiential learning cycle’
and action-planning, which should be periodically reviewed by the learner from the
feedback from peers and tutors.
Delivery strategies should reflect the criminological and wider legal and sociological
issues of the media. Appropriate case studies and past and current UK and US media
examples should be used whenever possible.
• individual, pair and group internet and/or newspaper research investigations
• use of ICT to produce reports and analyse results
• use of websites to research news articles and crime stories
• use of Level 3 psychology textbooks to investigate research methods
• group verbal presentations, eg reviewing research methods used in investigating
crime
• crime case study seminars and workshops, eg reviewing different newspaper and
television coverage of current crime issues
• class and group discussions, eg debating the effect of the media on society
• media case study role play, eg journalist arguing against a member of the Press
Complaints Commission
• producing posters and information leaflets, eg on types of media bias
• industrial visits, eg local radio station
• guest speakers, eg journalist from local newspaper.

Learning outcome 1 introduces the different types and the history of media and
identifies the sociological and political issues and their relationship with the media.
Learners should understand the difference between types of media, and how crime is
reported. Current media topics may be used to demonstrate, for example, how the
same story may be reported differently by different newspapers and television news
broadcasts. News on the radio and television can be recorded and used as lesson
material. Learners should also have knowledge of the effect media have on society
and law, and the influence these have on the media. Linked closely with learning
outcome 4, learners should recognise possible bias within the media and the power
the media have on the law and society’s perception of crime. Formal lectures should
form part of the delivery of this unit, and learners should carry out independent
research to discover different types of media and the effects the media have on
politics and society. Discussion groups can be used to debate the issues and learners
may formally present their investigations in the form of posters, presentations,
essays, etc.
Learning outcome 2 describes the research methods used to investigate crime and
calculate the effect of media on crime. Learners should have an understanding of
research methods and design, the experimental process, and the analysis and
interpretation of crime results. The links between media and aggression and media
and crime should be established. Psychological experiments may be reviewed, for
example, Albert Bandura’s social learning theory and the ‘Bobo doll’ experiment.
Learners should have knowledge of the effects media have on aggression and
criminality. Learners should be guided to Home Office reports and statistics, as well
as news reports on crime in society.
Learning outcome 3 explains the social and legal constraints on the media, and why
these limitations are necessary. Learners should have knowledge of the legislation
concerning protecting the public, and the responsibilities of the media to protect
society. Learners should understand the consequences the media and society face
when the boundaries are crossed and what ethical issues are involved. This learning
outcome lends itself well to learner debate and role play, and many current issues in
the news may be used as examples to ensure learners fully understand each side of
the arguments.
Learner outcome 4 is closely linked, and may be delivered in conjunction with,
learning outcome 1. It describes the media representation of crime, how different
types of crime are reported and whether they are reported fairly. It describes the
prejudice of the media and their bias in reporting different types of crimes
committed by different sections of society. How crime is reported differently by the
media should be investigated, and how the media may be prejudiced and biased
against certain types of crime, and people of different social, ethnic, gender and
sexual orientation backgrounds. Current media topics and specific criminal case
studies may be used to demonstrate and examine, for example, how the same story
may be portrayed differently by different newspapers and television news
broadcasts. This learning outcome should also reflect on society’s perception of
crime and how the media can cause fear of crime in society.

Assessment
Learners must show an understanding of how crime is presented by the media, and
the influence that reporting can have on attitudes to crime, both individual and
collective. They must show an appreciation of the structure of the media in Britain,
and of the influence that it has on attitudes to crime. They must analyse given
sources and distinguish between what is fact and what is opinion, and formulate
conclusions on the influence of each on attitudes to crime.
For P1, learners must identify different types of media and demonstrate how the
media choose to report crime to their audience. They must identify the way that the
media portray crime and how this appears to affect the attitudes and behaviour of
their audience. Learners should give evidence from research that supports this view,
such as research into a fictional serialised television programme in which crime is
featured (eg CSI, Silent Witness), any movie in which crime is featured (eg Tomorrow
Never Dies, Die Hard, Lethal Weapon), any relevant factual television
documentary/news programme/channel (eg Crimewatch UK, BBC News 24, Sky News,
Discovery Channel, Horizon), and any national or local newspaper (eg The Times,
Metro, The Sun).
For P2, learners must identify the social survey methods the media use to research
and investigate crime. Learners must identify examples of research method and the
type of journalist that might use the technique, such as questionnaires, interviews,
studies of official statistics, etc. Learners should also identify what the media do
during primary and secondary research and the difference between them. Learners
should have knowledge of the difference between quantitative and qualitative data.
The British Crime Survey should be discussed.
For P3, learners must identify and outline both the legal and social constraints on the
media with reference to at least one news item within the last year. Learners must
be able to identify the application of the Data Protection Act 1998, the Human Rights
Act 1998 or the Race Relations Amendment Act 2003 and should demonstrate how the
law protects members of the public from the actions of the media. Learners should
also identify the responsibilities of the journalist, personal reasons a news reporter
might have for behaving unethically and the possible consequences there might be
for news reporters, media companies or the people the media write about, if their
behaviour is not ethical. Learners should understand why some journalists may
sometimes break the law in order to publish a news story. Learners should research a
recent news item for which they can demonstrate the legal and social constraints on
the media and draw examples from the item to illustrate their account. For example,
learners may refer to the news stories regarding the treatment of individuals by the
media since release from prison, and draw examples from them to illustrate their
account. The legal and social constraints discussed must be relevant to UK law.
For P4, learners must identify the different types of bias in the media when reporting
crime and how the reporting influences society’s attitude towards crime. They must
identify prejudice against certain types of crime, and people of different social,
ethnic, gender and sexual orientation backgrounds.
met.

Learners must show an understanding of the theoretical principles underlying the

portrayal of crime in the media. They must draw from conflicting sources and
formulate and justify views on the influence of these sources on various sections of
the public. They must evaluate information presented in the media and distinguish
clearly between information and opinion, ideology and ‘spin’, showing how sections
of the media seek to influence public opinion through the way they present examples
of crime and criminal behaviour.
For M1, learners must describe different types of media and explain how the media
choose to report crime to their audience. Learners must discuss the way which media
portray crime, whether such representations are a true or distorted reflection of
social reality, and how the portrayal of crime by the media appears to affect the
attitudes and behaviour of their audience. Learners should describe the hypodermic
syringe model and the 2-step flow-process model.
For M2, learners must explain how research methods are used by and can be useful to
journalists when investigating crime. They must investigate how data from different
sources are analysed and utilised by the media. Learners must understand how the
research methods allow news reporters to carry out the responsibilities of their role.
Examples of media research into a specific crime should be investigated and
analysed.
For M3, learners must carry out more in-depth research and expand their discussions
to provide a fuller account of the scope of legal and social constraints they have
identified as relevant to their chosen scenario. The legal constraints that learners
should discuss include civil and criminal legislation and penalties, Government
watchdogs and the risk of retribution by the victim. The social constraints that
learners should discuss include risks associated with adverse publicity, eg potential
loss of popularity and/or earnings. The principles of the journalists’ code of practice
should be identified, ie those relating to relevant legal constraints as well as those
that appeal to matters of ‘common decency’. Learners should have knowledge of how
the code helps journalists to prevent the law from being broken. Learners should
fully understand the limitations and consequences to the public, media and legal
policies when media are in breach of these constraints. Learners should be aware of
the role of the Press Complaints Commission and the reasons given by the
government for setting up this watchdog should be explained. Learners should
investigate two additional media case studies for reference.
For M4, learners must describe and explain different biases the media have portrayed
when reporting crime. Three different news items must be used as examples to
highlight different biased perspectives and the effects of impartial reporting in these
specific cases must be demonstrated. Learners should describe with examples the
difference between ideology and ‘spin’.
met.
Learners must show both independence and objectivity in analysis and evaluation of
the presentation of crime and criminal behaviour in the media. They must carry out
detailed evaluation of issues of crime, identifying how the same issue is portrayed in
various ways and formulating and justifying views on the reasons for the differences
identified. These views should include the existence and origin of any bias found.

For D1, learners must describe the extent to which the media’s portrayal of crime
affects the attitudes or actions of their audience. Ideally, learners should also
analyse whether it is possible to demonstrate that media messages have a significant
effect on the audience. Learners should have a critical understanding of the media’s
role in shaping society, social norms and politics. Statistics and specific examples
must be used to clearly demonstrate the relationship between media, crime, society
and the law.
For D2, learners must analyse the advantages and disadvantages of the research
methods used by the media to investigate crime, and the ethics of socially sensitive
research. Learners should understand the effectiveness of different types of research
and should clearly describe where inaccuracies and bias in reporting can occur, eg in
the way the data are collected, analysed or portrayed to the public. Learners should
indicate the benefits of using certain methods over others, and the advantage to
journalists of using specific research methods.
For D3, learners must research more broadly and present a detailed discussion to
explain why it is necessary to have legal and social constraints on the media. This
could include information about retribution taken by victims against unethical media
practices, and the consequences of those retributions to the victim, the media, the
law and society. Learners must discuss how effective the media code of practice is in
restraining and limiting the behaviour of the media. Learners should explain how
effectively Government watchdogs constrain and model the media code of practice.
For D4, learners must explain why the media is so powerful with respect to how it
reports and portrays crime. The positive and negative effect of bias on society must
be discussed, and how and why society’s perception of crime is affected by the
media. Learners must discuss how the fear of crime affects society. Learners must
also explain the role ideology and ‘spin’ plays in society.


• Unit 34: Criminal Psychology
• Unit 35: Forensic Psychology
Essential resources
Learners need access to ICT equipment (multi-media computers), all daily

newspapers, professional journals, political leaflet advertisements, television, cable
and satellite television networks, VHF, AM and short wave band radio. Learners
should also have access to a learning resources centre with books on law, forensic
science and crime.

Textbooks
Anderson P J and Weymouth A — Insulting the Public?: British Press and the European
Union (Longman, 1999) ISBN 0582317401
Best J — Damned Lies and Statistics: Untangling Numbers from the Media, Politicians
and Activists (University of California Press, 2001) ISBN 0520219783
Chambliss W J — Power, Politic and Crime (Crime and Society Series) (Westview Press
Inc. US, 2000) ISBN 081333487X
Flanagan C and Russell J — Research Methods for Edexcel Psychology (Nelson Thornes
Ltd, 2005) ISBN 0748794336
Hachen D — Sociology in Action: Cases for Critical and Sociological Thinking (Sage
Publications Inc, 2001) ISBN 0761986634
Holtzman L — Media Messages: What Film, Television and Popular Music Teach Us
About Race, Class, Gender and Social Orientation (M E Sharpe, 2000)
ISBN 0765603373
Jacobs R N — Race, Media and the Crisis of Civil Society: From Watts to Rodney King
(Cambridge University Press, 2000) ISBN 0521625785
Reeves B and Nass C — The Media Equation: How People Treat Computing, Television
and New Media Like Real People and Places (University of Chicago Press, 1998)
ISBN 1575860538
Swann P — TV Dot Com: The Future of Interactive Television (TV Books, 2000)
ISBN 1575001772
Other publications
All England Report on Crime — HMSO publication
Websites
www.anxietyculture.com/rantarchive.htm#crime Anxiety Culture web magazine
www.carf.demon.co.uk/feat29.html The Campaign against Racism
and Fascism (CARF)
www.courseworkhelp.co.uk/GCSE/Sociology/1.htm examines the statistical
relationship between ethnicity
and the likelihood of committing
a crime
www.cre.gov.uk/media/guidetj.html The Commission for Racial
Equality
www.dpa.lancs.ac.uk/summary.htm summary of the Data Protection
Act
www.eoc.or.uk The Equal Opportunities
Commission

www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/index.htm The Home Office ‘British Crime

Survey’
www.hse.gov.uk/enforce/enforcementguide/court explanation of laws relating to
/reporting/defamation.htm libel and slander
www.humanrights.gov.uk/guidlist.htm The Department for
Constitutional Affairs: justice
rights and democracy
www.irr.org.uk/2003/march/ak000003.html The Independent Race and
Refugee News Network
www.longroadmedia.com/yr13_primary_research description of primary research
.html#questionnaire methods used by the media
www.mediawise.org.uk/display_page.php?id=708 The Media-wise Trust: towards
better journalism
www.ofcom.org.uk/about/245532/foiindex/foi_ OFCOM: the official regulator of
act_pub_scheme/?a=87101 the media
www.pcc.org.uk/index2.html Press Complaints Commission
(PCC)
www.prospects.ac.uk/cms/ShowPage/Home_ the role of the journalist
page/Explore_types_of_jobs/Types_of_Job/
p!eipaL?state=showocc&idno=433
www.rethink.org/news+campaigns/Full%20Media Rethink Organisation
%20Survey.htm
www.statistics.gov.uk official national statistics
www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=267 example of crime statistics

Key skills


information from two information from relevant sources.
different sources about a
case study on crime statistics
• carrying out calculations on N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
statistics to find mean, stage calculations to do with:
mode, median, tolerance and
a amounts or sizes
errors
d using formulae.
results, presenting the present your findings and justify your
information on a poster and methods.
justifying the methods used.


about social and ethical
issues and the influence of
the media
aspects of discrimination and eight minutes using an image or other
the media support material.
extended documents on subject.
crime statistics and the
influence of the media
1000 words long.
documents about social and each one giving different information
ethical issues and the about complex subjects.
influence of the media.
words long.

• planning to search for and ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
select information required sources, and multiple search criteria in at
for two purposes, such as least one case.
types of media and their
influence on crime statistics
exchanging and deriving new derive new information.
information to meet the two
purposes
• presenting the above ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
information from different text with image, text with number,
sources for the two purposes. image with number.


targets for an investigation appropriate people and plan how these
of a case study and will be met.
consulting and gaining the
agreement of your tutor
encountered

• formulating the plan with PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
three options for a complex ways of tackling it.
investigation of a case study
approach to a case study
on the approach and option
to be adopted
continuously during a case review your approach to problem solving.
study investigation, on the
basis of the results and
conclusions produced.
Reviewing the approach to
the investigation.

Assessment and grading
The purpose of assessment is to ensure that effective learning has taken place.
Assignments constructed by centres should be reliable and fit for purpose, and should
build on the application of the grading criteria. Centres should use a variety of
assessment methods, including case studies, assignments and work-based
assessments, along with projects, performance observation and time-constrained
assessments. Centres are encouraged to emphasise the practical application of the
grading criteria, providing a realistic scenario for learners to adopt, and making
maximum use of practical activities and work experience. The creation of
assignments that are fit for purpose is vital to learners’ achievement and their
importance cannot be over-emphasised.
All of the criteria listed in the grading grid for each unit must be covered by one
assignment, or by a series of assignments. It is advisable that criteria are clearly
indicated on each assignment to provide a clear focus for learners and to assist with
internal verification and standardisation processes. This will also help to ensure that
feedback is specific to the criteria. Tasks and activities should enable learners to
produce evidence that relates directly to the specified criteria.
When reading the grading grids and designing assignments, centres should note that
for learners to achieve a merit/distinction grade they will be required to provide
evidence that is qualitative, not quantitative, in its nature. Centres are encouraged
to look across the units’ grading grids to identify common topics.
Learners must be encouraged to read and research for their assignments, but merely
incorporating material (eg from the web) is rarely sufficient to provide evidence of
having met a criterion: the criteria usually require the learner to demonstrate what
they can do.
When working in a laboratory situation, or equivalent, learners must work safely. All
practical assessments assume that the learner is working safely, otherwise the tutor
would have stopped that learner from continuing.
When learners present calculations for assessment it is assumed that, for a pass grade
(and consequently a merit and distinction), these calculations are correct, the
appropriate units of measurement have been quoted and that the figures are
presented with an appropriate degree of significance (eg two decimal places).
Grading domains
The grading criteria are developed in relation to grading domains which provide for
the assessment of the learning outcomes of the unit. There are four BTEC National
grading domains which underpin the grading criteria:
• application of knowledge and understanding
• development of practical and technical skills
• personal development for occupational roles
• application of generic and key skills.

The qualitative nature of the merit and distinction grading criteria is based on
indicative characteristics of the evidence to fulfil the higher grades. Please refer to
Annexe B.
A grading scale of pass, merit and distinction is applied to all units.
In Edexcel BTEC Nationals all units are internally assessed.
All assessment for BTEC Nationals is criterion referenced, based on the achievement
of specified learning outcomes. Each unit has specified criteria which are to be used
for grading. A summative unit grade can be awarded at pass, merit or distinction:
• to achieve a ‘pass’ a learner must have satisfied all the pass criteria
• to achieve a ‘merit’ a learner must additionally have satisfied all the merit
criteria
• to achieve a ‘distinction’ a learner must additionally have satisfied all the
distinction criteria.
Learners who complete the unit but who do not meet all the pass criteria are graded
‘unclassified’.
Quality assurance
Edexcel’s qualification specifications set out the standard to be achieved by each
learner in order to be awarded the qualification. This is covered in the statement of
learning outcomes and grading criteria in each unit. Further guidance on delivery and
assessment is given in the Essential guidance for tutors section in each unit. This
section is designed to provide additional guidance and amplification related to the
unit to support tutors, deliverers and assessors and to provide for a coherence of
understanding and a consistency of delivery and assessment.
Edexcel operates an independent, external quality assurance process which is
designed to ensure that these standards are maintained by all internal verifiers and
external verifiers. It achieves this through the following activities.
Approval
Centres that have not previously offered BTEC qualifications will first need to apply
for, and be granted, centre approval before they can apply for approval to offer the
programme.
Centres wishing to offer a vocational area for the first time will need to apply for
approval to offer the programme.
When a centre applies for approval to offer a BTEC qualification they will be required
to enter into an approvals agreement.
The approvals agreement is a formal commitment by the head or principal of a
centre to meet all the requirements of the specification and any linked codes or
regulations. Sanctions and tariffs may be applied if centres do not comply with the
agreement. Ultimately, this could result in the suspension of certification or
withdrawal of approval.

Centres will be allowed ‘accelerated approval’ for a new programme where the
centre already has approval for a programme that is being replaced by the new
programme.
Risk assessment
Edexcel has an approval process which creates a quality profile of each qualification
programme in each centre and for the centre as a whole. This profile helps to
determine how the programme will be externally verified and will also be used to
initiate other quality control measures by Edexcel.
Internal verification
Centres are required to have processes in place that review each assessor’s decisions.
This ensures that they are correctly interpreting and applying the standards set out in
the specifications. The system used to do this is a matter for individual centres and
Edexcel fully supports the use of the centre’s own quality assurance systems where
they ensure robust internal standardisation.
Centres should refer to the BTEC NQF Level 2/3 (including Short Courses at
Levels 1–3) Handbook (updated annually). This information can also be found on our
website www.edexcel.org.uk then click on ‘Services for Centres’ and then ‘FE
Colleges & Schools’.
External verification
Edexcel will sample assessors’ decisions using sector-specialist external verifiers. For
BTEC Nationals this process will follow the National Standards Sampling (NSS)
protocol.
Learners’ work must be internally assessed. Additionally, at least 50 per cent of
submitted work must be internally verified.
Centres should refer to the BTEC NQF Level 2/3 (including Short Courses at
Levels 1–3) Handbook (updated annually). This updated information can also be found
on our website, go to www.edexcel.org.uk then click on ‘Services for Centres’ and
then ‘FE Colleges & Schools’.

Calculation of the qualification grade
Awarding a qualification grade
The qualification grade will be calculated through the aggregation of points achieved
through the successful achievement of individual units. The number of points
available will be dependent on the unit grade achieved and the size of the unit as
determined by the stipulated guided learning hours.
For the calculation of a qualification grade for a BTEC National a learner must:
• complete all designated units
• achieve a minimum points score of
- 36 points for a National Award
- 72 points for a National Certificate
- 108 points for a National Diploma
• achieve a pass (or above) grade for units with a combined total of
- 300 guided learning hours for a National Award
- 600 guided learning hours for a National Certificate
- 900 guided learning hours for a National Diploma.

Unit points
Size of unit (GLH) Pass grade Merit grade Distinction grade

10 1 2 3
30 3 6 9
60 6 12 18
90 9 18 27
120 12 24 36
Grade boundaries and UCAS points (as of 1st January 2007)
Grade boundaries Overall grade UCAS points

BTEC National Award BTEC National Award
36–59 Pass P 40
60–83 Merit M 80
84–108 Distinction D 120

BTEC National Certificate BTEC National Certificate
72–95 PP 80
96–119 MP 120
120–143 MM 160
144–167 DM 200
168–216 DD 240

BTEC National Diploma BTEC National Diploma
108–131 PPP 120
132–155 MPP 160
156–179 MMP 200
180–203 MMM 240
204–227 DMM 280
228–251 DDM 320
252–324 DDD 360

Programme design and delivery
BTEC National qualifications consist of core units (which are mandatory) and
specialist units. Specialist units are designed to provide a specific focus to the
qualification. Required combinations of specialist units are set out clearly in relation
to each qualification in the defined qualification structures in this document.
In BTEC Nationals each unit is 30, 60, 90 or 120 guided learning hours (GLH). The GLH
includes an estimate of time that might be allocated to direct teaching, instruction
and assessment, together with other structured learning time such as directed
assignments or supported individual study. It excludes learner-initiated private study.
Centres are advised to consider this definition when planning the programme of study
associated with this specification.
Mode of delivery
Edexcel does not define the mode of study for BTEC Nationals. Centres are free to
offer the qualifications using any mode of delivery that meets their learner’s needs.
This may be through traditional classroom teaching, open learning, distance learning
or a combination of the three. Whichever mode of delivery used, centres must ensure
that learners have appropriate access to the resources identified in the specification
and to the subject specialists delivering the units. This is particularly important for
learners studying for the qualification through open or distance learning. Tutors need
to be aware of the integration of some subject matter with other units within the
qualification: this is highlighted in the ‘links’ section of each unit.
Learners studying for the qualification on a part-time basis bring with them a wealth
of experience that should be utilised to maximum effect by tutors and assessors.
Assessment evidence drawn from learners’ work environments should be encouraged.
Where specific acts and regulations are referred to in the units, it is the latest
versions of these that should always be considered. Those planning the programme
should aim to enhance the vocational nature of the qualification by:
• liaising with employers to ensure a course relevant to learners’ specific needs
• accessing and using non-confidential data and documents from learners’
workplaces
• including sponsoring employers in the delivery of the programme and, where
appropriate, in the assessment
• linking with company-based/workplace training programmes
• making full use of the variety of experience of work and life that learners bring to
the programme.

Resources
BTEC Nationals are designed to prepare learners for employment in specific

occupational sectors. Physical resources need to support the delivery of the
programme and the proper assessment of the learning outcomes, and should
therefore normally be of industry standard. Staff delivering programmes and
conducting the assessments should be fully familiar with current practice and
standards in the sector concerned. Centres will need to meet any specialist resource
requirements when they seek approval from Edexcel.
Where specific resources are required these have been indicated in individual units
under the Essential resources section.
Centres are responsible for the overall risk assessment of experimental work
undertaken by learners.
Attention is drawn to the need for safe practice when learners carry out laboratory
experiments or observe demonstrations. Particular attention is drawn to the possible
hazards associated with electrical equipment, the handling of microorganisms, bodily
substances and ionising radiation. Strict aseptic techniques should be used when
undertaking practical work. Reference must be made to COSHH regulations and any
specific local authority restrictions.
Studying blood is not a banned activity, unless an employer has provided written
instructions restricting the activity. Some local authorities have done this but many
have not. CLEAPSS would wish to encourage the study of blood whether it is from
humans or other animals. Risk assessment is the fundamental tool to enable a tutor
to decide whether it is safe to proceed with an activity with a particular group of
learners; what might be attempted safely with one set would be unwise with
another. Where human blood sampling is concerned, learners should only use their
own samples to prevent cross-infection. Strict precautions are also required to
protect others (tutors, technicians) when clearing up after blood sampling activities.
Relevant advice can be obtained from the following publications:
• Blood-borne viruses in the workplace: Guidance for employers and employees
(from Health and Safety Executive, www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg342.pdf)
• CLEAPSS Laboratory Handbook (from CLEAPSS School Science Service,
www.cleapss.org.uk)
• CLEAPSS Laboratory Handbook Section 14 and supplementary leaflet PS11 for
guidance on working with blood
• Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (HSE, 2005)
ISBN 0717629813
• Hazcards (2004 update available from CLEAPSS School Science Service)
• Topics in Safety, third Edition (ASE, January 2001) ISBN 0863573169.

Delivery approach
It is important that centres develop an approach to teaching and learning that

supports the specialist vocational nature of BTEC National qualifications.
Specifications give a balance of practical skill development and knowledge
requirements, some of which can be theoretical in nature. Tutors and assessors need
to ensure that appropriate links are made between theory and practical application
and that the knowledge base is applied to the sector. This requires the development
of relevant and up-to-date teaching materials that allow learners to apply their
learning to actual events and activity within the sector. Maximum use should be
made of the learner’s experience.
Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL)
Edexcel encourages centres to recognise learners’ previous achievements and

experiences through APL. Learners may have evidence that has been generated
during previous study or in their previous or current employment or whilst
undertaking voluntary work that relates to one or more of the units in the
qualification. Assessors should map this evidence against the grading criteria in the
specification and make this evidence available to the external verifier. As with all
evidence, assessors should be satisfied about the authenticity and currency of the
material when considering whether or not the learning outcomes of the unit have
been met.
Full guidance on Edexcel’s policy on APL is provided on our website, go to
www.edexcel.org.uk then click on ‘About Us’ and then ‘Policies for Centres’.
Meeting local needs
Centres should note that the qualifications set out in these specifications have been
developed in consultation with centres and employers, particularly the Sector Skills
Councils or the Standards Setting Bodies for the relevant sector. The units are
designed to meet the skill needs of the sector and the specialist units allow coverage
of the full range of employment. Centres should make maximum use of the choice
available to them within the specialist units in these specifications to meet the needs
of their learners, and the local skills and training needs identified by organisations
such as the Regional Development Agency and the local Learning and Skills Council.
In certain circumstances, units in this specification might not allow centres to meet a
local need. In this situation, centres can seek approval from Edexcel to make use of
units from other standard NQF BTEC National specifications. Centres will need to
justify the need for importing units from other specifications and Edexcel will ensure
that the vocational focus of the qualification has not been diluted. Units that have
externally set assignments cannot be imported into other qualifications.
There may be exceptional circumstances where even this flexibility does not meet a
particular local need. In this case, centres can seek permission from Edexcel to
develop a unit with us to meet this need. There are very few cases where this will be
allowed. Centres will need strong evidence of the local need and the reasons why our
standard units are inappropriate. Edexcel will need to submit these units for
accreditation by QCA.

Limitations on variations from standard specifications
The flexibility to import standard units from other BTEC Nationals and/or develop
unique units is limited to a total of:
• four 60 GLH units (or equivalent) in a BTEC National Diploma qualification
• two 60 GLH units (or equivalent) in a BTEC National Certificate qualification
• one 60 GLH unit (or equivalent) in a BTEC National Award qualification.
The use of these units cannot be at the expense of the core units in any qualification.
Access and recruitment

Edexcel’s policy regarding access to its qualifications is that:
• they should be available to everyone who is capable of reaching the required
standards
• they should be free from any barriers that restrict access and progression
• there should be equal opportunities for all wishing to access the qualifications.
Centres are required to recruit learners to BTEC qualifications with integrity. This
will include ensuring that applicants have appropriate information and advice about
the qualifications and that the qualification will meet their needs. Centres should
take appropriate steps to assess each applicant’s potential and make a professional
judgement about their ability to successfully complete the programme of study and
achieve the qualification. This assessment will need to take account of the support
available to the learner within the centre during their programme of study and any
specific support that might be necessary to allow the learner to access the
assessment for the qualification. Centres should also show regard for Edexcel’s policy
on learners with particular requirements.
Centres will need to review the profile of qualifications and/or experience held by
applicants, considering whether this profile shows an ability to progress to a Level 3
qualification. For learners who have recently been in education, the profile is likely
to include one of the following:
• a BTEC First qualification in Applied Science or a related vocational area
• an Intermediate GNVQ in an appropriate vocational area
• a GCSE equivalent to four passes at grade C
• other related Level 2 qualifications
• related work experience.
More mature learners may present a more varied profile of achievement that is likely
to include experience of paid and/or unpaid employment.

Restrictions on learner entry
Most BTEC National qualifications are accredited on the NQF for learners aged 16
years and over. Learners aged 15 and under cannot be registered for a BTEC National
qualification.
In particular sectors the restrictions on learner entry might also relate to any physical
or legal barriers, for example people working in health, care or education are likely
to be subject to police checks.
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals are listed on the DfES funding lists Section 96 and
Section 97.
Access arrangements and special considerations
Edexcel’s policy on access arrangements and special considerations for BTEC and
Edexcel NVQ qualifications aims to enhance access to the qualifications for learners
with disabilities and other difficulties (as defined by the 1995 Disability
Discrimination Act and the amendments to the Act) without compromising the
assessment of skills, knowledge, understanding or competence.
Further details are given in the policy ‘Access Arrangements and Special
Considerations for BTEC and Edexcel NVQ Qualifications’, which is on the Edexcel
website (www.edexcel.org.uk). This policy replaces the previous Edexcel policy
(Assessment of Vocationally Related Qualification: Regulations and Guidance Relating
to Learners with Special Requirements, 2002) concerning learners with particular
requirements.

The Edexcel BTEC Qualification Framework for the science sector
Progression opportunities within the framework are available vertically, diagonally and horizontally.
NQF
General Qualifications BTEC full VRQ courses
Level
6 Honours degree in any science-related subject
Foundation degree in any science-related subject BTEC Higher National Certificate/Diploma in Applied Biology
BTEC Higher National Certificate/Diploma in Applied Chemistry
5 BTEC Higher National Certificate/Diploma in Applied Physics
BTEC Higher National Certificate/Diploma in Health and Social Care
BTEC Higher National Certificate/Diploma in Beauty Therapy Sciences
4
GCE Biology GCE in Health and Social Care BTEC National Awards/Certificates/Diplomas in Applied Science
GCE Chemistry GCE in Physical Education
3
GCE Physics GCE in Engineering
GCE Psychology
2 GCSE Science BTEC First Certificate/Diploma in Applied Science
GCSE Additional Science BTEC Introductory Certificate/Diploma in Applied Science
GCSE Biology
1 GCSE Chemistry
GCSE Physics
GCSE Psychology
Entry Entry Level Certificate in Science

Further information
For further information please call Customer Services on 0844 576 0026 (calls may be
recorded for training purposes) or visit our website at www.edexcel.org.uk.
Useful publications
Further copies of this document and related publications can be obtained from:
Edexcel Publications
Adamsway
Mansfield
Nottinghamshire NG18 4FN
Telephone: 01623 467 467
Fax: 01623 450 481
Email: publications@linneydirect.com
Related information and publications include:
• Accreditation of Prior Learning available on our website: www.edexcel.org.uk
• Guidance for Centres Offering Edexcel/BTEC NQF Accredited Programmes —
(Edexcel, distributed to centres annually)
• key skills publications — specifications, tutor support materials and question
papers
• The Statutory Regulation of External Qualifications in England, Wales and
Northern Ireland — (QCA, 2004)
• the current Edexcel publications catalogue and update catalogue.
Edexcel publications concerning the Quality Assurance System and the internal and
external verification of vocationally related programmes can be found on the Edexcel
website and in the Edexcel publications catalogue.
NB: Most of our publications are priced. There is also a charge for postage and
packing. Please check the cost when you order.
How to obtain National Occupational Standards
Paul Turnbull
Project Leader
Semta Head Office
14 Upton Road
Watford WD18 0JT
Telephone: 01923 238441
Fax: 01923 652391
Website: www.semta.org.uk

Professional development and training
Edexcel supports UK and international customers with training related to BTEC
qualifications. This support is available through a choice of training options offered in
our published training directory or through customised training at your centre.
The support we offer focuses on a range of issues including:
• planning for the delivery of a new programme
• planning for assessment and grading
• developing effective assignments
• building your team and teamwork skills
• developing student-centred learning and teaching approaches
• building key skills into your programme
• building in effective and efficient quality assurance systems.
The national programme of training we offer can be viewed on our website
(www.edexcel.org.uk/sfc/training). You can request customised training through the
website or by contacting one of our advisers in the Professional Development and
Training team via Customer Services to discuss your training needs.
Our customer service numbers are:
BTEC and NVQ 0844 576 0026
GCSE 0844 576 0027
GCE 0844 576 0025
The Diploma 0844 576 0028
DIDA and other qualifications 0844 576 0031
Calls may be recorded for training purposes.
The training we provide:
• is active — ideas are developed and applied
• is designed to be supportive and thought provoking
• builds on best practice.

Annexe A
QCA codes
The QCA National Qualifications Framework (NQF) code is known as a Qualification

Accreditation Number (QAN). This is the code that features in the DfES Funding
Schedules, Section 96 and 97 and is to be used for all qualification funding purposes.
Each unit within a qualification will also have a QCA NQF unit code.
The QCA qualification and unit codes will appear on the learner’s final certification
documentation.
The QANs for the qualifications in this publication are:
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science 500/1498/5
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science 500/1497/3
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science 500/1496/1
These qualification titles will appear on the learners’ certificates. Learners need to
be made aware of this when they are recruited by the centre and registered with
Edexcel. Providing this happens, centres are able to describe the programme of study
leading to the award of the qualification in different ways to suit the medium and
the target audience.

Annexe B
Grading domains: Level 3 BTEC generic grading domains
Grading domain 1 Indicative characteristics — Merit Indicative characteristics — Distinction

Application of • Shows depth of knowledge and development of • Synthesises knowledge and understanding across p/m
knowledge and understanding in familiar and unfamiliar situations (eg criteria.
understanding explain why, makes judgements based on analysis).
• Evaluates complex concepts/ideas/actions and makes
• Applies and/or selects concepts showing reasoned and confident judgements.
(Learning outcome stem comprehension of often complex theories.
• Uses analysis, research and evaluation to make
understand or know) • Applies knowledge in often familiar and unfamiliar recommendations and influence proposals.
contexts.
• Analyses implications of application of
• Applies knowledge to non-routine contexts (eg knowledge/understanding.
assessor selection).
• Accesses and evaluates knowledge and understanding
• Makes reasoned analytical judgements. to advance complex activities/contexts.
• Shows relationships between p criteria. • Shows relationships with p/m criteria.
• Responds positively to evaluation.

Development of • Deploys appropriate advanced • Demonstrates creativity/originality/own ideas.
practical and technical techniques/processes/skills.
• Applies skill(s) to achieve higher order outcome.
skills
• Applies technical skill to advance non-routine
• Selects and uses successfully from a range of
activities.
advanced techniques/processes/skills.
(Learning outcome stem
• Advances practical activities within resource
be able to) • Reflects on skill acquisition and application.
constraints.
• Justifies application of skills/methods.
• Produces varied solutions (including non-routine).
• Makes judgements about risks and limitations of
• Modifies techniques/processes to situations.
techniques/processes.
• Shows relationship between p criteria.
• Innovates or generates new techniques/processes for
new situations.
• Shows relationship with p and m criteria.

Personal development • Takes responsibility in planning and undertaking • Manages self to achieve outcomes successfully.
for occupational roles activities.
• Plans for own learning and development through the
• Reviews own development needs. activities.
(Any learning outcome • Finds and uses relevant information sources. • Analyses and manipulates information to draw
stem) conclusions.
• Acts within a given work-related context showing
understanding of responsibilities. • Applies initiative appropriately.
• Identifies responsibilities of employers to the • Assesses how different work-related contexts or
community and the environment. constraints would change performance.
• Applies qualities related to the vocational sector. • Reacts positively to changing work–related contexts
• Internalises skills/attributes (creating confidence). • Operates ethically in work-related environments.
• Takes decisions related to work contexts.
• Applies divergent and lateral thinking in work-related
contexts.
• Understands interdependence.

Application of generic • Communicates effectively using appropriate • Presents self and communicates information to meet
skills behavioural and language registers. the needs of a variety of audience.
• Communicates with clarity and influence. • Identifies strategies for communication.
(Any learning outcome • Makes judgements in contexts with explanations. • Shows innovative approaches to dealing with
stem) individuals and groups.
• Explains how to contribute within a team.
• Takes decisions in contexts with justifications.
• Demonstrates positive contribution to team(s).
• Produces outputs subject to time/resource
• Makes adjustments to meet the needs/expectations of
constraints.
others (negotiation skills).
• Reflects on own contribution to working within a
• Selects and justifies solutions for specified problems.
team.
• Generates new or alternative solutions to specified
problems.
• Explores entrepreneurial attributes.

Annexe C
Key skills
All BTEC National qualifications include mapping and/or signposting of key skills.
These are transferable skills, which play an essential role in developing personal
effectiveness for adult and working life and in the application of specific vocational
skills.
In each unit the opportunities for the generation of evidence for key skills are
signposted. These are indicative links only. Tutors will need to become familiar with
key skills specifications and their evidence requirements and they are advised not to
rely on the signposting in the units when presenting key skills evidence for
moderation. Centres should refer to the QCA website (www.qca.org.uk) for the latest
key skills standards.
Key skills provide a foundation for continual learning. They enable and empower
individuals who inevitably face a series of choices in work, education and training
throughout their lives. Current and future initiatives such as learndirect, lifelong
learning and widening participation all require a more flexible population in the
workplace and key skills play a role in setting the framework.
Learners need the chance to show current and future employers that they can:
• communicate effectively, in a variety of situations, using a wide range of
techniques
• work well with others — individuals or teams — so that work can be properly
planned and targets met
• manage their own development, so that they are always ready to take on the
challenges of change and diversification
• use number, not just within routine tasks and functions but to help them be more
effective and efficient in all they do
• use ICT in a range of applications to support all aspects of their role
• solve problems in a variety of circumstances.

Key skills mapping — summary of opportunities suggested in each unit
Unit 10
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5
Unit 6
Unit 7
Unit 8
Unit 9
Key skills
N3.1
N3.2
N3.3
C3.1a
C3.1b
C3.2
C3.3
ICT3.1
ICT3.2
ICT3.3
LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3
PS3.1
PS3.2
PS3.3
WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

Unit 11
Unit 12
Unit 13
Unit 14
Unit 15
Unit 16
Unit 17
Unit 18
Unit 19
Unit 20
Key skills
N3.1
N3.2
N3.3
C3.1a
C3.1b
C3.2
C3.3
ICT3.1
ICT3.2
ICT3.3
LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3
PS3.1
PS3.2
PS3.3
WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

Unit 21
Unit 22
Unit 23
Unit 24
Unit 25
Unit 26
Unit 27
Unit 28
Unit 29
Unit 30
Key skills
N3.1
N3.2
N3.3
C3.1a
C3.1b
C3.2
C3.3
ICT3.1
ICT3.2
ICT3.3
LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3
PS3.1
PS3.2
PS3.3
WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

Unit 31
Unit 32
Unit 33
Unit 34
Unit 35
Unit 36
Unit 37
Unit 38
Unit 39
Unit 40
Unit 41
Key skills
N3.1
N3.2
N3.3
C3.1a
C3.1b
C3.2
C3.3
ICT3.1
ICT3.2
ICT3.3
LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3
PS3.1
PS3.2
PS3.3
WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

Annexe D
National Occupational Standards/mapping with NVQs
The following grid maps the knowledge covered in the BTEC Nationals in Applied
Science against the underpinning knowledge of the Level 3 NVQ in Laboratory and
Associated Technical Activities (LATA).
List of LATA unit titles
2.7 Control stocks of laboratory materials, equipment and resources

2.11 Contribute to the support of student activities
2.13 Work in aseptic or clean room conditions
3.1 Maintain a Healthy, Safe and Productive Work Environment
3.2 Create Effective Working Relationships
3.3 Carry out testing operations
3.4 Assess data and produce reports
3.5 Provide technical support
3.6 Plan delivery of sampling and testing
3.7 Carry out complex testing operations
3.8 Carry out complex sampling operations
3.9 Carry out investigations
3.10 Carry out small scale processing
3.11 Make presentations
3.12 Manage yourself
3.14 Contribute to the Development of Teams and Individuals
3.15 Lead the Work of Teams and Individuals to Achieve Their Objectives
3.16 Identify and monitor calibration requirements for equipment
3.17 Improve the quality and reliability of the laboratory
3.18 Diagnose faults, repair and maintain laboratory equipment
3.19 Develop and trial new laboratory methods
3.20 Developing the Research Design
3.21 Contribute to the planning of teaching and learning
3.22 Demonstrate laboratory methods to facilitate learning
3.23 Assist colleagues in particular laboratory techniques

KEY
indicates that the Edexcel Level 3 covers all of the underpinning knowledge of
the NVQ unit
# indicates partial coverage of the NVQ unit
a blank space indicates no coverage of the underpinning knowledge
NVQ BTEC Nationals in Applied Science units

unit
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2.7
2.11
2.13 # # # # # #
3.1 # # # # # # # # # # # # #
3.2
3.3 # # # # #
3.4 # # # # # # # # #
3.5
3.6 # # # #
3.7
3.8 # #
3.9 # # # # # # # # # # # # #
3.10 # # # # # # # # #
3.11 # # # # # # # # # # # #
3.12 # #
3.13
3.14 #
3.15
3.16
3.17 #
3.18 #
3.19 # # #
3.20 # #
3.21
3.22
3.23

NVQ BTEC Nationals in Applied Science units
unit
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
2.7
2.11
2.13 # # #
3.1 # # # # # # # # # # #
3.2
3.3 # # # #
3.4 # # # # # # # # #
3.5
3.6 #
3.7 # #
3.8
3.9 # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #
3.10 #
3.11 # # # # # # # #
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18 #
3.19
3.20
3.21
3.22
3.23

Annexe E
BTEC National in Applied Science legacy (specification end date 31 August

2007)/BTEC National in Applied Science new (specification start date
1 September 2007) — unit mapping overview
Unit Unit title Maps to legacy unit Extent of match

1 Fundamentals of Science 1 P
2 Working in the Science Industry 2 P
3 Scientific Investigation 5 P
4 Scientific Practical Techniques 8 P
5 Perceptions of Science New unit New unit
Application of Numbers for
6 6 P
Science Technicians
Mathematics for Science
7 6 P
Technicians
8 Statistics for Science Technicians 6 P
9 Informatics New unit New unit
10 Using Science in the Workplace 3/4 P
Physiology of Human Body
11 9 P
Systems
Physiology of Human Regulation
12 9 P
and Reproduction
13 Biochemical Techniques 10 P
Energy Changes, Sources and
14 11 X
Applications
15 Microbiological Techniques 12 P
16 Chemistry for Biology Technicians 13 X
Electrical Circuits and their
17 16 X
Industrial Applications
18 Genetics and Genetic Engineering 17 P
19 Practical Chemical Analysis 20 P
20 Medical Physics Techniques 21 P
21 Biomedical Science Techniques 22 P

Unit Unit title Maps to legacy unit Extent of match
22 Chemical Laboratory Techniques 23 X
Science for Environmental
23 24 X
Technicians
Principles of Plant and Soil
24 25 P
Science
Electronics for Science
25 New unit New unit
Technicians
Industrial Applications of
26 14 X
Chemical Reactions
Chemical Periodicity and its
27 15 P
Applications
Industrial Applications of Organic
28 18 P
Chemistry
29 Physiological Investigations 38/39 P
30 Medical Instrumentation 40 P
31 Criminology 26 P
Forensic Evidence Collection and
32 27/28 P
Analysis
33 Forensic Photography 29 P
34 Criminal Psychology 30 P
35 Forensic Psychology 31 P
36 Forensic Fire Investigation 32 P
37 Forensic Science Informatics 33 P
38 Traffic Accident Investigation 34 P
39 Criminal Investigation Procedures 35 P
40 Criminal Investigation Practice 36 P
41 Forensic Media and Crime 37 P
KEY
P — Partial mapping (Some topics from the legacy unit appear in the new unit)
F — Full mapping (Topics in legacy unit match new unit exactly or almost exactly)
X — Full mapping + New (All the topics from the legacy unit appear in the new unit,
but new unit also contains new topic(s))

BTEC Nationals in Applied Science legacy (specification end date 31 August
2007)/BTEC Nationals in Applied Science new (specification start date
1 September 2007) — unit mapping in depth
New Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science Æ legacy Unit 1: Scientific Principles

Maps to legacy learning outcome 1 with chemical properties in periodic table
added.
Electronic structure with Bohr theory added and arrangement of electrons and
configuration for elements 1–30 removed.
Bonding of elements included in learning outcome 1 and removed from legacy LO2
with origins of optical activity removed completely.
Reacting masses excluded from quantities in chemical reactions (originally in legacy
learning outcome 1).
Structure of molecules (legacy learning outcome 2) transferred to new learning
outcome 1.
Use of slides, illustrations and electron micrographs excluded (originally in legacy
learning outcome 2).
Added to new learning outcome 2 microscopic structure of cells, cell organelles
structure and function. Cell division added from part of legacy Unit 17.
New learning outcome 3 use of calorimeter added (also in learning outcome 4).
Magnitudes deleted from legacy learning outcome 3.
Nuclear energy to electrical energy added to new learning outcome 3.
Heat exchange deleted from legacy learning outcome 3.
New learning outcome 4 has a new title.
Series and parallel circuits, use of calorimeter added to new learning outcome 4.
Deleted from legacy learning outcome 4 are simple circuits, scientific instruments.

New Unit 2: Working in the Science Industry Æ legacy Unit 2: Laboratory
Organisation
Contents of legacy learning outcome 1 partly map to new learning outcome 2
procedures.
Topics of new learning outcome 1 are new with a different emphasis.
Design has new content in new learning outcome 2.
Specialist laboratories has new content in new learning outcome 2.
Safety requirements in new learning outcome 2 has specialist equipment, specific
safety equipment and clothing, and security added.
New learning outcome 2 has computer hardware/software, biological materials,
testing equipment, and technician workspace removed.
Procedures and practices from legacy learning outcome 2, partly maps to new
learning outcome 1.
Scientific data storage except for COSHH in learning outcome 3 has all new content.
Workplace records in legacy learning outcome 3 has deleted finance accounts, waste
management, laboratory maintenance, receipt/disposal of goods and all of
scientific data storage except for COSHH.
New learning outcome 4 has new content: definitions, risk assessment, sources of
information, and regulations and legislation.
Deleted from legacy learning outcome 4: law, and all of safe working practice
except for accident and incident procedures and use of fumes cupboards.

New Unit 3: Scientific Investigation Æ legacy Unit 5: Scientific Method
New titles for all learning outcomes and different emphases.
New learning outcome 1 has all new content.
In new learning outcome 2 scientific principles has new content.
In new learning outcome 2 experimental techniques has appropriate use of
instruments and techniques for taking measurements added.
New learning outcome 3 content maps to legacy learning outcome 3 with a slightly
different emphasis.
New learning outcome 4 maps to legacy learning outcome 4, except appropriate
degree of precision, correct use of units, sources of error, and consideration of
hypothesis used is added.
New Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques Æ legacy Unit 8: Scientific Practical
Techniques
All learning outcomes have new titles.
New learning outcome 1 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 2.
New learning outcome 1 has ‘two chemical substances...’ added, but ‘biological,
chemical and physical’ is removed.
New learning outcome 1 has use of appropriate reference data added.
Legacy learning outcome 2 has selection of types of materials and appropriate
properties partly deleted and so are not included in new learning outcome 1.
New learning outcome 2 has labelling and storage to ensure valid results added.
Legacy learning outcome 3 has collection of samples deleted.
Measurements from legacy learning outcome 3 has moved to new learning
outcome 4.
New learning outcome 4 has all new content and none of the content of legacy
learning outcome 4.
New Unit 5: Perceptions of Science Æ completely new unit
New Unit 6: Application of Numbers for Science Technicians Æ legacy Unit 6:
Mathematics and Statistics for Science Technicians
Now a 30 GLH unit therefore treat as new unit.
New Unit 7: Mathematics for Science Technicians Æ legacy Unit 6: Mathematics

and Statistics for Science Technicians
New Unit 8: Statistics for Science Technicians Æ legacy Unit 6: Mathematics and
Statistics for Science Technicians
New Unit 9: Informatics Æ completely new unit

New Unit 10: Using Science in the Workplace Æ legacy Unit 3: Workplace
Practices and legacy Unit 4: Role of Science Technician
New learning outcome 1 partly maps to legacy Unit 3’s learning outcome 1. Treat all
the material in new learning outcome 1 as new because the emphasis is different.
From legacy learning outcome 1 has processes and techniques deleted.
Legacy Unit 3’s learning outcome 2 and learning outcome 3 are deleted, and
learning outcome 4’s content is deleted.
Legacy Unit 4’s learning outcome 1 is deleted, and legacy learning outcome 2 is all
deleted except communications which is in new learning outcome 2.
Legacy learning outcome 3 is deleted except for issues of public concern which is in
new learning outcome 4.
Legacy learning outcome 4 is deleted.
New learning outcome 1 includes material from legacy learning outcome 1 and has
health and safety and ICT added.
New learning outcome 2 and learning outcome 3 have all new content.
New learning outcome 4 maps to legacy Unit 3 with local impact and issues of public
concern added.
New Unit 11: Physiology of Human Body Systems Æ legacy Unit 9: Human
Physiology
Microscopy in legacy Unit 9’s learning outcome 1 is transferred to new Unit 1’s
learning outcome 2. Legacy Unit 22’s learning outcome 2 partly maps to new
Unit 11’s learning outcome 1.
New learning outcome 1 maps to most of legacy learning outcome 1 with cells
added.
New learning outcome 2 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 3 and includes cell
structure related to functions also chemical structure of nutrients and their roles,
role of minerals and vitamins…, presence of inorganic compounds… and from legacy
Unit 22’s learning outcome 1 definition of metabolism, anabolism/catabolism are
included.
New learning outcome 3 maps to part of legacy learning outcome 3.
New learning outcome 4 maps to part of legacy learning outcome 3 with
interpretation of spirometer meter readings added.
Legacy learning outcome 2 and learning outcome 4 is transferred to new Unit 12.

New Unit 12: Physiology of Human Regulation and Reproduction Æ legacy Unit 9:
Human Physiology
New learning outcome 1 maps to legacy learning outcome 4 with cellular structure
of male and female organs, environmental influences on embryonic development
and fertility added.
New learning outcome 3 maps to legacy learning outcome 2, and graphical displays,
pineal and gastrointestinal tract, malfunctioning of endocrine system, and
measurement of endocrine function are added.
New learning outcome 4 partly maps onto legacy learning outcome 2, and has
definition of homeostasis, principles, maintaining an optimum environment,
homeostatic control, and common disorders added.
New Unit 13: Biochemical Techniques Æ legacy Unit 10: Biochemical Techniques
New learning outcome 1 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 1 and learning
outcome 4.
New learning outcome 1 has structural characteristics, and laboratory techniques
added.
New learning outcome 2 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 2 but it is best to
treat this as a new learning outcome because the emphasis is different.
New learning outcome 3 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 3 but energy
production and regulation are new.
New learning outcome 4 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 4 but industrial
applications is added.
New Unit 14: Energy Changes, Sources and Applications Æ legacy Unit 11: Energy
Changes, Sources and Applications
New learning outcome 1 maps to legacy learning outcome 1 plus useful and wasted
energy and efficiency. Some formulae in new learning outcome 1 are rewritten.
New learning outcome 2 maps to part of legacy learning outcome 2 but differences
involving convection... appears in new learning outcome 3.
Added into new learning outcome 2 are vaporization and condensation,
applications, and kinetic theory.
New learning outcome 3 maps partly onto legacy learning outcome 2 but should be
treated as completely new because of the expansion of the material and the depth
of treatment.
New learning outcome 4 maps onto legacy learning outcome 4 but contains new
material: applications, details about fuel cells, and details about solar cells.

New Unit 15: Microbiological Techniques Æ legacy Unit 12: Microbiological
Techniques
New learning outcome 1 maps to legacy learning outcome 1 but most of microscopy
is deleted except for advantages/disadvantages.
New learning outcome 1 includes identification of bacteria, viruses and fungi.
New learning outcome 2 maps partly to legacy learning outcome 2, with disinfection
and sterilization, pouring plates, growth of selected organisms, proctista, isolated
cells, and structure deleted.
New learning outcome 2 has all new content except for mention of asepsis from
legacy learning outcome 2.
Only limiting factors appears in new learning outcome 3 from legacy learning
outcome 3, and also part of legacy learning outcome 4 is included, and some new
contexts added.
New learning outcome 4 has classification and colony morphology added.
New Unit 16: Chemistry for Biology Technicians Æ legacy Unit 13: Chemistry for
Biological Technicians
New learning outcome 1 maps partly onto legacy learning outcome 1.
Added to learning outcome 1 are: ionic and covalent bonding, inter/intra molecular
bonding, substances, influence of bonding, enthalpy change in certain reactions are
specified, and Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. From legacy learning outcome 1
first law of thermodynamics is deleted.
New learning outcome 2 maps to legacy learning outcome 3 but quantitative
chemistry is added to new learning outcome 2.
New learning outcome 3 maps to legacy learning outcome 2 with Henderson–
Hasselbalch equation from legacy learning outcome 2 transferred to new learning
outcome 1.
New learning outcome 3 has concentration on either side of a membrane added.
New learning outcome 4 maps to legacy learning outcome 4 but structure has been
expanded and properties is new.

New Unit 17: Electrical Circuits and their Industrial Applications Æ legacy
Unit 16: Electrical Circuits and their Industrial Applications
New learning outcome 1 maps to legacy learning outcome 1 but the content has
been expanded and more equations are included. Mobile charge carriers, EMF,
Kirchoff’s law and equations for conductance and resistivity are also added.
New learning outcome 2 maps to legacy learning outcome 2 but resistance in
parallel circuits using an equation, the nature of voltage drops across components
and equation using EMF is now included.
New learning outcome 3 maps to legacy learning outcome 3 but the domestic ring
main circuit, nature of ac, skin resistance, changes to the environment and
industrial applications are added.
New learning outcome 4 maps to legacy learning outcome 4 but strain gauge
potential divider circuits is deleted. Added to new learning outcome 4 are
production of EMF and the other material has been expanded with more detail and
examples.
New Unit 18: Genetics and Genetic Engineering Æ legacy Unit 17: Genetics and
Genetic Engineering
New learning outcome 1 maps onto legacy learning outcome 1 except for
conservation of chromosome number. Structure and function of human
chromosomes is new for learning outcome 1.
New learning outcome 2 maps partly to learning outcome 3 but transformation of
cells and amplification of DNA are added. Insertion of DNA, cloning and parts of
extraction of DNA are deleted.
New learning outcome 3 maps partly to legacy learning outcome 1 and learning
outcome 2, but simple genetics has more examples. Legacy Unit 22’s learning
outcome 3 partly maps to new learning outcome 3.

New Unit 19: Practical Chemical Analysis Æ legacy Unit 20: Practical Chemical
Analysis
New learning outcome 1 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 2, and has
calculation of concentration used in dilution factors..., standard solutions,
…preparation/titration/dilution of stock solution added.
Legacy learning outcome 2 has volumetric analysis, molarity calculations and use of
equations deleted.
New learning outcome 2 has the same topics as legacy learning outcome 3 but added
spectroscopic techniques.
New learning outcome 3 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 4, and chemical
substances is added. The contents of legacy learning outcome 4 have been
rearranged under new headings in the new learning outcome 3 of chromatographic
principles and chromatographic methods.
Deleted from legacy learning outcome 4 are setting of instrument variables, sample
preparations, data processing and practical apparatus. These are added to new
learning outcome 3 as basic instrumentation.
Legacy learning outcome 1 has been deleted but some parts of organic substances
are included in new Unit 28 learning outcome 2.
New Unit 20: Medical Physics Techniques Æ legacy Unit 21: Medical Physics
Techniques
New learning outcome 1 maps to legacy learning outcome 1, and equations relating
to activity, intensity and half value thickness, ultrasound reflection, sonar
principles, ultra scanning and measurement of blood flowing using Doppler
ultrasound are added.
New learning outcome 2 maps to legacy learning outcome 2 except for outline of
quality control. New learning outcome 2 has need for quality control (with
reference to radionuclides) and advantages/disadvantages of radionuclide imagery
added.
New learning outcome 3 is a new learning outcome and it replaces legacy learning
outcome 3.
New learning outcome 4 maps to legacy learning outcome 4, and industrial
applications has been added in more detail.
New Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques Æ legacy Unit 22: Biomedical
Science Techniques
This is to be treated as a new unit.
Legacy Unit 22 has some parts mapped to new Unit 1 and Unit 10.

New Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques Æ legacy Unit 23: Chemical
Laboratory Techniques
New learning outcome 1 maps to legacy learning outcome 4, except purifying and
assessing purity and electrophoresis are deleted. Added in are preparation from
natural/man made material with examples, procedures for avoidance of
contamination of reagents, and procedures for mixing chemicals safely.
New learning outcome 2 has all new content on isolating and purifying compounds,
which does not appear in legacy Unit 23.
New learning outcome 3 maps partly to legacy learning outcome 3, and completely
maps to legacy learning outcome 2. Molar quantities and molar solutions in legacy
learning outcome 3 are moved to new learning outcome 4.
New learning outcome 4 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 3 with percentage
purity added.
Legacy learning outcome 4 has moved to new learning outcome 1 with purifying and
assessing purity deleted as it appears in a different format in new learning
outcome 4.
New Unit 23: Science for Environmental Technicians Æ legacy Unit 24:
Environmental Science
New learning outcome 1 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 1, and ozone layer,
meso and ionosphere, energy transfer, laws of thermodynamics, historical
composition and changes, convection zones and coriolis forces, and seasonal
variations are added.
New learning outcome 2 maps partly to legacy learning outcome 4, except physical
and chemical properties of water.
New learning outcome 3 partly maps to legacy learning outcome 3. Added are light
levels to photosynthesis, and human activity, ammonia, nitrogen… to carbon and
nitrogen cycles.
outcome 2, and includes metals, minerals and organics, recycling, re-use of
materials, and waste management.
New Unit 24: Principles of Plant and Soil Science Æ legacy Unit 25: Principles of
Plant and Soil Science
New learning outcome 1 maps completely to legacy learning outcome 1 with use of
plants related to their structures added.
New learning outcome 2 maps partly to legacy learning outcome 3, except for types
of chlorophyll, carotenoids, biochemical pathways, C3/C4 plants, stoma, cuticle,
and lenticel.
outcome 4, but most of the content is new.
New learning outcome 4 maps partly legacy learning outcome 4.

New Unit 25: Electronics for Science Technicians Æ completely new unit
New Unit 26: Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions Æ legacy Unit 14:
Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions
New learning outcome 1 maps to legacy learning outcome 1, with Born-Haber cycle
deleted, and enthalpy change of formation, combustion, atomization,
neutralization, and law of conservation of energy added.
New learning outcome 2 mostly maps to legacy learning outcome 2 with Le
Chatelier’s principle, effects of changes in concentration, pressure and
temperature, catalyst and equilibrium added.
New learning outcome 3 mostly maps to legacy learning outcome 3 with standard
reduction potentials and sign convention deleted, and definition of pH Bronsted-
Lowry, definition of acids/bases, their conjugation, dissociation of water, pH
titration curves, choice of indicator, relative strengths of oxidizing and reducing
agents, electrolysis, pH titrations, redox titrations, and chlor-alkaline industry
added.
New learning outcome 4 maps completely to legacy learning outcome 4 but second
order reactions is deleted, and has Arrhenius equation added.
New Unit 27: Chemical Periodicity and its Applications Æ legacy Unit 15:
Chemical Periodicity and its Application
New Unit 27 should be treated as new a new unit. The emphasis and contents do not
overlap legacy Unit 15 except in some very minor cases, such as chemical reactions
with water and oxygen.
New Unit 28: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry Æ legacy Unit 18:
Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry
New learning outcome 1 maps completely to legacy learning outcome 1 except
industrial applications is deleted, and primary, secondary, tertiary groups,
alcohols, acid chlorides, geometric and optical isomers, importance of molecular
shape and reaction types are added.
New learning outcome 2 maps partly to legacy learning outcome 2 with industrial
applications deleted, and mechanism of radical substitution, electrophiles, and
stabilities of intermediate carbocations added.
New learning outcome 3 maps to legacy learning outcome 3, but industrial
applications is deleted, and substitution versus elimination and formation of salts
are added.
New learning outcome 4 maps to legacy learning outcome 4, but industrial
applications is deleted, and sugars is added.
All the new learning outcomes have commercial uses added.

New Unit 29: Physiological Investigations Æ legacy Unit 38: Physiological
Measurements and legacy Unit 39: Clinical Investigations
New learning outcome 1 maps partly to legacy Units 38 and 39 learning outcome 3,
except for atrial/ventricular septal defect, patent ductus arteriosis, meningitis,
Alzheimer’s disease, Creutzfeldt-Jacobs disease, and multiple sclerosis, and has
cytology and haematology, sleep disorders and asthma added.
New learning outcome 2 partly maps to legacy Unit 39’s learning outcome 1 and 2,
except for invasive techniques, and has cytology and haematology added.
New learning outcome 3 partly maps to legacy Unit 38’s learning outcome 1 and 3
and Unit 39’s learning outcome 3, except for neurophysiology — inflammatory,
degenerative, infective, space occupying and from respiration — extra thoracic
airflow obstruction, and has communications, interpersonal skills, environment,
cytology, and haematology are added.
New learning outcome 4 partly maps to legacy Unit 39’s learning outcome 2 and 4,
except normal subject and pathology are deleted, and cytology, haematology for
both normal and abnormal results are added.
New Unit 30: Medical Instrumentation Æ legacy Unit 40: Medical Instrumentation
New Unit 30 should be treated as a new unit, as it only maps slightly to legacy
learning outcomes 2 and 4, eg analogue to digital conversion and calibration.
New Unit 31: Criminology Æ legacy Unit 26: Introduction to Criminology
New Unit 31 should be treated as a new unit, as it only maps slightly to legacy
learning outcomes 2 and 3, eg crime prevention aimed at the
individual/community, neighbourhood watch and history of penal systems.
New Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis Æ legacy Unit 27:
Biological Forensic Science and legacy Unit 28: Chemical and Physical Forensic
Science
New learning outcome 1 maps completely to legacy Units 27 and 28’s learning
outcome 4, except for reporting back, and has evidence, observation and recording
of the scene added.
New learning outcome 2 includes only part of toxicology from legacy Unit 27’s
learning outcome 1, and maps partly to legacy Unit 28’s learning outcome 1.
New learning outcome 3 maps partly to legacy Units 27 and 28’s learning outcome 1.
New learning outcome 4 maps partly to legacy Unit 27’s learning outcome 1, and has
skeleton added.

New Unit 33: Forensic Photography Æ legacy Unit 29: Forensic Photography
New learning outcome 1 maps to legacy learning outcome 1, and has other
equipment added.
New learning outcome 2 maps to legacy learning outcome 1, and aesthetic
principles and technical theory are added.
New learning outcome 3 maps completely to legacy learning outcome 3, and maps
partially to learning outcome 2.
New learning outcome 4 maps completely to legacy learning outcome 3, and images
— factories, houses, flats and cars, and evidence — blood splatter, footprint casts,
hairs, fibres, condoms, excreta, glass, bodily bruising, bite marks, face of victim,
toolmarks, serial numbers are added.
New Unit 34: Criminal Psychology Æ legacy Unit 30: Introduction to Criminal
Psychology
New learning outcome 1 maps partly to legacy learning outcome 1, with aspects of
social influence, psychopathology, personality and developmental psychology
deleted, and psychology and crime, personality theories, social theories and
factors, psychopaths, and mental illness are added.
New learning outcome 2 maps to legacy learning outcome 2, except for procedures
and practice, and analysis, and has ethical issues, experiment, and interpretation
of analysis added.
New learning outcome 3 is new, eg anger management and social skills training, but
includes treating crime from legacy learning outcome 3.
New learning outcome 4 maps partly to legacy learning outcomes 3 and 4, eg mental
health issues and penal system have been expanded, and investigative interviewing
and victims of crime have been added.
New Unit 35: Forensic Psychology Æ legacy Unit 31: Forensic Psychology
New learning outcome 2 maps to the theme headings of legacy learning outcome 1,
and quantitative and qualitative approaches, interviews, and surveys are added.
New learning outcome 4 maps partly to legacy learning outcome 3, and types of
treatment is expanded to include anger management programmes, and risk
assessment in new learning outcome 4 has more detail than legacy learning
outcome 3.

New Unit 36: Forensic Fire Investigation Æ legacy Unit 32: Forensic Fire
Investigation
New learning outcome 1 maps to legacy learning outcome 1, except for melting
points, flashover, and back draught, and heat of combustion, rate of burning,
burning polymers, toxic fumes, fire triangle, types of extinguisher, movement of
heat are added.
New learning outcome 2 maps to legacy learning outcome 2, except for sources of
ignition, and addition of aspects of construction, fire doors, fire walls, venting, and
compartments.
New learning outcome 3 maps to legacy learning outcome 3 with some new headings
and observation, excavation, collection, packaging and preservation of samples,
reconstruction, and presentation in court added.
New learning outcome 4 maps completely to legacy learning outcome 4.
New Unit 37: Forensic Science Informatics Æ legacy Unit 33: ICT in Forensic
Science
New learning outcome 1 maps to legacy learning outcome 1 with addition of web
page packages, and deletion of health and safety and Health and Safety Acts.
New learning outcome 2 maps to legacy learning outcome 2 with the addition of
internet uses, service providers, FTP, SMPT, POP3, HTTP and deletion of use search
engines, meta search engines, multimedia, creating email account, attachment
files, newsgroups, chat lines.
New learning outcome 3 maps to legacy learning outcomes 3 and 4, except for
Federation against Software Theft.
New learning outcome 4 maps to legacy learning outcome 3, with addition of
spyware, sabotage protection and command prompts.
New Unit 38: Traffic Accident Investigation Æ legacy Unit 34: Traffic Accident
Investigation
New learning outcome 1 maps partly to legacy learning outcomes 1 and 2, with
addition of distractions, mobile phones, attitudes to drinking, education,
pedestrians, typical injuries sustained, safety camera, roadways, types and
conditions of vehicles, seat belts, air bags, crumple zones, distribution of loads,
typical damage sustained, and deletions of holistic costs, frauds, insurance clauses,
gentleman’s agreements, power to invalidate policy.
New learning outcome 2 maps to legacy learning outcome 2, with addition of
conservation of energy, etc, and deletions of back calculation and geometry.
New learning outcome 3 maps to legacy learning outcome 3 with deletions of
estimate of repair manuals, cost of vehicle manuals, criminal injury charts and
historical data of scene, and addition of accident scene preservation and records,
etc.
New learning outcome 4 maps to legacy learning outcome 4, with deletion of ethics
and tribunals, and additions of rail, tram, ship, etc.

New Unit 39: Criminal Investigation Procedures Æ legacy Unit 35: Criminal
Investigation Procedures
This is essentially a new unit. New learning outcome 1 has SOCOs and scientific
support from legacy learning outcome 1, but not damage, theft, crime prevention,
and aids to investigation.
New learning outcome 2 has CCTV from legacy learning outcome 1.
New learning outcome 4 has NACRO from legacy learning outcome 4.
New Unit 40: Criminal Investigation Practice Æ legacy Unit 36: Criminal
Investigation Practice
This should be treated as a new unit.
New Unit 41: Forensic Media and Crime Æ legacy Unit 37: Forensic Media and
Crime
New learning outcomes 1, 2 and 3 map exactly to legacy learning outcomes 1, 2
and 3.
New learning outcome 4 is completely new, with no topics from legacy learning
outcome 4.

Annexe F
Wider curriculum mapping
Study of the Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science give learners
opportunities to develop an understanding of moral, ethical, social and cultural issues
as well as an awareness of environmental issues, European developments, health and
safety considerations and equal opportunities issues.
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science make a positive contribution
to wider curricular areas as appropriate.
Moral, ethical, social and cultural issues
The specification contributes to an understanding of:

• moral and ethical issues, eg Unit 5: Perceptions of Science; Unit 18: Genetics and
Genetic Engineering
• social and cultural issues, eg Unit 18: Genetics and Genetic Engineering; Unit 23:
Science for Environmental Technicians.
Environmental issues
Learners are led to appreciate the importance of environmental issues in Unit 23:
Science for Environmental Technicians.
European developments
Much of the content of the Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science applies
throughout Europe, even though the delivery is in a UK context. The European
dimensions of applied science are specifically addressed in Unit 18: Genetics and
Genetic Engineering; Unit 31: Criminology.
Health and safety considerations
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science are practically-based and
health and safety issues are encountered throughout the units. Learners will develop
awareness of the safety of others as well as themselves in all practical activities.
Learners will also explore health and safety issues across the science sector,
particularly in Unit 2: Working in the Science Industry; Unit 3: Scientific
Investigation; Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques and all other practically-based
units.
Equal opportunities issues
Equal opportunities issues are implicit throughout the Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals
in Applied Science.

Wider curriculum mapping
Unit 10
Unit 11
Unit 12
Unit 13
Unit 14
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5
Unit 6
Unit 7
Unit 8
Unit 9
Moral and ethical

issues
Social and cultural

issues
Environmental

issues
European

developments
Health and safety

considerations
Equal
opportunities
issues
Unit 15
Unit 16
Unit 17
Unit 18
Unit 19
Unit 20
Unit 21
Unit 22
Unit 23
Unit 24
Unit 25
Unit 26
Unit 27
Unit 28
Moral and ethical

issues
Social and cultural

issues
Environmental

issues
European
developments
Health and safety

considerations
Equal
opportunities
issues

Unit 29
Unit 30
Unit 31
Unit 32
Unit 33
Unit 34
Unit 35
Unit 36
Unit 37
Unit 38
Unit 39
Unit 40
Unit 41
Moral and ethical

issues
Social and cultural

issues
Environmental
issues
European

developments
Health and safety

considerations
Equal
opportunities
issues
1671rl130308S:\LT\PD\NATIONALS\BN018348 NACD in Applied Science L3 Issue 2.doc.1-546/0

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Edexcel Publications, Adamsway, Mansfield, Notts, NG18 4FN
Telephone 01623 467467
Fax 01623 450481
Email: publications@linneydirect.com
Publications Code BN018348 March 2008
For more information on Edexcel and BTEC qualifications please

visit our website: www.edexcel.org.uk
BTEC is a registered trademark of Edexcel Limited
Edexcel Limited. Registered in England and Wales No. 4496750

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BTEC

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in

Authorised by Roger Beard

Ten principles for delivering an Edexcel Level 3 BTEC

BTEC National Certificate 3

BTEC National Diploma 4

National Occupational Standards (NOS) 4

Rationale of the BTEC Nationals in Applied Science 5

Scientific skills development 7

Structure of the qualification 8

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Award in Applied Science

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science (Laboratory

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Certificate in Applied Science

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied Science

Unit 2: Working in the Science Industry 39

Unit 3: Scientific Investigation 51

Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques 65

Unit 5: Perceptions of Science 75

Unit 6: Application of Numbers for Science Technicians 87

Unit 7: Mathematics for Science Technicians 95

Unit 8: Statistics for Science Technicians 105

Unit 9: Informatics 115

Unit 10: Using Science in the Workplace 123

Unit 11: Physiology of Human Body Systems 133

Unit 12: Physiology of Human Regulation and Reproduction 145

Unit 13: Biochemical Techniques 157

Unit 14: Energy Changes, Sources and Applications 169

Unit 15: Microbiological Techniques 181

Unit 16: Chemistry for Biology Technicians 191

Unit 17: Electrical Circuits and their Industrial Applications 203

Unit 18: Genetics and Genetic Engineering 215

Unit 19: Practical Chemical Analysis 225

Unit 20: Medical Physics Techniques 237

Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques 247

Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques 259

Unit 23: Science for Environmental Technicians 271

Unit 24: Principles of Plant and Soil Science 285

Unit 25: Electronics for Science Technicians 297

Unit 26: Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions 309

Unit 27: Chemical Periodicity and its Applications 321

Unit 29: Physiological Investigations 347

Unit 30: Medical Instrumentation 357

Unit 31: Criminology 367

Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis 377

Unit 33: Forensic Photography 389

Unit 34: Criminal Psychology 401

Unit 35: Forensic Psychology 409

Unit 36: Forensic Fire Investigation 419

Unit 37: Forensic Science Informatics 429

Unit 38: Traffic Accident Investigation 441

Unit 39: Criminal Investigation Procedures 453

Unit 40: Criminal Investigation Practice 465

Unit 41: Forensic Media and Crime 477

Assessment and grading 491

Quality assurance 492

Risk assessment 493