Grammar

Hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan grammar adalah :

1. Articles
2. Noun (kata benda)
3. Singular dan plural (tunggal dan jamak)
4. Pronoun (kata ganti)
5. Adjektive ( kata sifat)
6. Verb (kata kerja)
7. Adverbs ( kata keterangan)
8. Modals dan auxiliaries(kata bantu)
9. Tenses
10. If-clause/conditional tenses(klausa pengandaian)
11. Active vs passive (kalimat aktif dan kalimat passif)
12. Direct and indirect speech (kalimat langsung dan kalimat tidak langsung)
13. Preposition (prefeposi)
14. Conjuction (kata penghubung)
15. Subject-verb agreement (kesetaraan subjek-predikat)

1. Articles (artikel)
 Dalam kata bahasa inggris, artikel memiliki fungsi penting dalam menandai dan
menjelaskan kata-kata benda (nouns). Jenis artikel terbagi menjadi dua,yaitu :
1. Definite article
2. Indefinite articles
Kata The termasuk dalam definite article, sedangkan kata a dan an digolongjan dalam
indefinite articles.

1. DEVINITE ARTICLES
Definite articles merupkan artikel yang biasanya digunakan sebelum kata-kata benda di
anggap unik.contohnya kata Earth (Bumi) dan Sky (langit). Tentu saja , jika seseorang
menyebutkan kata earth dan sky, rujukannya pasti sudah jelas.Kita tidak akan menemukan
tanah selain pijakan kita saat ini atau belahan lain selain cakrawala yang berada di planet kita
sendiri. Oleh karena itu, kedua kata benda tersebut dianggap unik. Maka kata Earth danSky
akan didahului oleh artikel The.

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1. Some farmers are plowing the Earth using traktors.
(Para petani tengah membajak tanah (Para petani tengah membajak tanah
menggunakan traktor)menggunakan traktor)
2. Four White pigeons fly gracefullyto the sky.
(Empat ekor merpati putih terbang dengan indahnya menuju langit).

Selain menandai kata-kata benda yang unik, artikel juga digunakan untuk menjelaskan
kembali kata-kata benda yang sudah disebutkan sebelumnya dalam suatuteks.

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1. Last night, I dreamed about going to party.Unfortunatelly,the party was notpleasant

because iwas being neglected by my family and my friends.
2. She is getting married to a handsome man. The man is actuallyher best frend and
theyhave been in love for years.

Artikel the tidak dipergunakan sebelum nama-nama orang, nama-nama jenis makanan,
nama-nama enis permainan,nama-nama bagian tubuh, nama-nama jenis pakaian,dan
kata-kata sifat jenis kepunyaan (possessive adjectives).

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1. Alice decides to go to to her room and play with her dolls.

2. My farher eat cookies and donuts.

2. INDEFINITE ARTICLES
Adalah kelompok artikel yang diginakan sebelum kata-kata benda tunggal (singular)
yang dapat diperkirakan jumlahnya (countable).

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1.They can see the lighthouse near the island.

 2.An aple a days can keeps your healty.

Artikel a digunakan sebelum kata-kata benda yang berawalan huruf-huruf

konsonan.begitupun artikel an.
Contoh dalam kalimat:
1. Many people visit a university in bandung to attend the seminar.
2. The teacher wroten an “x” on my text paper.
3. He has to queue up for an hourto get the plane ticket.

Selain definite articles dan indefinite articlesdi atas, frasa a tittle and a few juga
digunakan untuk mengawali kata-kata benda dalam bahasa inggris. Frasa the tittle merujuk
pada kata-kata benda yang jumlahnya tidak dapat di perkirakan (uncountable nouns) dan frasa
a few merujuk pada kata-kata benda jamak(plural nouns). Frasa a tittle dan frasa a few berarti
“sedikit”.

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1. You have only a little water left in your glass.
2. They send me a few photos from their graduation party.

2.NOUN (KATA BENDA)

Adalah semua hal yang dapat menjadi subjek, objek, objek tambahan dan objek
preposisi.Noun terbagi atas dua bagian, yaitu concrete nouns dan abstract nouns. Concrete
nouns merupakan kelompok kata yang berwujud, seperti kelinci, kartu, cermin. Sedangkan
abstract nouns merupakan kelompok kata yang tidak berwujut, contoh kecantikan dan
kebahagiaan.

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1. The girls are looking at her face in the mirror.
2. Sometimes wealth does not brings joy.

Concrete nouns dibagi menjadi empat jenis, yaitucommon nouns,proper nouns,

collective nouns, dan compound nouns.common nouns mengacu pada hal-hal yang umum atau
biasa,misalnya book, hole,hat, dan sebagainya.Proper nouns mempresentasikan identias diri,
kelompok, perusahaan, kota,Negara sekolah, atau tempat-tempat lainnya. Proper nouns
ditandai dengan penggunaan huruf capital pada awal kata.
Collective nouns merujuk pada benda-benda majemukyang berarti “sekumpulan atau
sekelompok hal tertentu”. Compound nouns merujuk pada dua kata benda yang digabung dan
umumnya bersifat jamak.

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1. The children dig a hole in his garden.
2. John was born in Jakarta Indonesia.
3. The flock of seagulls gather by the sea.

Absract nouns dapat di bentuk dari kata-kata kerja, kata-kata sifat, dan sebagainya.
Kata kerja (verbs) dapa diubah menjadi abstract nouns dengan penambahan akhiran -ment,
-ion, -tion/-ation, -ance,-t, -y, -ing, dan sebagainya.

Berikut ini adalah beberapa contoh kata benda yang berasal dari kata kerja tersebut.
 - Arrangement ( susunan ) => Arrage ( menyusun ) + -ment
- Action ( perbuatan ) => Act ( berbuat ) + -ion
- Association ( perkumpulan ) => Associate ( berkumpul ) + -tion
- Enterance ( jalan masuk ) => Enter ( memasuki ) + -ance
- Complaint ( keluhan ) => Complain ( mengeluh ) + -t
- Discovery ( penemuan ) => Discover ( menemukan ) + -y
- Writing ( tulisan ) => Write ( menulis ) + -ing

Sedangkan untuk mengubah kata-kata sifat ( adjectives ) menjadi abstract nouns dapat
ditambahkan akhiran – ness, misalnya sadness ( keseihan) a’ sad ( sedih ) + - ness.

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1. The waiter ignores my complaint about the food.
2. Thomas alva Edison Makes a very important discovery for the development of
modern world.
3. Happiness is a key to survive life.
Selain itu nouns juga mencakup berbagai kata dan frasa yang menyaakan jenis keamin
( gender) laki-laki
(Masculine), perempuan ( feminine ), dan netral (neuter).Neuter nouns biasanya mengacu
pada benda-benda mati,binatang, serta bayi yang masih di dalam kandungan yang masih
belum dapat diketahui jens kelaminnya. Beberapa contoh dari masculine nouns adalah boy,
men, father, husband,son, dan uncle. Sedangkan contoh ari feminine adalah girl, woman, wife,
mother, daughter, and aunt.

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1. The boy standing in front of the house is my brother.
2. The woman singing the beautiful song is my daughter.

3.SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMS ( BENTUK TUNGGAL DAN JAMAK ).

Seperti yang telah di jelaskan sebelumnya kata benda ( nouns ) ada dua macam yaitu
kata benda berwujud dan kata benda abstrak. Kedua kata benda tersebut berkaitan dengan
singular and plural forms, keduanya akan dikaitkan dengan kategori countability dan
uncountability.
Concrete nouns termasukdalam dua kategori tersebut. Concrete nouns terbagi dalam
kelompok kata benda yang dapat di hitung ( countable ) dan kelompok kata benda yang tidak
dapat dihitung
( uncountable). Penanda bentuk tunggal dari concrete nouns adalah a dan an. Penanda bentuk
jamaknya adalah akhiran –s, -es, -ies, -ves, serta frasa a few (sedikit), many/the lot of (banyak),
some (beberapa), dan any. Any digunakan sebelum kata benda dalam kalimat negatif atau
kalimat tanya. Oleh karena itu any di artikan “(hampir) tidak ada” ( dalam kalimat negatif) atau
“adakah/apakah…?”( dalam kalimat Tanya). Sebaliknya , some umumnya digunakan pada kata
benda dalam kalimat positif.
A dan an digunakan sebelum kata-kata benda berawalan huruf-huruf vocal (a,I,u,e,o).
akhiran –s umumnya digunakan dalam bentuk jamak concrete nouns. Namun khusus kata-kata
benda yang diakhiri huruf o, ch, sh, ss, dan x, bentuk jamaknya diberi akhiran –es,. Dalam kata-
kata benda diakhiri huruf y yang sebelumnya didahului huruf konsonan, akhiran –ies
ditambahkan untuk menunjukkan bentuk jamaknya . selanjutnya Jika kata-kata benda diakhiri
huruf f dan fe, maka bentuk jamaknya diberi akhiran – ves dengan terlebih dahulu menghepus
huruf f dan fe pada kata-kata tersebut. Perbandingan antara bentuk tunggal dengan bentuk
jamak concrete nouns tersebut dapat dilihat pada tabel di bawah ini

Tabel1
Bentuk tunggal dan jamak concrete nouns yang termasuk kategori countable nouns.

Bentuk Tunggal Bentuk Jamak

(singular forms) (plural forms)

A Cupboard (sebuah lemari) Cupboards (lemari-lemari)  cupboard + s

(kata diawali huruf konsonan) (umumnya bentuk jamak)

A Brush ( sebuah kuas) Brushes ( kuas-kuas ) brush + -es

(kata diawali huruf konsonan) (kata diakhiri huruf “sh”)

A Baby ( seorang bayi) Babies (bayi-bayi)baby + -ies

(kata diawali huruf konsonan) (kata diakhiri huruf “y” yang didahului huruf
konsonan,dalam hal ini huruf “b”)

A leaf ( sepucuk daun ) Some/Any leaves ( beberapa pucuk daun)  leaf

+ -ves
(kata diakhiri huruf “f” )

An eel (seekor belut) Many eels ( banyak belut )  eel + -s

(kata diawali huruf vocal ) ( umumnya bentuk jamak)

An eraser ( sebuah penghapus) A lot of erasers (banyak penghapus) eraser +

(kata diawali huruf vokal) -s
( umumnya berbentuk jamak )

Dalam bahasa inggris terdapat juga sekelompok kata benda yang memiliki bentuk jamaknya
sendiri (irregular plural forms). Bahkan beberapa jenis binatang seperti fish (ikan), deer (rusa),
dan sheep (domba) memiliki bentuk tunggal dan bentuk jamak yang sama.

Berikut ini merupakan contoh-contoh irregular plural forms.

- Child (anak)  Children (banyak anak)
- Foot (telapak kaki)  Feet(lebih dari sebuah telapak kaki)
- Goose (angsa)  Geese (agsa-angsa)
- Louse (kutu)  Lice (kutu-kutu)
- Man (laki-laki dewasa)  Men (lebih dari seorang laki-laki dewasa)
- Mouse (tikus)  Mice (tikus-tikus)
- Tooth (gigi)  Teeth (lebih dari sebuah gigi)
- Woman (perempuan dewasa)  Women (lebih dari seorang perempuan
dewasa)

Perbedaan dari concrete nouns dan abstract nouns yaitu, bahwa concrete nouns meliputi
kategori countableserta uncountable, sedangkan abstract noun hanya memiliki bentuk tunggal
saja ( atau lebih tepatnya bentuk kolektif).

Kata benda Much ink A lot of rice Some milk Any bread
berwujud
Kata benda Much pride A lot of effort Some advice Any hope
abstrak
Kalimat positif There is much My mother buy a The cats drink some (tidak dapat
(Affirmative ink to write a lot of rice at the milk from the bowl. digunakan dalam
Sentences) story. (ada market. (ibu (kucing-kucing itu kalimat
banyak tinta saya meminum sedikit positif,kecuali
untuk menulis membelibanyak susu di dalam menggunakan
sebuah cerita) beras di pasar) mangkuk itu) some).
He has too much Sarah puts a lot I neeed some advice There is some
pride to admit his of effort to win on my future career bread on this
mistake. (dia the singing from my friends. table his
terlau penuh competition. (saya membutuhkan morning. (ada
kebanggaan (sarah sedikit nasihat sedikit roti di atas
sehingga tidak mengeluarkan tentang karir dan meja pagi ini).
mengakui seluruh madsa depan dari
kesalahannya). kemampuannya teman-teman saya.
untuk
memenangkan
kontes menyanyi
itu)
There will be
some hope for
fixing the broken
vehicle. (masih
ada harapan
untuk
memperbaiki
kendaraan yang
rusak itu).
kalimat negatif There Is not My mother does The cats do not drink There is not any
(Negative much ik left to not buy a lot of some milk from the bread on the
sestences) write a sestence. rice at the bowl. (kucing-kucing table his
(tidak ada market. (ibu itu tidak meminum morning. (Tidak
banyak tinta saya tidak sedikit susu dari ada roti
 tersisa untuk membeli banyak dalam mangkuk itu). dihidangkan di
menulis sebuah beras di pasar). meja pagi ini).
kaimat)
He has not much Sarah does not I do not need some Thera will never
pride to put a lot of advice on my future by any hope for
defenthimself. effortto wi the career from my fixing the broken
(dia tidak singing friends. ( saya tidak vehicle. ( tidak
memiliki competition. membutuhkan sedikit aka nada
kebanggaan ( sarah tidak nasihat tentang karir harapan untuk
yang cukup mengeluarkan masa depan dari memperbaiki
untuk seluruh teman-teman saya). kendaraan Yang
mempertahankan kemampuannya rusak itu).
diri). untuk
memenangkan
kontes menyanyi
itu).
Kalimat tanya. ( tidak dapat ( tidak dapat ( tidak dapat Is there is any
(interrogative digunakan digunakan digunakan dalam bread on the
sestenses). dalamkalimat dalam kalimat kalimat Tanya table this
Tanya kecuali Tanya kecuali kecualimenggunakan morning?
menggunakan menggunakan any). (adakah roti
any). any). dihidangkan
diatas meja pagi
ini?)

Is there any ink Does my mother Do the cats drink any Will be there any
left? (Adakah buy any rice at milkt from the bowl? hope for fixing
tinta yang the market? (apakah kucing- the vehicle?
tersisa?). (Apakah ibu kucing meminum (adakah ada
saya membeli susu dri mangkuk harapan untuk
beras di pasar?). itu?). memperbaiki
kendaraan rusak
itu?). broken

Kesimpulan dari tabel di atas adalah, bahwa frasa a lot of dan some dapat diper
gunakan pada countable nouns dan uncountable nouns. Sementara itu, frasa many hanya
berlaku pada countable nouns dan frasa much hanya dapat ditempelkan pada uncountable
nouns.

4.PRONOUNS (KATA GANTI)

Adalah perangkat alternative yang digunakan dalam penyebutan kata-kata benda.
Misalnya tony dapat diganti menjadi he. Pronouns terdiri dari kata ganti orang( personal
pronouns), kata ganti petunjuk (demonstrative pronouns), kata ganti penghubung (relative
pronouns), dan kata ganti kepunyaan (possessive pronouns).
Bentuk tunggal dari personal pronouns adalah I( sayasubjek ) dan me (sayaobjek)
untuk kata ganti orang pertama tunggal ;you (kamusubjek dan objek)untuk kata ganti orang
kedua tunggal ;serta he,she,it dan him, her,ituntuk kata ganti orang ketiga tunggal. Selanjutnya
bentuk jamaknya adalah we, dan us untuk kata ganti orang pertama jamak; you untuk kata ganti
orang kedua jamak; serta they untuk kata ganti orang ketiga jamak.

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1. I have to prepare for the job interview tomorrow.
2. Every week, max visits me at the hospital.

Demonstrative mengacu pada kata-kata ganti petunjuk. Kata-kata ganti tersebut adalah
this, these, that, dan those. This dan those mengacu pada petunjuk ”ini”atau “orang/orang-
orang serta benda/ benda-benda yang letaknya dekat dengan subjek yang berbicara.
Sedangkan that dan those mengacu pada petunjuk “itu” atau orang-orang ” atau orang-orang
serta benda yang letaknya agak jauh atau benar-banar jauh dari dari subjek yang berbicara.

Contoh dalam kalimat:

1. This is an apricort.
2. Please pass me that paper.

Relative pronouns adalah kelompok kata ganti yang menghubungkan dua buah Klausa atau
kalimat. Relative pronoun berkaitan dengan relative clauses, relative pronoun digunakan pada
klausa kedua dalam kalimat. Klauasa –klausa dalam kalimat merupakan merpakan klausa
bawahan yang menambah informasi pada klausa utama. Relative clauses merupakan kelompok
dari klausa bawahan tersebut. Bedanya relative clauses ddengan main clauses adalah main
clauses berdiri sendiri karena memiliki subjek dan predikat yang merupakan syarat dari
dibangunnya sebuah klausa. Sebaliknya relative clauses harus menempel pada main clauses
dan tidak dapat berdiri sendiri karena hanya merupakan informasi tambahan.
Posesive pronoun merupakan kata ganta kepunyaan kelompok kata ini berhubungan
dengan posesive adjectives.

5.ADJEKTIVES (KATA SIFAT)

Adalah kelompok kata yang umumna menjelaskan kata benda. Jenis-jenis kata sifat:
1. Demonstrative adjectives
2. Distributive adjectives
3. Quantitive adjectives
4. Possesive adjectives
5. Adjektives of quality

Kata sifat memiliki bentuk comparative dan superlativeyang tidak beraturan. Berikut ini
merupakan daftar kata sifat yang tiddak beraturan tersebut:
1. Bad (jahat/buruk)worse (lebih jahat/ lebih buruk) worst (paling jahat / paling buruk)
2. Far (jauh) farther (lebih jauh atau menunjukkan jarak) further (lebih jauh, dalam
konteks yang lebih umum).
3. Good (baik)better (lebih baik) best (paling baikl).

6. VERBS (KATA KERJA)

 Adalah kelompok kata kerja dalam bahasa inggris yang berfungsi untuk menjelaskan
tindakan atau kegiatan tertentu yang dilakukan subjek. Kata kerja tersebut di bagi menjadi dua
yaitu kata kerja biasa dan kata kerja bantu.
Kata kerja biasa dibagi menjadi dua yaitu kata kerja beraturan (regular verbs) dan kata
kerja tidak beraturan (irregular verbs).perbedaan pada kedua kata kerja tersebutterletak pada
bentukan kata kerja yang terjadi. Kata kerja beraturan biasanya diberi akhiran –ed, untuk kata
kerja bentuk lampau (verb 2)serta kata kerja partciple/perfect(verb 3). Sebaliknya, kata kerja
tidak beraturan memiliki bentuk lampau dan participle/perfect yang khusus.
Kata kerja dapat digolongkan pula menjadi transitive verbs dan intransitive verbs.
Transitive verbs berfungsi untuk menjelaskan subjek yang melakukan tindakan atau kegiatan
tertentu, sedangkan intransitive verbs berfungsi untuk menjelaskan orang-orang atau hal-hal
yang dilenai kegiatan atau tindakan tersebut.

Contoh kata kerja yang termasuk dalam kategori transitive verbs:

-. Begin -. Change -. finish
-. Bend -. close -. increase
-. Break -. decrease -. move
-. Burn -. drop -. Open
 7. ADVERBS (KATA KETERANGAN)

Adalah kata-kata yang menerangkan kata kerja, kata sifat, atau kata keterangan lainnya. Biasanya
adverbs dibentuk dari kata-kata sifat yang di beri akhiran –ly untuk menyatakan cara (adverb of manner),
seperti bravely, carefully, happily, quickly, dan sebagainya. Beberapa adverb memiliki bentuk yang sama
dengan adjectives, perbedaan diantaranya tentu saja terletak pada fungsinya. Adverbs berfungsi untuk
menjelaskan kata benda, kata sifat, atau kata keterangan lainnya. Sedangkan kata kerja adjectives
berfungsi untuk menjelaskan kata benda.

8. MODAL AND AUXILIARIES (KATA BANTU)

Kata kerja bantu dalam bahasa inggris berfungsi sebagai pengganti predikat atau kata kerja (verbs).
Atau mmengunkapkan ekspresi tertentu tentang suatu hal. Kata kerja bantu terbagi menjadi tiga bagian,
yaitu principal auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries, dan semi modals.
Principal auxiliaries terdiri atas:
1. To be (is, am, are, dsb)
2. To have (have, has, had)
3. To do (do, does, did,dsb)

Modals auxiliaries terdiri atas:

1. Can/could
2. May/might
3. Must, had to, ought.
4. Shall/should
5. Will/would.
Semi modals terdii atas:
1. To need
2. To dare
3. Used.
Principal auxiliaries memiliki 3 bentuk, yaitu bentuk present tense, past tense, dan past participle.
Modal auxiliaries biasanya menyatakan keadaan tertentu yang dilekatkan pada tindakan atau kegiatan
tertentu pula.Semi modals umumnya digunakan dengan kata kerja asal (verb 1).

9. TENSES (BENTUK-BENTUK WAKTU DALAM KALIMAT BAHASA INGGRIS)

Tenses merupakan bentuk-bentuk dari kelompok kata kerja yang menyatakan waktu dari tindakan-
tindakan tertentu yang direpresentasikan kelompok kata kerja tersebut. Konstruksi enses sangat penting
dalam bahasa inggris karena setiap kalimat atau klausa ditulis atau dinyatakan berdasarkan aturan atau
pola bentuk-bentuk waktu tersebut.
Tenses terdiri atas empat bagian, yaitu:
1. Present tenses (bentuk-bentuk waktu sekarang).
2. Past tenses (bentuk-bentuk waktu lampau).
3. Future tenses (bentuk-bentuk aktu yang akan datang).
4. Past future tenses (bentuk-bentuk waktu akan datang-lampau).

1. Present tenses
Present tensesterbagi kedalam simple present tense, present continuous tense, present perfect
tense, dan present perfect continuous tense.
Simple present tense merupakan bentuk waktu yang biasanya digunakan untuk menyatakan suatu
perbuatan yang dilakukan karena kebiasaan.

Pola-pola kalimat untuk simple present tense adalah sebagai berikut:

Kalimat positif  I,you, we, they + Verb 1

 She, he, it + Verb 1+-s/-es
Kalimat negatif  I, you, we, they +do +not + Verb 1
She,he,it, +does +not + Verb 1
Kalimat pertanyaan  Do + I, you, we, they + Verb ?
Does + she, he, it + Verb ?

Present continuous tense merupakan bentuk waktu yag di gunakan untik menyatakan tindakan tertentu
yang tengah dilakukan ole subjek. Present continuous tense ditandai oleh pnggunaan akhiran –ing
dibelakang kata kerja asal (verb 1).

Pola-pola kalimat untuk present continuous tense adalah sebagai berikut:

Kalimat positif  I + Am + Verb 1 +-ing

You, we, they + Are + Verb 1 +-ing
She, he, it + is + Verb 1 +-ing

Kalimat negatif  I + Am + not + Verb 1 +-ing

You,we, they + Are + not + Verb 1 +-ing
She, he, it + Is + is + Verb 1 +-ing
Kalimat pertanyaan  Am + I + Verb 1 +-ing?
Are + Yoy, we, they + Verb 1 +-ing?
Is + She, he, it + Verb 1 +-ing?

Present perfect tense adalah bentuk waktu yang mengacu pada tindakan tertentu yang telah subjek
dalam masa sekarang.

Pola-pola kalimat untuk present perfect tense adalah sebagi berikut:

Kalimat positif  I, you, we, they + Have + Verb3

She, he, it + Has + Verb3
Kalimat negatif  I, you, we, they + Have + not + Verb3
She, he, it + Has + not + Verb3
Kalimat pertayaan  Have + I, you, we, they + Verb3?
Has + She, he, it + Verb3?

Present Perfect Continious tense adalah bentuk waktu yang dipakai untuk menjelaskan bahwa
suatu tindakan

10.Conditional Sentences
(Designed using “Advanced English Practice”, by B.D. Graver, Oxford University Press, 1988)

Preliminary comment: Conditional sentences are not the conditional tense (would + to-less infinitive).
Conditional sentences are made up of two clauses, one with a conjunction, often if. E.g.: If you like it, you
can keep it. These two clauses can be reversed: You can keep it if you like it. Notice the use of the comma.
The Conditional tense is formed with “would” + bare infinitive.

Remember: hubiera o hubiese = had; habría = would have.

Type O: cause and effect If + present present

These sentences are statements of universal truth or general validity. If corresponds closely in meaning to
when(ever).

What happens when you don’t water plants?; If you don’t water plants, they die

Generally speaking, when it is raining, people get blue

Statements like this commonly appear in factual discussions or explanatory (scientific and technical) texts.
There can be a variation past/past. In the Middle Ages, when it was raining people got blue. In both cases,
present-present, past-past, notice the tenses in both clauses are the same.

Type 1: open conditions If + present will; will + another modal; or Imperative

Open conditions are conditions that may or may not be fulfilled. We make them when the action or event
mentioned in the conditional clause is being considered, is under discussion or appears likely to happen:
If you lose it, I’ll kill you!; If you lose it, I’ll have to kill you; If you lose it, commit suicide!

Type 2: tentative, hypothetical and unreal conditions If + past would-modal

(present or future time reference)

The conditional clause here represents what is:

Degrees of decreasing probability Examples

Possible: Suppositional or tentative but If we caught the next train, we’d get there on time.
possible
Compare this (more suppositional) with this: If we
catch the next train, we’ll get there on time. Type 2
is sometimes used to be more polite, really, less
pushy!

Hypothetical/imaginary but not impossible If I won the lottery, I’d quit my job.

(day-dreaming)

Contrary to present fact, unreal situation If I knew how it worked [I actually don’t know!], I’d
tell you how to use it.
conveyed by the use of the past in the cond.
cl.

The verb in the conditional clause represents the attitude of thee speaker towards the conditions, not time
(which is indicated by other elements in the situation, if any).

I wish / If only / I’d rather / It’s (about/high) time

There is a set of expressions which force us to use the past tense: I wish you were here; If only we found
it!; I’d rather you spoke frankly; It’s time we left.

Whenever we want to invite co-operation or indicate that people or events frustrate our desires, instead of
the past we use would: I wish you would hurry up!; I wish it’d stop raining! If only it’d stop raining!
Type 3: unreal conditions If + past perfect perfect modal
(past time reference)
Completely hypothetical situations, totally contrary to past fact!

If we had caught that train, we’d have arrived on time! [Bloody hell! We didn’t catch it!]

Conjunctions introducing conditional sentences Si… = If; Si no / A no ser que… = Unless

Type 0: IF = WHEN(EVER) – If I make a promise, I keep it.

IF = AS, SINCE, BECAUSE – If you haven’t done your homework, you won’t be able to follow this lesson.

SUPPOSE/SUPPOSING – Suppose I go to NY, what will you do? Suppose I went to NY, what would you
do? Suppose I had been to New York, what would you have done?

Also, ON CONDITION/PROVIDED, AS LONG AS

11. THE PASSIVE VOICE

What is the passive voice?

Verbs in English may be in either the active or the passive voice. Active verbs are more common. Look at
this example of a sentence containing an active verb:

The police officer arrested the suspect.

In this sentence, someone does something. The subject of the sentence (The police officer) is the person
who did the action (arresting the suspect). The verb (arrested) is in the active voice.

The sentence is made up of subject + verb + object (or doer + action + receiver of action)

We could express the same information in the passive voice, like this:

The suspect was arrested by the police officer.

In this sentence, someone has something done to them. Now, the subject of the sentence (the suspect) is
the receiver of the action. The doer of the action (or agent) is mentioned only at the end.

Here are a few more examples:

Active sentence Passive sentence

Smoking causes cancer Cancer is caused by smoking

Dogs bite postmen Postmen are bitten by dogs

We heated the solution The solution was heated

How can I recognise a passive verb?

The passive verb phrases in the examples all have two parts:
1. The auxiliary verb to be (am/are/is/was/were/being)
2. A passive participle. It often ends in -ed or -en. Some verbs use the same form for past tense and
passive participle. Other verbs use two separate forms. (Note that the passive participle is more
usually referred to as the past participle - an odd name as its use is not restricted to the past, but
you may prefer to use it because it is widely recognised.)

Here are a few examples:

Present tense Past tense Passive participle

Why do we
I eat a lot of chips I ate a pizza My uncle was eaten by a lion use
passive
I sing out of tune I sang all night The carols were sung by a verbs?
choir 1. We
may
He steals cars Someone stole my car My car was stolen (by
someone)

Cats catch mice Her cat caught a mouse The mouse was caught by a
cat

We watch too much TV I watched the news It is watched by millions

simply want to emphasise the victim of the action rather than the agent (the person who did it). Am I
writing a story about a cat or a story about a mouse?
2. It allows us to describe an action or event without mentioning the agent. We do not have to add "by
someone". There is no point in adding, "by someone" after "my car was stolen" because I do not
know who the thief is. Instead of "I heated the solution", scientists usually prefer "The solution was
heated". They want to describe the experiment, not the person doing it. If I don't want to own up, I
may say, "the window was broken" rather than "I broke the window".

The passive often sounds rather more impressive or formal than the active.
Is it a good thing?

It is often very useful to be able to use the passive. Unfortunately, it is often misused. As we have just said,
people sometimes choose the passive because they want to sound important or formal. This can easily lead
to a clumsy, impersonal and pompous style. Compare "We have received your letter" and "Your letter has
been received", for example. Passive sentences are usually longer than active ones. They seem less
direct. For these reasons they are often criticised.

Why do I need to know about the passive voice?

 The passive is often a significant stylistic feature. It is characteristic of certain varieties of writing so
there are likely to be opportunities in the exam to discuss examples in relation to
writer/audience/context/ purpose.

 You should be monitoring your own writing to check how often you use passive verbs where active
verbs would be better.
  For module 4, you may be investigating varieties of English in which the passive voice is widely
used, such as some legal and scientific genres.

 The passive voice is among the last constructions to be acquired by children. It is also likely to cause
difficulties for children learning to read.

12.Direct and Indirect Speech

When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes. Usually indirect speech is
introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Bill said, or they said. Using the verb say in
this tense, indicates that something was said in the past. In these cases, the main verb
in the reported sentence is put in the past. If the main verb is already in a past tense,
then the tense changes to another past tense; it can almost be seen as moving even
further into the past.

Verb tense changes also characterize other situations using indirect speech. Note the
changes shown in the chart and see the table below for examples. With indirect
speech, the use of that is optional.

Direct Speech  Indirect Speech

simple present  simple past

He said, “I go to school every day.” He said (that) he went to school every day.

simple past  past perfect

He said, “I went to school every day.” He said (that) he had gone to school every day.

present perfect  past perfect

He said, “I have gone to school every day.” He said (that) he had gone to school every day.

present progressive  past progressive

He said, “I am going to school every day.” He said (that) he was going to school every day.

past progressive  perfect progressive

He said, “I was going to school every day.” He said (that) he had been going to school every day,
future (will)  would + verb name
He said, “I will go to school every day.” He said (that) he would go to school every day.

future (going to)  present progressive

He said, “I am going to school every day.” He said (that) he is going to school every day.

  past progressive
He said (that) he was going to school every day

Direct Speech  Indirect Speech

auxiliary + verb name  simple past

He said, “Do you go to school every day?” He asked me if I went to school every day.*
He said, “Where do you go to school?” He asked me where I went to school.

imperative  infinitive
He said, “Go to school every day.” He said to go to school every day.

*Note than when a Yes/No question is being asked in direct speech, then a construction
with if or whether is used. If a WH question is being asked, then use the WH to
introduce the clause. Also note that with indirect speech, these are examples of
embedded questions.

The situation changes if instead of the common said another part of the very to say is
used. In that case the verb tenses usually remain the same. Some examples of this
situation are given below.

Direct Speech  Indirect Speech

simple present + simple present  simple present + simple present

He says, “I go to school every day.” He says (that) he goes to school every day.

present perfect + simple present  present perfect + simple present

He has said, “I go to school every day.” He has said (that) he goes to school every
day.

past progressive + simple past  past progressive + simple past

He was saying, “I went to school every day.” He was saying (that) he went to school every
day.

  past progressive + past perfect

 He was saying (that) he had gone to school
every day.

future + simple present  future + simple present

He will say, “I go to school every day.” He will say (that) he goes to school every
day.

Another situation is the one in which modal constructions are used. If the verb said is used,
then the form of the modal, or another modal that has a past meaning is used.

Direct Speech  Indirect Speech

can  could
He said, “I can go to school every day.” He said (that) he could go to school every
day.

may  might
He said, “I may go to school every day.” He said (that) he might go to school
every day.

might    
He said, “I might go to school every day.”

must  had to
He said, “I must go to school every day.” He said (that) he had to go to school
every day.

have to    
He said, “I have to go to school every day.”

should  should
He said, “I should go to school every day.” He said (that) he should go to school
every day.

ought to  ought to
He said, “I ought to go to school every day.” He said (that) he ought to go to school
every day.

While not all of the possibilities have been listed here, there are enough to provide
examples of the main rules governing the use of indirect or reported speech. For other
situations, try to extrapolate from the examples here, or better still, refer to a good
grammar text or reference book.
Some other verbs that can be used to introduce direct speech are: ask, report, tell,
announce, suggest, and inquire. They are not used interchangeably; check a grammar
or usage book for further information.

13. Common Preposition Combinations

but we have enough money.

Both Peter “In
neither true nor realistic. English,
Not only do we want to go many
and I are coming next week. nouns,
Either Jack will have to work more hours verbs,
either his career or his hobby.
and
That story was

but also use their instincts if they do not know

Students who do well not only study hard
the answer.

In the end he had to choose

or we will have to hire somebody new.
adjectives are commonly followed by prepositions. If you are not sure whether to use a preposition with
a particular word or if you are not sure which preposition to use, look up the word in [the] dictionary. “1
Often different prepositions used with the same word indicate different senses of the word, e.g.
concerned about (worried) vs. concerned in (involved in or affected by), or different relations of the word
to the noun phrase after the preposition, e.g. angry at (a person) or angry about (something).

The following is a list of words commonly used by students at Claremont School of Theology followed by
their prepositions.

Words that don’t take prepositions:

consider, discuss, influence (active verb form), comprise (active verb form), parallel (active verb
form), emphasize (active verb form)

14. Conjunctions Practice Worksheet

A. Match the sentence halves to make a complete sentence. Draw lines between the two

15.Agreement of the verb with the subject

Singular subjects take singular verbs

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

 He is my friend. (Here the singular verb is agrees with the singular subject he.)
 We are waiting to hear from you. (Here the plural verb are agrees with the plural subject
we.)

Sometimes due to what is called ‘the error of proximity’ a verb is made to agree with the nearest
noun, and not its proper subject. This practice should be avoided.
1
Consider the examples given below:

 The quality of the apples wasn’t very good. (NOT The quality of the apples weren’t very
good. Here the proper subject is the abstract noun ‘quality’ and not ‘apples’.)
 His proficiency in Indian languages is remarkable. (Here the proper subject is the singular
abstract noun ‘proficiency’ and not ‘languages’.)

as well as

We use singular verbs with a singular subject followed by ‘with’ or ‘as well as’.

 The manager, with his subordinates, is to be present at the venue. (NOT The manager with his
subordinates are …)
 Alice, as well as her sisters, has been invited. (NOT Alice as well as her sisters have been invited.)
 Sanskrit, as well as Arabic, is taught here.

When one of the subjects joined by or or nor is plural, the verb must be plural in number, and the plural
subject should be placed nearest to the verb.

 Neither the officer nor his subordinates were present at the meeting.

When the subjects joined by or or nor are of different persons, the verb agrees with the nearest noun.

 Either he or you are mistaken. (Here the verb are agrees with the nearest pronoun you.)
 Neither he nor I am interested. (Here the verb am agrees with the nearest pronoun I.)

It is better to avoid these constructions and to write:

 He is mistaken, or else you are.

 He is not interested, nor am I.

Either, neither etc.

Either, neither, each, everyone and many a must be followed by a singular verb.

 Neither of the applicants is suitable for the job.

 Many a man has succumbed to this temptation.
 Everyone of us loves riding.