CRITICAL THEORY Selected Essays MAX HORKHEIMER ‘TRANSLATED BY MATTHEW J. O'CONNELL AND OTHERS ‘CONTINUUM « NEW YORKa9 “Te Con PabitingCoportn ‘new Yor Mes 300 017 “oe sty ath wom ony app in Bok farm in he clition ‘isch Toone Ma Horo, os Ta 619005 8 Face og ‘Gb Fait im Na nal an copy © 1972 by Herder and ener. efor ays ‘ct stand a Cae” nf "Te Socal Panes of Pacing wes ‘Saal apps Egat in Sue Poop ond Soo! Sse A gs rene No yr of hs pueaon may be repatot,srdin ‘censor, na rm a) men toi meta ‘Bl photcoping marine other, witoa te pe weit permis FH Corel Passe Copan, Prd in he Uso Stes of Are Lay of Congr Cason in Paeation Dae Trwtnton Kes Tore “Ete rome Zech fr Snore epi Sips hwo ay Ps 197, fs Nblopapia ese cont neato 6 Sate Roose ‘Sane and he csi” Matra sod maupeyse [te] 1 Phtocnny Adres eye, ct 1a BoM HUNES 9 193 San bone ph) (GreviayISBN Osl6e2727) CONTENTS PREPACE ‘TRADITIONAL ARD CRITICAL THEORY 10 a 129 132 188 24 253 23f E i f F TRADITIONAL AND CRITICAL THEORY Whar is “theory? The qution seems a rather easy one for contemporary snc. Theory for mow reste se Same tot of proposions abouts ssbet, th proposition being eked chor at fv a tse dee ce The umber of pricy pcs f2 compacta withthe deviony theo pee the ery, ‘Be rea way ofthe theory depend on te derived tions ting contonant with the seal fst I experience a thery consi ach ter, oe the tro mas be ean Eiherth scott ht fae fo oberve soy or someting is wrong withthe pencils of he hry. In lon to fre Shree theory says tomate hypothe. One mos ready to change its weknset begat show one woos through the material. Theory is tore-up knoe, po a form that makes i wel forthe elses poste dscptin of fac. Peaearé computes aceasta rary thet mst ees ley expand. Experimental phys the Basin hotles care of acquisitions, thet, eorices Knowedpe by sopiing, new materi. Mahe ye the theory of atl nce i the sicetsente—ieops te ailogues witout catlogue one wold have oo acre fo the Ura Hh oe tens. "That he rle of mathemati lyse. I mut ies erat, 40 at to ines what I've aed ust ace {be cuput of scence” Th general goal ofall thay f = Univeral yuo sacs, not linked to any pater se 1, Hens Poincard, Sconce and Hypotht.yy Wola) ets) ‘pease (Londons Water Sot 1508), ps 1aS” 188 : —- ject matter bat embracing all posible objects. The division of ‘elences is being broken down by desving the principles for special areas from th same basic premise. The same conceptual apparatus which was elaborated for the analysis of inanimate nature is serving to clasify animate nature as wel, and anyone ‘who has once mastered the use of that is, the rules for deiva- ‘on, the symbols, the process of comparing derived propositions ‘with observable fact, can use it at any time. But we are sill Father far from such an ideal situation, ‘Suc, in its broad lines, is the widely acceeed idea of what sheory is Ts oxgins supposedly coincide with the beginnings ‘of modern philosophy. The thd maxim in Descartes’ scientific ‘method isthe deision ‘9 camy on my refestions in dve onder, commencing with objets Shut were the ost simple and easy to understand, In order Uo Hse Jule by lit, or by degrees, to knowledge of the most complex, ‘ssuming an ovr, oven ifs fetions ope, among thou which do ot fliw a natural sequence relative fo one anobe. The devivation as usually practice in mathematics isto be ap- plied to all science. Tho order in tho world is eapaued by a educcve chain of thought. ‘Tews long chains of deductive reasoning, simple and ey as they sz of which geomstrcians make use in order to arsve at tbe most ‘Hfcult demonstrations, had caused me to imagine that all those ‘Bing which fall under the cogeizance of men might very likely be ‘Sutally rest in the sane fashion; and that, provided only that fe absuin from receiving anything 2s true which is not 0, and ‘Says retain the order whichis necessary In order to deuce the ne conclusion from the ether, there can be nothing so remote that "Se cannot reach toi, nor so seconde that we cannot discover it Depending on the logician’: own generl philosophical out Jook, the most universal proposition from which the deduction | Seg are themselves regarded as experiential judgments, as 2 Desanes, Dicowse on Method, la, The Phlowopical Works of ecan, by Bluabeth Haldane and G, RT, Ross (Cambegst rersty Press 1951), volume p92 189{inductions (s with John Start Mil), as evident insights (asin rationalist and phenomenojogicl schools), or a8 azbiteary pos tulates (as in the modern axiomatic approach). In the mos. advanced logic ofthe present tims, as represnted by Husse’s Logische Untersuhungen, theory Is defined “as sn enclosed stem of proposiians for a science as a whole”? Theory in the fullest sente is“: systematieally Hnked set of propasions, taking the form of a spstematially unified deduction." Seienoe is “a certain totality of propositions . .., emerging in one or other manner from theoretical work, inthe systematic order of which propositions a certen totality of objects acquires defini on." The base requiremer? which any theoretical system must satsty is that all the parts should iatermesh thoroughly and ‘without frietion, Harmony, which includes lek of eontradietons, and the absence of superfluous, purely dogmatic element which Ihave no iaucnee on the observable phenomens,aze necessary ‘conctions, according to Weyl Tn so for es this trtionsl conception of theory shows a tendency, itis towards a purely mathematica system of symbol [As elements of the theory, a5 components of the propositions ‘and conclusions there ate ever fewer aames of experiential objects and ever more numerous mathematical symbols. Even ‘the Togial operations themselves have already been s0 ras tionalized that, in largo areas of natural siene at las, theory formation has become a mutter of mathematcal contruction, ‘The scenoes of man and society have attempted to follow the lead ofthe natural sclenoes with thelr great successes, The dliference between those schools of socal sienee which are more oriented to the investigation of fais and thove which ‘concentate more on principles has nothing diretly 1 do with the concept of theory as such, The assiduous collecting of fats 1, Bimund Hus, Formale und ancendenale Logit ‘Halle wi0)-p ia ‘top. et p78 & Hermans Want’ Phlotophie der Naturwiseschft, in Handbuch ep Paap, Ba 2 (Seni Denny BET). Fp. Hh 190 ‘all the dicilines dealing with soc it, the gubeing of estas of tal in comzeton wih problems, the empirical ies, cough carta guestomaies and ober means, which "sw a ajo pat of scholarly att, especialy i te Anlo- Shxon univers since Spenee?’s ine—all hs ad up to patem whichis, ouvardy, much like he rest of fife in a SSiety dominated by inden production techniques. Sich ‘2 approach sees gute diferent fom the formulation of ab- ‘rel principles andthe analy of base conepts by an rm Scholar, Which are (piel, for example, of one seer of German socitogy. Yee tae diverzenors do ot sg save i sural dilerence in ways of thinking. In rent periods of con- ‘emporary sociely the so-clled human studies Geisteswisen- -chaften) have bad but a fuctwating market lve and must try ‘imitate the more prosperous natural sciences whose practical ‘alue is beyond question. ‘There can be no doubt, in fact, that the various shoots of sociology have an identical conception of theory and that Its Se same as theory inthe natural Sciences. Empirically ociented sociologists have the seme idea of what 2 fully elaborated ‘Seory should be as their theovetically oviented brethren. The fermer, indeed, are persuaded that in view of the complesty Sf social problems aad the present st f science any con germ with genel principles mast be regarded ap indolent and ‘Bl, If theoretical work is 0 be done, it must be done with an age unwaveringly onthe facts; there ean be no thought inthe freseeable fture of comprehensive theoretical. statements These echolam are much enamored of the methods of exact formulation and, in particular, of mathematical procedares, hich are especially congenial to the conception of theory de- ‘kre above, What they object to is not $0 much theory 38 such but toories span out oftheir heads by men who have 20 ‘eronal experience ofthe problems of an experimental scence, ‘Distinctions lke those between community and society (Tn- 5), mechanical and organic solidarity (Durkizim), or ealtare sd Gilization (A. Weber) as basic forms of human sociality ove to be of questionable value as soon a8 one attempis t0 191ply tem wo concrete problems. The way tht sociology mst take nth present stato esearhis (taped) the abras scot from the deepon of soci phenomena to dale omprions and ony then f th formstin of general conse ‘of the Kantian ertgue of reason. Reason eannot become 23> ‘parent (0 ive as long as men act as members of an organise: ‘Which lacks reason. Organism as a naturally developing and d= lining unity cannot be a sort of model for society, but only 2 form of deadened existence from which society must eman pate sell. An attiude which aims at such an emancipatice and at an alteration of society as 2 whole aight well be cf service in theoretical work carried on within reality as preseay ordered. But it lacks the pragmatic characer which attaches ‘traditional thought ass socially useful prcessional activity "In traditional theoretical thinking, the genesis of particule objective facs, the practical application of the concepeual sj tems by which it grasps the facs, and the role of such syst=s {in aeton, a all taken to be exteosl tothe theoretical thinking itsee. This alienation, which finds expression in philosophica) terminology as the separation of value and research, knowledge ‘nd action, and other polarities, protects the savant from te tensions we have indicated ard provides an assured frame 208 a oii iia ee Na ii asa: for his ecivity. Yet a kind of thinking which does not accept this framework seems to have the ground taken out from under it Ma theoretical doesnot take the form of determin ing objective facts with the help ofthe simplest and most difr- ented conceptual systems available, what ean it be but an ainless intellectual game, half conceptual pocty, half impotent ‘apression of sties of mind? The ibvestigation ino the social conditioning of fact» and theories may indeed be a research problem, perhaps even a whole field for theoretical work, But hhow can such studies be radically dierent from other spo- cialzed eflors? Research into ideologies, or sociology of know edge, which has been taken over from the cial theory of society and established as a special discipline, is not opposed cither ints sim or in its other ambitions to the sual activites ‘that go on within clssifiatory scence, In this reaction to ertical theory, the selt-avareness of ‘thought as such is reduced to the discovery of the relaton- ship chat exists between intellectual postions and their social location. Yet the structure of the cfitical atte, inasmuch its intentions. go beyond prevailing socal ways of sedng, {sno more closely related to social disciplines thus conceived than it i to natural science. Its opposition to the tradi tional concept of theory springs in general from a dference rot so much of objects at of subjects. For men of the exiial rind, te facts, as they emerge from the work of society, are ‘not extinsic in the same degree as they are forthe savant oF {for members of other professions who al thnk ite ite savant. ‘The later look towards a new kind of orgenzation of work But in so far asthe objective realities given in perception are conceived as products which in principle should be under fnuman contol and, in the future atleast, wil in fact come under i, these realities lose the character of pure factality. "The scholarly specialist “as” scientist regards social reality and its products #8 extrinsic to him, and "as" citizen exercises his intrest in them through politcal artes, membership in poltical parties or social service organizations, and participa fon in eleeons. But he does not unity these two activites, and 209his oer ais a we, exp, a Dont ty peo Interpretation, Ciel thinking, on the corary 8 mote tay yh ert lice he ein 8 aah ths eppoion bemeen the sna’ purposes, spon tency end ratnaly, sd thre work proces relationships ‘on wich soiy bul, Cea hoops conept of mat fs in conic with inst unl is opposition is removed. It fetivgy governed by reason is proper (0 man, then exisest focal pas, wish forms th nal’ ie dow ts ast {tia inhuman, and is inhomaniy set everything ht goes on inthe soy, Tere wl alvays be someting at is Etiscto. mans intelectual and mca ci, namely str a the rotliy ofa yet unmastereé elements wih which focity must ea. But when stsions which really pend on Ian alone, the selaonshps of men i thee Work, abd Se ose cf man's owa story ae alto accounted part of “nate,” the reslancexinwcly tot only ata supraitorcal eters category (even pure nae in the Sense etre fs nt that), butt sign of comemtie weakoes To surende sich ‘reales i nonman andiraonal ‘Bourgeois thought i so consid hat fn reeeton on the subject whieh excrces such thought a Tosa necessity frees, ittorengnize en ego which imagines sel tobe atonomoss Bourget thought evenly asc, and ts pine an inddulty whic infty Belts oe tobe the sound of the word or evento be the old witout guication, an ioe idol sepsted off fom ever. The diet contrary of ch fotos th atti wc oles the incl o Be he we Problema expresdon of an already consuted soley an Example would be antontatdelogy. Here the taal"? {Staten sro =pesh i cepted a the orgn ofthe com> tang Inte internal ren soe of our ds, sch sinking Shoop in socal quests, ies tonexser Simic and ‘sey. ical thong and is theory are oppose to bah the types of inking ost desebed. Cia! Tunking Is the incon 210 silo naa eee ee weigea: ee ER te RE: ether ofthe isolated individual nor of e sum-total of individ ‘as Is subject is rather a definite individual in hie real relation ‘0 other individuals and groups, in his conflict witha particular clas, and, finaly, inthe resultant web of relationships with the foci totaty and with nature, The subject is no mathematical point like the ego of bourgeois philosophy: his activity is the onstruction of the social present. Furthermore, the thinking subject isnot the place where knowledge and object coincide, ‘or consequently the starting-point for attaining absoute know ‘%ge, Such an illusion aboot the thinking subject, under which ‘ealsm has lived since Descartes, is ideology in the strict sense, for init the limited freedom of the bourgeis individual puts on ‘he illusory form of perfect feedom and autonomy. AS @ mater fact, however, ina society which i untranspareat and without selfawareness the ego, whether active simply as thinker or ‘sete in other ways a8 well, i unsuze of itelf oo, Ia refeedon, fon man, subject and object are sundered; their identity lies in ‘he future, not in the present. The method leading to such an. ‘entation may be called explanation in Cartesian language, ut in genuinely ecieal thought explanation signies not oaly ‘logical process but a conerete historical one ts well, In the ‘oure oft both the socal structure as a whole andthe relation ofthe theoreisian to society are altered, that s both the subject sad the role of thought are changed, ‘The acceptance of an