Table of Contents

Preface xiii
Continuing Education Units xix
About the Software xxi

Chapter 1 Introduction to Floodplain Modeling and

Management 1
1.1 A Brief History of Floodplain Management 1
1.2 Floodplain Modeling 6
1.3 Types of Floodplain Studies 7
Floodplain Studies ......................................................................... 7
Transportation Facilities ............................................................... 9
Floodways/Encroachments .......................................................... 9
Structural Measures..................................................................... 10
1.4 Chapter Summary 11

Chapter 2 Introduction to Open Channel Hydraulics 13

2.1 Terminology 13
Depth of Flow............................................................................... 16
Channel Top Width and Wetted Perimeter ............................. 17
Hydraulic Depth and Hydraulic Radius. ................................. 18
Discharge....................................................................................... 18
Velocity.......................................................................................... 19
Slopes............................................................................................. 22
2.2 Flow Classification 23
Steady and Unsteady Flow......................................................... 23
Uniform and Varied Flow .......................................................... 23
Gradually and Rapidly Varied Flow......................................... 25
Subcritical and Supercritical Flow............................................. 26
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2.3 Fundamental Equations 29

The Continuity Equation.............................................................29
The Energy Equation ...................................................................29
The Momentum Equation ...........................................................30
The Chézy and Manning Equations ..........................................35
2.4 Energy and Momentum Concepts 37
Specific Energy and Alternate Depths ......................................38
Critical Depth................................................................................40
Normal Depth...............................................................................42
The Hydraulic Jump ....................................................................43
2.5 Profile Shapes 45
Governing Equations...................................................................45
Profile Classification ....................................................................46
2.6 Computational Methods 52
Direct Step Method ......................................................................52
Standard Step Method.................................................................56
2.7 Chapter Summary 69

Chapter 3 Hydraulic Modeling Tools 75

3.1 Uniform Flow 76
3.2 Gradually Varied, Steady Flow 76
HEC-2.............................................................................................77
HEC-RAS for Steady Flow..........................................................78
WSP-2.............................................................................................79
WSPRO (HY-7) .............................................................................80
3.3 Quasi-Unsteady Flow 80
HEC-1/HEC-HMS ........................................................................80
TR20................................................................................................81
PondPack .......................................................................................81
3.4 Gradually Varied, Unsteady Flow (One-Dimensional) 81
HEC-UNET ...................................................................................83
HEC-RAS, Unsteady Flow ..........................................................84
FLDWAV .......................................................................................85
FEQ.................................................................................................87
3.5 Gradually Varied, Unsteady Flow (Two-Dimensional) 87
RMA2 .............................................................................................88
FESWMS-2DH ..............................................................................90
3.6 Gradually Varied, Unsteady Flow (Three-Dimensional) 90
RMA10 ...........................................................................................90
3.7 Sediment Models 90
HEC-6.............................................................................................92
SED2D ............................................................................................92
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3.8 Physical Models 93

3.9 Selecting a Simulation Program 94
3.10 Chapter Summary 95

Chapter 4 Planning for Floodplain Modeling Studies 97

4.1 Ten Steps of Floodplain Modeling 98
Step 1: Setting Project and Study Objectives............................ 99
Step 2: Study Phases .................................................................. 100
Step 3: Field Reconnaissance.................................................... 101
Step 4: Determining the Type of Hydrologic/Hydraulic
Simulation Needed ................................................................ 103
Step 5: Determining Data Needs ............................................. 104
Step 6: Defining Hydrologic Modeling Procedures.............. 106
Step 7: Performing Data Input and Calibration .................... 107
Step 8: Performing Production Runs for Base Conditions... 107
Step 9: Performing Project Evaluations .................................. 107
Step 10: Preparing the Report .................................................. 108
4.2 Chapter Summary 109

Chapter 5 Data Needs, Availability, and

Development 111
5.1 Data Sources 111
Stream Gage Data ...................................................................... 111
Previous Studies......................................................................... 112
Mapping and Aerial Photos ..................................................... 113
5.2 Study Limits and Boundary Determinations 114
Hydraulic Boundaries ............................................................... 114
Sediment Boundaries ................................................................ 120
5.3 Geometric Data 121
Assessing Existing Topographic Data .................................... 121
Aerial Photographs and Site Visits.......................................... 121
Locating and Modeling Cross Sections .................................. 122
Cross-Section Modeling Information...................................... 126
Geometric Data for Obstructions............................................. 129
Reach Length Information........................................................ 130
Survey Data Accuracy............................................................... 130
5.4 Discharge Data 135
Previous Study Information..................................................... 136
Gage Data.................................................................................... 136
Statistical Analysis ..................................................................... 138
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Regional Analysis.......................................................................139
Watershed Modeling .................................................................142
5.5 Roughness Data 144
Estimation of Manning’s n........................................................144
Other Techniques to Estimate n ...............................................155
5.6 Other Data 156
Contraction/Expansion Coefficients........................................156
Sediment Data.............................................................................157
Future Changes...........................................................................158
5.7 Routing Data 158
5.8 Calibration and Verification Needs 159
Calibration Data .........................................................................159
5.9 Chapter Summary 163

Chapter 6 Bridge Modeling 167

6.1 The Effects of a Bridge on Water Flow 167
6.2 Low Flow Through Bridges 170
Equations for Low Flow ............................................................170
Class A Low Flow ......................................................................175
Class B Low Flow .......................................................................175
Class C Low Flow.......................................................................176
6.3 High Flow Through Bridges 176
The Bridge as a Sluice Gate.......................................................177
The Bridge as an Orifice ............................................................178
The Bridge as a Weir..................................................................179
Combination Flow......................................................................182
6.4 Defining Bridge Cross Sections and Coefficients 183
Cross-Section Location Techniques .........................................183
Loss Coefficients for Flow Through Bridges..........................194
6.5 Ineffective Flow Areas 199
Ineffective Flow Area Elevations .............................................202
Ineffective Flow Area Locations...............................................204
6.6 Modeling the Bridge Structure with HEC-RAS 206
Bridge Superstructure................................................................208
Bridge Piers .................................................................................209
Sloping Bridge Abutments........................................................211
Use of the Bridge Design Editor...............................................211
Bridge Computation Methods..................................................213
6.7 Special Situations 215
Multiple Openings .....................................................................215
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Parallel Bridges .......................................................................... 217

Perched Bridges ......................................................................... 217
Low Water Bridges .................................................................... 218
Bridges on Skew......................................................................... 220
The Bridge as a Dam ................................................................. 221
6.8 WSPRO Bridge Modeling 223
WSPRO Modeling Procedures................................................. 223
WSPRO Computation Procedures .......................................... 226
6.9 Chapter Summary 228

Chapter 7 Culvert Modeling 233

7.1 Terminology 233
7.2 Effects of a Culvert 236
7.3 Culvert Hydraulics – Inlet/Outlet Control 237
Inlet Control................................................................................ 237
Outlet Control ............................................................................ 240
7.4 Inlet Control Computations 245
7.5 Outlet Control Computations 248
7.6 Defining Cross-Section Locations and Coefficients 253
Section Location ......................................................................... 253
Coefficients ................................................................................. 255
Adjustments to Bounding Cross Sections 2 and 3 ................ 256
7.7 Culvert Modeling Using HEC-RAS 257
Roadway Geometry................................................................... 258
Inlet Control Data ...................................................................... 260
Outlet Control Data ................................................................... 261
7.8 Special Culvert Modeling Issues 261
Flow Attenuation ....................................................................... 261
Sediment and Debris ................................................................. 265
Scour at Culvert Outlets............................................................ 269
Changing Culvert Shape........................................................... 271
Changing Discharge within a Culvert .................................... 272
Changing Materials within a Culvert ..................................... 273
Drop Culvert............................................................................... 274
Fish Passage ................................................................................ 274
Replacing Bridges with Culverts ............................................. 276
7.9 Chapter Summary 277
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Chapter 8 Data Review, Calibration, and Results

Analysis 283
8.1 Input Data Checking 283
Checks Performed by the Modeler ..........................................284
Checks Performed by HEC-RAS..............................................284
8.2 Analyzing HEC-RAS Output 285
Program Checks .........................................................................285
Graphical Output Review .........................................................288
Tabular Output Review.............................................................291
Mixed Flow Analysis .................................................................294
8.3 Adjusting HEC-RAS Input 295
Changing Station ID ..................................................................295
Cross Section Points Filter ........................................................296
Reverse Stationing......................................................................296
Cross-Section Interpolation ......................................................296
8.4 Calibration Procedures 297
Adopting the Working Model..................................................298
Comparing Model Output to Actual Data .............................298
Adjustments to Model Parameters ..........................................298
Verification ..................................................................................300
Sensitivity Tests ..........................................................................301
8.5 Production Runs 301
Large Changes of Key Parameters...........................................302
Constraint Elevations and Ineffective Flow Areas ................302
8.6 Developing Hydrologic Routing Data 303
Routing Reaches .........................................................................303
Storage-Outflow Values ............................................................304
Wave Travel Time ......................................................................308
Reach Routing Steps ..................................................................310
Modifications to Routing Data .................................................310
8.7 Chapter Summary 311

Chapter 9 The U.S. National Flood Insurance

Program 317
9.1 The U.S. National Flood Insurance Program 317
9.2 Terminology and Concepts 319
Special Flood Hazard Area .......................................................319
Floodway .....................................................................................319
Flood Surcharge..........................................................................319
Floodway Fringe.........................................................................321
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9.3 Publications Used in the NFIP 322

Flood Hazard Boundary Map (FHBM) .................................. 322
Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM) .......................................... 322
Flood Insurance Study (FIS)..................................................... 326
9.4 Criteria for Land Management and Use 330
9.5 Revising Flood Studies and Maps 331
Identification and Mapping of Special Flood Hazard
Areas ........................................................................................ 331
Revisions and Amendments .................................................... 332
CLOMRs – Review of Proposed Projects ............................... 339
9.6 Revision Submittal Steps 341
Step 1 – Obtain FIS, FIRMs, and Backup Data....................... 341
Step 2 – Revise Hydraulic Models........................................... 341
Step 3 – Annotation of FIRMs, FIS, and Topographic
Map .......................................................................................... 343
Step 4 – Fill Out MT-2 Forms ................................................... 343
Step 5 – Submit to FEMA.......................................................... 343
Step 6 – Wait for a Response .................................................... 344
Step 7 – Receive Letter or Request for Additional Data....... 344
9.7 FEMA Review Software 345
CHECK-2..................................................................................... 345
CHECK-RAS............................................................................... 345
9.8 Chapter Summary 346

Chapter 10 Floodway Modeling 349

10.1 Methods of Performing an Encroachment Analysis 350
Method 1: Specify Encroachment Stations............................. 351
Method 2: Specify Floodway Top Width ............................... 351
Method 3: Specify Percent Conveyance Reduction .............. 352
Method 4: Specify Target Surcharge with Equal
Conveyance Reduction.......................................................... 353
Method 5: Optimization with Two Targets ........................... 354
10.2 Developing a Floodway in HEC-RAS 354
Establishing Base Conditions ................................................... 355
Creating a Steady Flow Data File ............................................ 355
Downstream Boundary Conditions ........................................ 355
Global Options ........................................................................... 356
Reach Options ............................................................................ 357
River Station Options ................................................................ 357
Computing the Floodway Plan................................................ 358
10.3 Reviewing the Results 358
Additional Runs/Methods ........................................................ 359
Finalizing the Floodway with Method 1 ................................ 360
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Guidance for Correcting Excessive or Negative

Surcharge .................................................................................361
10.4 Reviewing and Modifying Encroachment Output 362
Encroachment Tables.................................................................362
Graphics.......................................................................................363
Key Considerations....................................................................363
Levee Requirements for FEMA Certification.........................365
10.5 Adopting the Floodway 367
Satisfying Community Needs ..................................................369
Mapping the Floodway .............................................................369
Enforcing the Floodway ............................................................371
10.6 Working With an Existing Floodway 372
Placing Obstructions in the Floodway ....................................372
Changes to a Floodway .............................................................373
10.7 Chapter Summary 373

Chapter 11 Channel Modification 377

11.1 Channel Stability 377
A Stream in Equilibrium ...........................................................378
A Nonequilibrium Condition—Urbanization .......................381
A Nonequilibrium Condition—Channelization....................381
Developing a Stable Channel Modification............................384
Environmental Issues ................................................................385
Positive Effects of Channelization ...........................................386
11.2 Channel Modification Methods 387
Levees...........................................................................................387
High-Flow Diversion Channel and Weir................................387
High-Flow Cutoff/Diversion Channel ....................................389
Clearing and Snagging ..............................................................390
Compound Channels.................................................................391
Clearing and Enlarging One Side of the Channel .................393
Widening the Upper Channel and Using the Original
Channel for Low Flow ...........................................................393
Realigning the Channel .............................................................394
Constructing a Paved Channel.................................................394
New Channel ..............................................................................394
Channel Rehabilitation ..............................................................396
Permitting Requirements ..........................................................399
11.3 Channel Design Considerations 400
Flow Regime/Mixed Flow.........................................................400
Air Entrainment..........................................................................401
Linings .........................................................................................402
Freeboard.....................................................................................403
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Channel Transitions .................................................................. 404

Junctions...................................................................................... 405
Channel Protection .................................................................... 406
Low Flow Channel..................................................................... 408
Superelevation............................................................................ 408
Curved Channels ....................................................................... 410
Drop Structures/Stabilizers ...................................................... 410
Debris Basins .............................................................................. 412
Bridge Piers................................................................................. 413
11.4 HEC-RAS Input Data for Channel Modifications 414
Study Watershed/Channel Boundaries .................................. 414
Channel Modification Features................................................ 414
HEC-RAS Channel Improvement Template.......................... 414
11.5 Stable Channel Design Using HEC-RAS 417
Uniform Flow Analysis............................................................. 417
Stable Channel Design .............................................................. 421
Design Parameters ..................................................................... 428
11.6 Analyzing Results 429
Velocity........................................................................................ 430
Energy Grade Line Slope .......................................................... 430
Top Width ................................................................................... 430
Sensitivity of Manning’s n........................................................ 430
Sensitivity of Scour/Sediment Deposition on the
Design Profile ......................................................................... 430
Channel Effects Outside of a Modified Reach....................... 431
Effects on Hydrographs ............................................................ 431
Plan Comparisons...................................................................... 431
11.7 Channel Maintenance Requirements 433
11.8 Chapter Summary 433

Chapter 12 Advanced Floodplain Modeling 437

12.1 Levees 437
Levee Characteristics................................................................. 437
Modeling Procedures ................................................................ 444
12.2 Modeling Obstructions 451
Without Storage Considerations ............................................. 452
With Storage Considerations ................................................... 453
12.3 Modeling Tributaries and Junctions 456
Cross-Section Locations ............................................................ 457
Computing Losses and Water Surface Elevations
through a Junction ................................................................. 457
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12.4 Inline Gates and Weirs 459

Types of Weirs and Gated Openings ......................................460
Governing Equations.................................................................461
Modeling Procedures.................................................................465
Output Analysis .........................................................................469
12.5 Drop Structures 470
Modeling of Drop Structure as an Inline Weir ......................471
Modeling of Drop Structure Using Cross Sections ...............471
12.6 Split Flow 473
Split Flow Situations ..................................................................473
Computational Procedures .......................................................476
Modeling Procedures for Separate Channel Splits................476
Modeling Procedures for Lateral Weirs..................................477
12.7 Ice Cover and Ice Jam Flood Modeling 483
Effects on Water Surface Elevations ........................................483
Data Requirements for Ice Analysis ........................................484
Ice Modeling Procedures with HEC-RAS...............................487
Output Review ...........................................................................488
Ice Modeling Assistance............................................................488
12.8 Chapter Summary 489

Chapter 13 Mobile Boundary Situations and

Bridge Scour 501
13.1 Mobile Boundary Analysis 501
13.2 Types of Mobile Boundary Analyses 502
Base Conditions ..........................................................................502
Reservoir Projects .......................................................................503
Channel Modification Projects .................................................506
Levee Projects .............................................................................506
Diversion Projects.......................................................................507
Channel Stability and Protection .............................................509
13.3 Bridge Scour 509
Key References............................................................................510
Types of Scour ............................................................................511
13.4 Bridge Scour Computational Procedures 519
Initial Preparation ......................................................................519
General Bridge Scour Analysis Procedures............................520
Contraction Scour.......................................................................522
Pier Scour.....................................................................................527
Abutment Scour..........................................................................538
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13.5 Computing Scour with HEC-RAS 545

Applying the Flow Distribution Option................................. 545
Bridge Scour Data ...................................................................... 546
Total Scour .................................................................................. 548
13.6 Cautions and Concerns for Bridge Scour 550
13.7 Sediment Discharge Relationships 551
Sediment Transport Equations ................................................ 554
Cautions in Applying Sediment Transport Equations......... 556
Applying the Equations with HEC-RAS ................................ 558
13.8 Chapter Summary 560

Chapter 14 Unsteady Flow Modeling 563

14.1 Why Use an Unsteady Flow Model? 564
Attenuation ................................................................................. 564
Flow restrictions......................................................................... 568
Looped ratings ........................................................................... 568
Flow Splits................................................................................... 569
Time-Based (Transient) Effects ................................................ 570
14.2 Unsteady Flow Theory 570
St. Venant Equations ................................................................. 571
Steady-State Approximation .................................................... 576
Level-Pool Routing .................................................................... 577
Kinematic Wave Approximation............................................. 578
Diffusion Wave Approximation .............................................. 578
Theoretical Applicability of Various Approximations......... 579
14.3 Solution of Equations 580
Solving the Diffusion Wave Equation .................................... 580
Solving the Full St. Venant Equations .................................... 587
14.4 Practical Choice of Unsteady Modeling Approach 590
Routing Models.......................................................................... 590
Hydrodynamic Modeling......................................................... 593
Hybrid Approach....................................................................... 602
Troubleshooting Models........................................................... 603
14.5 Unsteady Flow Modeling Using HEC-RAS 604
Geometric Data Entry and Preprocessor................................ 604
Modeling Floodplain Geometry .............................................. 610
Unsteady Flow Data Editor...................................................... 612
Unsteady Flow Analysis ........................................................... 617
Unsteady Flow Simulation Results ......................................... 620
Other Features in HEC-RAS Unsteady Flow Simulation .... 626
14.6 Chapter Summary 632
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Chapter 15 Importing and Exporting Files

with HEC-RAS 639
15.1 Imported File Types 639
HEC-2 Files..................................................................................640
HEC-RAS Files............................................................................640
UNET Files ..................................................................................640
Corps Survey Data Files ............................................................641
GIS/CADD Files..........................................................................641
DSS Files ......................................................................................642
Spreadsheet and Text Files .......................................................644
15.2 Exporting Files 645
DSS Files ......................................................................................645
GIS/CADD Files..........................................................................648
15.3 Using HEC-2 Files with HEC-RAS 649
Importing HEC-2 Files...............................................................649
Data Not Imported.....................................................................650
15.4 Program Differences and Review of Imported Data 651
Program Differences ..................................................................651
Comparing HEC-RAS and HEC-2 Output .............................657
15.5 Chapter Summary 658

Bibliography 659