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1. FEATURES OF CONCRETE DESIGN Another, perhaps more important, issue facing the concrete
industry in many countries is the role played by the design
1.1 General Requirements professional in the selection of construction materials, namely
the choice between concrete and steel. In the recent past, the
The primary concerns of a structural engineer are the safety, advent of computers and automation in design and detailing
serviceability, and economy of the structures he or she de- has been favorable to the steel industry. Steel framing ben-
signs. Safety is understood as the structure’s ability to with- efited from an initial advantage in that it readily lent itself to
stand code required loads without excessive damage. Ser- design automation. There are now computer programs that
viceability is achieved if the structure performs as intended can perform a complete steel design, including detailing, with
throughout its expected life span. Economy is taken to mean minimal input from the design professional. This has not been
the structure’s owners feel that both its short and long-term true for concrete buildings; integrated computer programs
costs are reasonable. have been lacking. In addition, the concrete design codes
have become more complex and require greater input from the
Legality of the design procedure, defined as compliance with design professional.
applicable building codes, is also important. It is not always
easy to establish however, particularly for post-tensioned The difficult part of automating concrete design is the floor
structures. Codes tend to follow, rather than lead, practice slab. In most cases, skeletal members such as beams, col-
with respect to post-tensioning. Much of what is currently umns, and frames made from them can be readily analyzed and
considered appropriate practice for post-tensioned design is designed. Concrete buildings are rarely limited to skeletal
not incorporated into the codes yet. members, however - the floor slabs are typically a significant
portion of the building and its design.
1
Emeritus Professor, San Francisco State University; Principal, ADAPT Corporation,
2
Senior Project Manager, Facility Engineering Associates
This article reviews concrete slab design concepts and pre- material; once cracking is initiated, it will spread immediately
sents a method for automating the design of both reinforced and cause failure. Hence, the design procedure consists of:
and post-tensioned concrete buildings. It is anticipated that
this method will eliminate many of the problems associated • Estimating the deflection under service load; and
with the integrated design of concrete buildings. A proce- • Determining the load at which the maximum tensile stress
dure for selecting load paths and guidelines for the layout of reaches the cracking strength of glass.
reinforcement are also presented.
For serviceability design, deflections can be estimated using
1.3 Concrete Design in Relation to Other Materials approximate methods based on the plate’s geometry, support
conditions, material properties and service loading. As noted
The following example highlights the principal features that above, however, failure occurs when the stress at any point
distinguish concrete design from other types of design. The on the plate reaches the cracking strength of the glass. In
example considers three materials: concrete, steel and glass, order to get a reliable estimate of the glass plate’s safety, both
each of which has a distinctive feature in terms of design. the location of the maximum stress and the stress value in
Although the example is hypothetical, it illustrates how mate- relation to the applied loading need to be determined accu-
rial properties affect design requirements and procedures. rately.
Fig. 1.3-1(a) shows a partial plan of a plate or slab under uni- The geometry and supports of the glass plate must be mod-
form loading. The example reviews the design of the area eled accurately since they directly affect the magnitude of
surrounded by supports A, B and C, marked “Design Re- maximum stress. In most cases, the actual load path must be
gion.” The objective is to satisfy the serviceability and safety determined either analytically or experimentally. Approximate
(strength) requirements of this region. methods based on assumed load paths will not produce accu-
rate results.
A. Glass
Consider first a glass plate. The serviceability of the glass The need to accurately determine the stress at a point in order
plate is determined by acceptable deflection; its safety is mea- to ensure the safety of glass plate is what differentiates the
sured by the load that causes it to crack. Cracking occurs response of glass under increasing load from that of the other
when the tensile stress at the surface reaches a value that is a materials. Local stresses calculated by finite element analysis
material property of the glass. Glass is an extremely brittle are sensitive to the number of mesh divisions and the accu-
racy of the finite element formulation. In order to determine
the value of stress at point, a very fine mesh and an appropri-
ate formulation must be used.
B. Steel
Assuming that the design region in Fig. 1.3-1(a) is made out of
steel plate, its serviceability is governed by its deflection and
permanent deformation under service loading. Its safety or
ultimate strength is generally determined by excessive defor-
mation under factored loading.
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• Use a rigorous method to determine local stresses and
the likelihood of local yielding under service loads in
order to avoid permanent deformation; and
• Determine the strength (safety) limit by using an approxi-
mate method to estimate the load at which overall
plastification results in excessive deformation. (A rigor-
ous method can be used for this but is generally not
warranted.)
C. Concrete
Consider finally a concrete plate. Design criteria for the con-
crete plate are: (i) the deflections and crack widths must be
within acceptable limits under service conditions, and (ii) the
plate must not collapse under code stipulated factored loads.
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The detailing involved in translating the bottom bars shown The following general conclusions can be drawn about the
in Fig. 1.3-3(a-i) into the number, length and location of bars to design of concrete structures:
be placed in the slab as shown in (a-ii) is referred to as “Con-
struction Detailing”. Another example of Construction De- ♦ When doing concrete design, the engineer must desig-
tailing is the selection of the correct lap splices, hooks, and nate a load path in order to determine the reinforcement.
bar bending details as illustrated in Fig. 1.3-3(b). This is unlike the glass alternative, where the load path
must be determined by analysis, or the steel alternative,
In North America, Construction Detailing is shown on shop where local yielding can be determined without a desig-
drawings generated by the materials suppliers. Structural nated load path. The load path designation is required for
Detailing, on the other hand, is done by the design engineer concrete because the layout of the reinforcing bars gov-
and is shown on the structural drawings. In many other parts erns the orientation and magnitude of the resistance de-
of the world, however, there is no distinction between Struc- veloped by the slab. Often, there is more than one pos-
tural Detailing and Construction Detailing. Unlike the prac- sible load path. The load paths that are selected make up
tice in North America, the drawings generated by the design the skeleton of the “structural system” of the building.
engineer also reflect the Construction Detailing.
♦ Concrete design is not sensitive to local stresses. The
Fig. 1.3-4(a) shows an example of Structural Detailing for crack distribution of moments determined from elastic theory
control. Fig. 1.3-4(b) shows an example of Structural Detailing will be similar to the schematics of Fig. 1.3-5(a). The sim-
for development of the load path. In Fig. 1.3-4(b), a concen- plified, equivalent moment shown in Fig. 1.3-5(b) is gener-
trated loading is distributed over the width of the assumed ally used for reinforcement calculations, however. The
load path by distribution steel placed underneath the load. reinforcement necessary for strength in each direction is
The added reinforcement ensures that the load path between that required to resist the total moment, i.e. the integral
walls A and B is able to materialize as envisaged by the de- below the moment curve. The layout of the reinforcement
signer. Note, however, that although this type of reinforce- is typically not critical as long as the bars are within the
ment is required for both safety and serviceability, it is not region corresponding to the moment they are designed to
reflected in many design methods, including the one intro- resist. This is based on the premise that failure follows the
duced in this article. formation of a hinge line and the hinge line will mobilize all
of the reinforcement that crosses it.
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This highlights another feature of concrete design which of the concrete. The calculated stresses are thus an indi-
is that the total moment is used for design. The distribu- cation of the extent of crack formation over a region rather
tion of the moment and local values of the moment are not than true stresses.
critical. The total moment is considered to be resisted by
a “design section” as opposed to glass and steel design ♦ Note that for one-way systems, the limit on these hypo-
where local moments are checked at design points. This thetical tensile stresses in ACI 318 is one √ f’c ( 12 √ f’c
feature places concrete at a great computational advan- in American units) even though the cracking limit (modu-
tage since total (integral) values of the actions are not as lus of rupture) of concrete is typically considered to be
sensitive to finite element discretization as local values. between 0.5 and 0.625 √f’c (6 to 7.5 √ f’c in American
Finite element software is generally formulated to satisfy units). The hypothetical tensile stress limits are even
static equilibrium, regardless of the density of the mesh higher in many other building codes, i.e. the Canadian
used to discretize the structure. A coarse mesh gives code [CAN 23.3, 1994].
essentially the same “total” moment over a design sec-
tion as a fine mesh. This observation is discussed further 1.4 Design Characteristic of Post-Tensioned Floors
in [Aalami, et al., 1999].
The need to designate a “load path” was identified as one of
♦ As with glass and steel, stresses in prestressed concrete the characteristics that differentiates concrete design from
structures must be checked under service load. With glass, steel design. Post-tensioned concrete design adds another
the objective of the stress check is to avoid breakage; layer of complexity that requires additional engineering judg-
with steel, the objective is to avoid local yielding and ment and input. Consider the example of Fig. 1.3-1(b), in which
permanent deformation. With concrete, however, the the slab region is assumed to span between walls A and B. A
objective is generally to control - not avoid - crack forma- post-tensioned design alternative of this region is shown in
tion. Fig. 1.4-1. The region is reinforced with post-tensioning ten-
dons between walls A and B; the post-tensioning is supple-
The calculated concrete stresses used for design are “hy- mented by mild steel as shown.
pothetical,” since they are based on the application of the
total moment to the entire design section. In reality, The serviceability and safety of the design are controlled by
stresses over the supports will peak to much higher val- two principal parameters: (i) the amount of prestressing, and
ues. In most instances they will exceed the cracking limit (ii) the tendon profile (the distance between the center of the
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tendon and centroid of the slab along the tendon’s length). 2.1.1 Analysis Methods
Typically, the amount of mild reinforcement required will de-
pend on what is selected for these parameters. The three methods commonly used for analysis of concrete
structures are: Simple Frame, Equivalent Frame, and Finite
In a nonprestressed floor, determination of the required rein- Element analysis. In the Simple Frame method, the slab is
forcement is fairly routine once the load path is determined. divided up into design strips. The geometry of the structure
The results in terms of required reinforcement will be essen- is modeled exactly, i.e., the frames are analyzed using the
tially the same, regardless of the designer’s experience or in- stiffnesses of the columns and associated slabs as calculated
clination. In a post-tensioned floor, however, the engineer has from their geometries. As a result, the analysis does not ac-
considerable latitude when selecting the amount of prestress- count for the influence of biaxial plate bending.
ing and the tendon profiles. Depending on the engineer’s
assumptions and what he or she uses as design criteria, dif- The Equivalent Frame method (EFM) is a refinement of the
ferent designs will result. Automation of a post-tensioning Simple Frame method. It is somewhat more exact than the
design thus requires additional steps to select post-tension- Simple Frame method since the relative column and slab
ing forces and tendon profiles. stiffnesses are adjusted to account for the biaxial plate bend-
ing. In typical design, most column-supported floors are ana-
1.5 Automation of Concrete Design lyzed with the Equivalent Frame method.
In summary, the design of concrete floors as practiced today The information required as far as geometry, loading and
requires a designated “load path” for the determination of boundary conditions is the same for both the Simple Frame
primary reinforcement. If the slab is post-tensioned, addi- and the Equivalent Frame methods. Although both methods
tional assumptions are required in order to design the post- are approximate they both yield lower bound (safe) solutions.
tensioning. In addition, in post-tensioned structures, stresses The degree of approximation depends on the extent to which
need to be checked under service loads. Unlike glass and a floor system deviates from a uniform, orthogonal support
steel however, the stress used in design of prestressed con- layout and constant slab thickness.
crete is a “hypothetical” stress, when sections are cracked,
and “smeared,” or average stresses when the section is not The third method of analysis, the Finite Element method
cracked. The stress calculated for use in design is not neces- (FEM), is based on the division of the structure into small
sarily the local stress. Consequently, it is not necessary to pieces (elements) whose behavior is formulated to capture
perform a finely meshed finite element analysis to determine
local stresses.
2. DESIGN PROCESS
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the local behavior of the structure (Fig. 2.1.1-1). Each element’s floors, the load path is determined by the layout of post-
definition is based on its material properties, geometry, loca- tensioning tendons.
tion in the structure, and relationship with surrounding ele-
ments. The mathematical assemblage of these elements into For most structures, selection of the load paths is essentially
the complete structure allows for automated computation of independent of the analysis method. Consider a typical floor
the response of the entire structure. FEM inherently incorpo- from a multi-story building with columns and walls above and
rates the biaxial behavior of the floor system when determin- below as shown in Fig. 2.2-1. The following describes the
ing the actions in the floor. structural modeling of the floor and illustrates the procedure
for selecting load paths and design sections.
The following references give a general description of the
Finite Element method [Zienkiewicz O.C., et al, 1989, Bathe, Define outline of floor slab and supports
K.J. 1982]. Details of the procedure with specific application As a first step, the engineer defines the slab edge and any
to concrete floor systems are given in [Aalami et al, 1999]. openings, steps or other discontinuities. Next, he or she iden-
tifies the location and dimensions of the walls and columns
2.2 Load Path Designation supporting the floor. The supports for this example are shown
in Fig. 2.2-1. Note that beams are considered as part of the
The focus of the structural modeling step is the designation floor system rather than the support system. They are there-
of the load paths. The structural system is complete if the self- fore modeled and designed in conjunction with the floor slab.
weight and applied loading at every location is assigned an
explicit load path to a support. Define Support lines
The engineer then determines a series of support lines in each
Load path designation is based on the strip method. This of the two principal directions. Typically, these are lines join-
requires dividing the floor into intersecting support lines, each ing adjacent supports along which an experienced engineer
of which has its own tributary area. The support lines indi- will intuitively place reinforcement. Fig. 2.2-2 shows the sup-
cate the assumed load paths; a support line, together with its port lines, labeled A through G, in the X-direction (F is not a
tributary area, is referred to as a “design strip.” For designated line of support). Fig. 2.2-3 shows the five support
nonprestressed floors, the load path is determined by the lines, labeled 1 through 5, in the Y-direction..
position and orientation of the reinforcement. For prestressed
If a floor system is highly irregular, i.e. the columns are signifi-
cantly offset from one another, the support lines may be less
obvious. The criteria for selection are the same as in a regular
slab, however. The support lines are the lines along which an
experienced structural engineer is likely to place the primary
reinforcement for resisting the gravity load.
Design Sections
Design sections are typically drawn across each design strip
at the locations where the integrated actions on the design
strip are greatest. There is no limit to the number of design
sections that can be specified. Note that the maximum de-
sign actions in the field may not be at the midpoint of the
spans. In addition, peak design actions for the strength and
serviceability checks may not occur at the same location. Fig-
ure 2.2-7 shows the design sections for two of the design
strips in the X-direction. Across the width of the supports,
sections can be chosen at the face of support to take advan-
FIGURE 2.1.1-1 tage of the reduced actions away from the support centerlines.
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FIGURE 2.2-1 FIGURE 2.2-2
08 POST-TENSIONING INSTITUTE
FIGURE 2.2-5 FIGURE 2.2-6
POST-TENSIONING INSTITUTE 09
FIGURE 2.3.1-1 FIGURE 2.3.2-1
Ideally, a design strip should be bounded by lines of zero
shear transfer since this ensures that each design strip is
designed to carry only the loading that is located directly on
it. For the floor slab used in this example, the flow of the
loading to the supports is shown by arrows in Fig. 2.3.2-1.
The arrows are normal to the planes of maximum vertical shear;
the length of each arrow indicates the magnitude of the shear.
Figure 2.3.2-2 shows the lines of zero vertical shear transfer in
the Y-direction as determined using the flow of loading shown
in Fig 2.3.2-1. The alternate hatched and clear regions indi-
cate the natural load tributaries for the support lines A through
G.
FIGURE 2.3.1-2 Displays such as the one in Fig. 2.3.2-2 that show the “natural
tributaries” allow the calculated actions to be assigned to the
design strips in accordance with the elastic response of the
2.3.2 Finite Element Analysis
structure. A design based on these tributaries is likely to be
more economical with respect to material usage, especially if
As noted above, if either the Simple Frame or the EFM is used, the floor configuration is irregular. Design strips are typically
each design strip must be extracted from the floor system and based on the standard support lines and tributaries described
analyzed as a plane frame. With the FEM, the entire floor can before however. In most cases, the increased design effort
be analyzed at one time. The results of an FEM analysis must required to select natural tributaries outweighs the benefits of
be processed as “design strips” and “design sections” for the refined design strips. Fig. 2.3.2-3 shows the design strips
code stipulated serviceability and strength checks, however. selected by the procedure outlined for the frame methods
As with the frame methods, the design strips are based on the superimposed on the “natural tributary” lines of the floor.
assumed load paths. The design strips do not need to be
selected before the analysis though. This can sometimes be
2.4 FEM Versus Frame Methods
advantageous since the results of the FEM analysis can be
used to select design strips which are more in line with the
natural (assumed elastic) response of the slab. The design procedure for a FEM analysis is very similar to
that of the frame methods. It consists of selecting load paths
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As with the frame methods, the objective of an FEM analysis
is to provide information for a safe and serviceable design in
accordance with the prevailing code(s). The amount of infor-
mation obtained from a FEM analysis is generally more than
that required by code for serviceability and safety checks,
however. In particular, the FEM provides more accurate infor-
mation on the floor system’s response to applied loading.
FIGURE 2.3.2-3
leading to design strips, and design sections. This is fol-
lowed by the determination of demand actions for each de-
sign section. The design step consists of application of the
demand actions to the respective design sections. FIGURE 2.4-1
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uted. Distribution of the primary reinforcement is considered form” direction) is not greater than eight times the slab
to be Structural Detailing. thickness.
12 POST-TENSIONING INSTITUTE
don layout for flat slabs, uniform distribution of the tendons
among the waffle stems in both directions is also widely used.
2.7 Summary
3. CONCLUSION
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placement of any additional reinforcement required to carry
out the design concept. It is thus highly dependent on engi-
neering judgment. Guidelines for Structural Detailing of both
prestressed and nonprestressed floors were given.
4. REFERENCES
14 POST-TENSIONING INSTITUTE
APPENDIX A
be = (Sbw3)1/3 (3)
POST-TENSIONING INSTITUTE 15 1
Emeri-