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The Productivity and Public Health

Considerations of the Urban Women's Daytime


Subsistence Fishery Off Suva Peninsula, Fiji

N. J. Quinn and M. Tina Davis

Department of Biology
The University of the South Pacific
Suva, Fiji

ABSTRACT

Interviews of artisanal women fishers, working during daylight hours,


around the apex of the Suva Peninsula, Viti Levu, Fiji were conducted from
late April to July 1996 and repeated in December of 1996. The sand flats
of this region support a subsistence fishery that is an important source of
fresh marine food for many low income families around metropolitan Suva.
Recreational fishing and invertebrate collecting is common. The fisher
women interviewed considered the diversity of the edible assemblage
around the Suva Peninsula to be greater than that of other nearby flats.
Kaikoso (Anadara antiquata) and Kuku (Modiolus agripetus) were the
dominant and subdominant shellfish catch. Kabatia (Lethrinus harak) was
the most common fin fish caught by hand line followed by Matu (Getes
oyenana), Qitawa (Therapon jarbua), Ose (Mulloidichthys samoensis), and
less frequently Saqa (Caranx sp.) and Saku (Agrioposphyraena barraada).
Nuqa (Siganus vermiculafzs) was the most common caught using hand net
or by hand alone. The mean CPUE in April was 0.6 kg hr -t for fishers and
1.1 kg hr -t for gleaners. The July and December surveys focused on inver-
tebrate gleaning and estimated a consistent CPUE of 1.1 kg hr't forl.
antiquata and 0.4 kg hrt ard 0.5 kg hr-t respectively for ivt. agripetus. In
July, these two species represented '78%io of the 5421 invertebrate
individuals collected while in December, their tally came to 86% of the
5,238 individuals collected. Survey results suggest that at least 70 different
women per week employ this resource providing seafood for an estimated
300 to 500 people. The number of people supported by this small stretch of

S. Pac. J. Nat. Sci., 1997, L5,63 - 92 63


coastal area is comparable to the populatioru on many small island village
communities. Shell deformities, consistent with butlytin contamin:ltiorL
were recently noted in 66Vo of a sample of A. antiquata collected from one
of the Laucala Bay study sites. The authors express concern that TBT pol-
lution may now be directly affecting this fishery. Research in this area is
ongoing.

INTRODUCTION

Suva Peninsula lies on the southern tip of the Fijian island of Viti Levu.
The peniruula covers 15 km2 and includes the capital of Fiji, Suva (Fig. l).
The city was founded more than 110 years ago and has grown to the pre-
sent metropolitan population of more than 160,000 people (Naidu and
Morrisoq 1994) with an estimated arurual grorvth rate of 3.4% (Naidu ef
al.,l99l). Suva is a multi-racial, multi-cultural city populated mainly by
Fijians and Indo-Fijians, with some Chinese, other Pacific Islanders, and a
few Europeans.

The protected shores around the Suva Peninsula consists of soft, silty to
fine sand flats stabilized by the sea grasses Syringodium isoetifolium
[(Ascherson) Dandy, 19391, Halodule uninen,is [(Forskil) Ascherson,
18821, and H. nrinor [(Z6llinger) den Hartog, 1957], (Penn, 1981, Mortoq
1990; Penn and Ryland, 1995). Suva Ha,rbour has semi-diunr.rl tides with a
range of 0.9 m at neap tides and 1.3 nt at spring tides. Typically the flats are
exposed during daylight for tluee to five hous. The nungrove communities
that once lined muclt of the shore have been reduced (Naidu et al., l99I). A
channel separates the sard flat from an intertidal coral reef community and
the open sea. A boat is required to transverse the clurmel, and consequently
gleaners use the reef less frequertly. However, the reef flat does sustain an
important sea urchin (Tripneustes gratilla, Liruraeus, 1758) (Gounder,
1995) nd sea cucurnber fishery. The rvidth of the sand flat ranges from
100 to 350 rn for a distance of approxirnatcly -1.-5 knt frorn Suva City
around the tip of the peniusula to Laucala Bay. The coastal biota of the
Suva Peninsula intertidal area is knorvn to be nch and diverse (Mortorq
1990, Zann.1994).

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Figure 1: Map of Suva Peniruula and surrounding locations.

'(r-
?5
\
v
r"'LVmiDt
'-a
I
Suva Harbour

N
l^/
i=

r'--'.!e
Laucala Bay

t '1 fr)
L&
t tu \

km

01234
o)
(,t

-
Marine resources used by urban populations in the South Pacific are
infrequently studied. A rntable exception was the recent study of the Kai
(Batissa violacea, Lamarch 1806) fishery (Naqasim4 1996). A household
survey of the fishing patterns of a squatter settlement on Laucala Bay near
Suva Point did not include a quantitative survey of the fishery fliraa-
Passfield, 1995). Turara (1995) suggested that a lack of analytical gerder-
specific information has worked to inhibit development opportunities of
women in the fisheries sector.

This study provides quantitative information on a women's fishery neces-


sary for the improvement of the management of coastal fisheries. We
specifically sought to:
- determine the intensity of daytime usage of the sand flats,
- identi$ species commonly caught
- quanti! catch rates,
- establish resource usage patterns,
- observe and record any possible indications of pollutioq
- record biological and folk knowledge,
- note conservation practices.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The daytime artisanal fishers of the intertidal areas around the Suva
Penirsula were interyiewed on three separate occasiorn. For tlrc first set of
interviews people fishing betrveen Leveti Creek and Corpus Christi
Teachers Training College (CCT[C) were interviewed on l8 days at vary-
ing times of the day and plnses of the tide from 29 April to 7 June 1996
(referred to as May sampling). A total of 39 intenyiews were conducted
either along the coastal road or on the intertidal flat. The July survey was
conducted between 12 - l8 July inclusive, and represented the cool season.
A total of 63 surveys were completed from 86 collectors interviewed.
Finally, frorn 9 - 16 December 1996, 5l interviervs were completed, this
survey represented the hot, wet seasorl We refer to all activities as fishing
whether the women were collecting invertebrates or fishing for fin fish

During the sunreys the numbers of fisher women and their activities were
recorded. People were interviewed regarding their primary purpose for
fishing, period of fishing, frequenry of fishing efforts, family size, living

66
locatioq fishing methods, method of preparing the catch for consumptiorq
and biological knowledge of the catch. During the May interviews the catch
weight was visually estimated to the nearest 500 g. Larger animals were
counted. Samples of species were takeq weighed and identified. Although
few of the women had watches, we felt that they could easily judge how
long they had been fishing within the three broad categories presented. The
categories represented less than a tidal phase, a low tidal period, and a full
day. For the CPUE calculations two, four and six hours were used respec-
tively. The gleatest error would occur in the calculation of fisher women
who had been out for only one hour, but their duration of fishing would
have been considered as two hours. This error is considered relatively rare.

The second and third surveys applied more field assistants, used teams
which iniluded female Fijian speakers, and precisely determined the
fishing duration. The area frorn the Universiy of the South Pacific Marine
Studies jetty, around the apex of the Suva Peninsula, up to the Suva
Bowling Club, was divided into four study sub-areas (Fig. 1); Study Site I
= 0.371 kmz, II = 0.228 kmz, III : 0.718 kmz, IV = 0.204 kmz. These sites
were delineated by convenient geographical features and not designed to
have similar area. These surveys focused on the productivity of only inver-
tebrate gleaning. The teams worked for a duration of four hours encom-
passing low tide. The July and December surveys ran for 7 consecutive
days, with "Day l" of each survey having a late morning low tide. Both
the July and December tealls experienced fine weather during tl.re entire
survey.

Fishen were interviewed when seen to fint enter a-n assigned area. Each
team timed and observed each fisher in their area and after determining that
the fisher had worked for one hour the catch was counted, identified, and
measured. A field measuriug grid was used to categorise shellfish into one
of eight "field size" ranges. Each grid corsisted of eight ovals of specific
:
lengths; size I 2.5 crn. in length and so ory in 0.5 cm increments, up to
size 8 = 6.0 cm. The rare individual shellfish too large to fit tluough a size
eight oval rvas classified as a size 9. Weighing each individual item and
measuring using callipers while in the field rvas considered too time
corsuming. Not all interviews itritiated were contpleted, i.e. conducting a
field "count and measure" ofcatch

Size ranges and field couuts per species were converted to mean weight
using a laboratory determined conversion factor. A random sample of
Anadara antiquata (Limaeus, 1758) (n:130) rvas clealed and weighed in
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the lab and a mean total body weight per field size calculated. The catch per
unit of effort in kg (CPUE) was determined using this total body weight.

RESULTS

Demographic details and utilisation


The May survey totalled 39 interviews conducted of 30 different women.
Not all women answered all questions. Although men have been seen on
the flat, none were present during the interview period. At night, primarily
men and young boys used pressure lamps and torches to illuminate their
fishing activities. This use of the intertidal flat was not included in this
study. During weekdays men fish around Suva Peninsula primarily from
boats. On weekends some men were seen out on the sand flats. Owing to
the dfficulty of surveying people in boats, they have been excluded from
tlis sunrey.

Fijian women and their children were the primary fishers. These women
commonly went out around low tide in groups of two to five, rarely alone,
to fish and./or gather invertebrates and/or algae. Pre-teenage daughters and
young children commonly accompanied their mothers.

Fishers were from over l9 communities around Suva and fished primarily
for food for their extended farnily. Some came from as far away as
Delairnvesi about 3.5 km away. A frequent comrnent was that tlre variety
of edible species at Suva Peninsula rvas uot found elsewhere nearty.

Most of the women (55%) interviewed in the May survey had families of
six or more people and could not afford to buy seafood at the market. The
catch (fin fish and inverlebrates) was usually (67%o of the tirne) consumed
by the family and was often shared with friends or neighbours. The July
survey revealed that over 760/o of respondents had families of five or
greater, the mean fzunily size iu December was. six. From this information
the mean extended firmily size of Suva Penirxula artisanal fishers was
judged to be approxirnately six people zutd considered a comervative esti-
mate of the uumber of people fed frorn each catch.

The women reported that the seafood was commonly cooked in coconut
milk (/o/o). A few species such as Kaikoso (A. antiquata), and Dairo

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(Holothuria fuscopundata, Iaeger, 1833) were consumed raw after being
marinated with citrus juice and chillies. Cassava or Taro (Dalo) accom-
panied the meals. Naqasima (1996), found E colj levels inA. antiquata
from Laucala Bay to be in excess of intematiorurl safefy standards for fecal
coliforms in edible shellfish, (Naidu et al., L99L). Where the accepted safe
limits is considered 2.3 MPN g' fresh weight Naqasima (1996) recorded l0
MPN g-t fresh weight (samples collecred 1986 - 1988). In September 1996,
Laucala Bay samples of A. antiquata and Modiolus agripetus, (Lamarck,
l80l) were collected from study site II (Fig. l) and assayed forfecal
coliforms (@ 44.5oC) at the U.S.P. - Institute of Applied Science. Tlte A.
antiquata assay found an acceptable fecal colifonn level of 2 MPN g-t but
the M. agripetus exceeded by ten times the safe limit of E. coli or 23 MPN
g-t. Fortunately, none of the women interviewed during this survey report-
ed any illness associated with the shellfish they collected.

Although most of the fisher wolnen were there to collect food, everyone
interviewed said that they enjoyed fishing. During the school holidays a
few teachers came to do some recreational fishing. On Saturdays and public
holidays most of the people were out for recreatiorurl fishing. Sunday was
a day of rest and it rvas rare for women to go fishing.

Most of the access to the marine resource was at low tide by foot.
Occasionally women hired a rvooden boat from one of trvo Indo-Fijian fam-
ilies at a rate of $6 day-t (July 1996) to paddle out into the clrarurel. Boats
were slured by two to four people. When high tides occurred in the rniddle
of the day in tlrc weekend, people contmorily fished fronr tlrc sea rvall.

Only 13% of the rvomen from the May survey repofted that they sold at
least part of their catch. The overwhelming primary coucem of collectors
during the July and December surveys was sustenance and not commercial
activities. Kabatia (Lethrinus harok, Bleeker, 1876), Kaikoso (A.
antiquata), and Mudra (Stichopus variegatus, Semper, 1868) horvever are
commonly observed for sale at the rnarket. Groups of five or six Kabatia
(L. harak) (25 - 30 crn total length) sell for $F2. A fwo kilogram bag of
Kaikoso (A. antiquata) shellfish sells for $F2.-50. lt4udra (5. variegatus) are
particularly sought by Chinese and sold for $F0.-50 to $2 each (October
1996), dependiug upou size and quality.

69
al

Duration of fishing effort


For most women the fishing usually only occurs for a few hours per day
and perhaps only a couple of days per week between other activities and
responsibilities. The duration of each actual fishing trip ranged from one to
eight hours. Preparation time and travel time were not considered.

During the May survey the mean number of people observed fishing (fin
fishing as well as invertebrate collecting) in non rainy weather, from
Monday to Saturday, was 15.8 people. A maximum of 24 people were
observed at any one time; approximately 47o/o of the fisher women stayed
out for tluee to five hours *hile another 35olo remained fishing for five to
seven hours. As expected, in rainy weather fewer people were out (mean
2.5 people). It is estimated that in non-rainy conditions, and inclusive of
those fishers likely to be fishing at all times, a mean of 20 people use the
marine resources around Suva Perfnsula daily. The frequency that women
fished ranged from once a month to four days a week. About 53% of the
women fished at least oue or two days a week (Table l).

The time that fin fishing and collecting cornmences is dependent upon tides
and weather. However, even if the tides and weather are perfect early in the
moming no women are seen out before 8:30 am on weekdays. Generally
more rvomen were out in the afternoon than in the moming, with a slight
decrease around lunch time. Preferred times for fin fishing and gleaning
differed. Gleaning could be done only while the sand flats were exposed,
four to five hours around lorv tide. Fin fishing occurs any time except dur-
ing trvo to tfuee hours arouud the high tide when it was too deep to wade in
the water. Since the boat hire location was at the mouth of a creek, people
hiring boats went out independent oftidal conditions.

Equipment
The equipment used rvas simple and inexpensive. Monofilament lines and
hooks of various sizes were used for fin fishing. The line was wound
around a small jar or bot0e. A sma-ll bag or bucket for carrying bait and a
knife and a larger one for the catch and personal belongings were carried.
For gleaning only a knife and plastic bags were used. Occasionally a small
hand net was used to catch fish or slrirnps for bait. Animals used as bait
included earthwomrs, shrinrp, slnall fish Imackerel from the market or
earlier catclt of Matu (G. oyenana), or Qitawa (7. jarbua), bivalve shells
[especially Ka i ko so (A. an t i q u a t a) ], opisthobranclu, or polychaetes.

70
tr'ishing techniques
The best fishing sites were on the edge of the channel. To get there the
women waded out into waist deep water. The hook was baited and the line
cast to drift in the current. Eight species were caught (Table 2). The catch
was placed in a bag and cleaned on shore. On an incoming tide small fish
such as Nuqa (5. vermiculatus), and Ose (Mulloidichthys samoensis) were
caught with a hand net by sitting in the water and holding the net into the
current at a steep angle. When fish were observed in the net it was lifted out
of the water and its contents emptied into a bag.

The most efficient method to collect the intertidal invertebrates was to


wade through the sand with bare feet and feel for the catch. To avoid cuts,
many wore shoes and used their hands or a knife to search the sand.
Fourteen species of shellfish were commonly caught this way (Table 3).
The catch was then dug out by hand and carried in plastic bags. Drifting
algae fLumicevata (Hypnea nidifica, J. Agardh, 1847)1, sea hares lVeata
(Dolabella auricularia) (Lightfoot, 1786)1, certain sea cucumbers fMudra
(5. variegatus) andDairo (H. fuscopunctata)|, and crabs [Qari (Thalamita
ry. or Scylla spp.)l were picked up by hand.

Catch species
Kabatia (L. harak) was tlre most conunon fish caught by hand line followed
by Matu (Gerres oyenana, Forskil, 1775), Qitawa (Therapon jarbua
Forskil, 1775), (Giinther, 1874)1, and less frequenrly Saqa (Caranx sp.) and
Saku lAgrioposphl,raena barracada (Walbaun, 17921. Nuqa (5. vermicula-
firs) was the most corlmon using a hand net or by hand followed by Ose
(M. samoensis). Kabatia (L. harak) caught ranged from 13 - 30 cm in total
length Matu (G. oyenana) and Qitawa (7. jarbua) were srnaller while Saqa
(Caranx sp.) was between 20 - 25 cm and Saku Q4. barracuda) between 25
- 40 cm. Smaller individuals were most common. According to the women,
larger individuals were caught in February and March. Nuqa (5. vermicula-
lus), and Ose (M. samoensis) ranged in size from 9 - l5 cnr, and I I - 14 cnU
respectively.

Of the six species of bivalve shells collected, the most common were
Kaikoso (A. antiquata) and Kuku (M. agripetus) and represented over 95oZ
of the catch from the May survey, 78Yo of the July survey, and 86olo in
December. Kaikoso (A. antiquata) and Veata (D. auricularia) were the
preferred species of many women. Of the 2057 individuals of l. antiquata

7'l
{N Table 1: Frequerrcy of fishing / collecting.

May data includes fin fishing and invertebrate collecting.


July and December data includes only invertebrate collecting.

Frequency of Number o/o


Number of % Number of o/o
Total Total
fishing activity offishers M"y fishers July fishers December number %
Mav Julv December
l-2 davs month't 6 33 29 51 l5 29 50 42
l -2 davs week -l 8 44 l9 33 l8 35 45 40
3-4 days week -t 4 22 9 16 4 8 t7 l5
(n = respondents to this question; May n = 57; December n = 37),

Table 2: Fijian, English and Latin names of finfish and fishing technique.

Fiji name English name Latin name Fishing method

Kabatia Empcror Lethrinus harak(Bleeker,1876) hook & line


Matu Silver-biddy Gerres oyenana (ForskAl, 1775) hook & line
Qilava Crescentperch Theraponjarbua(Forskdl, 1775) hook & line
Saqa Trevally Caranx sp. hooK dg ltne
Salcu Barracuda Agrioposphyraena barracuda hook & line
(Walbaum,1?92)
Nuqa fish
Rabbit Siganus vermiculatus (Valenciennes, 1835) handnet
Ose Goatfish lv{ulloidichthyssamoensis(Gtnther,l874) handnet
Table 3: FijiarL English and Latin names of invertebrates and algal species collected.

Classilication Fijian name English name Latin name

algae division
RHODOPHYTA Lumicevala Maidenhair Hynea nidifica
(J. Agardh, 1847)
Lumiwawa Glassweed Grailaria vellucosa
(Hudson) Papenfu ss, 1950
Lumilamana Goldenweed Solieria robusla
(Greville) Kvlin. 1932
phylum MOLLUSCA
-class Gastropoda Drevula Moon snail Polincies flemingianus
(Ricluz. I 844)
Lawasa Turban shell Turbo chrystoslomus
(Linnaeus,1758)
Gera, Golea Stromb shell Strombus gibberulus
gibbosus
(Rdding, 1798)
Sici Trochus Trochus niloticus
(Linnaeus,1767)
Tivikea Red-lipped stromb Strombus lunuanas
(Linnaeus.1758)
- subclass Veata Green sea hare Dolabella auricularia
Opisthobranch (Lishtfoot.1786)
- class Bivalvia Kaidawa Llard Shell clanr Perigl.y,pla puerpe/0
(Linnaeus, l77l)
Kaikoso Arc shell Anadara anliquala
(Linnaeus.1758
Kaivadra Liftleneck clam Tapes leterala
(Linnaeus.1758)
Kuku Mangrove musse I Modiolus aglipetus
(Lamarck, l80l)
Qeqe, qaqa, Venus shell Gafrarium lumidum
Kaikatadiri (Rctdine. 1798)
Savulu, kukusau Pinna, sp.

73
a

Table 3 continued...

Classilication Fijian name English name Latin name

phylum CRUSTACEA
- class Malacostraca Qari Swimmer crab Thalamila sp
Qari Mud crab Scvlla soo.
phylum BRACIIIOPODA
- class Inarticulata Ivoce Lamp shell Lingula sp.
phylum ECHINODERIT{ATA
- Class Holothuroidea Dairo Sea cucumber H o I o I hu r i a fu s c op un c t a t a
(Jaecer.1833)
Mudra Sea cucumber Stichopus variegatus
(Semoer- 1868)
Vula Brown sandfish Bohadschia mamorata
(Jaecer- 1833)

74
collected in the July survey 96.Syo ranged 2.5 to 6.0 cm in lengt[ 2.5%
were fourd to be in excess of 6 cm (up to 8.3 cm). Rarely were individuals
of less than 2.5 cm found. In December, 2160 A. antiquata were collected;
98.9% were between2.5 - 6 cm. It is suspected that the larger shells repre-
sent the previons year's recruitment. Approximately 99o/o of the 2169 M.
agripetus individuals collected during the July survey were 2.5 - 5.0 cm
total lengtlr" In December, 2356 M. agripetus were collecte d; 95.7%o were
found to measure between 2.5 - 5 cm.

The edible body percentage of A. antiquatawas 26.50/o compared with 46%o


for M. agripetus. There was a linear relationship between gross and net
weight of A. antiquata and M. agripetus (Figs. 2 and 3), and therefore no
ratio advantage in collecting only heavier individuals. The amount of edible
flesh increased in direct proportion to toLll weight of shell, although this
relatiornhip was less defined for M. agripetzs. This was greater than other
Molluscs collected as only rlo/o of Periglypta puerpera (L., r71l) and l9%o
of D. auricularia were eaten.

Other gastropods collected included the bivalve, Kaiclawa (p. puerpera),


and the opisthobranch, veata (D. auricularia). Tltey comrnonly occurred
on a big patch of sllt. veata (D. auricularla) rvere usually found in deeper
hollows in the sand but came up to graze during low tide. Some women
reported that this happened mainly in the late afternoon around sunset.
Veata (D. auricularia) was particularly comrnon and during the May
survey it was observed that one weighing approximately 150 g was picked
and cleaned up every 2 - 3 minutes. The foot and some viscera were
discarded. The liver, stomaclq and intestine ? 20 g were separated and
saved for consumption. several womer said that a new individual would
grow back from the discarded parts. Although this was considered unlikely,
it remairs to be tested. The origin of this folk rvisdom is unknown. It could
be a modern defensive response to resource use questions from strangers or
its origirs may be older. In addition to these species, the wornen said that
they also cauglrt crabs [Qari (Thalamita sp. and spp.)].
^S'cyl/a

Catch Per Unit Effort


A random sample of 62 M. agripetus individuars was used to determine the
relatiorship of mear weight for each field size: size 6 : 6.6g g, 5 = 5.29 g,
4 =4.00 g,3 = 3.51 g,2= t.6l g,l: l.l7 g. No size 9, g, orTwerefound
during this exercise. The mean weight for eachl. antiquata size class (n:
130)was: size 9: 86.84 g,8 :54.63 g7 : 43.14g, 6 : 3t.18 g, 5 :23.95

75
-.t
o) F'igure 2: Net weight of Anadara antiquata as a function of gross weight

35

30

25

ctt

Ero
c',
o
izo ''t
10
Y = 0.289X-1.0689
5 R = 0.7587

0
o 20 40 60 80 100 120

Gross Weight (g)


Fignre 3: Net rveight of Modiolus agripetus as a function of gross
weight.
4.5

3.5

ED9
*,
.(= 2.5
.9
o
=2
+a
o
z 1.5

0.5

0
!
456
{
Gross Weight (g)
g,4:14.79 g,3=12.09 g,2:7.52 g. Nosizeclass I shellswerefound
during this exercise. When this exercise was repeated in December forl.
antiquata, no size l, 8, or 9 Kaikoso were collected. For calculations
requiring mean weights for these size ranges the weight for the next size is
substituted. As this involves a very small percentage of the total numbers
collected enors introduced because of this are deemed acceptable.

The catch per unit effort (CPUE) was based on the total catch in kilograms
per hour of fishing. For women, frn fishing ranged from 0.3 kg hrt to 1.5
kg hrt, with a mean of 0.6 kg trpr (C.V. 156%). Several respondents
indicated that they felt that the amount of fish caught iu the areas around
the Suva Peninsula had declined over the last tfuee years. They gave no
reason for the perceived decline.

With a current market value (October 1996) for A. antiquata of F$2.5 kg


hrt the CPUE of women actively collecting Kaikoso was calculated for
July as well as December as l.l kg hrr or F$2.68 kg lu-r Only those fish-
ers who had gathered more than four individuals of a species were desig-
nated to be "actively collecting". Similarly, the CPUE for M. agripetus
was calculated as 0.4 kg lu-t in July and 0.5 kg lrrr in December.

DISCUSSION

It is generally believed that gleaning and in shore hand line fishing are
traditional activities of women in South Pacific societies. Men used big nets
or spears and usually fished from boats. However, Tlnnrpson (1940) more
than five decades ago rvrote that the women in the southem Lau islands of
Fiji "catch most of the daily supply of fish in nets. Only when fishing
becomes a sport, as in spearing, do men participate." Today men are
responsible for most of the fin fishing in the Lau group (Vuki, pers. comm.)
Fiji (Veitayaki et aI.,1996). Throughout much of Fiji, now
as elsewhere in
women contribute to the village food supply, and eam lnoney, by intertidal
collecting and fishing frorn shore (Chamberlain and Pickering, pers.
comm.). These customs and beliefs have been brought to Suva with people
migrating to seek employment or to be with farnily.

In the drive for economic prosperity, the national govenunerlt has focused
on promoting conunercial activities, such as deep sea fishing, as a means of
bringing in capital for the local economy (Govt. of Fiji, 1993). The belief

78
that economically important fisheries are a "man's" occupation doubtlessly
has led to the virtually exclusive involvement of men in the development
and managernent of fisheries. Specific development requirements of subsis-
tence and women's fisheries has received little attention. It was not long
ago that a United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation report
referred to women's fishing as'Just collecting shells," "not involving inter-
esting technology," and contributed little of econornic significance (Haque
and Tietze, 1988). Recent studies however dispute this and lrave shown
that specific Pacific women's fisheries are more complex than just collect-
ing shells (Matthews and Oiterong, 1995), have their own body of knowl-
edge (Quirur, 1984; Matthews, 1995), take time to learn (Gina-Whewell,
1994), and make a significant economic contribution to the community
(Quinn, 1984; 1985). However, it is still common in fisheries productivity
studies to quantiff the efforts of fisher men while merely mentioning the
activities of fisher women (Veitayaki et a|.,1996; Akimichi, 1996).

While quantitative studies of women's fisheries are unconlmon, several


researchers have found that the contribution ranged from 20To in south
Taraw4 Kiribati (Schoeffel, 1985), to 3IYo in zur American Samoan village
(Hill, 1977) to 20 to 50%oin some regions of Papua New Guinea (Haines,
1982). These studies were of rural populations. With the exception of
Gounder's (1995) market suryey of eleven sea urchin fisher womeq no
quantitative study of a tvomen's subsistence marine fishery in an urban area
was found.

During the past few decades studies of wornen in fisheries have been
descriptive and while providing an explanation of the traditional women
"role in fisheries" they do so without addressing the magnitude of this con-
tribution (Baines, 1982; Beeching, 1993; Chapman, 1987; Chilcott and
Lucas, 1984; Drewes, 1982; Lal and Slatter, 1982). Consequently, the spe-
cific quantitative contribution of artisan women fishers and tlrcir specialised
technical knowledge is commonly absent from papers (Des Roclrcrs, 1992;
Falanruw, 1994; Mathews and Oiterong, 1995). The subconscious convic-
tion that "gender is a fuudamental aspect of the relations of power, of indi-
vidual and collective identity . . ." @avies and Kleirr, 1992) uray have con-
tributed to the decision of many researchers to focus on "gender issues"
rather than on biological aspects when studying wornen's fisheries.
Altltough this is perhaps a necessary fint step in the acknowledgment of
the role of rvornen in fishing, it has resulted in a lack of studies tlurt focus
on women's teclurical knolvledge or acfual econonric product of their act-

79
ivity. South (1993) highlights the importance of the traditional knowledge
of women in the collecting and preparing of edible seaweed. He believes
that the importance of this activity within Fiji's cash economy is under-
estimated-and suggests that tlrere should be studies into the sustainability of
this crop. Similarly, we believe that there should be further work
concerning the sustainability and the effects of pollution on the Suva
Penimula Fijian invertebrate fishery.

Studies whose primary focus was subsistence fishing commonly inter-


viewed women in their households rather than at the fishing site (Vunisea
1995). Beeching (1993), documents temporal and spatial fishing pattems
around the Suva Peninsula during a two week period in July, but only
reports on the proportions of male and female fishers. Although the
consequences of such studies may have been to promote the awareness of
the role of women as fishers, they do little to advance the quantitative
knowledge of either their economic or calorific contributions to the
communif. The end result is diminished argrunents about the importance
of women's contributions. Without such information a biased view of
women's contributions will continue; i.e. women's fishing is primarily a
hobby, merely providing variety to a diet that is dortrinated by food caught
by men.

Turara (1995) suggests that tlrc paucity ofdetailed analytical gender-specif-


ic catch infonnation functions to further inlfbit developrrrent opportunities
of women within the fisheries sector. By not compiling quantitative gender-
specific information about subsistence fisheries econornic plamers miss
viewing women as stakeholders. This, in addition to cultural factors, func-
tions to preclude women from receiving adequate representation and
exclude them frorn the development processes.

The dominance of women in the Fijian Melanesian culture of near shore


fisheries is doubtless linked with their child caring roles ard other domestic
responsibilities. When asked when they started fishing most of the women
stated that they began fishing between the ages of seven and trvelve and
learned the necessary skills from a female of their fanrily, usually ntother or
"auntie." Tltis is similar to what Matthews and Oiterong (199-5) reporled
from the Micronesian culhrre in Palau.

Although this snrdy is limited to a small area of the coast around Suva
Peninsula, these surveys suggest that it is among the richest in the area.

80
This subsistence fishery is an important resource for a minimum of 70
women per week and provides seafood protein for approximately 300 to
500 people weekly. The number of people supported by this small stretch
of coastal area rnay be comparable to the population of many small island
village communities. Beeching (1993), detailed a tally of fishers using the
same area; he concluded shellfish collection (he terms it fossicking) to be a
"predominantly weekend pursuit." Our results contradict his statement. His
conclusions were based on only two weekends of observations. In our
intensive surveys and informal observations taken over several months, we
found that collecting was rarely done on Sundays (0.00P/A, only 13% of
all interviews were on Saturdays, andSTYo on weekdays.

This geographical area is a rich productive area and contains other fisheries
that were not included in this study. For example, people travel from out-
side Suva in groups to fish and collect in the LaucalaBay I Suva Peniruula
area. One group, aniving by river punt, was observed with 17 large,
approximately 50 kg, sacks primarily filled with M. agripetus. Although
the number of women who fish off Suva Penirsula and the percentage of
the Suva population it feeds is relatively small, this is not the only popula-
tion accessing this resource and does not diminish our responsibility to
insure its continual safe use.

Fijiaru commonly share their goods within village communities and this
custom prevails among many people in Suva. Many women did not corsid-
er their fishing activities as a cornmercial activity. It seemed important to
have things to sharc with friends if the catch exceeded their family needs.
Seldom was any catch sold on the mad(et. For this reason we corsider the
invertebrate collecting to be a subsistence fishery ard not artisanal.

Most of the women had no other means of earning an income for them-
selves and needed to use marine resources from Suva Peninsula to provide
food for their families. Having sufficient time, the necessary skills and
knowledge, and by using just simple, inexpensive equipment, they could
gather fresll "good food" that they could not othenvise afford. There was
also less risk involved in collecting on the reef than in fishing off shore.
One could always find something to eat on the flat, but catching a meal
fishing was more uncertain. Collecting was almost twice as productive as
fishing. No special skills were needed for gleaning invertebrates as shells
erc. are easily found, however, experience and knowledge of the area and
the biology ofeach target species does help to increase catch rates.

81
a

Rather than being a low quality by-product food, such as many canned
meats commonly eaten by uftan dwellers, such hand collected sea food is
always fresh and known to be low in saturated fat. This is an important
consideration for a society where insulin dependent diabetes is a major
health problem (Foster, 1996). This perception of the healthy aspect of
seafood was commonly mentioned by the women who made such com-
ments as tlrey preferred to eat seafood for "it is good food - better for the
family tlnn meat." This is in spite of the local perception that many people
in the Pacific commonly look down on local foods (Tuwai, 1996).

Shellfish are filter feeders and easily accumulate pollutants from the water.
Preliminary work by Naqasima (1996) suggested t:url A. antiquata had the
potential for significant metal accumulatiorU but that further work was
needed. Pollution studies have been done in Suva Harbour (Dougherty,
1988; Naidu et al.,l99l Cripps, 1992; Stewart and de Morq 1992; Naidu
and Monison, 1994) and in Laucala Bay (Naidu et al., l99l; Naidu and
Morrison, 1994; Naqasima, 1996), but have not specifically examined
catches from the Swa Peninsula intertidal areas. Naidu et al. (199I) and
Naidu and Monison (1994) reported that Suva Harbour heary metal sedi-
ment concentrations were among the highest in the world.

Stewart and de Mom (1992) have pointed to the local mangrove oyster,
Dionivertiri (Crassostrea mordm) as having very high (up to 3180 ng g-r)
tri(n-butyl)tin (TBT). They also purchased and assayed samples of
Anadara scapha (cf. antiquata) but considered it to be " . . clearly not
significant with respect to public health . . ." It is not clear whether Stewart
and de Mora (1992) documented the origin of the l.
scapha (cf . antiquata)
they purchased from the Suva market. Inteniews with market vendors and
fishers during this study confirm that the A. scapha (cf. antiquata) sold in
Suva martet are rarely collected from the Suva Harbour or Suva Penirsula
intertidal areas. Beeching (1993) also found that ". . . in practice an
insignificant amount of produce taken from Suva lagoon was sold in Suva
market." Consequently, it is not surprising that Stewart and de Mora
(1992) report low butlytin concentrations in their sample of Kaikoso (A.
antiquata) tissue. Their shellfish sample was probably gleaned from an
area far fiom the polluted Srwa Harbour.

At the time of this writing660/o (n = 4l) of a randomly collected sample of


A. antiquata from Study Site IV - Suva Peninsula, showed shell deformities
corsistent with established TBT effects on oyster shell (Irstitute of Ocean

82
Sciences, 1996). Work is in progress to determine the rclationship between
these deformities and butlytin concentrations in sediment andA. antiquata
tissue. Kannan et al. (1995) reported that human red blood cells were
extremely sensitive to TBT ard tlnt even low corrcentrations could induce
membrane breakdown. Unfortunately, Short ard Thrower (1986) observed
that cooking methods were ineffective in eliminating butyltins from fish tis-
sue. Although the relationship betrveen the presence of butyltins and
human health is not completely understood, Kannan et al. (1995) considers
seafood to be the major source of butyltin exposure in humans.
Consequently, an investigation of butyltin contamination of target species
of the Suva Peninsula fisheries should be swiftly undertaken.

The women interviewed mentioned that pollution was visible around the
Lami Dump in Walu Bay and stated that as the reason that many species
were no longer occurring there. In January 1997, the mud flat in that area
was suweyed and the intertidal found conspicuously lacking of life; devoid
of any shellfish except a sporadic community (13 live individuals in a
350m2 area) of Grafarium tumidum (Rtiding, 1798). The algae
Enteromorphaflexuosa [(Wulfen) J. Agardh] offLami Town was shown to
accumulate zinc, copper and lead (Tabudraw, 1995), and the National
Environmental Strategy noted that "the extent of marine pollution is so
severe in the Suva area tlnt the consumption of seafood from certain areas
is a human health hazard" (Gort. of Fiji, 1993). While this may be true,
ceasing fishing locally is unrealistic for many low income eamers. It is gen-
erally acknowledged that the waters and benthic communities beside indus-
trial areas and sewage oufalls are likely to be polluted.

The intertidal areas of Suva Peninsula are flushed twice daily by diurnal
tides and southeast trade winds encoumge water movement in the area.
These factors may reduce the levels of polluted water that these areas are
subjected to. kntead of being a"tragedy of the commons" as suggested by
Chung (1995), the intertidal areas around Suva Peninsula cunently appears
to be a plentifirl source of "healthy" sea food for about as many people as is
supported in some rural coastal areas. The similar CPUE in both warm and
cool seasors intinates a sustainable fishery of both A. antiquata and M.
agripetus. The Suva Penirsula artisanal fishery is a vital contribution to the
subsistence of many people and provides an important income supplement
to rnany low income earners. The extent that pollution has infected many
target species warrants further microbiological and chemical examination
and will be discussed in a subsequent paper.

83
Although some women intewiewed were knowledgeable about some bio-
logical aspects of their catctr, overall only a small amount of such informa-
tion was gathered. The list of species cauglrt is not complete and likely to
change with the season. It is also likely that species abundance could
change seasonally. The women did not report on any spawning aggrega-
tions or other biological phenomenon though it is suspected that recruit-
ment of shells occurs during the warmer months. There was a deliberate
effort by many of tlre women not to collect the smallest shells. Ttrey said
that they were left to grow larger. As there are rp records of the sustained
use of the fishery, it is difficult to comment on the effectiveness of the
women's cornervation practices.

Maybin (1989) determined A. antiquata population densities at a site in


Laucala Bay near the Muanivatu (also known as Suva Point) subdivision in
the late 1980's, but her results are not directly comparable with the
techniques in this study. However, she reported a decline in estimated
number of A. antiquara (August / September population data) from 0.625
m-z in 1985 to 0.04 m-z in 1987. In 1989, she expressed concern that it was
possible tlnt there were insufficient irdividuals to maintain the necessary
fecundity levels to maintain ttrc population. In comparison to those number
the overall Laucala Bay A. antiquata population has made a dramatic
increase in the decade since her study. In 1985, Maybin found 20 individu-
als in 128 0.5 m-z quadrants, three individuals in 234 quadrants in 1986,
and only a single individual in 98 quadrants in 1987. In comparisorg in July
1996 a single fisher womeq working not far from Maybin's study site, col-
lected 153 A. antiquata individuals within one hour.

In Febmary 1997, Maybin's study area (see Fig. l) was surveyed using the
same team techniques employed in our July and December surveys. Out of
6 days (Sunday excluded), only one group of shellfish collectors came to
this Muanivatu/Suva Point area. This group of collectors consisted of five
siblings and after combing alarge portion of the area they collected, in one
hour, a total 109 individuals ofl. antiquata; sizes ranged from I to 8. This
does not appear to be a sustainable yield as the following day a two hour
search of the entire area produced only 5 A. antiquata. Although this data
cannot be directly compared to Maybin's density figures it leads to two
conclusioru:

84
t. that there was suffrcient fecundity levels in 1989 to
maintain an Anadara antiquata population
2. the infrequenry of collectors suggests that
Muanivatr:/Suva Point area is not considered to be as
productive an area as the other Suva Peninsula sites (I - IV).

Finally, the social value of this resource should not be neglected. Suva is
the largest urtan center in a country that is still closely bound to land and
tradition Besides the food it contributes, the Swa Peninsula intertidal flats
provide an important social activity for these women. Women who have
left their villages because their spouse sought employment in Suva as well
as those born in Suva both enjoy the opportunity to pursue this open-air tra-
ditional activity. Their day of collecting and fishing can provide both a
chance to spend hours outside with friends while simultaneously providing
nutritious food for their family.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank J. Krutschirun, L. Biukoto, R. Bower, S. Cokanasiga, V. Kumari,


R. Naidu, P. Prasad, A. Salabula S. Seduadua, S. Tagi, M. Uluicicia, J.
Underwood, R. Vircago, and I. Vulavou for their assistance with field
work. M. Naqasima-Sobey and P. Newell, Departnrcnt of Biology, and A.
N'Yeurt, Marine Studies Programme, of The University of the South
Pacific, Suva, are acknowledged for their help with species identification.
S. Appan4 E. Andersoq B.L. Kojis, P. Gangaiya, J. Gaw, M. Naqasima-
Sobey, P. Newell, and two anonymous reviewers kindly read various drafts
of the manuscript and provided constructive comments. We gratefully
acknowledge the financial contribution of University of the South Pacific
Research Council (grant #6288-l3ll-70766-15) and the German
Development Aid program. We wish to extend a "Vinaka vaka lew" to the
cooperative and good humoured fishers of Suva Point.

85
o
o) Figure 4: Length frequenry distribution of Anadara antiquata.

35

I(U a/,^30
OS
p E_zs
58
uto
b g2o
g'R

f;o=i'u
t *10
5

5.25 4.75 4.25 3.75 3.25 2.75 2.25


Length (cm) plotted at midpoint of size range
Figurc 5: Length frequency distributi onof Modiolus
agripetus.

35
(,
tuN
os
>,N
30

Oil
lc 25
(D8l
20-
b9-
sg
GN 15
!rr
L
Oc
g -:, 10-
OJ
o3
5-

3.25 3.75 4.25 ' 4.75 ' 5.25


,
s.75
Length (cm) plotted at midpoint of size
range
{
@
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